Philosophy: a School of Freedom; Teaching Philosophy and Learning

Home , Barbara Cassin, Philosophy education, Philosophy in Canada

The designations employed throughout the publication and the presentation of material do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Published in 2007 by: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Social and Human Sciences Sector 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France

Originally published in French as “La Philosophie, une École de la Liberté. Enseignement de la philosophie et apprentissage du philosopher : État des lieux et regards pour l’avenir” (UNESCO, 2007), translated by UNESCO

Coordinated by Moufida Goucha, Chief of the Human Security, Democracy and Philosophy Section

Assisted by Feriel Ait-ouyahia, Arnaud Drouet, Kristina Balalovska

Any communication concerning this publication can be sent to: Human Security, Democracy and Philosophy Section Social and Human Sciences Sector

UNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France Tel.: +33 (0)1 45 68 45 52 Fax: +33 (0)1 45 68 57 29 E-mail: philosophy&human-sciences@unesco.org Website: www.unesco.org/shs/philosophy

Cover images: gettyimages Interior images: © Jérémie Dobiecki Photos: http://office.microsoft.com/fr-fr/clipart/ Designed by Jérémie Dobiecki Printed by Dumas-Titoulet Imprimeurs

ISBN 978-92-3-104070-2 © UNESCO 2007 Printed in France PHILOSOPHY ASCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Teaching philosophy and learning to philosophize: Status and prospects

UNESCO Publishing PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Special thanks

To the experts Michel Tozzi (Chapter I), Luca Scarantino (Chapters II and III), Oscar Brenifier (Chapter IV) and Pascal Cristofoli (Chapter V), who provided UNESCO with the basis for this study, of which both spirit and letter have largely been retained. We thank them for their precious support and involvement, which have been both informative and critical.

A special thanks goes to Sonia Bahri, Chief of the Section for International Cooperation in Higher Education at UNESCO, for her valuable input and support to this publication.

We also thank National Commissions for UNESCO and Permanent Delegations to UNESCO, for having officially called for this study, as well as for having contributed to its realization – for the large majority of them; the UNESCO Philosophy Chairholders, for reacting promptly and providing an up-to-date overview of the regional aspects of the teaching of philosophy; to NGOs, for their reactivity and determination to accompany UNESCO in this adventure.

This study is dedicated to all those who engaged themselves, with vigour and conviction, in the defence of the teaching of philosophy - a fertile guarantor of liberty and autonomy. This publication is also dedicated to the young spirits of today, bound to become the active citizens of tomorrow.

iii OUTLINE PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Preface Koïchiro Matsuura, Director-General of UNESCO viii

Philosophy at UNESCO: Past, present and future Pierre Sané, Assistant Director-General for Social and Human Sciences (UNESCO) x

The dynamics of the method Moufida Goucha, Chief of the Human Security, Democracy and Philosophy Section (UNESCO) xvi

Chapter I 1 - 45 Teaching philosophy and learning to philosophize at pre-school and primary levels Philosophy and young minds: The age of wonder Table of contents of Chapter I 1 Introduction: The road travelled, the road ahead 3 Methodology 4 I. Questions raised by Philosophy with Children 5 II. Promoting philosophically directed practices at pre-school and primary levels: Orientations and avenues for action 15 III. Philosophy with children: A development to be acknowledged 25 IV. Philosophy at the pre-school and primary levels: A few figures 43 Conclusion: From what is desirable to what is possible 45

Chapter II 47 - 93 Teaching philosophy in secondary education The age of questioning Table of contents of Chapter II 47 Introduction: The different aspects of philosophy in secondary education 48 Methodology 49 I. The presence of philosophy in schools: Some controversies 51 II. Suggestions to reinforce the teaching of philosophy at secondary level 67 III. Taking stock: Institutions and practices 75 IV. Philosophy at the secondary level: A few figures 91 Conclusion: Philosophy during adolescence: A force for creative change 93

v OUTLINE

Chapter III 95 - 149 Teaching philosophy in higher education Philosophy in the university context

Table of contents of Chapter III 95 Introduction: The development and teaching of philosophical knowledge 97 Methodology 99 I. The dynamics between philosophy teaching and research in universities 100 II. Philosophy facing emerging challenges: Questions and stakes 113 III. Diversification and internationalization of philosophical teaching 123 IV. Philosophy in higher education: A few figures 148 Conclusion: The future of philosophy 149

Chapter IV 151 - 195 Other ways to discover philosophy Philosophy in the polis

Table of contents of Chaper IV 151 Introduction: The other dimensions of philosophy 153 Methodology 153 I. The need to philosophize 154 II. The various kinds of philosophical practice 161 III. Twenty suggestions towards action 179 IV. Informal philosophy: A few figures 194 Conclusion: Is it philosophical? 195

Chapter V 197 - 237 The teaching of philosophy as revealed by UNESCO’s online self-administered survey

Table of contents of Chapter V 197 Introduction: An inclusive, collective procedure 198 I. Principal results by subject 199 II. Tools, method and organization of the survey 222 Conclusion: A ground-breaking survey 229 UNESCO’s online questionnaire 230

vi PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Point of view 239 - 241

Annexes 243 - 279 Annex 1. Committee of experts – Reading committee 244 Annex 2. List of other contributors to the study 245 Annex 3. Glossary 247 Annex 4. Some useful bibliographical references 253 Annex 5. List of used acronyms 271 Annex 6. Index of mentioned countries 275

vii PREFACE PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Koïchiro Matsuura Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

‘Philosophy: a school of freedom’ – a striking title that alone could sum up the essence of the present work. This is the title chosen for this UNESCO study of the present state of the teaching of philosophy in the world, a study fully in keeping with UNESCO’s Intersectoral Strategy on Philosophy as adopted by the Executive Board of the UNESCO in April 2005.

The very mission of UNESCO, dedicated to as a procedure, as teaching, thus makes it serving the intellectual and moral solidarity possible to develop each person’s skills to of humanity, is to embrace and promote question, compare, conceptualise. knowledge as a whole. In an open, inclusive and pluralistic, knowledge-oriented The first study of teaching philosophy society, philosophy has its rightful place. Its throughout the world conducted by teaching alongside the other social and UNESCO and published in 1953 already human Sciences remains at the heart of our emphasised the role of philosophy in concerns. becoming aware of the fundamental problems of science and culture and in the This work is not simply an inventory of emergence of well-argued reflection on the what is being done and not being done in future of the human condition. Philosophy the field of teaching philosophy today. By has changed. It has opened itself up to the establishing a clearly understandable world and to other disciplines. Let us see in interpretative framework, by offering that one more reason to expand its teaching suggestions and new orientations, it goes where it exists and to promote it where it well beyond that. In this way, it is intended does not exist. to be a genuine, practical, future-oriented tool, well-documented and up to date, To reopen this debate by prolonging it is where each person will find food for also, and above all, to put the question of thought. teaching and educational policies back at the heart of the international agenda, a What is the teaching of philosophy if not matter of major importance if we wish to the teaching of freedom and critical reasoning? increase the value of our knowledge and Philosophy actually implies exercising share it, to invest in quality education to freedom in and through reflection because ensure equal opportunity for everyone. it is a matter of making rational judgements and not just expressing opinions, because it is a Each Member State of UNESCO, all NGOs, matter not just of knowing, but of unders- all philosophical associations, and all others tanding the meaning and the principles of concerned and interested are therefore knowing, because it is a matter of asked to take up the challenge of appropriating developing a critical mind, rampart par the results of this study and of discovering excellence against all forms of doctrinaire constructive, useful orientations there. passion. These objectives require time, May, therefore, each draw upon a vast taking a serious look at oneself, at other body of ideas, experiences, initiatives, cultures and languages. This is a long process that and practices, brought together in an is dependent upon enlightened instruction, opportune manner so as better to face Koïchiro upon rigorously putting concepts and ideas tomorrow’s challenges. into perspective. Philosophy, as a method, Matsuura ix PHILOSOPHY AT UNESCO PAST PRESENT AND FUTURE PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Pierre Sané Assistant Director-General for Social and Human Sciences (UNESCO)

‘It is not enough to fight against illiteracy: we must also know the books which [one] must read. It is not enough to work together at scientific discoveries: everyone must understand that the value of science lies not so much in its applications […] as in the emancipation of the human mind and in the creation of a vast spiritual commonwealth above all clans and empires.’

Memorandum on the philosophy programme of UNESCO, June 1946

A pivotal discipline in the social sciences about the present state of the teaching of and humanities, philosophy finds its place philosophy in the world —an indispensable at the crossroads of the development of prerequisite for any future activity in this individuals, for beyond just knowing, it is domain, since alert, enlightened reflection definitely a matter of ‘knowing how to be’. is the guarantor of action that is intelligent Just as there is an art of knowing, there is and to the point. also an art of teaching. This is why UNESCO today proposes to present a study organi- Finding its place at the intersection of education sed into three phases: a taking into account and the social sciences and humanities, this of the contributions of previous studies of study is intended to be intersectoral. These two the subject, an outline of this teaching as it sectors falling within UNESCO’s scope joined is practised today, and a sketch of prospects for forces in this regard to work together on its the future. preparation, the basis of which is grounded just as much in pedagogy itself as in philosophy - The framework for this study draws upon exemplary co-operation that was manifest an essential assumption: that UNESCO in each of the stages of putting together does not presume to set forth any method the work, and especially the questionnaire or philosophical orientation of any kind that served as a qualitative and quantitative apart from that of the culture of peace. The base. initiative for this study decided upon by the Member States in conjunction with the It was this study’s job to put an interpretative Secretariat of UNESCO responds to a framework faithfully mirroring the situation (1) Intersectoral Strategy constant leitmotiv of promoting philosophy on Philosophy, adopted of this teaching today at the disposal of the by the Executive Board of UNESCO and encouraging its teaching, as attested st Member States and, while bringing to light at its 171 session (2005). to by UNESCO’s Intersectoral Strategy on Document 171 EX/12. deficiencies in the field, such as the lack of Philosophy(1). This strategy is built on three (2) The proclamation of a World philosophical teaching or the possible Philosophy Day by the UNESCO key pillars of action: i) Philosophy facing misuse of it, to open up prospects for the General Conference in 2005 world problems: dialogue, analysis and was an important moment reformulation or improvement of programmes as in UNESCO’s impetus in favour questioning of contemporary society; ii) Teaching they exist. The study means thus forcefully of the promotion of philosophy philosophy in the world: fostering critical and its teaching. The preamble to reaffirm the role of philosophy as a reflection and independent thinking; and to this solemn proclamation rampart against the double danger repre- expresses the conviction iii) Promotion of philosophical thought and of the Member States of the sented by obscurantism and extremism, a research. Organization in the importance central concern of the Member States of of philosophy and in its protection (2) from the double danger represented Within this Strategy, teaching thus figures the Organisation . Yet, what places better by obscurantist and extremist as the keystone for fruitful action by than schools can offer this insuperable thought. UNESCO in the domain of philosophy. The rampart? Provided they are havens for free, Proclamation of a World Philosophy Day. Proceedings of the General first activity required for this theme preci- critical and independent thinking. Who Conference of UNESCO, thirty- sely involves the preparation of a study other than teachers, trainers, educators can third session, Paris, 2005, 33C/45.

xi PHILOSOPHY AT UNESCO: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

teach others to reflect, weigh evidence and philosophy and how it acts as mirror in our be wary of certitudes? Provided they are societies. guides and not authorities on what to think. If there is a message to be conveyed by this study, it would certainly that of exhorting us to consider the teaching of philosophy This study has a genuine raison d’être to be necessary and something to be recko- today. A veritable documentary breeding ned with - a message already conveyed in ground, it provides a detailed description of the previous studies realised by UNESCO on the different modes of teaching philosophy, the subject, and one with a resonance and both at the traditional secondary and pointedness more than ever relevant to our university levels and in new areas, such as times. teaching at the primary school level, or unexpected areas, such as new philosophi- The past nurtures the present and forges cal practices. It also endeavours to ask the the future. It is around this dynamic of past, right questions, ones challenging to educa- present and future that UNESCO’s work in tional issues concerning teaching philoso- the area of the teaching of philosophy and, phy. It proposes to outline some sugges- more generally the promoting of it, is tions, some orientations able to constitute organised. a reference tool for policies concerning the teaching of philosophy. It is certainly a very ambitious study in that it is not satisfied with just being descriptive, but also proposes taking a penetrating look at the teaching of

Philosophy past: Philosophy teaching, of constant interest to UNESCO

Philosophy has always been integral to and, especially, the place it occupies in the UNESCO. It inspired its Constitution to a teaching systems of different countries, large extent, and as early as 1946, UNESCO with its role in the moulding of the citizen bestowed upon itself a philosophy pro- as well, as well with the importance it assu- (3) Proceedings of the General Conference of UNESCO, fifth gram. The noted presence of great philoso- mes in the search for improved understan- session, Florence, 1950, 5 phers like Jean-Paul Sartre, Emmanuel ding among people.(4) The report had been C/Resolutions 4.1212. Mounier and Alfred J. Ayer at the published with a general analysis of the (4) Proceedings of the General Conference of UNESCO, sixth Organisation’s General Conference held at problems raised by the teaching of philoso- session, Paris, 1951, 6 C/Resolutions the Sorbonne forcefully attests to the phy prepared by Georges Canguilhem, at 4.41. importance that the Organisation has the time young ‘Inspecteur général de phi- (5) At its twentieth session, in 1978, the General Conference wished to accord to this discipline and losophie’ in France. It was accompanied by of UNESCO adopted, inter alia those practising it. The creation of the a joint declaration by part of experts. Resolution 3/3.3/1, authorizing the International Council for Philosophy and Director-General ‘to carry out activities designed to contribute to Humanistic Studies and the founding of the In 1978, the Member States requested the attainment of Objective 3.3 journal Diogène by Roger Caillois ensued in UNESCO to prepare studies on teaching (Contribution to the development of infrastructures and programmes 1949, then in 1960, the creation of a philosophy and philosophical research in in the social sciences with a view Division of Philosophy entrusted to the each region of the world(5). This consulting to increasing the different societies’ ability to find ways of solving philosopher Jeanne Hersch. of the regions, which spread out over a social and human problems) under decade, had as its goal a vast inquiry espe- the following themes: ‘Enhancement and promotion of As early as 1950, at its fifth session, the cially dealing with interdisciplinary practices the role of philosophical studies General Conference of UNESCO decided to in the world. and the teaching of philosophy in conduct ‘an inquiry into the place of the the life of the different societies and contribution to the critical teaching of philosophy in the several edu- For the African region, a meeting of philo- elucidation and development of cational systems, the way in which it is sophers was organised in Nairobi, Kenya in the interdisciplinary aspects of research and reflection on human given, and its influence upon the moulding June 1980 and led to a series of recom- problems.’ Proceedings of the of the citizen’(3). Undertaken in 1951 and mendations already attesting to the crucial General Conference of UNESCO, twentieth session, Paris, 1978, 1952, and celebrated since that time, this role desired for philosophy in Africa. The Vol. I: 21 C/Resolutions 3/3.3/1. inquiry dealt with the teaching of philosophy participants stressed numerous problems xii PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM connected with the teaching of philosophy For the Europe region, the regional and philosophical research in Africa, consultation found expression in a work on ranging from the teaching of philosophy philosophy in Europe published in 1993 in during the pre-colonial period and the collaboration with the International colonial heritage of the subject to the Institute of Philosophy (IIP) and the ICPHS(6). philosophical training of scientists and the This extensive inquiry aimed at describing scientific training of philosophers, including the present state of philosophy in Europe. It several suggestions for a ‘conceptual contains country-by-country inventories of decolonisation’. the major trends and issues in philosophy, as well as an outline of the actual, more or For the Asia-Pacific region, a meeting of less difficult circulation of philosophical philosophers was held in Bangkok, thought among countries, therefore, of the Thailand in February 1983. This meeting dialogue necessary among thinkers and most particularly concerned the professio- intellectuals that goes beyond national and nalisation of philosophy and brought to cultural borders. light the extent to which philosophy in this region is impregnated with religion and In 1994, UNESCO wished to supplement history, as well as the need to re-establish a the 1951 inquiry. With the idea of opening dialogue between sociologists and up a new forum for reflecting and debating philosophers, in order to reduce the gap about the place of philosophy in today’s between the two disciplines and to allow cultures and in shaping the free judgement for a fruitful exchange on the understanding of citizens, the new study conducted by of societal issues. Roger-Pol Droit included contributions by important figures from sixty-six countries(7). For the Latin America and Caribbean It was a question there of philosophy and region, a meeting of experts was held in democratic processes, of the relationships June 1985 in Lima, Peru. The experts informed between philosophy and economic UNESCO of a series of requests with a view interdependence, electronic technologies, the to: preparing an interdisciplinary study on teaching of science, and political philosophy, the relationship between philosophy and and the role of the citizen. the exact, natural, social and human sciences; In 1995, UNESCO organised the international promoting studies of the history of ideas study days in Paris marked by the famous and their influence; promoting a Paris Declaration for Philosophy(8). This contemporary bibliography of philosophy Declaration reaffirms that, by training free, in Latin America and the Caribbean; reflective, minds capable of resisting encouraging the participation of specialists various forms of propaganda, fanaticism, in philosophy from Latin America and the exclusion and intolerance, philosophical Caribbean philosophy in the journal education contributes to peace and prepares Diogène; and encouraging translations of everyone to shoulder responsibilities in face philosophical works (from and into Spanish of the great challenges of the contemporary and Portuguese). world, particularly in the field of ethics. The Declaration also stresses that philosophical For the Arab region, a meeting of philosophers teaching must be maintained or expanded was held in July 1987 in Marrakech, where it exists, introduced where it does Morocco on the theme of ‘Teaching and not yet exist, and be explicitly called ‘philosophy’, research in philosophy in the Arab World’. while reminding people that philosophical This meeting made it possible to portray a teaching must be provided by competent portrait of the teaching of this discipline in teachers, specially trained for that purpose, the various Arab countries, at the and can not be subordinated to any secondary school and university levels, as economic, technical, religious, political or well as in the research domain. This meeting ideological imperative. Finally, it insists on the (6) Raymond Klibansky and David Pears (eds), La philosophie en was also the occasion of a round table fact that while remaining autonomous, where- Europe. Paris, UNESCO/Gallimard, discussion to commemorate the thinker Ibn ver possible, philosophical teaching must be 1993. Tufayl, which proved propitious for recalling actually associated with, and not just juxtaposed (7) Roger-Pol Droit, Philosophy and Democracy in the World: A UNESCO the influence of philosophy on launching against, university or professional education in Survey, Paris, UNESCO, 1995 medieval thought. all fields. (8) www.unesco.org

xiii PHILOSOPHY AT UNESCO: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

After 1995, UNESCO’s philosophy realities – in particular, as concerns programme would be pursued through the philosophy for children, as well as the mul- creation of regional networks, particularly timedia encyclopaedia of the philosophical active in Southeast Asia, Europe, Latin sciences – which all share the same goal: America and the Caribbean, as well as in the popularisation of an international philo- Africa. Other initiatives also became sophical culture.

Philosophy present: Teaching philosophy here and now

Why a report on the state of the teaching by a catalogue of the reforms that have of philosophy here and now? Because the marked the teaching of philosophy, as well world is perpetually changing, just as our as experimentation meriting special atten- cultures are, as ways of exchanging tion. knowledge are, as the question asking is and, of course, the teaching of philosophy The originality of this study finds expression and philosophy itself is. Working to update in the identification of Live questions that the facts is indispensable to an intelligible constantly challenge the UNESCO Member understanding of the world, in order better States, just as they do teachers, researchers to confront the challenges facing it. It is and those practising philosophy. Take, for precisely due to this concern to understand example, especially: the question of philosophical our environment that UNESCO undertook educability in childhood, with its psychological, to prepare this study at this time in order to philosophical and sociological dimensions; the contribute to the writing of a new page of importance of innovation when it comes to this story – while taking care to take a teaching methods; the fundamental role of the penetrating look at what we have learned teacher and the question of educating in order to have a lucid vision of the future educators; questions about withdrawing of this teaching. and/or replacing philosophical teaching; professional opportunities; the need to Coming more than a decade after the last philosophize; or the philosophers’ status inquiry conducted by UNESCO on the and position - just so many questions that subject, the present study is sustained by have been dealt with in a fresh, expert way, very rich documentary and bibliographical with an eye to promoting a better work(9). It was resolute in its determination understanding of the issues arising in a to reach the maximum number of Member most acute way today in the world. These States of the Organisation so as to illustrate Live questions are all the more meaningful faithfully its world-wide calling. All of the in that they show that philosophy teaching (9) Some facts and figures can countries, without exception, were will only be able to fulfil its function if it is serve to make one aware of the consulted, and many of them contributed itself part of an educational process that is difference between the 1951 and the 1994 inquiry. The first one really their input into the study by joining in the thought out, conceived, integrated with only concerned nine countries. process in an eminently participative way. respect to the other disciplines, where each That of 1994, entitled `Philosophy and Democracy in the World’, plays its role, where each complements the gathered facts coming from 66 Like the zoom lens of a camera, the study other, where each enriches the other. countries. Apart from the quantitative aspect, unprecedented zeroed in on four facets of teaching philosophy, Indeed, taken separately, none of the in this domain, so as to embrace all the levels involving disciplines taught can carry out the overall the 1994 study was not, strictly speaking, a study on the state of both formal education and informal education: i) educational mission on its own. Inversely, the teaching of philosophy, but Philosophy and young minds, the age of drowning the teaching of philosophy in a rather an analysis of the connections wonder – its teaching at the pre-school and sea of other academic subjects would be between philosophical education and democratic processes. It primary levels; ii) Philosophy at the age of equivalent to stripping it of its meaning. nevertheless had the merit of questioning – its teaching at the secondary Beyond any interest one might have in the bringing to light the importance of recognizing a multiplicity of school level; iii) Philosophy in the university – significance itself of philosophy courses in teaching methods combining its teaching in higher education; iv) Discovering the overall educational process, it is books, long-distance teaching, audio-visual resources and philosophy differently – the way it is practised primarily philosophy’s validity and necessity computer technologies. But above in the real world. The existing situation is that the present study has striven to all, the 1994 study also showed that the teaching of philosophy develops carefully portrayed at each of these levels demonstrate. and expands with democracy. and corroborated by regional case studies, xiv PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Philosophy future: The teaching of philosophy, a challenge for the future

Heir to the ‘Société des esprits’, the society teaching different philosophical traditions of minds, for which Paul Valéry made an as well as comparative philosophy, training ardent appeal, UNESCO took on two major and methods of evaluation, the development of jobs in the area of philosophy. manuals and exchange programmes, providing additional support for UNESCO Chairs in The first consists in helping this discipline Philosophy, encouraging international operate and develop in the world in such a philosophy olympiads, disseminating manner as to foster international dialogue materials produced by UNESCO’s research between philosophical communities. In activities and the interregional philosophical other words, to act as a catalyst for ideas, a dialogue sessions, —myriad fields of action platform for exchanges, a forum for free for the future of teaching philosophy in the and freed dialogue. In this respect, many world, for which UNESCO counts on initiatives of an international nature have pursuing the role of leadership within the seen the light of day thanks to UNESCO, as United Nations system specific to it. is attested to by that key document, the Paris Declaration for Philosophy, which Lastly, we can look at this study from the claims the right to philosophy and which perspective of the philosopher Jacques has provided the discipline with support in Derrida when in 1991 he approached the ‘putting up resistance’ when its teaching right to philosophy from the cosmopolitical was threatened by cut-backs or even point of view. According to him there is elimination in certain countries. The second actually always one philosophical idea too job is that of making a contribution within many with regard to what is real. Thus, the the Organisation itself concerning matters idea of justice exceeds actual law, just as cutting across disciplines, contemporary the idea of universality borne by UNESCO issues, main concepts, priorities and exceeds what exists at the present time. strategies to adopt to confer meaning upon The same applies to the teaching of the world - the word ‘meaning’ understood philosophy. The message conveyed by this here philosophically as both signification study transcends the reality of the findings. and a sense of direction. It reveals a real desire to safeguard philosophy, to safeguard both its teaching and its This study serves as a springboard for the perennial nature. other activities set forth in the Intersectoral Strategy on Philosophy, especially help in This message means to convey a strong formulating recommendations for policies conviction: the right to philosophy for all. regarding teaching philosophy at secondary and university levels that would include Pierre Sané

xv THE DYNAMICS OF THE METHOD PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Moufida Goucha Chief of Human Security, Democracy and Philosophy Section (UNESCO)

While philosophy is an attitude, a way of life, demanding and exacting, it is also a teaching, a school, therefore, a kind of knowledge, all this in a spirit of curiosity and discovery inherent to philosophy itself.

We have thus naturally given this study a job of sorting, of a reflective, methodical striking title: ‘Philosophy, a School of selection of the raw information supplied Freedom’. Philosophy - this is its very to us by our personal and social experience. substance and purpose - incites and invites Being informed is not the same as being questioning without imprisoning it. Quite formed. the contrary, it liberates and provides In addition to being expanded, teaching of openings to the young minds called to philosophy and practising it would also no become the thinkers and the players of the doubt merit being renewed – for the idea world of tomorrow, which is closer than we of responsibility to be re-established and so think. A description of the present state of that everyone can once again plunge heart the field for ‘a look into the future’, and soul into thought, as Hegel advocated, precisely because an analysis, something to confront prejudices and domination of impromptu, on the subject of teaching all kinds. It is up to individuals to search philosophy today only has meaning in what inside themselves for the capacities proper it offers in terms of prospects for future to exercising reflection. This leap into action. philosophical endeavours cannot be It is definitely in the teaching of it that imposed either by some rigid form of philosophy is certainly the place where it teaching, or by any presumably intangible can play a role that is both essential and dogma. On the contrary, the task of undoubtedly risky. Essential, in that teaching progressively freeing themselves from all philosophy remains one of the key forces in forms of tutelage is up to individuals training the faculty of judgement, of themselves. Teaching philosophy and criticising, of questioning, but also of learning to philosophise is, therefore, discernment. Risky, seeing the changes perhaps at first keeping oneself from taking place in today’s world every day transmitting bodies of knowledge in the more laden with both history and spiritua- strict sense of the word. lity, teaching can no longer presume to tie Speaking of teaching philosophy and learning to up all the knots, since we are all witnesses philosophise presupposes prior clarification to what one might call a ‘speeding up of of these terms, a fortiori when it is a question of time’ – political time, spiritual time, social going beyond a simple, descriptive study. time, and therefore educational and However, it is already inherently difficult to teaching time. By increasing demands on define what is meant by ‘philosophy’ and technological progress, does not this present ‘philosophize’: a genuine a philosophical day reality in certain respects resist a question! Philosophy is endlessly inquiring philosophical approach? And, do so in the into what it is not: morality, science etc. – sense that reflecting is first reflecting within and into what it really is, a certain type of oneself before exposing oneself to others, knowledge, but which? A practice, but of just so many exercises that call for patience, what kind? The answers vary considerably from time and self-criticism. Philosophy, let us philosopher to philosopher: thinking for oneself not forget, is critique, in the Greek sense of or living wisely; interpreting the world or the word: meaning that it must always be a transforming it; conforming to a world order

xvii THE DYNAMICS OF THE METHOD

or revolutionizing it; aiming at pleasure or teaching, while one can sometimes feel virtue; learning to live or to die; thinking perplexed about what is nevertheless called conceptually or metaphorically. Just so ‘philosophy’ in a given educational system many questions in which the conception when it is not a reflective practice that is aimed for and the practice of philosophy also varies in the students. Here is an assumption that has widely depending on the different cultural areas. rightly compelled us to be very rigorous and Here, the word ‘philosophy’ as designating constantly exacting in writing this study, a subject taught or a type of teaching activity was which is indeed a reflection of the existing not easy to capture, because one also finds reality and makes reference to a number of many activities having a philosophical terms that has led us to prepare a glossary dimension in titles in which the word is absent, to avoid any confusion. Indeed, the defini- like ‘course on morality’, ‘ethics course’ or tion of each of the terms of this glossary ‘citizenship courses’, sometimes ‘theological refers to the meaning that we have wished teaching’, when it is a matter of non-dogmatic to express all throughout the writing of this book.

On the objectives of the study

A general requirement of effectiveness is concrete prospects for philosophical teaching the categorical imperative of this study, practices. In this sense, it is always to be which goes beyond a description of the reinvented, placed in question, supplemented, present situation and converges in an amended, just as philosophy itself is. This eminently practical objective. And, therein study is also designed to act as a basis for lies its impact. While respecting the tradi- developing synergies and axes of tional division of teaching into three levels co-operation at the national level, but also - primary, secondary and higher education -, among States. Added to this is another this work endeavours to offer a rich, objective, which exhorts this study to relevant presentation of learning philoso- converge towards an ideal, a shared goal phy differently. Constantly concerned to be towards which the collecting and exhaustive, through the multiple facets of conglomerating of wishes and ideas are directed. teaching, it presents the reform initiatives Faced with the protean nature that of the past, those underway or planned. philosophy and everything making it up can In the short term, the study presents a take on, this study endeavours to overcome snapshot of the teaching of philosophy, the very real differences connected with the one that is as faithful and well-documented different ways of teaching and learning this as possible. In the medium term, its intent discipline. What other raison d’être does is to help Member States with their future philosophy, and more generally the social choices, because it offers inspirations, ideas sciences and humanities, have than their or experiences. primary calling to attain the ideal of building the peace in minds of human This study witnesses to, informs about, beings? Understood in this way, teaching is makes visible, initiatives that are still not both a means and a resource, undoubtedly well enough known and it assumes its role one of most fundamental, reaching out to this of ‘stinging fly’ by proposing and by offering goal.

On the study’s synergy

The product of a collective endeavour, this This project had its own unique dynamics in study was interdisciplinary in nature, a the sense that it benefited from lengthy quality that was genuinely instrumental in its amount of preliminary preparation and realization. Between what was given and especially from substantial involvement on what was expected, what was possible and the part of the philosophical and educatio- what was desirable, it aimed at constituting nal community. In a team spirit, many a quality interface between a faithful portrait people joined in fully acting in concert in its of existing realities and the demands requi- orchestration. red by the teaching of philosophy. xviii PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

This study is also the product of a special people practising philosophy, as well as kind of synergy in that it is ordered in a way philosophical institutions, UNESCO chairs that describes existing realities, but also, of philosophy and specialized NGOs. Also and especially, deals with key questions to be added to these networks are the and, as much as possible, comes up with Permanent Delegations to UNESCO, UNESCO proposals, innovations, new directions. A National Commissions and regional UNESCO offi- synergy also, and especially, implied in the ces. Each of these groups made an invalua- participation and commitment on the part ble contribution to this work and this is of so many people associated in conceiving why I would like to convey my sincere it, such as networks of philosophers and gratitude to them right away. researchers, professors, educationists and On the ‘universality’ of the study

Among other things, this study ardently cultures and in all countries where the desire aspires to show and to demonstrate again to think and debate exist. This does not and always that the longstanding assump- amount to endorsing any kind of cultural tion that the origins of philosophy were to relativism, but on the contrary enables us to be found in Greece, and that for this reason embrace a vision broader than one that philosophy still has to turn there for all its restricts philosophy and its transmission, answers, has had its day. Indeed, like particularly through teaching, to just the Jeanne Hersch, -—the Swiss philosopher Greek, then western, context. who served as the Director of UNESCO’s Philosophy division from 1966 to 1968 and This study has its place completely within declared that human rights did not have its the context of the promotion of the foundations exclusively and strictly in universal, indefeasible values: those of western thought(1) - by not favouring any human rights and the rights of children, school of thought, any particular tradition, and in particular the right to education. and, of course, even less any dogma or This work also endeavours to overcome the ideology, this study proceeds in a spirit of sometimes complex problem of connecting inclusion, not exclusion. It aspires to show these same values with different cultures. that philosophy can find a source in all

On the ‘institutional nature’ of the study

Let us recall that this study is a response to they specifically bring and contribute to the a clear, explicit request on the part of the traditional teaching of philosophy? Do Member States, a request that can only these practices, sometimes called ‘new’, attest to the expression of a need and complement traditional teaching, or do unquestionable usefulness. And, it is precisely they think of themselves as running parallel because it was conceived of by all that it to it? can concern all the Member States, no matter what their cultural traditions, their Of course, in reading the study, distinctions conceptions of teaching, their philosophical and nuances are indispensable, for philosophy references, their political priorities, etc. may be taught in private educational Beyond even these international requests, institutions and not in public ones, in already very significant, we cannot help but associations rather than in schools. There note and take cognisance of an almost pal- may be training and university follow-up pable feeling of a need for philosophy, both concerning innovations on the primary in the places where it is taught traditionally, school level —without there necessarily but also outside them. But which ‘outside’? having been any philosophy on the secondary The present work rightly lifts the veil on level. Innovative experimentation may also several of these still not well known be officially undertaken by the institution (1) Jeanne Hersch (ed.). Birthright of endeavours that are not carried out in without, however, being generalised. Man. New York, UNIPUB/UNESCO, 1969 (2nd edition 1984). school, but elsewhere. What exactly do

xix THE DYNAMICS OF THE METHOD

On gathering the data

By deciding to prepare a questionnaire and of the countries, which enabled the setting by using the data gathered so as to include up of an extensive database including 1200 the maximum number of issues concerning recipients. Indeed, the reliability of the the teaching of philosophy, from the start responses required optimising the number we chose to opt for what was perhaps the of recipients per country, the average most complex, but from our point of view number reached being 3-4 contacts per undoubtedly the most dynamic, approach. country, without for all that guaranteeing Prepared in three languages – French, the absolute veracity of the responses. English and Spanish – the UNESCO I would like to emphasise here our questionnaire(2) had two component parts: satisfaction with regarding the results one qualitative and the other quantitative. obtained at the end our consultation This was achieved by using different kinds process. The ratio of the countries making of questions. The questionnaire included a minimum of one contribution responding several thematic sections relating to the was 126 out of 192 Member States. levels of teaching philosophy, even though Parallel to this, and right from the time this not all of them always applied to all the work was conceived, we called upon four Member States. In this case, it was a matter outside consultants enjoying a significant of pre-school, primary and secondary amount of expertise both in the field of levels, higher education and the informal educational science and in research. We level. While enabling the adoption of a also appealed to those holding UNESCO certified methodological approach that has chairs in philosophy, as well as to our special proven itself many times over with a variety collaborators: the International Council for of subjects, the questionnaire was a tool Philosophy and Humanistic Studies (ICPHS), facilitating both the coding and entering of the International Federation of Philosophical data. Our greatest challenge consisted in Societies (FISP), the Collège international de translating the objectives of the data philosophie (CIPh), and the International collecting into a research context that was Institute of Philosophy (IIP). All of them sound from both a conceptual and a supplied us with work sustained by methodological point of view. In this research, reflection and analysis, especially by respect, and owing both to its international providing documents of substance, descrip- scope and the questions it dealt with, the tions of philosophy teaching in their coun- questionnaire that provided input into this tries, presentations of what is at stake, of study was unprecedented in nature. reforms, of problems involved, but also of We were thus lead to develop a specific the challenges connected with them. plan for engaging in the inquiry that took By gathering the greatest amount of the following aspects into consideration: information, by involving the greatest number the objectives and needs in terms of data; of varied, diverse kinds of people, while at the methods of collecting data; breadth the same time adopting a plan striving to and geographical coverage; plans for pro- make optimal use of the recommendations cessing the data; and, trying out the ques- and proposals drawn to the users’ attention, we tionnaire. Parallel to this, work to identify always sought to be as faithful as possible resource people was undertaken for each in writing this study.

On ‘best practices’ This terminology systematically used within practices as being the best. It is this United Nations, and in particular at questioning process, for certain people phi- UNESCO, led us to inquire into whether it losophical in nature, that I wish to present was of interest to describe the ‘best’ practices here. Speaking of good practices, and even existing in the subject. The editorial board more so of best practices, is first of all to set thus engaged in a most interesting critical, oneself up as a judge, to lay claim to being though discerning, reflection, regarding entitled in certain way to evaluate (2) See Chapter V. just how opportune it was to qualify certain excellence. It is also being clear about the xx PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM criteria for good practice. Is good practice, deemed necessary setting institutional it being a matter of teaching practices, a dynamics into motion in order to promote practice sanctioned by some political, this practice. On this point, we have, ethical or educational value (an axiological therefore, introduced some nuances into criterion)? In which case it is the whole our remarks in the course of this study by philosophy of education that is summoned preferring to talk of practices having stood to this. the test. Is good practice that which is useful and effective (pragmatic criterion)? But effective Lastly, in my capacity as co-ordinator of this from what point of view: building an study, it is once again up to me to pay individual’s personality, fighting against tribute to all the people who worked feelings of failure in school or of personal together with me throughout this process failure, preventing violence, educating and who contributed, in a dynamic spirit people to live together in and through for which ‘synergy’ and ‘convergence’ were debate and to be citizens in a democracy, the key words, to the progression and logic linguistic mastery in the interaction bet- that led to the realisation of this ween thought and language, learning to undertaking that I have had the great engage in personal, critical reflection, privilege of leading through to its independent judgement, communicating completion. technical knowledge and self-discipline. Is good practice professional practice? What This study is not an end, it is a justified is meant by being a professional in the field appeal to strengthen philosophy teaching of philosophy? How do we conceive of and to introduce it where it does not exist. philosophy teaching? Who is competent to It is a means of familiarising people with judge its quality, its limitations, possible philosophical practices that are still too far improvements? below the surface and sometimes marginal. Speaking of ‘best practices’ is ultimately It is a reminder of the role of training minds passing from the narrativo-descriptive in creating free, aware, responsible, sphere into the normativo-prescriptive independent people. sphere, decreeing what should be done, advising, proposing a model to be adopted. This study is a beginning and aspires to Yet, what is striking is the diversity of capitalise on a momentum and a coming practices in the field, which can be together of wishes and commitments at considered a richness to be preserved from the international level. It is now up to normalization. The risk of institutionalization, UNESCO and to all of its partners to when one finds oneself involved in an ‘transform the experiment’, if I dare to put ‘instituting’, and not an ‘instituted’, it that way, and to draw inspiration from dynamic, is standardisation and the proposals and ideas figuring in this conformism in the practices. work, the impact of which, I am certain, In philosophy, one therefore finds oneself will have the expected reverberations in the facing paradoxical restrictions: safeguarding years to come, with the hope that its true initiative and freedom on the part of the worth will be recognised in the course of teachers in the multiple choices they have time. to make concerning teaching and philosophy, without which one runs the risk of not having any more freedom of thought, Moufida essential to philosophy, either for the teachers or for the students; or, when Goucha

xxi CHAPTER I Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Teaching philosophy and learning to philosophize at pre-school and primary levels Philosophy and young minds: The age of wonder

Introduction: The road travelled, the road ahead 3 Methodology 4 I. Questions raised by Philosophy with Children 5 - 14 1) The question of children’s aptitude for philosophical thinking 5 > A philosophical question: what is the relationship between philosophy and children? > An ethical question: is philosophical thinking desirable in children? > A political question: can we speak of ‘a right to philosophy’, ‘a right to philosophize’? > A psychological question: are children capable of philosophical thought? > A question of will: does the belief that children can learn to do philosophy open up possibilities in itself? > A question of the challenge involved: what about children in difficult situations, or those who struggle at school? > A question of approach: pedagogy and didactics > A question about how we learn to do philosophy: is discussion the primary means? 2) The question of the role of the teacher 11 > How much guidance should the teacher give? > How much input should the teacher provide? 3) The question of educating and training teachers 12 > Academic training in philosophy? > Didactic training in the skills of philosophy? > Pedagogical training in debate? 4) The question of innovation: Promote, experiment, institutionalize? 14

II. Promoting philosophically directed practices 15 - 24 at pre-school and primary levels: Orientations and avenues for action 1) What are the stakes, what are the values? 15 > Thinking for oneself > Educating for thoughtful citizenship > Helping the personal development of children > Improving language, speaking and debating skills > Conceptualizing philosophy > Building a didactics tailored for children

1 Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki CHAPTER I

2) What kind of institutionalization? 16 > Promoting cultural and intercultural aspects > Promoting innovation inside and outside institutions > Organizing official trial programmes > Institutionalizing certain practices > Organizing a school curriculum 3) What philosophical practices should be promoted in classrooms? 18 > Diverse pedagogical and didactical approaches > Some practical ideas 4) How can philosophically directed practices be accompanied by training? 20 > Through initial and continuing teacher training > Through a training policy for trainers > Through an analysis of philosophically directed practices as a central component of teacher training > Through producing and using relevant didactical material 5) How can philosophically directed practices be accompanied by research? 24 > Stimulating innovation > Evaluating experiments > Evaluating the effectiveness of the practices

III. Philosophy with children: 25 - 42 A development to be acknowledged 1) Some successful reforms and practices: 25 A strong argument in favour of philosophy with children > Notable reforms > Practices that have been shown to work 2) Institutions and support materials 28 > Two landmark institutes > Journals about philosophy for and with children 3) Case studies from throughout the world 29 > Europe and North America > Latin America and the Caribbean > Asia and the Pacific > Africa and the Arab States

IV. Philosophy at the pre-school 43 - 44 and primary levels: A few figures

Conclusion: From what is desirable to what is possible 45

2 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Introduction: The road travelled, the road ahead

An interest in Philosophy for Children (P4C) UNESCO studies on the teaching of philo- naturally leads to a consideration of the sophy specifically approached the need to legal corpus relating to children’s rights, teach philosophy at pre-school and primary and in particular to each child’s right to levels. It is true that in 1951 we could not develop personal opinions and to be assis- yet profit from the work of Matthew ted by his or her school in this process. Here Lipman, a pioneer in the field whose we are drawn to the United Nations groundbreaking Discovering Philosophy Convention on the Rights of the Child, was not published until 1969(3). As for the adopted in 1989, which among other spe- 1994 study, its general topic – the connec- cific rights accords the child ‘the right to tion between democracy and the teaching express [his or her] views freely’ (Article 12), of philosophy – was not expanded to ‘the right to freedom of expression […] to include a discussion of teaching philosophy seek, receive and impart information and to children, or teaching children to do ideas of all kinds’ (Article 13) and to ‘free- philosophy. dom of thought’, (Article 14)(1). The text of the Convention is resolutely innovative on a If more children are learning philosophy at philosophical and political level, in that it the beginning of this twenty-first century, it proposes a concept of children as not only is because more people who work with needing of special protection, but also as children are creating the conditions to turn requiring specific services and deserving to the places where they interact with them be considered active participants in their (classrooms, streets, etc.) into philosophical own lives. It stipulates that education must communities of enquiry. Attracted perhaps be carried out within the context of a body by the innovation of this approach, intrigued of rights: a maltreated child cannot be a by the changes it suggests, or perhaps dubious truly active participant, even less the about prevailing methods used in the world author, of his or her own life. A child who of education, these people are engaging in does not take part in his protection is but the practice of philosophy with children the passive object of care that others through a desire to find a new, more coherent impose upon him. One landmark element and appropriate, solution to the perennial (1) Convention on the Rights of of this innovative concept of the child is question that presses on us ever more the Child (1989): that the Convention was the first interna- firmly as history advances: how are we to http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu2/6/crc/ treaties/crc.htm tionally recognized text to consider children, educate those who will become the adults (2) Philosophy for Children, Report while still dependent and developing, as a sepa- of tomorrow? P4C represents a certain of the UNESCO Meeting of rate category of legal subject. The concept change in the objectives of teaching, and Experts, Paris, UNESCO, 26–27 March 1998. of ‘the best interests of the child’, expres- this has sparked the curiosity and enthusiasm (3) American philosopher Matthew sed in Article 3 of the Convention is also of of a growing number of people. Although Lipman, born in 1922, was a stu- particular importance. still in its infancy, we can already see how dent of John Dewey. In 1974, Lipman founded the Institute for the solutions it brings to the problems of the Advancement of Philosophy It is the first time that the teaching of philo- education are rooted in what it is that is for Children (IAPC) at Montclair State College in New Jersey. sophy and philosophical enquiry to children unique to humans: our capacity for self- Lipman’s primary goal is to foster is given a privileged treatment in a UNESCO awareness and self-development. critical thinking – and formal logic in particular – in children, based study. It hopes to offer a body of enlighte- Congruous with the modern conception of on his belief that children possess ning information on a movement that has education advanced by the philosopher the ability to think abstractly and understand philosophical questions gained in popularity and recognition in and pedagogue John Dewey, P4C also finds from an early age. Rather than recent years. Moreover, the growing inte- parallels in older teaching methods, such as attempting to instil any specific rest in teaching philosophy to children has those proposed by the philosophers of philosophical doctrines, Lipman’s approach centres on the child’s developed in response to cultural and poli- Ancient Greece. It is an approach that own reasoning and questioning, tical needs, as recognized at the meeting of appears to fill a notable gap in contempo- by working through universal concepts such as rights, justice, or experts held at UNESCO’s headquarters in rary education, which, while increasingly even violence. Lipman believes that Paris in 1998, where participants stressed recognising the importance of stimulating children can use their own references to develop a more concrete that it is possible, and even necessary, to the intellectual and moral development of understanding of these topics, present the rudiments of philosophy in sim- children from a very young age, does not drawn from their experiences and personal knowledge. For more ple language comprehensible to young always have the means to achieve as much details on Lipman’s methods, see children(2). Neither the 1951 nor the 1994 as it could in this area. It is not surprising, Part III of this chapter. 3 CHAPTER I

then, to note the interest that P4C has impact on the adults of tomorrow could be provoked throughout the world. so considerable that it would certainly make us wonder why philosophy has until The impact of philosophy on children may now been marginalized or refused to not be immediately appreciated, but its children.

Methodology

On the field of study. For the purposes of useful and targeted contributions were pro- this study, we have defined ‘pre-school’ as vided by experts from within and outside being before the age of compulsory school UNESCO, and less traditional sources of enrolment – for example, kindergarten or information also proved invaluable to our nursery school. In focussing on pre-school research. A substantial amount of informa- and primary-school levels, much of this tion is available on the Internet, including study is primarily concerned with children full descriptions of the more significant P4C in the three-to-twelve year age group. It is activities taking place throughout the important to keep in mind, however, that world. This concerns a great number of education systems can vary greatly from countries, with relevant activities including one country to another: in some national targeted studies, specialized journals, tea- education systems, primary school includes cher-training programmes, P4C associa- the beginning of secondary school, while in tions and research centres, and regularly others it is seen more as a preparatory held national and international conferen- school. Moreover, countries differ in the ces. A network of researchers, professors, availability and duration of pre-school and experts in teaching and philosophy options, before the obligatory school age. were solicited during the development of this study to contribute to describing the On the relevance, reliability and teaching of philosophy at the pre-school exhaustiveness of the sources. The and primary levels in their respective coun- background and the context of existing tries. Lastly, the questionnaire specifically international studies in the area of the drawn up by UNESCO for the present study teaching of philosophy were given great was an invaluable source of information. attention in preparing the present report. The documentary sources available today essentially fall into two categories: very

4 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

I. Questions raised by Philosophy with Children

In discussions of P4C practices, or in efforts to guide these practices in one direction or another, certain key questions repeatedly emerge in relation to a number of fundamental issues. Controversy surrounds the very idea of teaching philosophy to children, and extends to disagreement over how teachers should be trained for this purpose and over what further research is needed to understand P4C today. This climate has given rise to animated debates and led to sharply contrasting positions. Not only philosophers and professors of philosophy, but also professionals in the field and teachers of P4C (whether philosophers or not) have contributed to this vigorous debate.

1) The question of children’s aptitude for philosophical thinking

A philosophical question: what is the because of their continual and sweeping exis- relationship between philosophy tential questioning – to these philosophers, to and children? philosophize is considering a question as if for the very first time. Others argue that, while A variety of terms are used to discuss the tea- there may have been a childhood of philoso- ching of philosophy to children. ‘Philosophy phy (for example, the rise of European philo- for Children’, often abbreviated to P4C, is the sophy with the pre-Socratics), there cannot be term preferred by Lipman. This covers the a child-philosopher, because to philosophize is whole stretch of primary through secondary precisely to leave childhood behind (for exam- (4) Freddy Mortier of the University instruction. Others prefer to speak of ple, Descartes). This raises the philosophical of Gand in Belgium, for example, ‘Philosophy with Children(4)’ (PwC), which has question of the proper age for philosophizing. prefers ‘with’ because of its sug- given rise to discussions about whether ‘chil- Plato has been interpreted as being opposed gestion of democracy, arguing that ‘for’ has a somewhat paternalistic dren’ designates just another audience for phi- to philosophy with children, on the basis of a connotation. losophy, one of many possible audiences, or passage in the Republic(7), however others (5) German philosopher and psy- whether it refers to a specific group, for whom point to his dialogues with adolescents – for chologist. (8) (6) French philosopher and writer, teaching philosophy requires specially adapted example, in the Lysis . founder of the Université Populaire methods and tools: in this case there would be de Caen, France. one philosophy ‘for children’, for childhood, What, then, is a child? We might contrast the (7) In The Republic, Plato warns that exposing young people to and another philosophy ‘for adults’ (or for notion of child to that of adult: at what age philosophical discussion too early adolescents, if we consider them to be a sepa- does childhood end(9)? Is this just a question of can lead to become sceptical, rate group from children). age? Or is it rather a question of a vision of the contradictory and nihilistic. Plato, The Republic (translated by world? Or of cognitive capacity (developmen- Desmond Lee). Markham, Ontario, In that case, why not speak simply of school- tal psychology(10))? Or of psychological matu- Penguin Books Canada, 1983, pp. 352–3. children, a term that places children specifically rity, a concept that varies from person to per- (8) Plato, Plato Volume III: Lysis, in an institutional and educational context? Is son, but also across social classes and cultures. Symposium, Gorgias (translator W. it because beyond the pupil who is learning Or is it determined by ethical and/or legal (civil R. M. Lamb). Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 2006 various forms of knowledge there is a more and criminal) responsibility? We can also (Loeb Classical Library No. 166, fundamental personality – that of the child? define child in relation to adolescent, by which first published 1925). Or because a child is somebody we want to definition childhood ends at puberty. This is (9) The Convention on the Rights of the Child seems to support a educate, not merely instruct? Because a child the age range we consider for the purposes of legal-political definition, characteri- is a person, who has rights, who is subject to this chapter, which is limited to a discussion of zed by the status of political minority: ‘a child means every human laws? Such, at any rate, is the interpretation children at preschool and primary levels. being below the age of eighteen suggested in the Convention on the Rights of years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attai- the Child, which sets out the freedoms that a But how can we define childhood and child in ned earlier.’ (Article 1). This defini- child can and should be accorded. Or does it philosophical terms? What is childhood? An tion of the age-range meant by ‘child’ is similar to that used in the have something to do with a specific relations- age, a moment in the biological and chrono- context of P4C, for which chil- hip between children, as young humans still in logical development of an individual member dhood is understood to include the developmental stage, and philosophy – of the human species? A psychological state the secondary school years. (10) Jean Piaget places the ‘formal between childhood and philosophy? of mind? A vision of the world? A historical operational stage’ of the develop- Philosophers differ on this question. Some, like and social construction? Psychologists, socio- ment of abstract reasoning at the Karl Jaspers(5) or Michel Onfray(6), believe that logists, historians, linguists and teachers each juncture of the primary and secondary levels – at the age of ten to children are ‘spontaneously philosophical’, have their own answers to this question. twelve years.

5 CHAPTER I

Philosophers do too, although they differ separation and divorce. In addition, all children among themselves. There is also the question question the nature of death from around the of the relationship between childhood and age of three. Psychologists can help children philosophy (children’s questions about death cope with these issues by encouraging them begin from as early as three years of age) – to put their experiences of suffering into with their never-quenched curiosity, they cathartic words, but children can also learn to continually question the world about them, think through such questions themselves, to including existential and metaphysical ques- approach existential questions through philo- tions about the origin of things, the Earth, sophical reasoning – allowing them to take a God, friendship and love, the meaning of gro- step back from their emotions and turn diffi- wing up, of living and dying. Is the child cult situations into subjects for serious already a philosopher? A little, a lot, or not at thought. This approach is even more effective all? Philosophers again differ here. Epicurus in the context of the classroom because it thought that it was never too early nor too becomes a collective process; the children can late to philosophize. Montaigne recommends break free from their existential solitude by that we ‘begin with the wet-nurse!’, while for recognizing that the questions they each raise Descartes, childhood is where prejudices are apply to them all. This can produce a sense of born, which only philosophy can overcome. reassurance, and a feeling of belonging to a shared human condition, of growing up The concept of childhood that P4C implies has within a community. significant philosophical implications. Is P4C ethically a matter of viewing children, as they Philosophy has therapeutic virtue, as the sages formulate existential and metaphysical ques- of antiquity rightly remarked, because it ‘cares tions, to be ‘valid’ partners in a conversation for the soul’. Not that it seeks to treat pro- with an adult – in effect, to be small adults – blems directly (today that is the realm of the- by which token P4C plays a part in nurturing rapists and different kinds of therapy), but the adult within the child, fostering the deve- many argue that in thinking about how to lopment of rational individuals who can begin understand life and death, sorrow and the to think for themselves? conditions of happiness, the philosophical approach can bring a certain peace or conso- An ethical question: is philosophical lation: that while teaching how to philoso- thinking desirable in children? phize is first and foremost a learning – not a therapeutic – situation, philosophizing is, Some philosophers, psychologists, teachers however, an exceptionally therapeutic activity. and parents are concerned that teaching chil- Others feel that, because children ask so many dren to think too deeply, too soon, could be questions, sometimes with a great deal of psychologically dangerous. Why plunge them apprehension, it is better to give them the ans- so quickly into the great problems of life, wers so they feel more secure when confron- which they will have their whole adult life to ted with the problems of existence. discover? Why shatter their innocence by Nonetheless, one can never make children’s making them aware of life’s hardships and tra- existential questions go away, because they gedy? Why pin their imaginations down with are adult questions that will resurface periodi- cold reason, why shatter their illusions, why cally over the course of their lives. ‘rob them of their childhood’? To provide answers to a child’s questions is justified when the questions are technical, histo- P4C is based on the principle that we should rical, legal or scientific, because we are trans- not mythify childhood. Many children live mitting knowledge to the child. It is the role of through very difficult situations from the schools to transmit humanity’s scientific heri- moment of their birth – children experience tage to the next generation, as this heritage is famine, slavery, child labour, incest, prostitu- a rationally developed response to questions tion, maltreatment, bombings, the loss of that humanity has asked itself over the course loved ones and more. Even in developed of its history. However, simply providing ans- countries, in peacetime and among families wers to the philosophical questions that that are comfortably off, many children live science cannot answer, such as those concer- with parents who are unhappy together, for ning ethics, can keep children from thinking example, and many children experience for themselves. These are questions to which

6 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM children must find their own answers in the one may put one’s own opinions to a course of their lives, as they develop their criti- philosophical test. cal and reflective thinking. Yet, although we should not answer in their place prematurely, In basing the coherence of a P4C methodo- we must nevertheless accompany them on logy on a political philosophy, proponents their way, so as to provide help for them if they focus on human rights and the rights of chil- need it. This is the role of our teachers: to sup- dren as overriding ethical and political priori- port children in their thinking about these ties that guide the implementation of these questions and to provide them with opportu- new practices. From here comes a ‘right to nities to develop thinking skills that will allow philosophy’(11). Others, interpreting this as the them to understand and to guide their rela- expression of a ‘right to have’ rather than as a tionship with the world, with other people ‘right to do’, prefer to speak of a ‘right to and with themselves. philosophize’ because this refers more clearly to the most recognized of human rights and A political question: can we speak of places more emphasis on the act ‘a right to philosophy’, ‘a right to of philosophizing. philosophize’? A psychological question: are Issues related to political philosophy are impli- children capable of philosophical cit in any practice of philosophy, and especially thought? P4C. For example, Lipman proposes a political model of philosophy that emphasizes the Even if we believe that P4C is ethically desira- connection between democracy and P4C, ble and politically grounded as a human right, arguing that stimulating critical thinking in that of philosophizing, we still must show that children in the context of a ‘community of it is psychologically possible. The practice of enquiry’ is a means of educating them about discussing philosophy with children presuppo- democracy. But is the practice of P4C ses that these children are capable of learning completely bound up in this connection? The to philosophize. A common objection directed great tensions and even contradictions that at P4C argues that this is impossible, that chil- have existed between philosophy and dren lack the cognitive development needed democracy over the course of history make it to philosophize. For reasons of genetic impossible to think so. Can we develop psychology, it is argued, there is simply no real methods to teach philosophy to children who way of educating young children in philoso- are indifferent to, or even hostile towards, phy: children are not capable of logical reaso- democracy, by basing it on other philosophical ning before they have reached the logical ideas. Some people maintain that if we adopt reasoning stage of development (ten to twelve the position of Lipman we are not doing years old) as defined, for example, by the philosophy for its own sake, or for the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. Yet Lipman emancipatory value of thought, but because drew from Piaget’s stages of development in of something that is extrinsic to it – for demo- writing his ‘philosophical stories’, adapted to cracy, or to ward off social violence. It is children of all ages. What is more, a number argued that this would be the instrumentaliza- of researchers in developmental psychology(12) tion of philosophy and a misuse of the have rejected some of Piaget’s conclusions: a discipline. But this argument only holds for child’s cognitive possibilities might be greater non-democratic philosophers, because than had been thought. And this appears to someone who, like Rousseau, has a democra- be the case when tests are conducted not in a tic conception of politics would see nothing laboratory, with children taking intelligence improper about the practice, as Diderot puts it, tests given by a researcher, but when they dis- of a ‘popular philosophy’. From such a stand- cuss issues with each other in a real classroom point, the concept of a political philosophy situation. Verbatim records (transcriptions of that promotes democracy and a philosophy class discussions with and between children), directed at children which is presented in the analyzed by linguists, social psychologists or form of discussion are not at all incompatible: researchers of P4C report discursive (11) See, for example, Jacques democracy is based on debate, and discussion competence and forms of ‘micro-expertise’ Derrida, Ethics, Institutions, and the Right to Philosophy, trans. Peter that is problem-solving, conceptual and argu- detectable in the language used by children Pericles Trifonas. Lanham, MD, mentative sets up a procedure whereby even at a very young age. Rowman & Littlefield, 2002.

7 CHAPTER I

A second objection is that children lack the have in them, and partly by the fact that tea- knowledge necessary for philosophical analy- chers will do their utmost to help such stu- sis, and that epistemological ideas cannot be dents achieve success. Similarly, if a teacher understood without scientific knowledge. This does not create, within the classroom, a space view argues that critical thought is a process of in which children can express their thoughts activating the knowledge one possesses so as freely and spontaneously and formulate their to understand how that knowledge has existential questions, children may say little developed, evaluating its pertinence as well as about them. If we do not organize classroom its scope. ‘The owl of Minerva takes wing only discussions, some children will not learn how when the shades of night are gathering’, to discuss, and this is true simply because the Hegel notes: according to this school of ability to discuss is a learned skill. If we do not thought, the act of philosophizing can occur introduce children to the community of only after the acquisition of various forms of enquiry, they will not learn to ask each other constituted knowledge. This is why philosophy questions, to define their terms, or to argue is often taught only in the final years of rationally when others disagree with them. secondary school. And as long as we believe that children are not capable of doing philosophy, they will not But to those who promote P4C, this objection demonstrate the ability to do it, simply ignores scientific approaches already being because their teachers did not provide the used by primary-school teachers to encourage necessary conditions: psychological (such as children to think for themselves. Such promoting confidence within the group), methods are often combined with an activity- pedagogical (the community of enquiry), or based approach – for example, where children didactic (such as setting philosophical goals work on developing a scientific process rather that relate to the intellectual demands than just learning about and memorizing of a discussion). scientific findings. Although this argument The proposal that we begin by assuming that focuses on scientific knowledge, children are children can be taught to do philosophy – that even more curious about existential, ontologi- we accept this postulate at face value, without cal, metaphysical and ethical questions – proof, and from there observe what happens questions they can think through by drawing when we establish conditions that can pro- from their own very real experience of life. mote and encourage critical thinking among children – is an interesting experimental direc- A question of will: does the belief tion. This approach is also significant ethically, that children can learn to do because the confidence placed in the chil- philosophy open up possibilities in dren’s potential for rational thought increases itself? their ‘zone of proximal development’, to borrow another term from the Russian In spite of the debate surrounding the psychologist Lev Vygotsky. educability of children when it comes to philosophy, it is generally admitted that P4C is no A question of the challenge longer an issue about which teachers can involved: what about children remain indifferent. Children are no longer just in difficult situations, or those who subject matter for philosophical discussion. For struggle at school ? some philosophers at least, they represent a group to which philosophy is addressed. One of the arguments most forcefully evoked against teaching philosophy to children in dif- The literature in social psychology and education ficult situations, or to children who struggle at often refers to the ‘Pygmalion effect’ to des- school, points to the problems such children cribe the impact teachers’ expectations have often have in mastering language skills. This on student performance: students are more objection maintains that one cannot think likely to fail if their teachers believe they are without speaking correctly – that there is no not capable of succeeding and, conversely, thought without language, and that precise more likely to succeed if their teachers have language is a reflection of complex and struc- (13) (12) For example, the Canadian confidence in their ability . This effect is partly tured thoughts. Supporters of P4C, however, psychologist, Albert Bandura. explained by the confidence and self-esteem believe that language is not chronologically (13) See Part III of this chapter. that students gain from the confidence others anterior to thought, but that both develop

8 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM simultaneously. This position rebukes the teacher ensures that certain conditions are concept that language is purely the expression met. Teachers must listen when children of already-held ideas (ideas that need only to speak, encourage them in their self-expres- be formulated). It argues that to speak is to sion, praise what each child brings to the dis- organize ideas about the world into categories cussion and demonstrate confidence in them. of thought, and in doing so we develop our This enables such children, through construc- expression. A word is not a thing. Of course, ting their own thoughts, to recover their self- each word is a referent, but in its abstraction it esteem by proving to be capable of thinking. also designates a notion. It is a process of repairing self-esteem, in which thinking relieves the pain suffered by Those who practice P4C have observed that children who experience themselves as inade- when a child wants to express an idea, he or quate and helps them learn (or re-learn) how she searches for words, and in doing so those to make contacts with other people in a more words become functional elements of his or confident way and have an easier relationship her thought. Children’s thought processes can with the group. Such children can in this way in this way be improved by developing their develop an interior language to use in media- language skills, but their language skills can ting between felt emotion and the decision also be refined by developing their thought to act – be it throwing a punch or hurling an processes. This is especially true because a insult instead. This internal language (‘oral community of enquiry essentially exists in an internal’ is the term used by the psychologist oral form: it allows us to learn to think through Jacques Lévine(14)) can open a pathway discussion. This allows children who do not yet towards reflective consciousness, towards the know how to read and write to begin thinking discovery that thinking can be enjoyable and a more deeply. By encouraging oral and verbal source of dignity, and this can set failing exchanges, children who have difficulties with students back on their feet. writing can express themselves and maintain pertinent positions in discussions that would A question of approach: pedagogy be very difficult for them to write down. For and didactics them it is a chance to have access to a level of language that does not obstruct the commu- If we support the teaching of philosophy to nication of their thoughts, but which on the children in principle, we still need to answer a contrary stimulates the development of their pedagogical question. How? What tea- thought-processes through being directly ching methods or approaches should be confronted with the ideas of other children. used? How can teachers learn to teach philosophy in a way that children can learn to phi- Another objection to teaching philosophy to losophize? Again, there has been much children in difficult living situations has to do debate over these questions. Some philosophy with the fact that these students often appear departments or associations involved in tea- to have difficulty with abstraction, and many ching philosophy – in France, for example – argue they require concrete ideas. argue that philosophy is its own teacher, that Nonetheless, we have observed significant the philosophical approach fosters critical thin- development by using these practices with king. They contend that we learn to philoso- children in difficulty or with those who have phize by listening to a lecture or by reading a failed at school. A few explanations: children philosopher, both of which introduce us to who fail at school often have problems in their philosophical thinking through the act of thin- social or family environment – and school king. By absorbing and understanding philo- often reinforces such a child’s negative self- sophical theories presented in a text or by a image. That is why we often see such children speaker or a teacher we embark on the route react by turning inward, remaining silent so as towards philosophical thought. This concep- not to attract attention; others act provocati- tion harks back to the transmission model of vely precisely to attract attention to themselves learning, which presupposes a charismatic and so reinforce their feeling of existing. Such teacher and depends on an old-fashioned tea- children are very often hyper-sensitive to exis- cher-student relationship in which the stu- tential problems and may potentially be ready dents are enraptured, motivated and atten- to enter into a dynamic exchange regarding tive. But what happens when instruction is the questions that life raises, as long as the democratic and universal, when philosophy (14) See Part III of this chapter.

9 CHAPTER I

addresses itself to everyone, where the instruc- however: oral communication, as opposed to tor is a trained teacher, not simply a philoso- written texts and theses, is considered in pher? Schoolteachers today have to try to some circles as of only secondary impor- motivate students who are not necessarily tance in philosophical instruction. Class dis- convinced of the theoretical and practical inte- cussion is often judged to be a superficial rest of philosophy, and who do not always teaching method, with serious instruction share the linguistic and cultural background understood as consisting of lectures or and norms of the teacher or of the school. presentations delivered by a philosophy P4C teaching methods today are consistent professor. Lévine, as a developmental psy- with a general democratisation of the chologist, has certain reservations: a discus- teaching of philosophy, and draw from sion held with children who are too young scientific studies of the teaching and learning might not allow the children time to process. This approach places more emphasis develop their own personal opinions, on children as philosophers-in-training, on Lévine worries, because they might be too how they learn and the difficulties they have, preoccupied with reacting to the opinions than it does on the teacher’s knowledge of of others. The conceptual or argumentative any philosophical canon or his or her presen- pressure of a philosophically directed dis- tation of such material. It focuses on how the cussion might short-circuit a child’s natural teacher, who has a dual training, both in preliminary explorations into more complex teaching methods and in philosophy, can help thought. These critics argue that it is not the students overcome obstacles, particularly enough for a discussion to be democratic the pseudo-certainty children frequently place for it to develop children’s skills in philosophy. in their opinions. It has more to do with how For a discussion to be philosophically ins- we learn to do philosophy than with how tructive, a number of conditions must be philosophy is taught. met. These conditions include establishing a cooperative community of enquiry, which A question about how we learn to implies a discourse ethics based on ‘com- do philosophy: is discussion the municative action’ (Habermas) and an primary means? authentic desire to establish shared truth, in addition to encouraging rational thought Many of the practices used in P4C are based processes. Responses to such critics have on group discussions. When we question the pointed out that discussion is just one pos- predominance of this model, we see that in sible learning method, albeit a method that the world at large, discussion is the most is particularly useful when working with widespread philosophical method, contrary to children or students in difficult life situa- what we find in institutionalized education, tions. Discussion is understood here as an especially at secondary or higher levels, where interactional process that takes place teacher-driven exposition is more common. Is within a group, is led by a teacher, and fea- this form contingent on historical, social, or tures verbal exchanges relating to a precise psychological phenomena that are extrinsic to subject. Such discussions may have several the discipline itself, or is it intrinsic to philoso- different philosophical objectives, although phy, linked to the discipline as such? Is a these are often closely inter-related. Among ‘community of enquiry’ or the ‘philosophically these are: exploring the nature of the sub- directed discussion’(15), just some of many ject under discussion, often through ques- methods of learning to do philosophy, or are tions; encouraging the children to think they a manifestation of the natural, genetic, deeply about complex, philosophical way in which we develop habits of critical thin- questions; developing their capacity to king? Is it only through being directly pose questions and respond to others in a confronted with the alternate views held by thoughtful and rational – rather than purely others that we learn to confront our own emotional or intuitive – manner; promoting selves – to see ‘oneself as another’, as French a communicational ethics that relies on a philosopher Ricoeur puts it, or to engage in a cooperative approach to resolve complex or ‘dialogue of the soul with itself’ (Plato)? controversial human problems.

Some critics animatedly disclaim the founda- (15) See Part III of this chapter. tion and the legitimacy of the discussion form,

10 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

2) The question of the role of the teacher

How much guidance should the focussed on doctrine or on the works of the teacher give? great philosophers, P4C opts for a more problem-solving and less doctrinal approach, The teacher’s role is a frequent subject of paying more attention to training the chil- discussion among teacher-trainers, researchers dren in a way of thinking. Questioning beco- and P4C practitioners. There are several mes more important than knowing the cor- different schools of thought: some draw from rect answers, as children learn to think dee- maieutics, with the teacher maintaining com- ply by questioning their own opinions and plete control over dialogues so that, as rationale. For this reason, the teacher should students respond to the questions he poses, not prematurely end or limit an ongoing dis- he helps them give birth to their own ideas cussion by providing the children with ans- (Oscar Brenifier(16)); others feel teachers should wers, still less ‘the’ answer, as this would actively direct discussions with students, inter- bring the children’s, and the group’s, inqui- action being less important than establishing ries to an abrupt halt. At bottom, P4C prac- habits of rational debate (Anne Lalanne(17)); titioners believe that we should leave ques- some prefer a model where the children speak tions unanswered, to encourage students to among themselves with the teacher remaining explore possible solutions. This is similar to silent, the aim being to allow them to develop the Socratic model of Plato’s Symposium(20): their own identities as thinking beings when the handsome Alcibiades offers his (Jacques Lévine(18)); others argue for a process body to Socrates in exchange for Socrates’ in which children interact progressively more wisdom, Socrates declines, sending him ins- with each other, via the gradual withdrawal of tead to Agathon, arguing that he knows the discussion leader, the objective being to only that he does not know (‘I know only generate peer dialogue (Jean-Francois one thing – that I know nothing’). How then Chazerans(19)); while some favour a method in can we transmit such philosophical non- which the essential objective is democracy, knowledge, except by allowing it to circulate where students are assigned precise roles and in the form of a desire to know(21)? This the discussion takes place within a controlled implies two attributes that the teacher must classroom environment (Matthew Lipman). possess: on one hand, modesty with regard to the possession of the Truth – the teacher How much input should the teacher affirms this by continuing to search for ans- provide? wers to the enigmas of the human condition, and as such is interested in the respon- In the traditional model of philosophical ins- ses students themselves make to such ques- truction, teaching and the transmission of tions; on the other hand, the teacher reinfor- knowledge are paramount: the course ces the importance of desiring truth by material – that is, its philosophical content – emphasising the ‘debatable’ status of the is of prime concern. The teacher or instruc- propositions put forward in the course of a tor may focus on certain philosophical doc- discussion and focussing on the collective trines or schools of thought, or present the seeking of truth. This gives the knowledge history of philosophy; he or she may also pursued a cooperative and non-dogmatic develop a philosophical line of thought as an status, as it is progressively co-constructed example of the process of philosophical thin- through critical examination of doxa (received king; or explain the texts of certain selected opinions) over the course of the discussion. authors, as models of great thinkers. In this Certain authors maintain, nonetheless, that model, instructors also outline particular phi- the teacher can intervene, but only under losophical problems and explain why this or certain conditions(22). For even if there is an that philosopher offered this or that solu- asymmetry of knowledge between teacher tion, so as to provide students with points of and student, there is equality from the point reference from where they can begin of view of their shared desire for the truth. – perhaps – to think for themselves. Why should the teacher be exempt from the (16) See Part III of this chapter. obligation to be involved in this ethics of (17) Ibid. When it comes to younger children, however, communication? It is also argued that teachers (18) Ibid. who would not understand a course that must take care to present their contributions (19) http://pratiquesphilo.free.fr/

11 CHAPTER I

as possibilities, rather than as their own Opinions on how much input the teacher beliefs, so that they do not constrain the should provide thus range from the traditional students’ thoughts regarding the material. content-based approach to teaching to a Rousseau called this a ‘pedagogical ruse’, a situation where there is far less input from trick played for the students’ benefit – in this the teacher, who may venture a point of case a philosophical benefit. view without allowing it to substitute for the students’ own thoughts.

3) The question of educating and training teachers

One problem confronted by recent innova- more importantly, provide an occasion for tions in the teaching of philosophy to children children to develop habits of critical thought is that, precisely because these are innova- (Jacques Lévine). Others question whether tions, primary-school teachers are rarely well academic training is not irrelevant by its very trained in P4C. As classes in philosophy are not nature, given that we do not teach major an established part of most teacher-training authors to children, but seek rather to intro- courses, P4C is essentially voluntary and is duce them to reflective thought. The debate is often limited to private or independent divided, too, between those who maintain schools, or associations. that you cannot learn to philosophize without having a knowledge of philosophers (an Academic training in philosophy? argument that pushes forward the age at which one can learn to philosophize) and An education in philosophy typically consists in those who think that learning to philosophize inculcating a knowledge of the great philoso- requires first and foremost an environment in phical texts that make up the history of which questions are allowed to emerge Western thought. Courses traditionally focus naturally, to encourage students to formulate primarily on doctrine and history, and only their own rational thoughts, and that teachers rarely invoke a problem-solving approach to should help this process along by assisting examine philosophical questions or to teach students to work through their questions students to formulate and respond to such together in a group. questions themselves. This less common educational method, however, comes closest to Didactic training in the skills of the models used in P4C. Faced with teachers philosophy? who have no philosophical training, or whose experience with philosophy is limited to what The teacher’s profession consists in knowing they were taught at secondary school, the how to teach, which implies that teachers common solution is to give them a classic aca- have to acquire a particular group of skills. This (20) Plato, The Symposium. demic preparation (focusing on philosophical question is ignored by some philosophers who Oxford/New York, Oxford University Press, 1994. theories, texts and major philosophers). This maintain that to teach one needs only to (21) Along the lines of the inter- solution comes down, essentially, to transmit- know (that ‘teaching’ equals ‘explaining what pretation of French psychoanalyst, ting to these teachers a body of knowledge: one knows’) – consequently an academic edu- Jacques Lacan, the ‘stupid teacher’, refusing to remedy open- ideas, a canon, a philosophical heritage. But cation in the subject would be both necessary mouthed ignorance, actually sti- there are limits to this method, because kno- and sufficient, the rest being only pedagogy: a mulates the desire for philosophy. wing facts about philosophy is not the same denaturing of philosophical education perpe- He does not seek, nor does he wait for the ‘right answer’ from thing as being trained to philosophize. trated by the sciences of education. For others, the student, as a matter of philo- Teachers also have to learn to philosophize if however, the professional identity of a P4C sophical didactics, for if the teacher adopted this attitude the stu- they are to teach this skill to their students. teacher is central. This identity is twofold: dent would ‘want to give the ans- The question of how one can be taught to there is a philosophical aspect to it, because wer the teacher wants’ and not the answer the student desires for philosophize concerns both teachers and philosophy is the subject matter, and a peda- its own sake, which is the condi- students. gogical aspect, because it is also a question of tion of independent thought. Is academic training really necessary, then? teaching as such. This question of skills comes (22) Pierre Usclat, ‘Le rôle du Maître dans la discussion à visée There is disagreement on this point, too. For up on two levels. On the one hand, it depends philosophique à l’école primaire. some, the main concern is that teachers can on one’s conception of philosophy, of learning L’éclairage de Habermas’. PhD thesis, Université de Montpellier 3, successfully direct the development of a to do philosophy, of childhood and its cogni- France. community of enquiry (Lipman) and, even tive potential, and of the role of the teacher,

12 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM especially as regards his or her relationship to secretary to record the meeting; and principles the students’ ideas and questions. On the used to manage a number of speakers (such other hand, it also depends on the particular as having a moderator to preside over the methods teachers should employ – for the meeting, or agreeing on rules by which one teacher of P4C, these can include oral and/or person speaks at a time and in a certain order, written techniques, the presentation of moral with each speaker accorded respect and prio- dilemmas, constructing communities of rity given to those who have spoken less than enquiry, initiating discussions that have both others). philosophical and democratic aims, engaging in Socratic dialogue, or asking philosophical Setting up a discussion in this way teaches stu- question to a class or a group of students(23). dents about democratic methods that promote collective, intellectual dialogue. The chal- Pedagogical training in debate? lenge for the teacher is to introduce these functions and rules in such a way that the chil- Certain writers question whether children can dren understand their purpose; even better, really learn to do philosophy through group perhaps, these arrangements can be co- discussions. In particular they draw attention constructed in class. Its philosophical purpose, to the difficulty of holding a discussion with a however, gives a particular cast to these dis- large number of participants, a difficulty that cussions: the group becomes a collective intel- only increases when it concerns a group of lect, a community of enquiry. As it works children with a broad range of abilities and through the children’s questions, which often developmental levels. They also argue that concern the great enigmas of the human ideas expressed orally are less concise and condition, it is not a matter of convincing developed than those expressed in writing. others or winning an argument, but of sear- Others respond that this lucid assessment of ching together for answers and working toge- the difficulties encountered in the field is inte- ther in a relationship based on ideas (rather resting, as it lists the obstacles to be overcome than force), in which the other person is an as arguments against such a learning expe- indispensable partner in the effort to see rience. It is precisely because students do not things more clearly – not an adversary. The listen to each other that they should be ins- right to express one’s opinion (doxa) here is tructed in the ethics of communication, and it counterbalanced by a duty to develop a ratio- is precisely because they limit themselves to nal argument, such that every objection is an examples in their arguments that it is neces- intellectual gift, not an act of aggression. sary to teach them to look for common featu- Because of this, a teacher’s skill lies in cultiva- res underlying the concepts these examples ting intellectual curiosity, a communicative illustrate. The objective is to learn to think phi- ethic, habits of collective questioning and rea- losophically through discussion and during soning, and logical thought-processes. These discussions. skills must be developed in teacher-training. A training method commonly used is to put tea- (23) Example: if one defines Leading, or facilitating, a philosophically dis- chers in the same situations they will later philosophizing didactically as a thought process that involves two cussion is not easy, for there are two distinct place their students in (the principle of isomor- or more people and seeks truth, facets to consider: method – the general ques- phism). In this way they understand the lear- the teacher would attempt to make students aware of problems, tion of managing the discussion; and content ning objectives more clearly and can expe- concepts and arguments. – managing the philosophical direction the rience P4C principles in action, including diffi- But from a cognitivist conception discussion takes. Facilitating such a discussion culties that can arise and strategies to over- of learning, priority would be given to the students expressing requires some skill, as the teacher has to moni- come them. A metacognitive phase following their opinions as a representation tor the group dynamics while encouraging this the exercise allows the teachers-in-training to of their world. A constructivist approach would instead focus on dynamics to develop and regulating the psy- explore the feelings they all had during the dis- how the students construct for chological and sociological direction it takes. cussion and outline the thought-processes themselves, following their own The social practice of democracy provides us that it had required of them, and to evaluate personal path of reasoning, a more complex vision of the question at with regulative principles to use in creating a the various methods and processes used hand. From a social constructivist public space for discussion in the schoolroom. during the exercise. position, however, one would organize situations in which their These include the recognition that everybody opinions would be confronted has a right of self expression, above all those with the opinions of others, particularly those of their peers – the in the minority; the possibility of preserving the other students (for example, work of the group through appointing a in discussions).

13 CHAPTER I

4) The question of innovation: Promote, experiment, institutionalize?

One key question that animates the P4C enthusiasm of particular teachers and the debate concerns how we are to move from interest children show in an activity that innovation to official experiments, and remains somewhat outside their usual eventually to establishing these new practices classroom exercises. as part of the curriculum? In other words, how to make the passage from innovation Any major innovation jolts a system and to the institution of real change calls for a rethinking of accepted ideas. This within a national education system? is the case with P4C, which breaks with Institutionalization of P4C is an extremely numerous traditions with regard to both interesting proposition, and some countries the teaching of philosophy and the habitual are already well on the way towards achie- methods and culture of primary-school ins- ving this. One great advantage of obliga- truction. Teaching children how to philoso- tory primary schooling is that it provides all phize is a practice that is new in the history children with a place where they can ask of humanity, although the idea itself may the questions that are important to them not be. It is a recent phenomenon, initiated –where they can experience at an early age only thirty-five years ago. But this late- the spirit of philosophy; acquire a taste for twentieth-century practice has developed rational analysis, driven by a thirst for truth; from a number of fundamental and and develop the critical tools they will need convergent streams of thought over the as individuals to better understand and centuries: a renewed interest in the ideals navigate though life, and as citizens to of democracy in the eighteenth century led contribute to public debate, support demo- to the concept of freedom of speech and to cracy and resist misleading propaganda. calls for public spaces for open debate; a Rather than leave P4C to the resourceful- shift in our conception of childhood that ness and enterprise of local initiatives, had its seeds in the work of Rousseau which can deprive a great number of children culminated in the twentieth century with of a very meaningful learning experience, the Convention on the Rights of the Child; generalizing these practices would contri- the progressive appearance and develop- bute to establishing a common culture of ment worldwide through the twentieth critical and creative thinking. Adding a new century of a new direction in education subject in primary school, however, would broke from traditional methods to promote also entail introducing an effective and an activity-based approach at primary coherent programme to train teachers in levels; and scientific research on education these practices and their objectives. Such a in the past few decades has led to a better programme would need to be included in understanding of the teaching and learning initial teacher-education courses and in process, incorporating cognitivist, constructi- continuing professional development. vist and socio-constructivist theories of how students learn. Some promoters of P4C, however, would prefer to receive a degree of official encouragement of these innovative techniques, rather than having P4C officially introduced within a national or state education system. They are sensitive to the contradiction in an institutional requirement that children be taught to think for themselves. There are also concerns that such a reform coming from on high might encounter too much resistance, and that such standardization might detract from the present climate in which there is a welcome diversity of practices, and where P4C is driven by the

14 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

II. Promoting philosophically directed practices at pre-school and primary levels: Orientations and avenues for action

UNESCO has always worked to strengthen the teaching of philosophy in the world and to encourage its creation where it does not exist. In March 1998, a meeting of experts at UNESCO made a number of specific recommendations on philosophy for children(24).

1) What are the stakes, what are the values?

P4C is associated with a number of values both ethical and intellectual demands of a or principles that confer on it both an edu- democratic debate. The challenge here relates cational and a political significance. Six key to the conjunction of childhood, philosophy implications of P4C can be identified: and democracy.

Thinking for oneself Helping the personal development of children A primary concern of P4C is to develop reasoning skills, a critical mind and a capacity Learning to think logically is an impor- to think for oneself in children and teen- tant part of the child’s, and the teenagers. Such skills can be learnt through the ager’s, personal development. In expe- rational exercise of the scientific approach riencing what it is to be a thinking being, and the rigour of establishing scientific they become aware of their common proofs. But when it concerns existential, humanity. Through rational discussions ethical, political, aesthetic, ontological or they also experience stating their opi- metaphysical questions, which are not nions out loud, in front of the group – directly related to science, thinking for one- having their ideas listened to and defen- self involves problem-solving, conceptuali- ding them. Such experiences can streng- zing, and justifying one’s arguments ratio- then their self-esteem. By engaging in nally: these are the skills of philosophy. rational discussions with their peers, (24) ‘At the close of the discussion, the participants adopted the children learn that they can disagree following recommendations: We Educating for thoughtful citizenship among themselves without fighting; recognize and assert the importance of philosophy for democracy. they experience peaceful coexistence in The way in which philosophy Communities of enquiry and philosophical dis- which differences of opinion do not should be incorporated into education depends on the various cussions are both forms of debate. And as degenerate into emotional arguments, in cultures, the various education there is no democracy without debate, lear- which they listen to each other and there systems and personal educational ning such debating skills at school comes is respect for difference. choices. We recommend: 1) That information on groups and down to an education in democratic citizens- projects for introducing children to hip. In addition, the development of critical Improving language, speaking and the philosophical activities existing in different countries be sought thought is fundamental to democracies that debating skills and collected, 2) That this are based on the right to the free expression of information be assembled with a view to disseminating it, and that one’s personal opinions (even if this opinion is ‘Thinking through speaking’, particularly in philosophical and pedagogical in the minority) and the confrontation of opi- the form of group discussions, develops analysis of such experiments be encouraged; 3) That philosophical nions in public spaces of open discussion. children’s linguistic capacities as they learn activities be developed with Learning how to think by oneself at school ins- through social and intellectual verbal inter- children as early as primary school tils a freedom of thought and a capacity for actions how to formulate their thoughts and that symposia be held for the purpose of comparing experience judgement which are invaluable skills for stu- before they express them. In a philosophi- and engaging in philosophical dents, as citizens of such a democracy, to cal discussion, language becomes a tool for reflection thereon; 4) That the presence, development and exten- develop. Learning to engage in rational thought, developing alongside and in sion of philosophy be encouraged debate and learning to philosophize through conjunction with the child’s thinking. In in secondary school curricula; 5) That philosophy training for intellectual discussion are two important working to develop and express their primary- and secondary-school conditions of thoughtful citizenship – they fos- thoughts, the children learn the importance teachers be promoted.’ Philosophy for Children: Meeting of Experts, ter democratic citizens who pursue reason and of precision in language. 26–27 March 1998. UNESCO, truth in encounters with others and make 1998, p. 29.

15 CHAPTER I

Conceptualizing philosophy Building a didactics tailored for children From a philosophical point of view, engaging children in critical thought calls for a Constructing a didactics of philosophy for redefinition of ‘philosophizing’; a concep- children is a challenging endeavour. tual reinterpretation of how it begins, its Traditional teaching methods are far from nature, the conditions of its practice. In appropriate – we cannot imagine teaching France, for example, the use of the word philosophy to children through academic ‘philosophy’ to describe these new educa- lectures or by asking them to write long tional techniques has led to debate among papers or analyze classic philosophical philosophers over whether P4C actually is works. We can at most try to teach them philosophy at all – based on the argument how to philosophize, try to kindle their that not all reflective thought is necessarily reflection on their own identities and their philosophical. This comes back to the ques- relationships to others and to the world tion of ‘What is philosophy?’ How do we about them. define ‘philosophy’ and ‘to philosophize’(25)? 2) What kind of institutionalization?

Promoting cultural and intercultural and social psychology – and, more broadly, aspects in science in general – we must admit that the didactics of these disciplines have The various methods and practices associa- changed significantly as well. ted with P4C appeared in a meaningful form at a precise historical moment – in the There is no suggestion of imposing one cultural 1970s – in a particular country – the United model upon other peoples, countries or States – and as a result of the initiative of cultures, but rather, from the basis of sha- one person: Matthew Lipman. These prac- red objectives that have been endorsed by tices have since spread across the world. the world’s countries as signatories to inter- This historical and geographical origin, in national conventions, to promote educatio- relation to a precise discipline, gives the nal practices that favour a culture of critical emergence of P4C a particular cultural thinking, a culture of dialogue and a cul- aspect: it is an innovation in a Western ture of peace. The recommendations pre- context. While the history of philosophical sented here are designed to be adapted to practices in relation to young people in the different cultural contexts and to diverse past remains to be written, there are exam- education policies. The theory of hybridiza- ples of such practises being used in many tion appears in this respect promising, parts of the world. In the West, Plato noted because it re-establishes, between abstract Socrates’ dialogues with adolescents, inclu- universalism and cultural relativism, the ding Lysias, and rhetorical and theological concept of a universality of rights that can disputes were organized in schools during take into account the cultural plurality of the Middle Ages. We might also mention the world’s countries. When we consider the tradition of debates in Buddhist monas- the unequal distribution of philosophical teries or the traditional African institution practices in primary schools across the of ‘palaver’, a process of debate and world, it seems an opportune time to put consensus. And so we come to the ques- into action a flexible and very diversified tion of how any method, whatever it may strategy. In countries in which P4C practi- be, can be extended, reproduced or adap- ces do not exist, such a strategy could ted to a new context. Not just its scientific include encouraging and developing any presuppositions, but also any psychologi- initiatives in this area, perhaps through the cal, pedagogical, didactic or philosophical medium of an association; providing fun- presuppositions must be taken into ding or other assistance to experiments in account. Furthermore, in line with the pro- the form of trial classes within the educa- gress made over the past twenty-five years tion system; or incorporating into the curri- (25) See Glossary, Annex 3. in cognitive psychology, child psychology cula certain practices judged to be of

16 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM formative value for students and which require special funding and training, and correspond to the core mission of the are usually carried out according to a pre- national education system. cise protocol and under close supervision. The new practices will be evaluated with an Promoting innovation inside and eye to how they could potentially be outside institutions expanded, if successful, to become part of the official curriculum(26). Given the growing Philosophical teaching methods have not worldwide support for introducing new been institutionalized in many national philosophical practices into primary-school education systems, and yet in recent years curricula, it is now time to initiate such offi- their use has expanded rapidly in a great cial trial projects so that the success of number of countries. These methods often these practices can be evaluated in relation exist on the margins of the national educa- to national educational objectives. tion system, and are frequently encouraged by universities, associations and other net- Institutionalizing certain practices works. They bear the mark of an innovation that in many countries represents a clear Promoting, identifying, encouraging and break with traditional teaching practices. valuing innovative P4C practices at primary From a centralized perspective (which often school level can be a first step in this pro- suffers from too much conformity), innova- cess. Organizing official trials within a tion in itself can be seen as a disturbance. national education system is a further step, But if an education system maintains this the expression of a stronger political com- view, it loses any capacity to change from mitment. Institutionalizing P4C practices is within or to integrate any new ideas. On more ambitious still, as it involves admitting the other hand, innovation can be a fer- that every child should have the possibility, ment for the reform of a national or state in school, to develop an ability to think education system, because, while not reflectively, and should be assisted in lear- representing a generalized change throu- ning to think independently. ghout the entire system, it introduces a new practice that may come from outside There are several possible avenues for the system or from within it. It provides an action: practices aimed at teaching children opening, through which a blocked off or to think philosophically could be introdu- dysfunctional system can breathe fresh air. ced as an option in certain primary schools, One avenue of action could thus consist in certain regions, or as part of certain curri- promoting the introduction of philosophi- cula; instructors trained in P4C could give cal techniques in primary schools where special classes; or these new teaching they do not yet exist and further encoura- methods could be formally incorporated ging them in places where they do exist – into the education system for all students in by publicizing their use and communicating a region or state, or even nationally. their results as widely as possible. For coun- Whichever method is chosen, philosophy tries where there are no such practices at could be introduced as either a general present, it should be possible to initiate methodological reform that cut across all simple critical thinking exercises for children subject areas, or as part of individual sub- based on the folk tales or legends of their ject areas, in an interdisciplinary manner. country, allowing them to express their For example, philosophical reflection of an own interpretations and then having them aesthetic type could be introduced into art, discuss various possible readings, without music or drama classes; a reflection on closing off the exchange too soon by ethics in classes on morality or religion; providing a ‘correct’ interpretation. political reflection could be incorporated into civics classes; or philosophical thinking Organizing official trial programmes of an epistemological nature included in science or language classes. P4C classes Experimentation, as contrasted with inno- could also take place in the form of a wee- vation, involves a political decision to introduce kly programme of philosophy workshops a new practice into a national education (their duration would depend on the chil- (26) See the example of Norway in system on a trial basis. Trial programmes dren’s age). Alongside these initiatives, Part III of this chapter.

17 CHAPTER I

complementary activities could be offered types of experiences they have had, exam- to interested students – an example would ples that could be meaningful for them, be setting up a school philosophy club. and a consideration of their particular sen- Philosophical meetings and debates could sibilities and imaginations – all are impor- be organized through UNESCO Clubs(27) or tant elements in their personal develop- the UNESCO Associated Schools network(28). ment and central to instilling in them a capacity for critical thinking. In this respect, Organizing a school curriculum a number of forms of scientific knowledge must be mobilized: cognitive, developmen- In terms of institutionalizing such changes, tal and social psychology; education theory thought must be given to how they can be and knowledge gained through teaching incorporated into the curricula across all practice; and a knowledge of philosophical year levels. A coherent and progressive teaching methods. approach is required to foster, through regular practice, children’s capacities to At different ages the same questions might think for themselves, to reason logically be taken up and explored differently, and to demand intellectual rigour. It is because the power to reflect deepens as it regrettable to see students participate in develops, along with an enrichment of their communities of enquiry at primary school experience, an increased ability to express and then cease to practice this type of oneself in precise language, and greater reflective activity, or not be exposed to phi- capacity to understand difficult texts. In the losophy again until university or the final context of improving national or state edu- years of secondary school. In such cases the cation systems, this gradual progression children are not being provided with the must be taken into account when develo- intermediate links needed to consolidate ping a curriculum, appropriate to the chil- their philosophical approach of questio- dren’s culture and traditions, that focuses ning, conceptualizing and developing on the children’s abilities to think critically: thoughtful, rational arguments. the content must continually become dee- Incorporating P4C across the children’s per and more profound, and demand more entire school career requires very clearly complex writing and reading skills, espe- defined objectives, methods, classroom cially as regards substantial literature and activities, books and other learning mate- specifically philosophical authors. rials. It must take account of the age of the students, their cognitive possibilities, the

(27) UNESCO Clubs, Centres and 3) What philosophical practices should be promoted Associations are groups of people of all ages, from all walks of life, in classrooms? and from all over the world, who share a firm belief in the ideals of UNESCO as spelled out in its Diverse pedagogical and didactical with various teaching methods and educa- Constitution and in the Universal approaches tional material. In fact, too strict a standar- Declaration of Human Rights. UNESCO Clubs are engaged in dization of such practices risks rendering educational activities that promote In general, any practice that develops chil- them unproductive, as it could threaten the peace and justice. (www.unesco.org) dren’s capacities to think for themselves, to intellectual freedom of individual teachers. (28) The associated schools project network was established in 1953, have an open mind (that is, to be free of Just as students must be accorded the free- to implement the goal of promo- prejudice), or to question ideas is to be dom to think for themselves (because ting UNESCO's ideals through edu- defended. Any practice that promotes the nobody can do their thinking for them), cation that the organisation's founders had set. Its original search for meaning and truth, enlightened teachers must be accorded a similar intel- aspect is that it coordinates natio- by reason – which teaches students the lectual and pedagogical freedom to make nal networks of schools rooted in each member country's educatio- value of questioning and understanding decisions appropriate for their contexts. nal system. Its goal is to promote the deeper meaning of problems, which Rather than indoctrinating the students, better understanding between children and young people around makes them aware of the origins of their the teacher’s role is to help them along as the world, with a view to building opinions and able to examine the basis of they develop their own answers to the foundations of solid and long- lasting peace. those opinions – is to be encouraged. questions about the world around them. (http://portal.unesco.org/education/) Philosophical purposes can be associated

18 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Some practical ideas Such exercises develop the children’s faculties of judgment by improving their ethical Among these approaches, we may cite discernment, so they can arrive at a moral exchanges of ideas, moral dilemmas, and judgment founded upon rational reflection. exercises in problem-solving, conceptuali- There are specific exercises instructors can zation, and argumentation. Beginning with use to develop the process of learning to questions asked by children themselves is philosophize. 1) Exercises in generating important. Children are curious, – they questions, learning to examine one’s own have an innate ‘love of knowledge’(29); they opinion, exposing one’s own presupposi- ask questions to make sense of the world, tions and examining their consequences. their questions motivate them and stimu- For example: if we ask ourselves, are late them to look further into a problem. humans good? , this implies that human These questions may be asked in class as nature exists. 2) Exercises in forming part of a structured exercise, or they may concepts. For example: what conceptual appear unexpectedly. They may also come distinctions are involved in distinguishing from a question box, whether anonymous between a schoolmate, a friend and a or not. The questions chosen will be those loved one? 3) Exercises in concluding argu- that do not require a factual, technical or ments: to say why one has just said some scientific answer, but have instead a philo- particular thing; to validate one’s discourse sophical dimension – require reflection in rational terms; to say why one disagrees because they are difficult, or there might be with a particular idea; to make a rational several different answers to them (some of objection. Whether to conceptualize or to which might contradict each other), or argue, children always begin with examples there may be no clear answer at all (apo- and something from their daily lives – this is rias). Students can vote to decide which their way of making a connection between question is to be examined and discussed. an idea or abstract question and their own But questions may also be drawn from a experience. They seek a conceptual anchor story or textbook, or an improvised text, from where to begin thinking about a composed to accompany the children’s phi- question. By helping them overcome this losophical activity, or a ‘Philo-fable’(30) – a need, they can become capable of greater story from the body of tales, legends and abstraction and generality of thought. myths that pass on the wisdom of the If the objectives are both philosophical and world. The class may also use works of chil- democratic, and the students are seen as dren’s literature that have an anthropologi- gaining an education in citizenship, the dis- cal dimension(31). One common practice is cussion will benefit from being clearly orga- to organize exchanges of ideas among stu- nized from a pedagogic and a democratic dents in a class, under the supervision of point of view, in which democratic rules the teacher, with regard to a basic question ensure each child has a chance to speak the students have themselves chosen to (such as having the students speak in a cer- discuss. The students’ are often very inte- tain order, or giving priority to those who rested to find out what other students have not spoken, or ensuring that the think about the question at hand; experien- youngest members of multi-age classes are cing socio-cognitive conflicts will help them recognized) and roles are delegated among develop. the students to confer on them different It is also possible to use moral dilemmas as responsibilities (president of the meeting, starting points for thinking(32): in this case, secretary of the meeting, etc.). If the ses- an ethical problem is presented to the stu- sion, however, aims to combine the deve- dents. For example: ‘a mother has no lopment of philosophical skills of critical (29) The etymological meaning of money to live on and her young child is thinking with other types of personal deve- ‘philo-sophy’. hungry. Should she be put in jail if she lopment, and to improve skills at public- (30) For example, the French texts steals bread?’ The idea is to decide, by put- speaking, one might select instead a round- written by Michel Piquemal. (31) An example is Antoine de ting oneself in the place of the person table procedure, in which each child is Saint Exupéry’s The Little Prince, involved in the dilemma, what solution to encouraged to go into detail in expressing (translated by Richard Howard). adopt, clarifying and hierarchizing the his or her worldview by presenting their Orlando, Fl, Harcourt, 2000. (32) See the work of the American values that are in play in this situation personal response to a given question. psychologist, Lawrence Kohlberg: through rational, ethical thinking processes. http://lecerveau.mcgill.ca/

19 CHAPTER I

4) How can philosophically directed practices be accompanied by training?

Through initial and continuing learn through P4C are possible. While it is teacher training essential to try to define these skills, we must take care not to allow our definitions Whether we are trying to promote an inno- to become too rigid. vation, organize an experiment, or institutionalize a new method in the interest of What skills, then, must teachers develop? reform, we have to show that these new The most general skill is probably that of practices work on the ground, that they are knowing how to teach children to philoso- more successful than other methods. phize, to think for themselves. This involves Educational activities that are not associa- encouraging their desire to ask questions ted with adequate methods for training and helping students follow logical trains of teachers often fail for this very reason, even thought. To do this with respect to philoso- if the teachers are skilled at designing tea- phical questions, teachers must remain vigi- ching approaches and activities that are lant in class to prevent any dogmatism or formative for their students. Teacher educa- relativism from taking root. In fact, for the tion in P4C can take many forms, many of teacher, letting children develop their own which are complementary. When it comes manner of questioning requires a number to teacher-training, it is important to be of skills: the teacher has to be able to see concise about exactly what skills the teachers which direction a discussion is taking, to will be expected to teach their students. plan ahead to ensure that it proceeds successfully and that the children are able to What skills do we want students to learn express their ideas. The teacher should not through P4C? This depends on how we simply provide answers, but instead main- define ‘philosophize’ or ‘learning to philo- tain a non-dogmatic attitude to show that sophize’ in the context of children and there are always many possible answers to teenagers(33). Many definitions of these a philosophical question, and that any sin- terms relate to the philosophical canon: for gle answer can be questioned in its turn. Of Socrates this involves questioning; for course, the teacher must equally avoid the Aristotle, wonder; for Descartes, doubt. All trap of relativism – to each his or her truth share a certain conception of philosophy as – as it is always possible for ignorance, pre- an awakening, as an important element in judice, unfounded certainty, error, disho- the development of rational, critical thin- nesty or bad faith to play a role in how we king. But what can be done to encourage a approach a question. The possibility of a child’s philosophical development and to truth that can be shared by a community of stimulate his or her critical thinking? What minds, that has been rationally established, indicators can we use to assess the philoso- must remain the fundamental regulative phical character of children’s thinking? Can idea underlying all of the group’s enquiries. this be translated into a skill? This is a diffi- This is the standard that the teacher must cult problem. In terms of setting and mea- maintain in the class. A few concrete suring objectives, in teaching philosophical approaches can help show how the chil- (33) ‘To acquire creative and enquiry and critical thinking we are dren can be encouraged to think for them- critical-thinking skills that are self-cor- recting and responsible’ (Lipman) – confronted with the problem that thought selves. For one thing, children should be ‘to gradually pass from a egocentric, is not an observable or measurable beha- permitted to express themselves without monologist attitude to a critical, dia- viour. One must be very careful when defi- fear of consequences, and their ideas logical attitude founded in intersubjectivity’ (Daniel) – ‘to adopt, when ning capacities or skills that are specifically should be encouraged and praised. faced with an anthropological ques- philosophical, for such definitions may well Teachers must know how to leave open a tion, an approach that dares to develop and express a thought’ (Lévine) – not be universal. For example, for those space for speech by their own silence; how ‘to acquire a capacity to develop, in who believe that children should learn to to listen for the philosophical dimension in the quest for truth regarding questions about the human condition, participate in a community of enquiry, tea- a child’s question in order to consider it problem-solving and questioning chers must develop the skills needed to rationally, rather than just listening to its processes; to conceptualize ideas; and to argue rationally by presenting facilitate such discussions in class. But other emotional content; how to avoid giving theses and objections’ (Tozzi). conceptions of the skills students should their own point of view in the discussion,

20 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM because there is a risk that this could bring ignored, and which present an opportunity the children’s explorations to an abrupt end for further thought. For example, when a (as they may feel they now have ‘the’ child says ‘just because people look diffe- correct answer) or otherwise influence their rent, it does not mean they are not equal’, ideas. that child has made a fundamental conceptual distinction between things that hap- What, then, are the objectives of teacher pen to be so, and things that are so education in P4C? What methods and because of a law. There are also a number content material should be used to best of distinctions that are useful as categories meet these objectives? Philosophizing when we want to ask questions in the right requires a progression in learning, and tea- way, and distinguish different registers of ching children to philosophize is not some- importance, such as: the distinction bet- thing that can be improvised: teaching a ween the possible and the desirable, the particular school subject requires training in legal and proper, constraint and obligation, both the academic content and in teaching the concrete and the abstract, the particu- methods. P4C training can be offered lar and the universal, the relative and the during initial teacher education, or as part absolute, causes and purposes, principles of the teacher’s continuing professional and consequences, the real and the virtual. development. Training providing a basic At any rate, the principle of the isomor- introduction in P4C is not offered in many phism of situations, those presented to stu- places, although there are a few cases in dents in class, and also those experienced which it has been institutionalized in the in training by teachers, appears to be form of an official programme of professio- essential. It is important for teachers to nal training with measurable standards. experience these situations themselves Future teacher-education programmes will during their training, and to personally therefore have to adjust themselves to the confront the difficulties they give rise to in varying degrees to which philosophy has terms of the dynamics of learning, and they been institutionalized at the primary-school should experience for themselves all that level in that country. can be learned from such situations. As regards the content of this training: 1) Classic academic, philosophical training, It can be useful for teachers to know about which transmits knowledge about philoso- the different teaching material and aids phy, is always useful for developing the available, and to know how to use them. capacity of teachers to philosophize by dra- Teachers can try out these materials in trai- wing from the works of great philosophers. ning workshops, where they can experi- For a teacher, this is an important intellec- ment with the possible ways they could be tual investment. 2) An intermediate solu- used in the classroom and determine which tion would be to find out which questions they feel would be most useful. In general, are of most interest to children, especially direct experience and analysis of actual P4C existential questions (such as those about sessions in the classroom, rather than just growing up, freedom, love or death). in teacher-training exercises, is the most Teachers should be familiar with some of useful training aid, as it allows teachers to the great contributions philosophers have recognize the difficulties they are likely to made to these concepts, as these can illu- encounter in class and to understand why minate their attempts to respond to the some things work and others do not. In this children’s questions. For example, there are respect, teacher training can run concur- the attributes of friendship as presented by rently with teaching, because in this way Aristotle in the Nicomachean Ethics(34), or we mix together, in an interactive fashion the origin and nature of love as presented that is not just alternation, training sessions by Plato in the Symposium. 3) Another way and hands-on experience, so that teachers of approaching the question is to give tea- can prepare their next classes by analyzing chers a list of things to watch for when lis- what they have just experienced in class. tening to the children’s discussions – to (34) Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, translated by Terence Irwin. help teachers identify, as they emerge, pro- Indianapolis, Hackett Publishing blems and questions that should not be Company, 1985.

21 CHAPTER I

Through a training policy for trainers children respond to the learning process. Continuing analysis is required because it Teacher training will be most successful if it is allows educators to understand their own supported by a well-planned structure to train actions and to be more successful in tea- the teacher-trainers. If teachers or associations ching by being more conscious of what have already introduced innovative philosophi- they do. Analysis improves the teacher’s cal practices into a country, their experiences understanding of student reactions, and can be used to inspire others, and to teach their psychological and learning difficulties. these methods to those who will in turn be Finally analysis leads toward a better grasp training schoolteachers; they can point out the of the common variables that can have an difficulties they have encountered and ways impact on the running of a class, of which they have tried to overcome them, and the teachers may well not be fully aware: such teaching material they have found to be use- as time and space management problems; ful. But a practitioner is not automatically a students’ difficulties in carrying out assi- teacher trainer. This second level of training – gnments; or differences in how long stu- teaching the teacher trainers – can be difficult dents need to finish a particular task, or to to approach in countries with few teacher trai- participate in group discussion. ners. It may be necessary to send potential teacher trainers into other countries in which What kind of analysis is this? There are two these resources exist, or to bring in qualified models of analysis in the human sciences. educators to the country interested in institu- The comprehensive or clinical model analy- ting these new practices. zes the teacher’s pedagogical intentions There is, nonetheless, always the danger in and how the teacher experiences the class transplanting methods from one country to in psychological, pedagogical and didactic another. These methods must be closely ana- terms. The analyst must take care to main- lyzed and have the flexibility to adapt to local tain a certain distance when constructing realities. A desire to develop critical thinking in this identification, because otherwise the children implies that teachers are themselves observations would not be truly objective involved in questioning their own occupation and would be of little value to the teacher. in the most general terms. Teacher trainers The explanatory model, however, takes the must thus provide an example of this capacity teacher as an object of external observa- for critical thought: instead of simply applying tion, using methods that claim to be rigo- methods they have been taught, they should rous, behavioural, even quantifiable, in an arrange training situations that have been effort to describe and explain what adapted to the local requirements and the happened in a class and why, as objectively objective in view, namely, promoting children’s as possible. abilities to think critically and creatively. To analyze an educational situation, one Training while practicing is also a possibility in must consider all those involved (students this situation. and teachers) and the meaning-giving dimensions associated with the situation, Through an analysis of especially both the teacher’s and the stu- philosophically directed practices dents’ relationship to knowledge. This as a central component of teacher includes the interpersonal relationships that training operate with the class; the group dynamics; general questions of classroom manage- Why is such analysis necessary? By analysis ment and authority; and the way in which of an educational situation we mean all these are present in the school, the local making an attempt to understand the reali- area, and the surrounding political and culties encountered in contexts in which tea- tural environment. Training the teacher- ching and learning take place, and what trainers helps teachers to analyze their outcomes can be expected from such class- situations as educators: they are urged to room activities or from the introduction of philosophize for themselves, through self- P4C practices into a school’s curriculum. questioning in particular. This does not just This analysis tries to make teachers aware show them how to teach a particular sub- of, and understand, the way they approach ject, but places them in the middle of the the profession of teaching and how real practice of teaching.

22 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Through producing and using relevant widely available when Lipman developed didactical material his method, may be very useful for children who live in a multimedia universe. Whether it concerns introducing or encouraging 5) Another possibility for those who find new ideas, launching or assisting an experi- Lipman’s stories not very literary or too mental project, or institutionalizing P4C as ‘didactic’ for children is to base P4C classes part of the curriculum, learning to philoso- on other books, specifically written for chil- phize in primary school can be greatly faci- dren, as starting points for philosophical litated by using appropriate teaching mate- thinking. The texts selected must be subs- rials – these may already exist, or they can tantial in that they have a certain existential be created specifically for this purpose. depth – they should require an interpreta- These include textbooks addressed directly tive effort on the part of the children to to children, information for teachers, as determine their meaning. Beyond their nar- well as teaching material that is addressed rative content they should introduce to both (for example, textbooks for stu- concepts and ideas that will stimulate the dents often have companion teacher children’s critical thinking. The children manuals). While some books for teachers then can work together to unravel or exa- simply present P4C practices, to inform tea- mine the possible meanings of the text, chers about them and to try to stimulate over and above any simple understanding their interest, others offer detailed exam- of the story: through the text they and the ples and instructions for in-class activities. teacher/facilitator can identify questions it There are a number of ways to develop broaches and use them as the basis for a appropriate P4C learning aids: group discussion. 1) The first solution, which has been adop- 6) A similar process of engaging and deve- ted in a number of countries, consists of loping critical thinking can be inspired translating Lipman’s purpose-written sto- through tales that form part of the chil- ries and their associated teacher manuals dren’s cultural heritage, or tales from other into the local language(35). The advantage cultural traditions: folk stories, legends and here is to have immediately available a fables that constitute an inexhaustible complete method, tested and stabilized, reservoir of thought-provoking ideas and including concrete support material for wisdom. Myths, above all perhaps, in dea- children (stories written for them) contai- ling with the question of origins, remind us ning, implicitly or explicitly, many classic of the universality of the human condition questions from Western philosophy. There and its mysteries. More specifically, Platonic is also practical advice for teachers on for- myths, when presented in a form accessible ming a community of enquiry, along with a to children, can lead them to think about wide variety of exercises that they can concepts such as truth and falsehood (The choose for their students out of workbooks Allegory of the Cave), the relationship bet- (35) Matthew Lipman’s P4C that go along with the stories. ween power and good (The Ring of Gyges), teaching materials include: 2) In some countries, Lipman’s stories have love (The Myth of Aristophanes), etc. Using Elfie. Montclair State College, New also been adapted to the local culture; that such literary or mythical stories can foster Jersey, Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for is, certain episodes are adapted to make children’s critical thinking by engaging their Children (IAPC), 1988. them more meaningful in terms of the cul- sensibility and their imagination: by identi- Kio and Gus. Montclair State ture, the traditions and the context of a fying with the hero, they live vicariously College, New Jersey, The First Mountain Foundation, IAPC, 2nd particular country. through his or her adventures, and this sub- edition, 1986. 3) In some countries new books have been jectivity gives great substance to the ques- Pixie. Montclair State College, New written for children ‘in the style of Lipman’, tions the story provokes. The stories and Jersey, The First Mountain Foundation, 1981. with the same objectives and the same characters, part of humanity’s great collec- Mark. IAPC Montclair, New Jersey, techniques in mind, but referring more spe- tive archetypes, become shared references 1980. cifically to the culture of the country for the class or group and open them up to Harry Stottlemeier's Discovery. concerned. greater intersubjectivity in their philosophi- Montclair State College, New Jersey, The First Mountain 4) New or improvised materials can be writ- cal conversations. Foundation, 1974 (2nd edition ten narratives, as with Lipman, or they can 1980). take the form of photograph albums, Suki. IAPC, Montclair, New Jersey, 1978. comic books, even films. New technologies Lisa. IAPC, Montclair, New Jersey, (especially audiovisual) that were not 1976.

23 CHAPTER I

5) How can philosophically directed practices be accompanied by research?

As well as the need to introduce training educational reform that merits the financial for teachers who choose to try P4C, or who and human investment they require. are obliged to introduce P4C into their curricula, research into how these practices Evaluating the effectiveness of the are employed at the primary-school level is practices highly desirable. In terms of institutionalizing P4C, research Stimulating innovation can also serve to evaluate its effectiveness in terms of educational objectives, and also Research can stimulate innovation and with respect to the consequences such foster its development even in places where changes have on students, teachers, the P4C does not exist. This has taken place in national education system, perhaps even a number of countries in which university on society as a whole. Research might philosophers are the source of P4C practi- consider some of the following questions: ces. As P4C is a new arrival in the history of has the introduction of P4C in primary the teaching of philosophy in the world, it school been effective in making students would seem to be prime territory for resear- think about questions more deeply at chers. Indeed, it enlarges the traditional school? Has it helped students develop self- scholarly and university-based community esteem, especially those who struggle at that concerns itself with philosophy, school? Does philosophy in fact have a the- bringing in younger students, and finding rapeutic value, as Plato believed? Does it itself in the process obliged to invent proce- contribute in a generally positive way to the dures, methods, arrangements, tools, and construction of children’s personalities? other means of support that are new, all Does it contribute effectively to educating involving essential philosophical and students about citizenship and democracy? didactic questions. This recently opened up Does it tend to prevent or diminish violence terrain for research, which exists in only a in school, especially where particular pro- few countries, must be worked over all the blem areas are concerned? Does it contri- more, for there are many approaches. This bute to learning and mastering language is also an occasion for researchers to work skills and the skills of oral debate and closely with teachers on definite educatio- rational discussion? nal practices, for example, in the form of active research. Such research is especially apt for attempting to evaluate the impact these new practices can have on both students and teachers, as regards skills required and skills to be developed, and this also applies to the training provided for teachers.

Evaluating experiments

Research is also essential in evaluating experimental teaching methods. Experimental projects must be closely monitored and studied as rigorously as possible – which is why resear

chers are vital – to determine whether they are worth continuing and extending to other classes or groups (perhaps to eventually be included as part of the general curriculum) and whether they constitute an

24 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

III. Philosophy with children: A development to be acknowledged 1) Some successful reforms and practices: A strong argument in favour of philosophy with children

Notable reforms obligatory class debates based on the students’ interpretations of literary works directed There are some examples in the world, rare at young people, with the opportunity to pro- but edifying, where philosophy for children long these debates in a more decontextualized has been institutionalized, or is in the way through philosophical discussions over process of being institutionalized, at one of the essential questions the text raises. Similar three levels: 1) cases where, although P4C half-hour debates are an obligatory part of has not been institutionalized in the pri- civics classes (citizenship education) which give mary-school curriculum, it has received students an opportunity to take part in and encouragement from educational authori- organize philosophical discussions concerning ties – the example of France; 2) cases where moral and political philosophy. As these inno- the interest in P4C has been taken into vations in no way disrupt the existing educa- (36) Some interesting examples are to be found in a number of theses account by educational authorities and has tion system, but rather support its major on philosophy at primary school by led to official experiments – the example of objectives, they are encouraged, although researchers at the University of Montpellier 3 in France – for Norway; 3) cases where philosophy has without going so far as to become institutio- example: Gérard Auguet, ‘La dis- been the institutionalized and is part of the nalized across the school curricula – which cussion à visée philosophique aux cycles 2 et 3 de l’école primaire: primary school curriculum – the example of could be viewed as too much of a confronta- un nouveau genre scolaire en voie Australia. tion for the traditions of teaching philosophy d’institution’ – this thesis aims to (36) show how, as a new teaching in France. practice that has yet to be institu- 1) Official encouragement of innovative tionalized, P4C tends to be seen as practices: France 2) Official development of an experiment: new genre of schooling; Yvette Pilon ‘La dimension philosophique Norway(37) à l’école élémentaire et l’intercul- Philosophy is not part of schooling in France, turel’ – a close examination of the objectives of intercultural educa- officially and significantly, until the final year of In 2005, the Norwegian government took tion and P4C that distinguishes secondary school – where it is taught for up to the initiative of commencing formal experi- their similarities and explains the importance of retaining a close eight hours per week as a component of lite- mentation with P4C in schools. Trial classes connection between these two rature classes. However, P4C practices have have been organized in fifteen primary and teaching areas, it argues that each allows the other to show its full developed in France over the past ten years at secondary schools, for children from six to potential; Sylvie Espécier, ‘La the primary-school level (ages six to ten years). sixteen years, and have involved forty-three Discussion à Visée Philosophique à There is no rejection of these practices in prin- teachers. Several goals are pursued, in par- l’école primaire: quelle formation?’ – this thesis tries to answer the ciple by those in charge of primary education ticular the development of ethical compe- fundamental and increasingly pres- because they share their fundamental objecti- tences, critical thinking skills and the capa- sing questions of what objectives to aim for and what content to ves: improving language skills and mastering city to engage in collective, democratic propose when setting up a trai- oral communication, educating for citizenship, debate. The teachers attend two days of ning session or programme for primary-school teachers eager to use and developing the skills of rational argument training each semester, and they are kept P4C in their classrooms; Nicolas and critical thinking. up to date as the course gradually evolves Go, ‘Vers une anthropologie de la complexité: la philosophie à l’école through external and internal reviews and primaire’ – this study attempts to For this reason, many teacher-training institu- visits to classrooms. Every month, the tea- understand how children think, to tes and school supervisors in France have faci- chers submit a report in which they address determine which teaching techniques favour the emergence of phi- litated the development of these practices by a number of specific areas. The project has losophical thinking, and to deter- organizing initial and continuing training in come at a cost, in that room has been mine the anthropological sources of erudite philosophy. P4C and research into this area, even though made on the students’ timetable for the (37) Synopsis of a presentation by philosophy is not traditionally included in pri- new component, and it has met with some Prof. Beate Børresen of Oslo mary-school and pre-school curricula in resistance from those who argue that University College at the international conference ‘Philosophy as France. There are also movements within the reflection is not as fundamental as sponta- Educational and Cultural Practice: education system itself to develop this innova- neous expression, or that philosophy is too A New Citizenship’, held at UNESCO Paris, 15–16 November tion. For example, secondary-school classes in difficult for the students. Overall, it has 2006, in celebration of World French language have since 2002 included been a very innovative experiment. Philosophy Day.

25 CHAPTER I

Box 1 An emblematic and instructive example: The Australian appropriation of P4C

It was a difficult task making the education ries, and combined philosophical research gramme has aroused great interest and decision-makers in Australia accept the groups with innovating and entertaining the Buranda school receives many idea of teaching philosophy at school. The school activities. State organizations were requests for visits from teachers from benefits of teaching philosophy are varied, also created, of which some came toge- Australia and overseas. Staff members and they are more difficult to quantify than ther to form the Federation of Australasian have been sought out to speak at confe- those of other teaching innovations – and Philosophy for Children Associations, rences and to train other teachers. while teachers count among its staunchest which later became the Federation of Buranda school and Education Queensland supporters, their voices are not heard. Australasian Philosophy in Schools also offer a training course online. In the Although some of the advantages of philo- Associations. With the exception of state of Victoria, a growing number of ins- sophy can be measured in terms of an Queensland, where Buranda primary titutions, from the primary education level improvement in literacy and numeracy, the school contributed a great deal and wor- to Universities, have introduced courses in major advantages are probably in areas ked in collaboration with the Ministry for philosophy. The Victorian Association for which lend themselves more to qualitative Education, these state organizations Philosophy in Schools has received a sub- study. remain the principal source of teacher-trai- sidy for the recruitment of a coordinator ning in philosophy. and regularly holds workshops for tea- The arguments in favour of including philo- chers. The association has a website and sophy in school curriculum were born out- The teaching of philosophy has spread lit- encourages schools to share their resour- side the mainstream of educational tle beyond primary education – and even ces regarding philosophy – but here too, research. Laurence Splitter was the first to there it has not been adopted across the the principal movers in favour of philoso- introduce P4C practices in Australia, in board. It is sometimes brought in at the phy come from outside the central educa- 1984. After working with Lipman, Splitter school-district level, but most of the time it tion system structure. In Sydney, a gro- directed a workshop on teacher-training in depends on the initiative of individual wing number of schools are integrating the Wollongong, in New South Wales, in 1985, schools or, more often still, individual tea- methodology of the philosophical commu- then another in Lorne, in Victoria, in 1989. chers. While there are some very success- nity of enquiry into their school curriculum, The participants at the Lorne workshop, by ful philosophy programmes in place for and at least two of the city’s education creating associations and drafting school more gifted children, communities of philo- zones are considering introducing the tea- textbooks, had the most visible impact on sophical enquiry could benefit all children. ching of philosophy. When Tasmania esta- the introduction of P4C in Australia. Even though the teaching of philosophy at blished its new Essential Learning curricu- Philosophy seemed difficult to reconcile primary school is gradually spreading, the lum, it accorded philosophical reflection a with the empiricism of the majority of the Ministry for Education will have to become central place. The apparent lack of a cohe- research undertaken at the Australian involved to really make a difference. rent and concerted philosophy pro- Council for Education Research (ACER), gramme, however, has led to increased and it encountered a certain resistance. One can cite a positive example in calls for philosophy classes, as proposed However, ACER added the P4C books to Queensland, where the state school at by the Association for Philosophy in its catalogue and became the principal Buranda, a working-class part of Brisbane, Tasmanian Schools. In every Australian source of information about it. has achieved remarkable results since it state there are places where philosophy is incorporated the teaching of philosophy taught at primary school, and all states are Other voices also made themselves heard. into its curriculum eight years ago. It recei- now working actively towards incorpora- Philip Cam, of the School of Philosophy of ved the title of Queensland Showcase ting philosophy classes into the last few the University of New South Wales (UNSW), School of the Year in 2003 and the years of high school, but there is not yet an eminent personality at the national level Outstanding National Improvement by a any concerted approach with regard to the as regards P4C, published short texts that School award in 2005. Its results have intermediate levels. were easy to use in class. Tim Sprod, from been spectacular. For eight years, the stu- an independent school in the state of dents of the Buranda school have obtained Tasmania, published a book that enabled exceptional results on both academic and teachers to use texts already in school social levels. They have a reputation for Stephan Millett libraries. DeHaan, MacColl and knowing how to solve problems, and vio- Director of the Centre for Applied Ethics McCutcheon of UNSW also wrote books lence or bullying is rare even non-existent and Philosophy, Curtin University, Perth, that used works available in school libra- at the school. The success of the pro- (Australia)(38)

(38) Stephan Millett, presentation submitted at the international conference, ‘Philosophy in Schools: Developing a Community of Inquiry’. Singapore, 17–18 April 2006.

26 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

3) Institutionalizing philosophy at degree of freedom to use their own primary school: Australia as a reference initiative.

Some countries have gone further than to There are three key aspects to this method. encourage innovation or carry out official Firstly, it develops a culture of questioning experiments, and have integrated philoso- at school, because it focuses on the chil- phy in the primary school curriculum. This is dren’s own questions. Secondly, it proposes the case in Australia. anthropological textbooks that are based on a narrative, in which the children can Practices that have been shown to identify with the characters and situations work presented. Finally, they establish within the classroom an organized space where the Matthew Lipman and his method. This children can discuss human problems, method is recognized as having had the where each has, democratically, a turn to greatest influence on the development of speak, but with the understanding that P4C in the world. Rejecting the conception with freedom of expression comes a duty of children put forward by Descartes, that to argue rationally. they are uncritical and prone to error and prejudice in their judgments, Lipman sug- A number of criticisms have been addres- gests instead that children can learn to sed at Lipman’s methods, among them the think for themselves if they are given the argument that by basing the classes on right conditions. Lipman thus opened the novels, the students are discussing things door to a new way of teaching children, they have only experienced second hand, one that certainly had antecedents in the and that this limits their real involvement work of Epicure, Montaigne and Jaspers, with the questions and reduces the debate but that had not received much attention in to a relatively lightweight discussion, rather modern education systems. From Lipman’s than developing opinions about their own work, this idea has grown and has since experiences. There are other criticisms too: been explored throughout the world. that the approach is overly logical, and the Lipman developed his method gradually, exercises repetitive; that it is based on a basing it pedagogically on the concept of purely utilitarian conception of philosophy; active learning (Dewey), psychologically on or that it subordinates critical thinking to a theories of child development (Piaget), and democratic purpose, so instrumentalizing philosophically on reflective techniques philosophy. It remains undeniable, howe- derived from the Western philosophical tra- ver, that this method has added new dition (Aristotle’s logic of deductive infe- dimensions to the concepts of learning to rence, Descartes’ methodological scepticism). philosophize and philosophical practice: 1) The postulate that children are capable The method is complemented by a sizeable of philosophical thinking, according to body of teaching materials that have been which children are not simply ‘cultural extensively field-tested and are continually dopes’, to use Garfinkel’s term, incapable being revised and updated: in the United of thinking for themselves; 2) the convic- States, for example, these have proven tion that it is possible to learn to philoso- especially useful for educators who have phize through oral debate and a process of not had any training in philosophy. sociocognitive questioning, and not only by Lipman’s publications include seven books reading the works of the great philoso- for children which broach clearly defined phers; 3) the idea that to philosophize is philosophical problems while taking the not to have no opinion, but to question children’s age into account. These cover and develop one’s opinions; 4) the idea of a age levels from kindergarten through to ‘community of enquiry’ based on the the end of secondary education(39). Each contributions of student-philosophers; 5) book has a companion instructor’s manual the historic opportunity, in the tradition of that consolidates the objectives of the ses- Greek democracy and the philosophy of sion and includes lesson plans and student Enlightenment, to connect philosophy to exercises, providing flexible suggestions for democracy, in a didactics that promotes a instructors while allowing them a great public space within the school for the rational (39) Op. cit.

27 CHAPTER I

Box 2 An example of philosophically directed discussion in a mixed-level class (France)

We can cite an example where a philo- dren who have particular problems or nions; the ‘observers’ choose not to sophically directed discussion (in are disadvantaged in some way’ take part in the discussion in order to French, a Discussion à Visée (Sylvain Connac). For this reason the give others a chance to present their Philosophique, or DVP) has been suc- team of teachers at the Antoine positions; and the ‘facilitator’ (gene- cessfully used in a mixed class of chil- Balard school have gradually incorpo- rally the teacher) endeavours to help dren of ages six to twelve years in a rated philosophical teaching techni- the participants develop the intellec- district of Montpellier in France with a ques into co-operative classes. Even tual skills required for philosophy. In high proportion of immigrant families. though the topics of the discussions this cooperative environment, the The class is run by Sylvain Connac, a vary, the approach remains almost more advanced children rapidly primary-school teacher who holds a the same, and the questions that form become vital resources for the rest of doctorate in education. ‘Cooperative the basis of the discussion come from the group and help the group as a classroom principles seek to develop the experiences of the class mem- whole improve the level of critical thin- an educational environment in which bers. The children sit in a circle and king. This is possible through listening everybody helps one another. In are allocated specific roles: the ‘presi- to what is said during the debates and France, Célestin Freinet has develo- dent’ opens the discussion by remin- to the ideas and advice provided by ped a teaching method based on sha- ding all of the rules; the ‘reformula- the observers afterwards. ring and seeking truth, trial and error, tors’ explain what they understood of free expression, communication and a what he or she said; the ‘summarizer’ variety of educational techniques. As will summarize the discussion as it Michel Tozzi a teaching method that militates for progresses; the ‘scribe’ will write the Expert in didactics and professor of education for all, it is common to find key points on the board; the ‘deba- philosophy, University of Montpellier III cooperative classes offered for chil- ters’ will prepare their ideas and opi- (France)

2) Institutions and support materials

Two landmark institutes centres are autonomous, and many of them have formed regional and national associa- Two institutes merit particular attention. tions. Formal affiliation with the IAPC requires Together they form a combined network that one or more of the centre’s staff has recei- that is regarded as the most extensive in ved certification in P4C through graduate the world in this field, with an overall uni- coursework at Montclair State University or by fied, constructive approach to promoting attending an IAPC International Summer P4C. Inspired originally by Lipman’s Seminar, or through an equivalent programme methods, both of these groups have since recognized by the IAPC. To be accepted, cen- embraced other P4C methods as well. tres must be involved in one or more of the following kinds of work: Translation and publi- The Institute for the Advancement of cation of the IAPC Curriculum; engagement Philosophy for Children (IAPC)(40). The with school-age children in philosophical IAPC, a non-profit educational institute enquiry ; preparation of schoolteachers to faci- founded in 1974 by Montclair State litate philosophical enquiry with students; University, New Jersey, has since its creation empirical and theoretical research in P4C; been largely responsible, together with its development and testing of new affiliate centres, for the proliferation of curriculum in P4C. They must also communi- Philosophy for Children programs in cate regularly with the IAPC regarding this schools and other settings around the work. world. The IAPC is a member of the International Council of Philosophical Today there are numerous ways to approach Inquiry with Children (ICPIC), a network of P4C, many of which are not derived from the philosophers, teachers and institutions inte- work of the IAPC. Although the IAPC occasio- rested in engaging children in philosophical nally finds reason to critique particular enquiry. There are numerous Philosophy for curricula and teaching methods, it welcomes Children Centres around the world that are this diversity and encourages cooperation formally affiliated with the IAPC. Though among colleagues practicing different (40) http://cehs.montclair.edu/ academic/iapc/ they often collaborate with the IAPC, these approaches.

28 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

The International Council of it are practised. There are also numerous Philosophical Inquiry with Children national associations. For example, many of Box 3 (41) (ICPIC) A network of philosophers, tea- the Latin American countries have centres An example of distance- chers and organizations interested in enga- promoting philosophical enquiry with chil- learning for teachers ging children in philosophical enquiry, ICPIC dren. Altogether, over sixty countries are (Canada) was founded in 1985 in Elsinore, Denmark, loosely affiliated to ICPIC. to take forward at an international level the Michel Sasseville’s online pioneering work of Professors Matthew ICPIC provides a model of constructive dia- course, ‘Observation and Lipman and Ann Margaret Sharp of the logue for children of all nationalities and Philosophy for Children’, offered IAPC. Developed by Lipman and Sharp, the cultures. When it was founded, Lipman’s through Canada’s Laval ‘community of inquiry/enquiry’ model of programme was the only systematic curri- University, is very interesting for several reasons. The format teaching philosophy to children recons- culum in philosophical enquiry for children makes use of resources offered tructs the rigid relationship between pupils from the ages of six to sixteen years, and by new technologies to offer a and teachers into a dynamic, dialogical therefore, naturally, provided a model for new type of distance-learning relationship between enquirers and facilita- other countries, many of which translated experience. It brings children in as part of the teacher-training tors. That relationship is also at the heart of the material. However, some countries have and makes them a key part of the European Union Comenius project, since developed different materials for use the course, through videos of ‘Developing Dialogue through in schools, and most countries have their children interacting through dis- (42) cussions in the classroom. This Philosophical Enquiry’ , which pilots a own teacher-training programmes. There course brings together the course for teachers of all subjects and all is, then, great diversity and continuing dia- communities of enquiry levels by ‘Philosophy for Children’ educa- logue within ICPIC about the principles and constructed by the children tors from eleven European countries. These best practices of philosophical enquiry with being observed and the community of enquiry created by the countries represent roughly half of the children. adult students as they discuss members of the European Foundation for their observations. the Advancement of Doing Philosophy with Journals about philosophy for and Source: Children (SOPHIA(43)). with children www.fp.ulaval.ca/philoenfant/ Two other formal, regional networks promoting philosophical enquiry are the North A number of journals, such as Childhood Atlantic Association for Communities of and Philosophy, Aprendar a pensar and Inquiry (NAACI(44)), which involves Canada, Critical and Creative Thinking are devo- the United States and Mexico, and the ted to philosophical activities with chil- Federation of Australasian Philosophy in dren. These present practical examples, Schools Associations (FAPSA(45)). FAPSA also research findings and case-studies, and works in loose affiliation with a number of together present a useful snapshot of Asian countries where P4C or variations of P4C practices throughout the world.

3) Case studies from throughout the world*

Europe and North America There is also a great deal of discussion about helping children to cope with the Germany. The interest in P4c in Germany crisis of orientation and identity that cha- seems to cluster around the work of two racterizes the modern world. To philoso- writers: Professor Ekkehard Martens at the phize is above all to enter into a discourse, University of Hamburg and Professor to clarify and justify our beliefs and our Karlfriedrich Herb at the University of point of view, and with children this begins Regensburg. Both focus particularly on the with discussing the everyday contemporary ideas that philosophy requires philosophical problems that the can face, and by encou- * Countries according to alphabetical order in the original teaching methods and that any P4C raging them to think by themselves. French version. approach must be able to be justified in Martens analyzes four principal philosophi- (41) Commentary by Roger terms of its objectives, the methods used cally founded directions in P4C: 1) the dia- Sutcliffe, President of the ICPIC. and the material taught. A lot of attention logue/action route, which, in the Platonic www.icpic.org (42) http://menon.eu.org is given to the difficulties in following the tradition, pursues three goals: to think by (43) http://sophia.eu.org/ progression of students and in precisely oneself, to think together and to develop (44) http://www.viterbo.edu/perspgs/ measuring their acquired knowledge. one’s personality; 2) the analysis and faculty/RMorehouse/NAACIWebPage.htm (45) www.fapsa.org.au

29 CHAPTER I

children to participate in political life. Through this initiative, study programmes Box 4 and teacher-training programmes have Thinking, and other journals about Philosophy for Children been developed at the University of Philosophy in Munich(51). Thinking, the Journal of Philosophy ners, but to all those interested in tea- for Children. Published by the IAPC ching philosophy to young people(48). One notable group is the German-Japanese since 1979, Thinking is a forum for the Critical and Creative Thinking – Research Initiative on Philosophizing with work of both theorists and practitioners Australasian Journal of Philosophy Children (DJFPK(52)), whose purpose is to of philosophy for children, and publishes for Children. Published by the such work in all forms, including philoso- Federation of Australasian Philosophy promote competency in philosophical-ethi- phical argument and reflection, class- for Children Associations (FAPCA). cal reflection. The DJFPK’s primary goals are room transcripts, curricula, empirical Diotime–L’Agorà. An international to develop and enhance instruction in research, and reports from the field. review of didactics of philosophy, The journal maintains a tradition in publi- published quarterly since 1999 by the ethics and philosophy, and to provide sup- shing articles on the hermeneutics of Académie de Montpellier, France. It port for efforts to develop philosophical- childhood, a field of intersecting discipli- looks at innovative practices in philoso- ethical reflective competency in related cur- nes including cultural studies, social his- phy in France and throughout the world, ricular areas such as religion, history and tory, philosophy, art, literature and psy- particularly concerning philosophy for choanalysis. It also publishes reviews of children. (In French.)(49) cultural studies. The DJFPK also encourages books that concern philosophy and chil- Journal 100: European Children extra-curricular forms of philosophical-ethi- dhood – whether the concern and its Thinking Together. Children from ten cal learning, such as philosophizing in expression be philosophical, fictional, European countries write together in pre-schools or in groups especially organi- (auto)biographical, historical, pedagogi- one periodical. Currently published in cal, theoretical, empirical/experimental, Catalan, Dutch, English, Hungarian, zed for this purpose. phenomenological, poetic, curricular or Italian, Polish and Portuguese. other(47). Questions: Philosophy for Young The DJFPK also examines the theoretical Aprender a pensar. Published in Spain People. Publishes the philosophical from 1990 to 2000 by Revista Internacional questions – and answers – of young foundations of philosophy to evaluate their de los Centros Iberoamericanos de people and their teachers, including phi- applicability and usefulness in curricular Filosofía para Niños y CrianÇas, 24 volu- losophical discussions, drawings, philo- and extra-curricular teaching and learning. mes. (In Spanish.) sophical writing by students and articles The initiative is especially focused on ways Childhood and Philosophy. Published offering advice and ideas for teachers by the ICPIC, Childhood and Philosophy and parents interested in facilitating phi- in which each culture’s transmission of features articles, transcripts, curricula, losophical discussions with young peo- philosophical-ethical reflective competency news items and reviews, and features ple. It is sponsored in part by the can be integrated into international and some useful graphics. It is addressed Northwest Center for Philosophy for trans-cultural conceptions of promoting not just to P4C theorists and practitio- Children, (The United States)(50). tolerance and respect vis-à-vis the unique- ness of others. creation of abstract concepts, drawing on the natural way that children play with Austria(53). P4C, as an educational pro- words and invent secret words and langua- ject, began in Austria in 1981. In 1982,

(46) Ekkehard Martens, ges, a way for them to create concepts; 3) the Council of Philosophy Teachers Philosophieren mit Kindern. Eine children’s capacity for wonder – this direc- became involved and made the national Einführung in die Philosophie. educational authorities aware of the Stuttgart, Germany, Reclam, tion approaches philosophy through the 1999. great philosophical questions about happi- possibilities of introducing P4C program- (47) http://cehs.montclair.edu/acade- ness, freedom, time, language and identity; mes in schools. The first lessons were mic/iapc/thinking.shtml 4) the philosophy of the Enlightenment for given in schools in 1983, which were A searchable index of citations to articles from Thinking, with children, which takes up Kant’s maxim also used as teacher-training workshops abstracts of articles from 1992 ‘dare to know’ (sapere aude).(46) (this involved 4 classes with a total of and the full text of articles 120 children). In 1984, the Federal beginning in 1996, is available at the Education Full Text database In 2003, Karlfriedrich Herb, Professor and Ministry for Education, Science and produced by the Wilson Web: Chair of Political Philosophy and History of Culture authorized a pilot P4C pro- http://www.hwwilson.com/databases/e ducat.htm Ideas at the University of Regensburg, with gramme in schools (20 classes and 600 (48) www.filoeduc.org/childphilo/ Roswitha Wiesheu, founded the Kinder children). The Austrian Centre of (49) www.crdp-montpellier.fr philosophieren, or ‘Children Philosophize’ Philosophy for Children (ACPC) was (50) www.pdcnet.org/questions.html project in Bavaria. Its aim is to establish founded 1985, to promote philosophical (51) These programmes have philosophy as part of the contemporary enquiry as an important part of the pri- been developed by Prof. Barbara Weber from the University of educational environment of children, by mary and secondary school curriculum Regensburg, who is also the working jointly with pre-schools and by organizing international conferences, author of a special edition of Thinking on P4C in Germany primary schools to develop practical, goal- teacher-training seminars and works- (November 2007). oriented teaching methods that encourage hops. The ACPC also encourages interest

30 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM in new approaches and teaching methods and the development of groups Children philosophize of philosophical enquiry for children, young people and adults. The ACPC is a Input Wondering- Goals founding member of the SOPHIA net- Questioning work. It has already established a library Philosophical Sources, - Orientation and is putting together a documentary Childrens’ Questions, for Meaning Concrete Situations in Life

centre for studies of P4C; it also publi- > shes the quarterly publication Info- Kinderphilosophie. Over the past twenty Philosophical Thinking-Talking - Dialogical Skills years, P4C has been introduced to more Process Philosophical Methods, than four thousand Austrian teachers Dialogical Techniques > and ten thousand Austrian children. Output Valuing-Acting - Finding Values Belgium. There are various groups involved Philosophical Attitude in Daily Life - Good Judgments in P4C in Belgium. Participants at the through Social Actions, Political February 2004 Conference on Philosophy Participation within the Society for Children, directed by Claudine Leleux and held at the Parliament of the French Community of Belgium, grouped P4C activities in the country into the following three Box 5 The PhARE association, serving as a guide categories(54): 1) The non-profit PhARE association (‘Analysis, Research and Education PhARE: ‘The name refers to the main also challenges ‘magic’ or ‘spiritual’ dis- in Philosophy for Children’), founded in activities of the association, which are courses that suggest that incantation 1992; 2) The non-profit associations, to Analyze, Research and Educate in the alone is enough to achieve our desires, field of Philosophy. Phare is a metaphor or the discourse of propaganda, which Philomène and ‘Il fera beau demain’ (‘it will and a symbol [the French word for ‘bea- delights in creating distorted beliefs – be sunny tomorrow’). Both of these orga- con’ or ‘lighthouse’, phare comes from going as far as negating the obvious. nize teacher-training activities. ‘Il fera beau the island of Pharos, where the There are many ways to do philosophy demain’ draws on the work of Lipman and Lighthouse, or Pharos, of Alexandria with children, from reading a philosophi- was built in the 3rd century BC]. Invisible cal story to discussing their metaphysi- Michel Tozzi, preferring the terms ‘learning itself in the night, the Pharos, the cal questions about death, fear, joy or to think’, ‘learning to reflect’ or ‘learning seventh wonder of the ancient world, is the origin of life or proposing philosophi- abstract thought’ rather than ‘philosophy a source of light. Its beacon lights the cal approaches to concepts such as way for ships so that they can guide time or space. Philosophy for Children for children’ – to distinguish these new themselves safely through the dark- seemed to us to offer, when compared methods from the teaching of philosophy ness. We aim to promote, with energy to previous approaches, an original as an academic discipline; and 3) The and conviction, the use of the commu- alternative that deserved to be develo- Charte de Philosophie-Enfances(55), which nity of enquiry as the best method to ped further. This is why we made a train people to think critically and make conscious choice, which we remain resulted in the organization of philosophi- reasonable and responsible judge- committed to: that of creating a space cal workshops for children of five to eight ments. In establishing a community of that encourages the effective use of lan- years in five schools in the Watermael- enquiry, one creates a context in which guage and teaches the skills one needs Boitsfort district. These formed the basis of thought and discourse are freed from to be a democratic citizen capable of dogma, where various types of self- self-improvement. the documentary film Les grandes ques- deception that are fed by discourse limi- tions(56), which proposes that the commu- ted to praise or blame, to taking posi- Extracts from an interview with nity of enquiry serves a purpose in itself and tions without reflexive examination, can professor Marcel Voisin, President be confronted and held to question. of the PhARE association does not necessarily need to lead to any Discussion within such a community (Belgium) result. The most influential of these in Belgium is PhARE (52) The ‘Deutsch-Japanische Forschungsinitiative zum Philosophieren mit Kindern’ (DJFPK – ‘German- Japanese Research Initiative on Philosophizing with Children’) is a cooperative research effort centred at the Hodegetics Institute of the College of Education, Karlsruhe, and the Department of Learning Canada. The most widespread approach Science, Graduate School of Education, Hiroshima University. Its spokespeople are Professors Eva Marsal from Karlsruhe and Takara Dobashi from Hiroshima (www.ph-karlsruhe.de). is that developed by Matthew Lipman (53) From an interview with professor Daniela G. Camhy, Director of the Austrian Centre of Philosophy and his colleagues. Dr Marie-France for Children (ACPC): www.kinderphilosophie.at Daniel, professor at the University of (54) Claudine Leleux (ed.), La philosophie pour enfants: le modèle de Matthew Lipman en dis- Montreal, describes P4C activities in cussion. Brussels, de Boeck, 2005. Claudine Leleux is Assistant Professor in Philosophy and Epistemology of Disciplines and an Expert Advisor to the Parliament of the French Community of three Canadian provinces: British Belgium. Colombia, Ontario and Québec. In (55) Signed on 21 September 2001. British Colombia, Dr Susan T. Gardner is (56) Directed by Isabelle Willems.

31 CHAPTER I

the founding director of the Vancouver has studied Lipman’s methods since Institute of Philosophy for Children, 1982. As a result of a long tradition of whose principal mandate is to adapt and dividing the school system into two sub- to translate philosophical material for systems, one Catholic the other students at secondary and university Protestant, state schools in Québec have levels. Dr Gardner is currently setting up for a long time included religious educa- a group for Canadian teachers using the tion as part of the formal curriculum, Lipman approach, the Canadian Alliance with a course on morals offered as an of Philosophy for Children Practitioners. alternative. The teaching of morals Discussions with the network of state- without any religious affiliation has thus run and private or independent schools developed in the context of a long in the Vancouver area are also in debate over the place of religion in progress, with the goal of establishing schools. Philosophy can be seen as part P4C in the area’s primary and secondary of a number of different classes in schools. In Ontario, the official educa- Québec’s schools, including morals and tion curriculum (pre-school, primary and ethics, French language, mathematics secondary) emphasizes the development and citizenship education. of critical thought at school from pre-school level (from the age of five As for work on, and with, the P4C years). Moreover, teacher education in approach, there are two main facets in (57) Marie-France Daniel, Les Contes d’Audrey-Anne: contes Ontario includes a compulsory compo- Québec: theoretical and empirical philosophiques, illustrations by nent of teaching to prevent violence. research and hands-on teacher-training. Marc Mongeau. Québec, Le Loup Since 2004, a growing number of state- The first is centred at the University of de gouttière, 2002. (58) Marie-France Daniel, run and independent French-language Montreal, while the second consists Dialoguer sur le corps et la vio- schools, particularly in Toronto, have almost entirely of courses offered by lence. Un pas vers la prévention: introduced the P4C approach, in great Laval University. There are other smaller guide philosophique. Québec, Le Loup de gouttière, 2003. part due to the work of Dr Daniel. associations involved in P4C, who are (59) Canadian Philosophical Classes are based on her book, Les not formally affiliated with the IAPC: Association – www.acpcpa.ca/pro- contes d’Audrey-Anne(57), used conjointly these include the Canadian Philosophical jects/philosophy-in-the-schools- project/#english; with the teacher-companion book, Association’s ‘Philosophy in Schools’ pro- (60) Published by Ediciones de la Dialoguer sur le corps et la violence: un ject; the work of the Institut Philos; and Torre, Madrid. pas vers la prévention(58). In Québec, the the ‘Prevention of Violence and (61) www.fpncomval.org P4C approach has been publicized pri- Philosophy for Children’ project of the (62) Information provided by Prof. (59) Félix García Moriyón. marily through the research work of association La Traversée . (63) Source: Michel Sasseville, Anita Charon, a professor at the Laval University, Canada. University of Québec in Montreal who Spain. Founded in 1987 as part of the Spanish Society of Philosophy Professors (Sociedad Española de Profesores de Box 6 Filosofía de Instituto, SEPFI), the Centre for Philosophy for Children of the Community Didactics and pedagogy at Laval University of Valencia carries out numerous P4C activities: it has co-published Spanish editions The Faculty of Philosophy at Laval A graduate-level programme aimed at University, Canada, began offering pro- preventing violence and training tea- of seven of Matthew Lipman’s books, along fessional training in P4C in 1987. Today chers to observe, understand and direct with their corresponding teacher it offers twelve subjects and three trai- a philosophical discussion with children. manuals(60); it organizes nationwide tea- ning programmes in P4C: Each of these programmes include the Certificate Programme in Philosophy for online subject ‘Observation and cher-training classes, including annual six- Children. Students take five one-term Philosophy for Children’, offered through day continuing professional development subjects in P4C, including an optional the university’s website (in French), seminars for teachers; it also publishes jour- internship, and five other Philosophy which trains teachers to observe and nals, such as Aprender a Pensar and an subjects. understand P4C in action through video- Micro-Programme in Philosophy for taped class discussions where children annual P4C journal that it distributes in PDF Children. (Five one-term subjects.) are engaged in a community of enquiry. format(61). One of the most emblematic ini- Introduces students to the breadth of tiatives carried out in Spain has been the the relationship between philosophy in Extracts from an interview with Michel Filosofia 3/18 project (see Box 7)(62). practice and education. Sasseville, Professor, Faculty of Philosophy, Micro-Programme in Philosophy for Laval University, Québec (Canada) Children and the Prevention of Violence. www.fp.ulaval.ca/philoenfant/ United States of America(63). A number of P4C techniques have been applied at the

32 LA PHILOSOPHIE, UNE ÉCOLE DE LA LIBERTÉ

Box 7 An enthusiastic adventure: The Filosofia 3/18 project in Spain

GrupIREF was founded in Catalonia in king are understood in pragmatic and ment of the curriculum itself, which now 1987, with the aim of promoting not purely speculative terms. The covers the entire span of formal educa- research in the teaching of philosophy. Filosofia 3/18 project has translated tion from pre-school to the final year of The Filosofia 3/18 project began with and adapted four programmes from the secondary school. It includes complete the translation and adaptation of IAPC curriculum into Catalan, for chil- P4C programmes and materials that Matthew Lipman’s story, Harry dren of ages eight to sixteen years. For have been developed by other interes- Stottlemeier’s Discovery. A school curri- children between three and eight years ting initiatives and European projects, culum for children from the ages of of age and for those of ages sixteen to such as ECODIALOGO, which produces three to eighteen years was then pro- eighteen, the project has created new a CD-ROM available in five languages gressively developed, giving its name to material more adapted to the education (Catalan, Spanish, English, German and the project itself. IN 2004, almost 2000 system in Spain. GrupIREF (Grup Portuguese) as part of an interdiscipli- people were working on this project and d’Innovació i Recerca per a nary programme to develop resources more than 300 primary and secondary l´Ensenyament de la Filosofia – ‘Group to promote cooperative, meaningful, cri- schools – state and independent – were for Innovation and Research for the tical, creative and thoughtful in-class dia- involved, amounting to approximately Teaching of Philosophy’) is an entirely logue within the context of environmen- 25,000 students in Catalonia alone, autonomous, non-profit organization tal education.(64) without counting the teachers working in involved in teacher education and the GrupIREF also offers a wide range of other areas in Spain and abroad (such creation and promotion of new teaching teacher – education courses and publi- as in Argentina, Brazil and Mexico). materials. shes a trimestral journal Bulletin Based on the narrow relationship bet- Filosofia 3/18. ween thought and language, Filosofia The curriculum developed by GrupIREF 3/18 focuses on four types of activities: is composed of a variety of materials Extracts from a contribution by listening, speaking, reading and writing. designed in response to the needs of Irène de Puig, Director of GrupIREF The objectives of teaching critical thin- the schools and the progressive enlarge- (Spain)

primary-school level in the United States. Of at Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, particular interest is a ‘Philosophy at school’ Massachusetts has created and developed a programme of undergraduate and postgra- Web site for teachers, parents, children and duate classes given by Dr Beth A. Dixon at the others interested in philosophy and children's Department of Philosophy of SUNY University literature. He uses the method of introducing in Plattsburgh, New York. ideas to the children by reading a story. Professor Wartenberg’s site also presents At the Center for the Advancement of reviews and summaries of a selection of books Philosophy in the Schools (CAPS), created in for children that have a philosophical 2000 at the University of California, Long content.(66) Beach, Debbie Whitaker is in charge of a class for upper-level and graduate students in philo- France. Philosophical practices were intro- sophy called ‘Philosophy and Education’. The duced later in schools in France. P4C has students conduct weekly philosophical works- developed at the primary school level since hops with children in local schools, drawing on 1996, its progress accelerating notably stories and poems and often including role- since 2000(67). The teaching of philosophy, playing games, video clips from contemporary however, has never been and is still not a films that raise philosophical issues and inspire formal part of the primary-school curricu- (64) English and Spanish versions critical thinking. lum in France, a country with a long tradi- are available at www.grupiref.org tion of teaching philosophy at the last year (65) Childhood and Philosophy. Thinking: Journal of Philosophy John Roemischer’s course at the Department of secondary school. The introduction of for Children & Analytic Teaching. of Literacy Education of the State University of philosophical techniques at the primary (66) Source: New York, Plattsburgh, is also notable. level has also been sharply criticized by the www.mtholyoke.edu/omc/kidsphil. Listen also to a podcast interview Roemischer has developed a course in tea- supervisory body for philosophy in France with Prof. Thomas Wartenberg at ching and literacy for graduate students, titled (the Inspection générale de philosophie) Just One More Book: www.justone- ‘Philosophy and Children’s Literature’. and the association of professors of philo- morebook.com/2007/02/05/ (67) For a discussion of the growth Numerous articles about the course have sophy in state schools (Association des proof P4C in France, see Michel Tozzi, appeared in the periodicals published by fessors de philosophie de l’enseignement `The emergence of practices with a (65) philosophical purpose at school Montclair State University . Thomas public, APPEP). Initially introduced by a and college: how and why?’, in Wartenberg, of the Department of Philosophy small number of innovative educators, P4C Spirale, No. 35, 2005.

33 CHAPTER I

techniques are today evoked as a way to students discuss their interpretations of address the major concerns of France’s edu- works of children’s literature, or by debates cational institutions. on philosophical questions. Myths, notably those of Plato, are also used as materials for The progressive introduction of P4C practi- philosophical reflection. Philosophers and ces in France is manifested in several areas: philosophical institutions in France have in the many P4C classes offered for tea- begun to reassess P4C in recent years(69). chers, both as part of initial training and continuing professional development, at Recommendations resulting from a confe- Institutes of Teacher Training (Instituts de rence on Catholic Education in France in formation des maîtres, IUFM) and Centres December 2001 encouraged the develop- of Continuous Education (Centres de for- ment of philosophical questioning at pri- mation permanente, CFP); an annual natio- mary and secondary school as one of eight nal and international conference introdu- priority areas. A March 2003 conference ced in 2001 that brings together experts, held in Ballaruc, France on philosophy at educators and researchers; numerous schools(70), attended by France’s General publications for both students and Inspector of Philosophy, agreed on the teachers, including books from a variety of need to establish teacher-education cour- publisers; the integration of existential and ses to accompany the development of P4C, social topics into other books published for as part of both initial and continuing tea- children; the inclusion of P4C workshops at cher education. The ‘democratic philoso- open universities (Universités Populaires) in phic’ stream considers that traditional uni- a number of regions of France; and press versity courses in philosophy – with lectures articles and television reports on P4C. It is on philosophers and different schools of notable too that university research centres philosophy – are insufficient if they do not are also becoming interested in these new encourage philosophical group discussion. teaching practices. A marked variety of It is clear that it remains very useful for tea- practices and different directions are deve- chers to learn about some of the classic loping in France, often with support from philosophical discourses, in that it is impor- Department of Education supervisors and tant, when facilitating P4C group discus- (68) Description provided by Prof. advisors on primary-school education. sions, to understand the philosophical Michel Tozzi. Notable among these are the following: implications of the questions that the chil- (69) Marcel Gaucher and Michel Onfray are in favour of philosophy dren raise. For example, the question ‘can for children; André Comte- 1) The Lipman method. This was the first one drive through a red light?’ can be Sponville has written a text for children – Pourquoi y a-t-il quelque P4C method to be introduced in France, understood materially (it is technically pos- chose plutôt que rien? [‘why is albeit relatively late, through the teacher sible), legally (it is against the law), or ethi- there something rather than nothing?]; Yves Michaux, a profes- training institutes of Caen and Clermont- cally (it could be ethically desirable, for sor at the Sorbonne, wrote the Ferrand in 1998. Lipman’s method inspired example, to transport somebody who was book La Philo 100 % Ado [‘Philosophy 100% Teens’], Paris, a great number of P4C techniques used in in danger of dying to hospital): this is an Bayard Presse, 2003; the former France today, although it was rapidly trans- essential consideration when listening to a Minister for Education, the philo- formed with the creation of a large body of question philosophically(71). sopher Luc Ferry, considers that ‘the use of practices that call French classroom materials. themselves philosophical at pri- 3) The Socratic method of Oscar mary school is a major innovation (68) (72) in the education system.’ 2) The ‘democratic-philosophical’ stream . Brenifier . Brenifier, founder of the (70) The theme of the 2003 confe- Developed from the work of Michel Tozzi, Institute of Philosophical Practice, returns rence was ‘Debates at primary and the objectives pursued are very similar to to the Socratic approach to philosophical secondary school: philosophical discussions or reflexive thinking?' it those of Lipman, but Tozzi proposes a dialogue. Socrates saw his role as analo- was attended by representatives structured democratic apparatus in which gous to that of a midwife, helping students from twenty academies and from the Bureau of Innovations of the the students each have a precise function, to develop their own ideas by carefully gui- National Ministry for Education. and which makes intellectual demands of ding the group’s discussion through ques- (71) Other interesting analyses can the students to develop their philosophical tions and interjections and by rephrasing be found in J. C. Pettier and J. Chatain, Débattre sur des textes skills of conceptualizing, arguing rationally different concepts, so as to develop a pro- philosophiques: en cycle 3, en and questioning. As well as continuing gressive and logical train of critical thought. Segpa et ailleurs au collège. Champigny-sur-Marne, France, research into these methods, workshops Brenifier has produced a large body of tea- CRDP-Académie de Créteil, 2003. are offered for teacher development. The ching materials, including the series Les (72) www.brenifier.com practice is enriched by debates in which petits albums de philosophie published by

34 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Autrement Jeunesse, and PhiloZenfants, examples or situations. During the stu- published by Nathan (both in French). The dents’ discussion, the teacher remains a teacher guides the class, encouraging the spectator who is at once outside the discus- children to develop a reflective and questio- sion and monitoring it; the teacher’s role is ning attitude. A similar approach is advoca- to encourage the students’ growing capaci- ted by Anne Lalanne(73), who pioneered this ties to think critically about common ques- method in France in 1998: when conside- tions concerning the human condition. The ring a question, a student proposes an idea, teacher’s presence is all the more symbolic which other students then must rephrase in because it is silent. This silence authorizes their own words to demonstrate how well the students to speak, as they are not, or they understand it. Once it is clear that all no longer, confined by a desire to give the of the group has understood the idea ‘correct’ answer to the teacher. The silence completely, the facilitator asks them if they is an invitation to speak, but without being disagree in any way. The students again judged or evaluated. The children can talk work together to rephrase each objection about issues that have a direct relation to until the class as a whole has understood. their lives and their thoughts. The children At this point the teacher asks them to res- express their ideas in the presence of their pond to the objection and the process peers – their thoughts assume a public continues. The ideas can be followed by dimension by being articulated and addres- methodically writing them up on the board. sed to the others (although it is not intended that they enter into an argumentative 4) Jacques Lévine’s method. Lévine, a debate in which each seeks to make the development psychologist and psychoana- best argument)(74). The experience of sha- lyst, has developed since 1996 a teaching ring an anthropological conversation bonds and research method for children from pre- the students together in a common culture school (ages three to four years) through to that gives a certain depth and calm to the secondary school (sixteen year-olds). The way they express their ideas, in spite of teacher starts the discussion off, a little their youth and their spontaneity. This solemnly, by providing a philosophical method has been criticized by certain philo- question on a subject of interest to children sophers, didacticians and teachers because and adults (for example, growing up) and it does not aim to teach the children to phi- asking the children to provide their own losophize in the sense of developing their opinions. The children discuss the question critical thinking, but to encourage the chil- for ten minutes, with the teacher remaining dren’s personal development by cementing silent. A baton is passed around to give their identity as thinking beings – by lear- each child a chance to speak. The session is ning that they have something to say about recorded and the tape is then played back a question that is fundamental to all peo- to the class, who can interrupt at any point ple, themselves included. By increasing to add to the discussion. This psychological their confidence in their capacities as thin- method centres on the idea that children king beings, and improving their self- join humanity through exercising their criti- esteem, the children can more readily (73) Anne Lalanne is a schooltea- cal thinking – Lévine uses the term cogito, engage in personal reflection and partici- cher noted for developing a tea- a direct reference to Descartes – within a pate in a community of enquiry. ching method based on the organization of group workshops in group involved in a philosophical discussion which the children learn to philo- (a group of cogitans, or ‘young thinkers’). Italy. A number of organizations in Italy are sophize, guided by an adult, by focussing on three aspects: deba- The children work in a situation that is involved in P4C. Two major centres carry out ting techniques, democratic values psychologically conducive to developing teacher training and research activities: the and the intellectual requirements autonomous thinking, recognizing that Central di Ricerca per Insegnamento Filosofico of philosophy. (75) (74) For the philosophers of the their ideas are connected to, but distinct (CRIF) in Rome and the Interdisciplinary Enlightenment, particularly Kant, from, those of the others in the group. The Centre for Educational Research on Thought ‘publicity’, or the public expression (76) of thoughts, is essential from the students work in the presence of the tea- (CIREP) in Rovigo. Together they are responsible democratic and the philosophical cher, who initiates the session and from the for experimental P4C classes in around fifty point of view. start emphasizes the anthropological schools scattered throughout Italy, although it (75) Founded and directed by Antonio Cosentino, nature of the question by pressing upon is difficult to estimate the actual number of www.filosofare.org. the students its universal, psychological classes involved. They offer three principal tea- (76) Founded and directed dimension that goes beyond any individual cher-training options: 1) An annual residential by Marina Santi.

35 CHAPTER I

Box 8 Discovering and disseminating philosophy for children: The CRIF in Italy

In 1990, Marina Santi and I took part in subjective dynamics in learning, and of the first teacher groups to initiate expe- a training course in P4C at the University how academic content is organized. riments in these techniques. After fifteen of Dubrovnik, given by Matthew Lipman years working in this area, we have and Ann Sharp, with the assistance of 2) The conception of a meeting point, in come a long way. P4C in Italy is without other European colleagues. We were a new sense, between philosophy and question a reality – recognized nationally certain that this educational project offe- the education sciences, where philoso- and internationally. red incomparable promise. Personally, phy can be looked at not only as one of as a philosophy teacher I had seen the the education sciences but also as the When the teaching of philosophy puts its limits of the traditional teaching place where education takes on a life as identity as an academic discipline aside approach to philosophy, which was a total and complex formative expe- for a moment, it can then devote itself to overly centred on the transmission of its rience (logical, social, emotional), and working more directly with students’ cri- historical content. I had many questions where the theoretical and the practical tical and creative thinking skills, by orga- still, however, concerning how to define elements of the learning processes nizing itself as a framework to facilitate a philosophical problem and the metho- intermingle and blend smoothly toge- and support ‘ecologies of mind’ and the dological options and teaching materials ther. processes of constructing and recons- available. Two key elements of this new tructing meaning. approach greatly impressed us: Along the way we were joined by Maura Striano, Professor of General and Social 1) The active and constructive character Pedagogy at the University of Florence. of the training, which came down to an Together we believed that it was worth Extracts from an account by professor inversion of the traditional relationship the effort to make P4C known in Italy, by Antonio Cosentino, Director of the between academics and teachers. This translating materials (these are now Centro di Ricerca per l'Insegnamento suggests a reassessment of the rela- published as part of the collection Filosofico (CRIF), Rome tionship between subjective and inter- Impariamo a pensare(80)) and by forming (Italy)

teacher development course (intensive trai- Numerous articles and studies have also been ning), which includes sixty hours of practical published in various specialized journals(79). The and theoretical classes aimed at providing tea- most significant result is the finding that trai- chers with the knowledge and skills to intro- ning teachers in P4C techniques, if carried out duce P4C techniques into their classrooms. A appropriately, has an impact on the entire tea- second level is designed to increase the teaching profession and has implications in every chers’ expertise and enable them to in turn area of child development, from cognitive and train other teachers. 2) Local courses, organi- epistemic to psychological and interpersonal. zed in conjunction with schools or associa- This places P4C at the centre of educational tions, or regional education research institu- changes in Italy today, in particular because of tes(77). These comprise fifty hours of training, recent reforms that focus on the principle of inside and outside the classroom. 3) Advanced autonomy. courses are offered at the University of Padua. (77) Istituto Regionale Ricerca Educativa (IRRE – ‘Regional The university’s research programme develo- Norway. The Children and Youth Institute for Educational ped from a review of experimental P4C activi- Philosophers Centre (CYP)(81), a member of Research’). (78) Antonio Cosentino (ed.), ties and of the epistemic and methodological both ICPIC and SOPHIA, aims to spread know- Filosofia e formazione: 10 anni di dimensions of P4C. In comparison with other ledge about philosophy (in general) and philo- Philosophy for children in Italia similar analyses, the review highlighted the sophy with children (in particular), and to sti- (1991–2001). Naples, Liguori, 2006. close connection between P4C and debates mulate children and youth to engage in philo- (79) www.filosofare.org over philosophical practices and the role of sophical activities. CYP tries to achieve these and http://gold.indire.it/ philosophical enquiry in developing skills for goals by arranging seminars and offering (80) Published by Liguori. thoughtful citizenship (notably during an consultation services for people who engage (81) The CYP is a private company owned by Ariane Schjelderup and international meeting held at the university in in philosophical practice with children and Øyvind Olsholt. They were the first 2002 and a 2005 meeting at the Centro Studi youth, by facilitating dialogues with children Norwegian philosophers to work systematically with children, begin- e Formazione Villa Montesca). There is a sizea- and youth, and by writing articles and sprea- ning in 1997 and 1999. See ble body of literature in Italian on P4C, with ding information through the Web. CYP’s first www.buf.no/en the reference being the Impariamo collection practical experience in P4C was carried out in (82) Ariane Schjelderup, Filosofin Sokrates, Platon og Aristoteles. published by Liguori in Naples, which includes two kindergartens in Oslo in 1997, where they Oslo, Gyldendal, 2001; Øyvind teaching materials such as philosophical sto- began weekly dialogues with the children over Olsholt and Harald Kr. Schjelderup, ries with accompanying teacher manuals – a period of two months. Since then CYP has Exphil03: en komplett guide. Oslo, Universitetsforlaget, 2006. notably the volume Filosofia e formazione(78). initiated several further education programmes

36 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 9 The challenges for philosophy for children in Norway

Scandinavian societies adhere strongly existential qualm that the IAPC seems to University. There is a worry that an ope- to social democratic thinking where jus- use philosophical thinking as a mere tool ning up towards practice represents a tice and equality are leading ideals. It is to achieve certain desirable (and exter- threat to the theoretical work already quite natural for a Norwegian teacher to nal) ends : improved reading and writing, being done especially at the philosophi- treat children with humility and respect – improved output in other subjects, open- cal institutes. Maybe something could both important facets of Lipman's ness and friendliness, democratic attitu- be done on a governmental level? In ‘caring thinking’. On the other hand, the des etc. In this way philosophy loses Norway we now have a network group image of philosophy as an esoteric art intrinsic value. Our activities are mostly whose objective is to gather the human for the ‘inner circle’ still prevails with non institutional and we receive no gene- and institutional resources within the many educators. This sometimes makes ral support or subsidies from the state. field of philosophy with children. it difficult to introduce philosophy for This greatly limits the possible scope of Philosophy with children is still in its children to new audiences. So, commu- our activities. This is the main reason eclectic stage in Norway. Teachers are nity of enquiry in Scandinavia has its limi- why we have concentrated on other are- still busy trying out different practices tations and advantages. nas (art institutions, philosophy clubs, and methods, searching and using diffe- philosophy camps, etc.). There is a rent kinds of resources. We believe that Over years of practise we have tried dif- great need for academic research in this teachers would welcome an open data- ferent ways of preparing and facilitating field (philosophical and pedagogical). It base on the internet where they could philosophical dialogue with different age is our impression that students of peda- exchange and comment upon each groups and children from different back- gogy and philosophy are often open to other's material. Such a database must grounds, but our main focus was and is test new ways of applying philosophical be open for everybody to view and on the dialogue itself, we are still practice. If seminars were offered at uni- review. Academic background informa- hesitant to introduce too many versity level, many students would pro- tion (theoretical considerations) and ‘pedagogical’ games and ‘tools’, i.e. to bably enrol. We need academics who research could, and should, be made let the ‘orchestration’ of the dialogue practice philosophical methods, who available as an integral part of the data- replace the dialogue itself. We do not can be the ‘bridge’ between Academy base’. use Lipman's material, although we were and the work being done in schools and greatly inspired by the curriculum when kindergartens. We offered to do this we started to create our own material. ‘bridging’ effort at the University of Oslo, Ariane Schjelderup and Øyvind Olsholt, We find his curriculum culturally foreign, but regrettably we never managed to founders of Children and Youth bearing too much upon American culture organise it financially. There is resis- Philosophers – CYP and world view. There has also been the tance at the institutional level in the (Norway)

in kindergartens. CYP also produces teaching ‘Veienmarka’ project, prepared for Norway’s materials. In 1999 it published Filosofi i skolen, Ministry for Education in 2007, proposes (83) www.skoletorget.no by Ariane Schjelderup and Øyvind Olsholt, replacing a semester of the religion course (84) In late 2006, the CYP ran a pilot project of weekly, one-hour which was the first Norwegian textbook about with a course in philosophy for sixteen-year- philosophy classes for two tenth- philosophy with children, and in 2006 it publi- old students(84). grade groups (sixteen year olds) at shed ExphilO3, a textbook especially written the Veienmarka school in Honefoss. Classes in religion were for the preparatory course in philosophy that is Czech Republic.(85) At the University of South replaced by philosophy courses for required for all new students at the University Bohemia, the Department of Philosophy and a six-month semester. The CYP evaluated each student quantitati- (82) of Oslo . This book also contains teaching Religious Studies and the Department of vely, based on their individual resources for Norway’s high-school subject on Education and Psychology have been working results within philosophy groups, their written work and a final, oral, religion, a subject that includes ethics and the in close cooperation on a P4C project. The group examination. Neither the history of philosophy. It includes ethical dilem- project is officially supported by the university systematic replacement of classes in religion by philosophical dialo- mas, discussion plans, exercises and question- management, although people involved in it gues nor the quantitative evalua- naires to accompany a multiplicity of religious have many other duties and responsibilities at tion of the students’ critical thin- and philosophical texts. In 2002, CYP started the university. The objectives of the project are: king had been undertaken before in Norway. Prior to this, from late developing a website for teachers and pupils 1) to train student teachers, educators and 2005 through to early 2006, the in primary and secondary schools. The site teachers to foster democracy in schools CYP had taken part in another pilot project entitled `Who am I?'. offers teaching material in the six main school through dialogue in education as well as fos- Its principal idea was that all stu- subjects (Norwegian, English, Social Studies, tering critical, creative and caring thinking by dents at fifth, sixth and seventh grades in the county of Ostfold (a Religion, Mathematics and Natural Science) ‘converting classrooms into communities of total of approximately 10,000 stu- accompanied by questions and exercises to philosophical enquiry’; 2) to research the pos- dents of ages ten to twelve years) were to have a ninety-minute phi- use in philosophical dialogues in the class- sible benefits of incorporating philosophy in losophical discussion with a profes- room(83). The site aims to help pupils and tea- primary and secondary school curricula; and 3) sional philosopher. The conversa- chers to discover philosophy as an integral part to research the possibilities of using philosophi- tions discussed topics related to identity, timidity, history and know- of all school subjects. The final report of CYP’s cal enquiry (philosophical dialogue) together ledge

37 CHAPTER I

practice. At about the same time a Centre for Box 10 philosophical enquiry was established in A foretaste of philosophy for children in Scotland Glasgow, where Dr Catherine McCall had begun work with Scottish children and Clackmannanshire school council, in above that of students who did not have parents. Her work was remarkably successful. Scotland, is the first local authority in any training in philosophy. This has been McCall has recently begun running courses for Britain to announce plans for philosophy maintained among those now in secon- primary teachers and is creating a new lessons for children from the nursery to dary schools, despite no further formal resource for ‘personal and social education’ in secondary school level. Primary school exposure to philosophy. The council has children in the region have already been been awarded a grant from the Scottish secondary schools, which is being widely taught ‘philosophical enquiry’. This Executive, and plans to extend philoso- distributed. In England, within three years of encourages what its creators call ‘gui- phy to secondary schools and nurseries. the founding of SAPERE, a three-level training ded Socratic dialogue’ – by inviting children to consider open-ended questions ‘Pupils to get a philosopher’s tone’. structure for teachers was established, based such as: ‘Is it ever OK to lie?’ A follow-up Maev Kennedy, The Guardian, on the model developed by Professor study suggests that the IQ of the chil- 6 February 2007 Matthew Lipman. This training encourages dren is now an average of 6.5 IQ points (United Kingdom) the ‘communities of enquiry’ approach, but it encourages teachers to select materials them- with games in working with children as a selves – often stories, but sometimes films, means of education(86). In 2006, the same uni- pictures or works of art – that will stimulate versity began to teach P4C as a complex philosophical questions and discussions. This module of optional subjects at the Faculty of training structure has proved both popular Theology, this module has also been officially and robust. In the twelve years or so of its exis- recognized by the Faculty of Education and tence, over 10,000 teachers have passed has resulted in a specialization certificate for through the basic, two-day training. About future primary-school teachers. one in ten of these have proceeded to the four-day Level-2 training, which is followed by The university has also built up a network of action research and a written assignment, eva- in-service teachers practicing P4C with their luating their own practice. P4C is still seen as students. Outlooks for the near future include a leading approach to the development of establishing official cooperation with ‘thinking skills’. Its capacity to stimulate crea- educational institutions in which tive as well as critical thinking in young minds teachers are interested in doing philosophy is continually being revealed in observations of with children, carrying out further research practice. OFSTED, the national schools inspec- into the function of philosophy as part of the tor, has unfailingly commended teachers and primary school curriculum, extending coope- schools for incorporating P4C into their curri- ration with Czech Scouting, and publicizing cula, even though it is still not officially requi- and promoting P4C within the university and red. It is estimated that 2,000 to 3,000 schools to the outside world. in England, Scotland and Wales have P4C in their curriculum, and there is every reason to United Kingdom. Prior to 1990, no primary suppose that this number will continue to school in the United Kingdom offered philoso- grow significantly as the various national curri- phy as part of their curriculum. There was, cula move further in the direction of skills- however, a small group of educators, inclu- based learning and teaching. SAPERE is not ding Robert Fisher, then director of the currently seeking for philosophical enquiry to (85) Comments provided by Dr Thinking Skills Centre at Brunel University, be mandatory within the primary curriculum, Petr Bauman, coordinator of the who were experimenting with P4C, and they but it is hopeful of increasing support for tea- Filosofie Pro Deti project within the Department of Education, Faculty received a considerable boost in 1990 when chers in their initial training, as well as in conti- of Theology, at the University of the BBC produced an hour-long documentary nuing professional development. Perhaps South Bohemia in Czech Republic, about P4C, called ‘Socrates for 6 year olds’, there will soon be enough teachers with the http://forum.p4c.cz (86) Lipman’s novels and teaching which was seen by a wide audience. The skills themselves to justify a strong recommen- manuals have been translated and documentary aroused great public interest in dation, if not requirement, that all schools adapted to the Czech cultural P4C, which led to the founding in 1991 of a context and published in the series make provision for the philosophical La Traversée, as have been the national charity, now based at Oxford Brookes education of the country’s youngest citizens(87). books published by Laval University University, called SAPERE (Society for Press. (87) Overview by Roger Sutcliffe, Advancing Philosophical Enquiry and President of SAPERE and ICPIC. Reflection in Education) to promote the

38 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Latin America and the Caribbean cular, at the Faculties of Philosophy and Humanities of the University of Chile, the Argentina. Experiments with P4C have University of Serena, and the University of been carried out since 1989 in an indepen- Concepción, which intends to open a post- dent school in Buenos Aires. The graduate programme in P4C. In various Argentinean P4C Centre was created in secondary schools in Santiago de Chile and 1993 at the University of Buenos Aires. other parts of the country, P4C has been Lipman’s programme has been translated introduced in the form of workshops based and published in Argentina, as well as on the Lipman method and the research of other textbooks and series. Chilean professors such as Olga Grau and Experimentation remains predominantly Ana María Vicuña. In recent years, several restricted to independent schools, although teacher education programmes have been certain regional branches of the Education offered by Chilean universities, including Department, such as that in the town of seminars on subjects such as ‘philosophy Catamarca, support the introduction of and children’ or ‘philosophy and education’. P4C experiments in other schools and the training of teachers in these techniques. Colombia. P4C in Colombia follows almost exclusively the Lipman programme, which Brazil. The Brazilian Centre of P4C was has been translated and adapted for created in 1989 in São Paulo(88). Thousands Colombian children. One of the teacher of teachers have been trained there, manuals, the Suki manual, was rewritten by learning the Lipman programme before the Colombian professor Diego Pineda to introducing P4C in schools across the coun- incorporate works of South American lite- try. There is also a large P4C centre in the rature. There is also training courses for town of Florianopolis, which is developing teachers at various levels, as well as regio- a course similar to that of Lipman and pro- nal and national meetings involving stu- ducing P4C texts. A few universities have dents from eleven to thirteen years. created sizeable projects to train teachers and to further develop P4C: at the Mexico.(90) P4C was brought to Mexico by University of Brasilia, for example, the Albert Thompson, a professor at Marquette Filosofia na escola project is aimed at tea- University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and chers and children from state-run Matthew Lipman, who came to teach it at schools(89). Similar experiments are being Anahuac University, Mexico City in 1979. It carried out at other universities: the has continued to expand in Mexico since Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul the 1980s. Students in Education Sciences, (Porto Alegre), the State University of Rio Philosophy and Psychology at Anahuac de Janeiro, the Federal University of Juiz de University carry out research into P4C and Fora, the Federal University of Fortaleza and administer the critical-thinking aptitude still others. Some municipal branches of the tests developed by the University of New Education Department – examples are Jersey in state and independent schools. In those in Uberlândia (Minas Gerais), the 1990s, the Ibero-American University Cariacica (Espírito Santo), El Salvador set up a programme called ‘Dialogue’, (Bahia) and Ilheus (Bahia) – have initiated which trains teachers in the skills needed to official projects to introduce philosophy at bring students into meaningful discussions primary school. Overall, more than 10,000 and encourage them to interact with each teachers and 100,000 children at state other using strategies such as the commu- schools and independent schools have had nity of enquiry. P4C teaching materials at least some experience with P4C. have been translated and adapted for Latin American countries by the Latin American Chile. The first P4C experiments in Latin Center for Philosophy for Children (CELA- America, took place in Chile, in 1978, FIN), created in 1992 in San Cristóbal de las when nuns of the Maryknoll order began Casas in Chiapas. CELAFIN has contributed using the programme created by Matthew to the development of P4C in Costa Rica, in (88) www.cbfc.com.br Lipman in several communities. In the Guatemala, and currently in Nicaragua and (89) www.unb.br/fe/tef/filoesco 1990s, work on P4C in Chile was concen- Paraguay. There are ten P4C centres in (90) Overview by Michel Sasseville, Professor of Philosophy at Laval trated at a handful of universities: in parti- Mexico, all of which offer teacher-education University, Québec, Canada.

39 CHAPTER I

form the basis for democracy, tolerance for Box 11 diversity and education for peace. The introduction and development of philosophy for children in Peru. Interest in P4C has increased consi- Colombia I started to work in the field of philoso- cher training in P4C. I myself have direc- derably in Peru in the last ten years. Since phy for children after having attended a ted several training courses in P4C in 2000, workshops have been carried out at workshop in 1981 in New Jersey organi- Bogota and many other parts of the the Buho Rojo association(91). These works- zed by Matthew Lipman, Ann Margaret country, as well as in Ecuador and in hops use an adaptation of the Lipman Sharp and teachers from several coun- Panama. tries. For several years, the concept of Even though our starting point was the method, taking as a starting point the P4C did not make any headway in Lipman programme, we did not stop novel Sophie's World(92), and participants Colombia, and I worked alone on this there. I have written three texts that develop new teaching materials as part of topic for seven or eight years. It is only focus on ethical problems. They are tit- since 1999 that this movement has led: Checho y Cami (a short story to Buho Rojo’s ‘Applied Philosophy’ project – begun to be felt in Colombia, in the form introduce children of five to six years of the materials are later used in secondary of two events: the publication of some age to critical thinking and philosophical schools(93). The children who benefit are of the novels from Lipman’s original pro- dialogue); La pequeña tortuga (‘The mostly from low-income families who live gramme, and the beginning, in just a few Little Turtle’ – a story that promotes ethi- secondary schools in Bogota, of a cal reflection, in relation to issues in the in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas. somewhat systematic development of natural and environmental sciences) and P4C. For our part, we have preferred to El miedo (‘Fear’ – a series of short sto- Uruguay. In cooperation with the working act on a purely personal basis, rather ries written for primary-school children group of the University of Buenos Aires, than institutional. For some years now that introduce various ethical topics – we have held regular meetings among justice, truth, cruelty, etc.). For each of work related to P4C began in the 1990s. ourselves to develop a small network these texts, I have also prepared a cor- The Uruguayan Centre for Philosophy with that we call `Lysis', in reference to the responding teacher’s handbook. My idea Children was founded in 1994. Several young man who discusses with is to develop, in the medium term, a cur- Socrates the significance of friendship. riculum for teaching children about experiments have been carried out in We have advanced quite a way in various ethics that has a philosophical outlook. schools in Uruguay, the most significant is a areas, and this in spite of the limitations programme in operation at the Shangrila specific to an underdeveloped country state school under the responsibility of affected by serious economic, social Diego Antonio Pineda R. Soy, Associate and political conflicts. I have translated Professor, Faculty of Philosophy, Marta Córdoba. P4C methods are also used and adapted to the Colombian context Pontifical Xavierian University, Bogota in independent schools, for children from the seven novels of Lipman’s pro- (Colombia) three to fifteen years of age. P4C has also gramme. For the past eight years, we http://www.javeriana.edu.co/Facultade been introduced in the Philosophy of have also worked hard to promote tea- s/Filosofia/dpineda/pineda1.html Education programme at Uruguay’s teacher-education institutes. courses; carry out research; and translate, adapt or create teaching materials. Venezuela. The Caracas Centre for Founded in 1993, the Mexican Federation Philosophy for Children, located at the of Philosophy for Children meets each year Central University of Venezuela, has taken in different parts of the country. Mexico is part in various research activities in the only country in the world to have hos- conjunction with Spanish researchers. One ted the ICPIC conference twice, at specific project focussed on children and Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City. P4C logic, and included a study carried out with teaching materials were developed at the schoolchildren in Guarenas, Catia and conferences for Mexico’s indigenous popu- Burbujitas, and with schoolteachers in lation, which comprises sixty-four ethnic Chirimena. groups and thousands of schoolchildren. In Mexico City, the Ministry for Primary Asia and the Pacific (91) www.buhorojo.de Education has encouraged the develop- (92) Jostein Gaarder, Sophie’s ment of P4C for more than 10 years; it is Japan. Professor Takara Dobashi(94) and World: A Novel about the History (95) of Philosophy, translated from now part of the curriculum in over four Professor Eva Marsal have worked intensi- Norwegian by Paulette Moller. hundred pre-schools, primary schools and vely together since 2003 on an internatio- London, Phoenix House, 1995. secondary schools in the region, in rural as nal research project, ‘Das Spiel als (93) www.redfilosofica.de/fpn.html#peru (94) Department of Learning well as urban areas. Some schools require Kulturtechnik’, part of which concerns P4C. Science, Graduate School of that teachers complete 150 hours of trai- In August 2006, the German-Japanese Education, Hiroshima University ning in P4C. Most of the schools involve Research Initiative on Philosophizing with (95) University of Education, Karlsruhe, Germany believe that P4C offers children a chance to Children (DJFPK), a cooperative research (96) For more on the DJFPK, see develop their critical thinking and to have effort based at the Karlsruhe University of the case study on Germany. practical experience with the values that Education(96). The goal of their work is to

40 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM create a solid theoretical base for P4C, with the IAPC. According to professor drawing on Western philosophers such as Hashim, the objective of the CPIE is to res- Socrates, Hume, Goethe, Rousseau, Kant tore the philosophical spirit of research and and Nietzsche, and on the Eastern philoso- intellectual rigour as called for in the Koran. phers Takaji Hayashi, Shûzô Kuki and the pedagogue Toshiaki Ôse. Marsal and The objective of the CPIE is to become Dobashi reconstructed P4C as archetypical known as a centre for the development and play (Urspiel), based on Plato, Nietzsche practice of philosophical education, with an and Hiuzinga, and as archetypical science aim of producing individuals equipped with (Urwissenschaft), based on Socrates and good judgement skills. The CPIE intends to Hayashi’s theory of clinical pedagogy(97). The offer to all the possibility to understand and classroom approach combines the clinical appreciate Islamic thinking and educational approach to teaching of Hayashi with the philosophy, and its practice, and in particu- didactic theory of the German professor lar its connection to truth, knowledge, Ekkehard Martens (especially his concept of moral values, wisdom, and logical and criti- a ‘Five-Finger Method’)(98), and with cal thought, so as to develop good judge- Lipman’s concept of a ‘community of ment and be able to discuss ethical ques- enquiry’(99). tions in a rational way. The centre’s activities include: 1) providing training in philo- One of the principal interests of the project sophical research, the community of is to establish intercultural comparisons enquiry and democratic processes for between the anthropological concepts of school and university students, as well as children in Japanese and German primary for teachers, professors and the public; 2) schools. Dobashi reformulated the collaborating with schools, the Ministry for Japanese lessons of teachers Takeji Hayashi Education and other educational establish- and Toshiaki Ôse, then reproduced them in ments to introduce philosophy program- a German context to examine cultural diffe- mes in schools; 3) developing modules on rences and similarities between the anthro- Islamic philosophy to be used in schools, in pological concepts of primary school chil- educational institutions and in the P4C pro- dren in the two countries. For the project, gramme; 4) conducting research on philo- Marsal and Dobashi reproduced Takeji sophy in education, Islamic educational Hayashi’s P4C lesson based on the riddle of thought and other related subjects; 5) the sphinx from Homer’s Odyssey(100). In publishing Malayan educational materials; 2006, thirty-five years after Hayashi origi- 6) organizing local and international confe- nally gave the lesson to a third-grade class rences; and 7) organizing courses on philo- at the Tsubonuma primary school in Japan sophy for schools and philosophical on 3 July 1971, Hayashi’s pictorial material research for the public. In terms of instruc- (97) Takeji Hayashi, considered the and questionnaire were again used to sti- tional materials, the CPIE uses a selection of leading contemporary ‘child philosopher’ in Japan, applied this mulate philosophical thinking in a third- Lipman’s stories. At first these were transla- concept in his primary-school les- grade class at Peter Hebel primary school in ted for use during the experimental stage. son ‘What is a human being?’. Karlsruhe, Germany. This approach allowed Today, however, following a shift in the lan- (98) The five fingers represent five types of questions : 1) phenome- them, through qualitative research guage policy in Malaysia towards English, nological, 2) hermeneutic, 3) ana- methods, to compare how Japanese and Lipman’s original texts are used, localized lytical, 4) dialectical and 5) specu- German children structure their arguments, for use in Malaysia by translating names, lative. (99) Professors Dobashi and Marsal and to compare the contents of their foods and festivals, etc., to ones more reco- have also edited together two dialogues. gnizable by local children. Even if new issues of the journal, Kärlsruher resources were created in the future, such Padagogische Beiträge, on the subject of innovative teaching and Malaysia. In 2006, the Institute of as stories and materials with more connec- learning techniques (No. 62 and Education of the International Islamic tion to Malayan culture, professor Hashim No. 63, 2006). University of Malaysia was given the univer- says there is little in Lipman’s stories that (100) The riddle of the Sphinx, posed to Oedipus, asked: ‘Which sity’s consent to set up a Centre for can be regarded as shocking from a moral creature in the morning goes on Philosophical Inquiry in Education (CPIE). point of view. The CPIE also uses the ‘com- four feet, at noon on two, and in the evening upon three?’ It refers The CPIE is the second centre of this type in munity of enquiry’ method. The activities of at once to our diachronic identity Malaysia; the Centre for Philosophy for the CPIE are entirely situated outside of the and to our identity as Homo faber – humans as ‘makers’, technologi- Children in Malaysia was also created by formal school curriculum . According to cal animals who control their envi- professor Rosnani Hashim and is affiliated professor Hashim, attempts to talk with the ronment by constructing tools.

41 CHAPTER I

Ministry of Education have so far not been here, along with the school’s role in their successful. Philosophy is still not taught as education, the place of reason in early lear- a school subject in primary or secondary ning and the function of philosophy in all schools in Malaysia. Neither is taught at this. Universities as a field of study: it is taught as philosophy of education, of science etc., This study does not claim to be an inven- but there is no Department of Philosophy. tory of all of the research undertaken in the world on the practice of philosophy at pri- Africa and the Arab States mary school: feasibility studies, trial programmes, case-studies and observation, According to our research and the respon- teacher-training studies and experimenta- ses to the UNESCO questionnaire, virtually tion, and university studies – especially no P4C initiatives appear to have been those within the IAPC and ICPIC networks. instigated in schools in the region of Africa It attempts instead to furnish the reader and the Arab states – or if they have, they with a broad range of information and have yet to be publicized via the Internet or questions based on the current state of P4C in journal articles. throughout the world today. There is a large body of research on these issues – this In Africa, there is very little activity in the can be explained by the innovative nature area of P4C, apart from the work of a of P4C in the history of philosophy tea- handful of academics at three African uni- ching and the many implications of these versities: Kenyatta University, Kenya (in the new practices, which lead us to rethink our Department of Philosophy)(101) ; the Institute understandings of childhood, philosophy, of Ecumenical Education, Nigeria(102); and philosophers, the teaching of philosophy, the University of the Western Cape, South and learning to philosophize. Also, because Africa (in the Faculty of Education and the so many academics, in particular philoso- Centre for Cognitive and Career phers, have invested a great effort in analy- Education)(103). zing and advancing these practices, which were first introduced thirty-five years ago. There seems to be no P4C centres at all in the Arab states, and if any activities in this area exist, they have not been publicized; the region seems to be a blind spot as far as P4C is concerned, which is an issue that needs to be looked into. However, many of the essential questions that this area raises were heavily debated by Arab philosophers of the Middle Ages, and this debate continues today, in particular concerning the (101) Contact: Prof. Benson K. relationship between faith and reason – cri- Wambari. tical to the design of education systems (102) Contacts: Dr Stan Anih and and the practice of teaching children. The Father Felix Ugwuozo. (103) Contacts: Prof. Lena Green social status of children and their status and Prof. Willie Rautenbach. within the school system come into play

PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Conclusion: From what is desirable to what is possible

The pre-school and primary levels of education valuable research has been and continues are determinant, because these are the to be carried out on the philosophical, peda- years in which habits of creative and critical gogic and didactic implications of these thinking are instilled in children. practices and their effects on children. Encouraged by the body of research related to this area, especially in the fields of There remains, obviously, a long way to go developmental cognitive and social psycho- to develop these practices throughout the logy, and in the language and education world. But this is not to propose for a sciences, the analysis of philosophy for moment that a universal, exportable model children presented here is based on the would be either possible or appropriate. presumption that it is possible to learn to This would be to ignore the diversity of philosophize from a very young age, and situations, the plurality of cultural contexts, that this is, in fact, strongly desirable for and the variety of education systems and philosophical, political, ethical and educational their objectives. A plurality of practices and reasons. a diversity of pedagogical and didactic approaches throughout the world is highly This survey of P4C throughout the world desirable, because philosophy itself is shows the great progress that has been greatly diverse. A great variety of strategies made in many countries with regard to are advanced here, and the best among introducing philosophical teaching practi- them are precisely those that welcome the ces for children from the ages of three to richness that such differences offer. twelve years, and developing corresponding training programmes for teachers. Much

45 CHAPTER II Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Teaching philosophy in secondary education The age of questioning

Introduction: The different aspects of philosophy in secondary education 48 Methodology 49 I. The presence of philosophy in schools: 51 - 66 Some controversies X 1) The spread and removal of philosophy teaching in schools 51 2) Teaching philosophy through other subjects 53 3) The dynamic between secondary level and university 57 4) Training for secondary-school philosophy teachers 57 5) Observed reforms: To what end? 61

II. Suggestions to reinforce the teaching 67 - 74 of philosophy at secondary level X 1) The construction of the critical mind: The cognitive, affective and social subject 67 2) Theoretical and historical approaches to teaching 68 3) Further promoting the teaching of philosophy at secondary level 71 4) Interactions between philosophy and other disciplines 72 > An interdisciplinary approach: philosophy and physics – the application of mathematics > An interdisciplinary approach: philosophy and biochemistry > An interdisciplinary approach: philosophy and music > An interdisciplinary approach: philosophy and visual arts

III. Taking stock: Institutions and practices 75 - 90 1) The diversity of school systems around the world 75 2) Teaching methods and practices around the world: Case studies 76 > Latin America and the Caribbean > Africa > Asia and the Pacific > Europe and North America > The Arab World 3) Other examples of initiatives at national and international levels 89

IV. Philosophy at the secondary level: A few figures 91 X Conclusion: Philosophy during adolescence: A force for creative change 93

47 Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki CHAPTER II

Introduction: The different aspects of philosophy in secondary education

It is not the goal of this chapter to offer a to be based on the illusion (found also at repertory of philosophical curricula around the the university level) that a better training of world. Such a project would be quite useless. the mind can be obtained by focusing on The teaching of philosophy today cannot be substantive content than on developing reduced to a series of curricula, official students’ critical abilities. It is as though a programmes, or teaching annuities. As the structure based on education as developing teaching of philosophy is a considerable issue students’ logical faculties – their free judge- in most educational systems, it seems wiser to ment, their critical thinking – has been approach the question from the angle of the replaced by a concept of teaching as des- problems that it raises; the sometimes tempo- igned to persuade – of education as serving rary, sometimes longer-term solutions found as a vector of key ideas that students are to such problems; and the accommodations supposed to uncritically absorb. Yet the that these generate. capacity to criticize all ideas, even those held to be just – in other words, the capa- The different aspects of teaching philosophy city to rebel – is an essential element in the to adolescents reflect the difficulties posed by intellectual training of young people. An this discipline and the concerns it raises among obedient citizen may well be a good citi- administrators, teachers and students alike. zen, but he or she will also be able to be Several recent case studies are presented here; manipulated – and is also likely some day to these are intended to function more as take up positions other than only the career situations particularly representative of the that he or she has trained for. questions we’re addressing than as examples to be followed. But can a general survey of the Other elements provide room for optimism. position of philosophical education at the Throughout the world, communities of tea- secondary level be absolved of such a task? It chers and pedagogical specialists are is hard to say. Sometimes philosophy’s place playing an increasingly active role in promo- seems to be shifting towards the universities; ting philosophy teaching and in opening up sometimes it seems to be gaining new ground to larger networks the debate over tea- within school systems. It should perhaps be ching methods and practice that arises in noted that philosophy appears more and some form or another almost daily. In this more to be treated as a technical discipline chapter we will look at examples of tea- and so tends to be taught within specialized or chers’ associations banding together in even vocational courses, although it is gene- protest against the cutting of class time for rally subordinated to other subjects – such as philosophy, or to discuss cultural issues in civic education or different forms of religious the teaching of ethics in their country, and instruction, –when it comes to teaching youn- successfully proposing curricula reforms. ger students. There is a strong tendency to These contributions are of immense value, (1) Roger-François Gauthier, The attribute a growingly functional aspect to and they have a key place among Content of Secondary Education around the World: Present Position secondary education in general. This direc- UNESCO’s concerns with regard to secon- and Strategic Choices. Paris, tion is visible not only in the proliferation of dary education and the place of philosophy UNESCO, 2006 (in the series: (1) Secondary Education in the technical subjects in secondary schools; within it . Twenty-First Century). This study even the humanities are tending to lend presents an analysis of the content increased value to functional subject of secondary education around the world and shows how questions of matters. In the higher levels of secondary content – long ignored or judged school – the levels in which the teaching of to be self-evident – are in fact stra- tegically important to the success philosophy has historically had a place – the of educational policies. It draws training of the mind is sometimes delega- the attention of decision-makers and educational experts to the ted to disciplines oriented towards action, enormous scope and importance such as the social sciences or political of the subject, and argues it must be treated clearly, methodically affairs. There is nothing in itself that is to be and consensually. deplored in this tendency, even if it seems

48 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Methodology

In producing a report on the teaching of add to the steadily weakening relation bet- philosophy at the secondary level around ween secondary education, universities and the world, it is useful to ask what place the research, whereas these three levels should be finished product is intended to occupy mutually reinforcing one another. among the mass of information available Another question essential for understanding via specialized publications, networks of the malaise that philosophy in schools is experts, official documents and of course confronted with today is illustrated by the the Internet. In preparing this study, it extreme variety of practices included under became rapidly apparent that it could not the umbrella of ‘the teaching of philosophy’. be conceived as simply an analytical The data received during the course of this directory of practices in use in different study suggest there is a dichotomy between countries. By choosing a report form over a philosophy’s presence as a taught subject and compilation of contributions, as was the the inclusion of philosophical concepts or case for the Teaching and Research in ideas across other subjects. It is almost custo- Philosophy Throughout the World(2) series in mary for reform movements aiming to reduce the 1980s, we have, however, indicated that classroom hours in philosophy to claim inspira- one principal goal of this study is the systema- tion from the philosophical nature of other tic identification of existing practices. But our existing or proposed subjects – most often intention is not to simply study the teaching of classes in ethics, civics or religious education. philosophy in secondary schools on a country- Conversely, it happens just as often that other by-country basis, but to isolate and compare subjects allied with more political or sectarian the principal forms and modes in which this doctrines are levered into place in the name of teaching is carried out worldwide. To succeed philosophy. in this endeavour, a basic hypothesis was pro- This chapter also includes an overview of the posed from the start: at the secondary level, major forms that secondary education systems the direction that philosophical education around the world can be grouped into. This takes stems as much from the philosophical indicates that philosophy has its privileged pla- content taught as from any inclusion of philo- ces – the higher levels of secondary school – sophical ideas or skills within other disciplines but that it is far from restricted to them. On in the school curricula. To put it differently, the the contrary, in certain situations we can see a overall presence of philosophy in schools must reallocation of philosophy from the higher be considered. levels of secondary schools to more technically A report such as this is a labour of synthesis, oriented schools. This chapter examines the and as such provides a solid foundation from different practices used in these types of tea- which to develop future actions. From the ching, their scope and the different definitions outset, several key issues were raised in or objectives assigned to them. To this end we constructing this report. First, the question of have taken a close look at several examples the presence of philosophy in schools. A crisis that appear particularly representative of the of philosophy must be noted in this regard, for major questions in connection with the tea- the general tendency today is unquestionably ching of philosophy at secondary level, and towards decline – and there are multiple the challenges it must confront. These real-life reasons for this. There will be no question in examples also bring into question the rela- this chapter of trying to hide philosophy’s tionship between the teaching of philosophy somewhat tarnished image. Yet, in a context and local cultural traditions, as well as the in which schools are expected to demonstrate choices that must be made between different a closer connection to the real, and current, pedagogical paradigms. world, philosophy is not always seen as parti- (2) Daya Krishna, Teaching and cularly relevant. This malaise of philosophy, In addition to questioning the pertinence of Research in Philosophy: Asia and which goes beyond just the question of its these practices, this chapter proposes several the Pacific. Paris, UNESCO, 1986. Also, Teaching and Research in presence in schools, is coupled with the fragile avenues of reflection. The relationship bet- Philosophy: Africa. Paris, UNESCO, status of teachers at the secondary level – ween secondary school and university – a 1984. (Numbers 2 and 1 in the and philosophy teachers in particular. burning issue for the contemporary tea- series, Studies on Teaching and Research in Philosophy Throughout Difficulties that teacher-training systems face ching of philosophy – is also broached. the World.)

49 CHAPTER II

This is supported by a number of more- for this study, have filled an important gap, specifically pedagogical suggestions. however, by updating the available data on philosophy teaching throughout the world. In the first place, there appear to be two The questionnaire has not only provided a major approaches to the teaching of philo- country-by-country analysis of the teaching sophy in secondary schools, which corres- of philosophy, but through the respon- pond historically to the two-sided nature of dents’ comments and suggestions it has philosophical research. On the one hand, also provided feedback in the form of living there is the theoretical or logical approach images of how the evolution of educational to philosophical problems – which places systems is perceived and lived out by its the accent on rational analysis and the participants. As one respondent wrote with development of students’ logical and intel- reference to Spain, ‘any hypothesis to do lectual faculties through exercises in thin- with the real work of the philosophy tea- king and practical work on theoretical cher in the classroom can only come from issues. On the other hand there is the impressions obtained through contact with historical approach to the teaching of colleagues’. Thus the answers to UNESCO’s philosophy – in which this is understood as 2007 questionnaire represent an essential a presentation and reflection on the contribution to the series of studies in this contents of the ‘philosophical tradition’ or field that have been carried out by UNESCO canon. since the 1950s.

Secondly, it seemed appropriate to look not Diotime-L’Agorà(3), an international review of only at the benefits but also the limitations didactics of philosophy, has also provided a of the teaching of philosophy in schools. At very rich source of information for this pro- a time when teaching is going through ject, particularly as concerns case studies (3) A quarterly review founded in 1999, Diotime-L’Agorà has been marked transformations, it would be too from around the world. Finally, we have published solely in electronic simple to sing the praises of philosophy explored the aims and impact of the most format since issue No. 19 of November 2003. Edited without looking at the question of its notable reforms in this area. by Michel Tozzi, a professor pedagogical utility, its function, and the at the University of Montpellier III in France, Diotime is published limits on its teaching. Yet there is a serious on-line by the Centre Régional lack of studies and of recent data here. The de Documentation Pédagogique of the Academy of Montpellier – present study, and the responses to the www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora. UNESCO questionnaire used to collect data

50 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

I. The presence of philosophy in schools: Some controversies

1) The spread and removal of philosophy teaching in schools

Should we be speaking of a crisis of phi- Nonetheless, the situation is not entirely losophy in secondary education? The negative. The cases of Morocco and term seems inappropriate if we take into Tunisia, and to a degree Brazil, show that account the diversity of trends at the awareness of the importance of philoso- international level, trends that cannot be phy can reach the level of politics. In reduced to negative or positive signs of Ireland, where philosophy is absent from trouble. In many circumstances, pressure schools, it is nonetheless credited with to improve the status of technical, busi- the capacity to ‘create an active and ness, or applied academic subjects have enlightened citizen’. A Belgian corres- led to a reduction and even cancelling of pondent sees philosophical education as philosophy classes in schools. In other a means for opening minds to ‘global cases, cultural or political resistance have citizenship through philosophy’. In Chile, discouraged a more substantial presence emphasis is placed on philosophy’s social of the discipline. Certain countries, such function – of ‘guiding adolescents in as Belgium, seem to wish to preserve a issues concerning their sexuality, the balance between the teaching of secta- dangers of taking drugs, and subjects of rian and secular or non-sectarian ethics, a psychological nature’. In Nigeria, a while at the same time considering the ‘strengthening of values’ is put forward opportunity to double up or even replace in support of philosophy teaching. these with actual philosophy courses. Debates, proposals and suggestions for Elsewhere, as respondents from several change regularly arise, bearing witness African countries have informed us, the to the energetic commitment of philoso- difficulties tied to university-level philo- phy teachers around the world, and to sophy instruction are having an effect on their devotion to the field itself. The teacher-training, contributing to a dimi- lively discussions around recent changes nished interest in philosophy on the part to teaching hours within Québec’s of students. Moreover, the almost consti- CEGEPS (Collèges d’enseignement géné- tutional absence of philosophy in secon- ral et professionnel, or ‘General and dary education in English-speaking coun- Vocational Teaching Colleges’) system tries should be noted. At the very best it show that, even when faced with reduc- is available as an option, which is the tions in the number of hours taught, or case in the United Kingdom and in cer- even the elimination of philosophy alto- tain schools in North America. In gether, the teaching community is capa- Cambodia we are told that ‘a few years ble of organizing itself in response. The ago the Ministry of Education withdrew many teachers’ associations and journals philosophy from the primary and secon- of philosophical pedagogy, and the dary curricula’. In the Republic of development of remarkable events such Moldova, philosophy courses in secon- as the Philosophy Olympiads(4), are all dary schools have been replaced by clas- signs of a vitality that should be encou- ses in civics and law. These courses are raged and supported. In particular, the taught by non-philosophers, while the idea of creating associations of philoso- course in general philosophy is optional phy teachers where none currently exist, and is excluded from the final three years and of their coordination at the interna- of secondary school. In the Russian tional level, could substantially bolster Federation, philosophy is not taught at philosophy’s standing in different school the secondary level. systems. (4) See Chapter IV.

51 CHAPTER II

What are the main reasons for this visible cultural pedagogy, the material resistance to an increased presence of conveyed can easily appear to students philosophy in secondary education? It and teachers alike to be abstract and would seem that pressure for increased stripped of concrete relevance to their scientific and technical training is some- culture. On this point, it should be noted times, and wrongly, accompanied by a that, while there were a great many res- devaluation of the humanities. ponses to this section of the UNESCO Philosophy is often the first to be sacrifi- survey, it was received with almost com- ced in such unfavourable environments, plete silence by respondents from Asian with literature and history generally countries. A single Indian respondent being more solidly anchored in the local wrote, very soberly, that ‘Gandhi is deba- cultural identity. Philosophy is often vie- ted’, and two respondents from Thailand wed as a foreign – or frankly, Western – stressed the links between subject. In this respect it should be philosophy, Buddhism and religion. In emphasized that the trend towards a Africa, on the other hand, there were a general ‘technicalizing’ of secondary lot of responses. For example, a teacher education is often part of a politics of from Botswana writes that ‘this is a new national affirmation in which the quest subject and the majority of our senior for economic growth is accompanied by lecturers were educated in the Western a reaffirmation of national identity. philosophical tradition. Thus they do not Another trend that needs to be taken necessarily have an equal regard for into account is that of a persistent and other traditions’. In Côte d'Ivoire, philo- animated dialectic between philosophy sophy teaching depends essentially on teaching (seen as synonymous with free Western textbooks, with local thinkers thinking) and religious ethics. The recent almost entirely ignored. The same occurs reforms in the Spanish educational sys- in Niger, where ‘the inadequacy of peda- tem are at least partly a result of the gogical training and the absence of progressive secularization of the system, resources for community-based training and directly bolster the place of philoso- is a handicap in this field. Teachers have phy in schools. The situation in Belgium difficulty relating African cultures and is similar, though the positions are rever- the pertinent African or Africanist sed. A Swedish correspondent, in answe- authors to philosophy’. And yet, the ring UNESCO’s survey, notes ‘enormous Central African Republic offers a course resistance to the teaching of philosophy, in African philosophy, in which African manifested primarily by many of the authors are studied in comparison with country’s religious groups’. It is worth Western authors, while in Madagascar keeping in mind that this dialectic can be ‘the course in Malagasy philosophy has presented in many different ways, and been cancelled because they considered that claims for both an increased and a it to be already covered in the reduced position for philosophy in Madagascan course’. In Algeria, there is secondary education can be made by ‘a strong presence of Arab philosophers opposing sides and for opposing such as El Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Roshd, El reasons. Djabiri, and Hassan Hanafi’ in course content. In Jamaica ‘at university we A particularly delicate question that teach the ideas of Garvey, CLR James, must be approached with appropriate Nettleford and Orlando Patterson’. In caution concerns the relationship bet- New Zealand there is ‘growing attention ween traditional cultures and philosophy being paid to indigenous philosophies instruction. A teacher from Bangladesh, and ethical systems, though they are not in responding to the UNESCO survey, associated with specific philosophers’. writes that ‘our culture is Oriental, but at More often the preponderant influence the secondary level only Western, of the history of Western philosophy is Aristotelian logic is taught’. The teacher acknowledged (Cameroon), there is a has raised a significant issue here. For habit of referring almost exclusively to even though the training of the critical the European tradition (Argentina), and mind cannot be reduced to an ethical or the bulk of the curriculum focuses on

52 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Greek, Medieval European, and modern constitute but meagre contributions to English, German, and French philosophy even an introductory education in philo- (Chile). In Paraguay, during the last two sophy. Supplementing classroom training years of secondary school there is a with free reading is also an essential ‘consolidation of the Western cultural element of a successful education, in heritage’. The protection of a cultural philosophy as in other subjects. It would heritage must avoid any weakening of fit perfectly naturally into UNESCO’s identity. Philosophy should not serve as a priorities in this field to establish a pro- training vector for the transmission of a gramme addressing this deficit of mate- body of values. On the contrary, it should rials. Let us note in closing what remain an open form of education that Professor Carmen Zavala wrote in 2005, aims to train the critical mind – critical of in addressing the low esteem in which knowledge as opposed to passively philosophy is often held by philosophers. absorbing it. In Venezuelan schools we She speaks of ‘the view, widely held see, particularly at the university level, among contemporary philosophers, that ‘in the majority of schools, the sub- according to which philosophy serves ject ‘Latin-American and Venezuelan and should serve no purpose’, conti- Philosophy’ is an option (where it exists nuing; ‘In Peru this view divides into two at all). It is only recently that it has principal branches. The first, maintained become mandatory in a few schools’. by the Ministry of Education, consists in Note also that a correspondent from supporting the notion that philosophy is Mauritius, where philosophy is taught a Western mode of expression that we in through the last four years of secondary Peru can and should ignore. Just as we school, finds that ‘Hinduism is taught should in general abandon the illusion of expressly in order to preserve and pro- progress because it is a Western myth. mote cultural values’. Yet another This second branch of this view is pro- Mauritian adds that the point of tea- moted by the Consejo Nacional de ching philosophy in the island’s schools is Ciencia y Tecnología, the National to ‘preserve the ancestral culture and Science and Technology Council traditions’ and to ‘know their cultural (CONCYTEC). It critiques the possibility ethos’. Another problem in many schools of any truly scientific knowledge, is that of providing students with access arguing that knowledge is itself merely a to the texts or libraries that would totalizing discourse that serves to justify enable teachers to integrate the official the society in which it operates. In this curricula into the school. While there are view, philosophy is held, like literature, important differences by country, region to be able at best to suggest new ways (urban or rural) and type of establish- to approach questions. This point of ment (state or independent), it would view is backed up by a campaign to appear that students only rarely have merge the teaching of philosophy and of access to books and philosophy reviews literature. That is to say, to remove the and that, when they do, these collec- specialization in philosophy from the tions are often out of date and country’s state-run universities’(5).

2) Teaching philosophy through other subjects

(5) Carmen Zavala, ‘Repensando el The animated debate over philosophy the history of philosophy teaching in para qué y el cómo de la filosofía’. instruction in secondary school that has French-speaking Belgium, the introduc- communication presented at the National Congress of Philosophy in been going on in Belgium for some tion of a non-denominational ethics Peru, 2005. decades seems to us to be representative course in Belgian schools occurred in the (6) Véronique Dortu, « Histoire belge of the tensions between philosophy, reli- context of an old rivalry between des cours philosophiques », in Diotime-L’Agorà, 21, 2004. gion, and ethics. It reflects a dialectic Catholic establishments and secularizing www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora. (6) between sectarian and non-sectarian forces . Introducing a course in secular (7) Ibid. education that is also to be found in ethics was supposed to create a balance (8) Entre-Vues, Revue trimestrielle Spain, for example. As Professor with religious education, which had long pour une pédagogie de la morale, 48/49 and 50, 2001. Belgium. Véronique Dortu reminds us in outlining been considered the sole carrier of morality www.entre-vues.be

53 CHAPTER II

and civics. The Pacte Scolaire, written At a strictly pedagogical level, such into law in 1959 and subsequently revi- ethics courses present three immediate sed to include references to Islam and to difficulties. The first is inherent to the Orthodoxy, has brought about the follo- very nature of the field of ethics, in that wing situation: ‘In official as well as in it exerts a constant pressure to move pluralist primary and secondary institu- away from logic and epistemology, as tions, the weekly calendar includes two well as from any systemic review, even a hours of religion and two hours of summary one, of the history of philoso- ethics. In subsidized, sectarian indepen- phy’s principal ideas. Secondly, as Dortu dent schools, the weekly calendar includes underlines: ‘So-called “philosophical” two hours of instruction in the corres- courses are no longer subject to final ponding religion. By religious instruction evaluation. But in the students’ eyes, a is meant instruction of a religion course with no final exam is an unimpor- (Catholic, Protestant, Judaic, Islamic, or tant course. So it is not taken seriously, Orthodox) and of the moral code inspi- and the rumour quickly spreads that not red by that religion. By ethical instruction much of anything happens in it. Having is meant instruction in non-sectarian taught ethics for four years in various ethics’(7). The main arguments for and different institutions, at every grade level against replacing these ‘philosophical’ and in every stream, I can attest to this. courses with an actual course in philoso- In every new class, the same problem phy have been developed in two special appears: convincing the students of the issues of the Belgian journal of ethics utility of the course and the importance teaching, Entre-Vues(8). At the social and of applying themselves to it’(10). Thirdly, cultural levels, the coexistence of courses most accounts indicate that, because of of a sectarian nature with ethics courses the special nature of these courses – of a secular or non-sectarian nature gives which are more concerned with counter- cause for concern about a weakening of balancing sectarian ethics than with republican equality in favour of maintai- occupying an independent position in ning ‘moral communities’ tied to reli- the school curriculum – non-specialized gious, sectarian identity. According to teachers are generally called upon to Professor Dortu: ‘the Pacte Scolaire has teach the discipline. This aspect seems to only reinforced the isolation of these be an offshoot of a differentiation networks, and in according absolute among educational zones. Referring legitimacy to the coexistence of ethics again to Dortu: ‘No specific qualifica- and religion classes, it has locked out any tions are required to teach ethics or reli- possibility of doing things differently. gion. While those with degrees in philo- There is no immediate interest in the sophy or romance philology or history idea of creating a philosophy course’(9). are often given priority, it is not uncom- The situation in Flemish Belgium, howe- mon to come across teachers with ver, has evolved such that since 1989, degrees from other faculties, sometimes students in the life sciences stream take even working without teaching aids. The a course in ‘Philosophical Currents’ (wijs- two hours of ethics or religious studies gerige strommingen). This is one of the are very often the time slots that nobody reasons that so many practitioners have wants’(11). However, the report on inclu- felt pushed to speak of a second-best ding more philosophy in education solution in the form of a combined (Introduction de davantage de philoso- course on sectarian and secular ethics. phie dans l’enseignement), delivered to This suggests that the desire for seculari- the Parliament of the French Community sation had led to countering sectarian of Belgium in November 2000 by Deputy ethics courses (containing the essence of Bernadette Wynants, confirms that religious education) with mirror-image ‘there is an almost perfect consensus on courses in which non-sectarian ethics the need to introduce more philosophy (9) Dortu, op cit. would be taught. But these courses seem in education’, with differences of opi- (10) Ibid. to have blocked the path to any ulterior nion concerning only the means of (11) Ibid. introduction of a course in philosophy achieving this and the relationship bet- (12) www.aipph.de itself. ween philosophy courses and courses in

54 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM religious ethics. This follows a report by religion. This dynamic seems to be parti- a 1992 ad hoc commission, the Sojcher cularly active within Europe. While one Report, that outlines in detail the current German teacher notes that ‘only those debate in Belgium, and deserves to be who are not taking religious instruction read in its entirety(12). It contains, notably, are required to choose philosophy or an accusation that schools are inadequa- ethics in place of religious studies’, ano- tely preparing youth to live in a pluralis- ther adds that in the same Land (state), tic society, and insufficiently developing ‘this subject is called ‘Ethics’ or ‘Values their critical thinking. Philosophy is posi- and Norms’, and a third acknowledges ted as an answer to these deficiencies or that ‘one must admit that many teachers gaps, in that it teaches students skills in of religious studies also display conside- analysis and argumentation. The Sojcher rable expertise in philosophy’. In Finland, Report argues for a cross-disciplinary “Ethics and the Philosophy of Life’ is an approach that would examine the alternative subject for students who are various concepts underlying each disci- not members of a church. In Ireland, pline taught, and also promotes suppor- during the last years of secondary educating the social studies as a group – these tion - sixth and seventh level - named ideas amount to a transformation and State religion syllabus, which includes decompartmentalization of philosophy ethics, has a strong orientation towards courses so that they provide a true edu- the study of philosophy. In Luxembourg, cation in ethical pluralism. The ideal of moral education is taught by philosophy philosophy teaching is defined as a trai- professors, while in Lithuania, philoso- ning in philosophical questioning that phy is taught within their ethics courses. crosses disciplinary boundaries. Such a In Estonia, philosophy appears under the project to transcend disciplinary divides title ‘Ethical Systems throughout is nonetheless likely to bump up against History’. In Norway we are told that phi- organizational problems, especially in losophical and ethical subject matter are relation to the training background and covered at the primary and secondary professional habits of certain teachers. levels in a course entitled ‘Christian The situation in Belgium is no exception. Knowledge, Religious Education and Moreover, because of the discussions it Ethics’. In India, philosophy is taught as has generated at different levels over the ‘Ethical and Environmental Education’, in past years, it can even be taken as an order to sensitize students to the preser- illustration of the problematic dynamics vation of the environment and to moral that govern the relationship between and religious values. We might take a philosophy and religious instruction – brief look here at the moral education above all at the ethical level. This dialec- courses in South Korea as an example of tic can be found all over the world. In the teaching of philosophy via other certain German Länder (states), philoso- subjects. phy serves as a substitute for those students who do not wish to take religious Other respondents, in particular French, studies. This is the case in Bavaria, Ethiopian, Icelandic, Mexican and among other Länder. We should also Uruguayan, stressed the secular nature note the remarks of a respondent to the of philosophy instruction in their UNESCO survey from Botswana: ‘there is countries. an attempt to teach ethics at the secondary level. But at the same time there is A very interesting discussion has been resistance to ethics, primarily out of underway these past years in Uruguay. A ignorance, which confounds ethical edu- document produced in 2002 by Mauricio cation with the teaching of religious Langon, president of the Uruguayan morality’. Association of Philosophy, testifies to a lively discussion about the reorganiza- A simple collating of responses to the tion of the teaching of philosophy in the (13) Mauricio Langon, ‘Philosophie et savoirs au bac uruguayen aujourd’hui survey reveals – without even going into three final years of secondary school. (II)’. Diotime-L’Agorà, 22, 2004. the details – a diffuse perception of the Without touching on the issue of philo- www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora links that historically unite ethics and sophy as a curricular subject, his proposal (14) Ibid.

55 CHAPTER II

Box 12 Moral education in the Republic of Korea(15)

Moral education in the Republic of Korea bourhood and school life, iii) social life, that the students can deepen their thin- is governed at the national level, as a and iv) national life. Five values and fun- king and share ideas about controversial fundamental part of the country’s curri- damental moral virtues are chosen for moral issues. The subject of civics in culum. It is one of the ten core subjects each of these divisions. For personal particular is developed principally to taught in primary and secondary life, these values are: respect for human help students foster their ability to make schools. These ten subjects are: the life, diligence, honesty, independence judgements. In encouraging role-plays Korean Language, Moral Education, and self-control. The values to seek in and discussions in the classroom, we Social Studies, Mathematics, Science, one’s relations with family, neighbours, help them to develop moral values on Music, Fine Arts, Physical Education, and school are: respectful behaviour, their own. Foreign Languages, and Art. Ethics text- taking care of family members, etiquette books are prepared under the supervi- and courtesy, cooperation, and love for sion of the national authority. Moral edu- one’s school and home town. In their Suk-won Song, cation is taught from the third year of pri- social life, students must learn the Researcher in Higher Education mary school through to the first year of values of: respect for the law, considera- Curriculum Policy Division secondary school. Students have a tion for others, protection of the environ- Ministry of Education choice between three courses: Civics, ment, justice, and community feeling. (Republic of Korea) Ethics and Thought, and Traditional Life within a nation requires: patriotism, Ethics. We are at pains to take an inte- fraternal love for one’s people, aware- grated approach so that knowledge and ness of security, efforts for peaceful uni- the emotional understanding of morality fication, and love of humanity. Each unit lead to practical action. The content of in the manual of moral education covers moral education is divided into four life several discussion points touching on areas: i) personal life, ii) family, neigh- contemporary moral issues. This is so

concerns a ‘space for thinking about supervised by a team of interdisciplinary knowledge’ that would be added to exis- inspectors’(14). Thus, this collaborative ting courses in order ‘to open the possi- teaching aims at creating ‘regular spaces bility of philosophical reflection beyond for dialogue, which will act as communi- the subject of “Philosophy”’(13). It is a ties of pedagogical enquiry focused on most advanced and interesting proposal the question of rupture and suture bet- in that it aims to create a veritable space ween disciplines. They would be able to for concrete interdisciplinary reflection, update the problematics in relation to where philosophical thought would be teaching in all subject areas. We are put to the test by social and cultural phe- designing these spaces as centres for the nomena, which are the subjects of other ongoing training and improvement of disciplines. Above all, this new exercise teaching staff. The teacher training for would not act as a substitute for tea- this exercise will include courses, works- ching philosophy but would complement hops and seminars, oriented towards it in the same way other subjects do. Its training in active methodologies, theo- advocates argue that it should be allot- ries of reasoning, communities of ted ‘two hours per week and per course’ enquiry and meta-cognition – and throughout the last three years of secon- towards the psychology and sociology of dary teaching. The initiators of the pro- knowledge. Our hope is that this syste- ject propose that ‘to become a teacher matic training will occur regularly in the of ERSS (Espacio de reflexión sobre los teacher-training institutes (Instituto de saberes – ‘Space for Thinking about profesores artigas, IPA, and Institutos de Knowledge’), there should be an open formación docente, IFD)(16)’. A similar and (15) By Suk-won Song, prepared for call to teachers of all subjects, who doubtless complementary proposal has the delegation of the Ministry of Education of Malaysia during its would have to submit a proposal and been presented by the Philosophy visit to the Republic of Korea would receive special preparation before Inspectorate of Uruguay, calling for the on 13 September 2005. www.moe.go.kr participating in this course. A teacher of creation of an inter- and trans-discipli- (16) Mauricio Langon, ‘Philosophie et ERSS would necessarily work in the class- nary class, reciprocal and complementary savoirs au bac uruguayen aujourd’hui room and in coordination with the tea- to the organization of subjects into cur- (II)’. Diotime-L’Agorà, 22, 2004. www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora chers of other courses. ERSS would be ricula, and conceived as a meeting space

56 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM for the different fields of learning, in Uruguay; it was noted that a subject cal- which ideas and methodologies from led ‘Critique of Knowledge’ has also diverse disciplines can come together, been responsible for positive develop- where criteria are not given in advance ments in philosophy instruction. The but will themselves be subjects of discus- importance of this seems to go far sion. The Inspectorate holds that a philo- beyond the borders of this country and sophical disposition would be a precon- to be of general interest. dition for teachers of this class, regardless of the discipline in which they have Many respondents to UNESCO’s ques- been trained, and that a philosophy trai- tionnaire stressed that philosophical ning course would be needed to provide notions come up elsewhere in social stu- backup for the conceptual and metaphy- dies and the social sciences. Let us add sical background required to approach to that the opinion expressed in one res- such questions. Taking into account the ponse from Germany – that it is absolu- responses to the UNESCO survey, this tely necessary that philosophy and logic proposal is the source of a considerable be integrated into the natural and exact advance in philosophy teaching in sciences.

3) The dynamic between secondary level and university

Aside from a philosophy course introduced the social studies curriculum of state-run in 1996 in certain secondary schools in schools for the first through to the sixth Ontario(17), philosophy in Canada is taught years of school includes among subjects at the post-secondary and university levels studied ‘the effects of change on physical in what are known as Junior Colleges in the and human characteristics; the structure English-speaking regions, and in CEGEPs and functioning of a democratic society; (Collège d'enseignement général et profes- the roles, rights, and responsibilities of citi- sionnel – ‘College of General and zens; exchanges in a world marked by Vocational Education’) in both English- and interdependence and pluralism’(18). Here we French-speaking Québec. It is worthwhile see an interesting phenomenon, that is, the citing the account written by André Carrier, drawing of philosophical themes into edu- a teacher at Lévi-Lauson secondary school cational preparation for citizenship. We in Québec. should also mention the ‘Philosophy in the Schools Project’, created in 2000 under the A Canadian respondent to the UNESCO aegis of the Canadian Philosophical survey tells us that ‘a curriculum addressed Association(19). The purpose and sequencing to secondary-level students is presently of this philosophical training are represen- being tried out in certain schools’. There tative of other types of pre-university trai- are training programmes in social studies ning around the world, such as the Ciclo that include teaching of a philosophical Básico Común at the University of Buenos nature. In Ontario, for example, these sub- Aires(20). jects include classes on the environment, on life styles, civics, and economic institu- Now would be an appropriate moment to tions and activities. An Ontario Ministry of look at the differences in approach bet- Education document from 2004 outlining ween university and secondary education. (17) In Canada, education is decided on at the provincial level, with curricula thus reflecting locally-determi- 4) Training for secondary-school philosophy teachers ned priorities. (18) Ontario Ministry of Education, 2004. ‘The Ontario Curriculum: The issue can be approached by conside- i) cases in which a university degree in phi- Social Studies Grades 1 to 6; History ring two main questions. Have secondary- losophy is required, ii) cases in which the and Geography Grades 7 and 8’. school teachers of philosophy received an university degree is accompanied or repla- www.edu.gov.on.ca. advanced degree in philosophy? Have they ced by specific pedagogical training (a (19) www.acpcpa.ca. (20) www.cbc.uba.ar. received specific pedagogical training? secondary-school teaching diploma), iii) (21) European credit transfer Three main scenarios can be identified: cases in which other certificates suffice. system

57 CHAPTER II

Box 13 Secondary school philosophy courses in Québec, Canada

Forty years ago, the Québec provincial This in turn translated into an obligation are the preferred means for the practical government created the CEGEP ‘College to translate the objectives of all discipli- development of this skill. The second of General and Vocational Education’ nes in terms of activities or skills that level uses what has been learned of the system – a mandatory educational level the students would have to demons- philosophical approach in developing the for all students hoping to continue to trate. In philosophy, for example, terms problematic related to conceptions of either a university or to a technical such as ‘distinguish, present, produce’ the human being. Students learn the key career. Along with their specialized cour- are used to qualify the results expected concepts and principles with which ses, all CEGEP students take classes in from students relative to the proposed modern and contemporary conceptions three core disciplines: philosophy, the content. define the human being, and become mother tongue and its literature, and aware of the importance of these in physical education. A 1993 reform saw The skills approach was greeted with Western culture. Practical skills are second-language learning (English or deep reservations by those involved in developed through critical commentary French) added to these, but at the the core disciplines, especially from the and a philosophical dissertation. The expense of teaching time for philosophy fields of philosophy and literature. third level leads students to take inde- and physical education. Philosophy in Philosophy courses are designed as a pendent and critical stances with res- particular was expected to educate stu- learning sequence based on thematic pect to ethical values. They learn diffe- dents in logic, the history of ideas, and content, intellectual skills and the history rent ethical and political theories and ethics – aims defended by philosophy of ideas. They are organized progressi- apply them to contemporary situations teachers, moreover, in keeping with vely and in such a way that theoretical relevant to political, social and personal their experience in Québec. As in other and practical knowledge gained in an life. The three levels also have the subsi- disciplines, it was also expected to pur- introductory course are reinvested in the diary goal of developing reading and wri- sue cross-disciplinary goals with regard following courses. The introductory ting skills. In this sense, an accent is pla- to general intellectual abilities. In this course is devoted to learning philosophi- ced in each level on gaining acquain- way, philosophy was part of a curricular cal procedures in the context of the tance of a complete work, or on analysis approach aiming to integrate the diffe- advent and development of Western of major excerpts, as well as on written rent learning processes. Emphasis on a rationality. In this way, students come to output. ‘skills-based’ approach to pedagogy, understand how thinkers treat a ques- however, had an impact on the teaching tion philosophically, and they engage in of philosophy, by focusing it on the the same process themselves by develo- André Carrier(22) acquisition of measurable skills – or at ping a philosophical argument. Textual Teacher, Collège Lévi-Lauson, Québec least on skills that can be evaluated. analysis and writing a polemical paper (Canada)

There are tremendous divergences around Japan (minimum of a B.A. in Philosophy or the world from these three scenarios, all a similar field such as ethics or aesthetics), the same. We shall quickly run through Mauritius (B.A. in Philosophy), Mexico (B.A. some of them, while stressing that we shall or M.A.), Portugal (M.A.), Romania (B.A. in only be giving a few examples, as this study Philosophy), Senegal (CAES – Certicat d’ap- is not intended to be exhaustive. titude à l’enseignement secondaire, ‘Certificate of Aptitude in Teaching at 1) A degree in philosophy. Examples of Secondary Level’), Serbia (B.A. in countries in which a Bachelor of Arts (B.A.) Philosophy), Spain (M.A. in Philosophy), in Philosophy is required: Bahrain, Bulgaria Syria (a university degree), Thailand (at least (B.A. or Master’s degree, M.A,), Central a B.A. – monks, having received a religious African Republic (B.A. and an M.A. in education, may also teach), Turkey (B.A., Philosophy, plus a CAPES teaching degree), M.A. in Philosophy, Sociology or Chad (B.A., M.A.), China (minimum of a Psychology). In Austria, Bangladesh and B.A.), Côte d’Ivoire (B.A. or CAPES), Croatia Lesotho, an M.A. in Philosophy is required. (B.A., that is, four years of university), Cuba In some countries, a different certification is (a university diploma in social sciences or required according to the level of secondary the humanities), Denmark (at least ninety school to be taught. A correspondent from ECTS credits(21)), Guatemala (the title of Poland summarizes these dual levels as Profesorado de Enseñanza Media en follows: ‘The minimum required to teach

(22) André Carrier, ‘La réforme de Filosofia), Honduras (a degree in the social philosophy at the lower secondary level l’enseignement de la philosophie sciences, education, sociology or social (gimnazjum) is a university degree (licenc- dans les collèges du Québec’. Diotime-L’Agorà, 1, 1999. work), Hungary (a university degree), jat). A Master’s degree is required to be www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora. Iceland (B.A. or M.A.), Iran (B.A., M.A.), able to teach in the upper secondary’.

58 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

2) Specific training in teaching, comple- in Italy are Modern and Classical Literature, mentary or not to training in philosophy. In History, Psychology, Sociology, and Social some countries, accreditation to teach in Studies. In several African countries, a uni- secondary schools requires specific training, versity degree in philosophy (and other sub- often but not necessarily in conjunction jects, for that matter), must be followed by with a university degree. This includes cour- a graduate teaching qualification. In ses in specific subjects among which philo- Botswana, a B.A. in the humanities – sophy figures, relative to its place in the Theology or Religious Studies, including secondary curriculum. Although this Philosophy – is to be completed by a tertiary-level training might not be compa- Postgraduate Diploma in Education (PGDE). rable to true specialization in the discipline, In Congo, philosophy teachers require a it makes it possible nonetheless to teach B.A. with a mandatory CAPES – ‘Certificate the various school subjects at a level consi- of Aptitude in Teaching at Secondary Level’ dered by the national educational system to (Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de be adequate. In any case, philosophy recei- l’enseignement du second degré). Senegal ves no more special treatment than any requires the same certificate, although it is other subject. Argentina is one country called a CAES (Certificat d'aptitude à l'en- where teachers have generally followed seignement secondaire). Madagascar requi- non-university post-secondary training; res a CAPEN – ‘Certificate of Pedagogical Norway as well, where the teacher-training Aptitude from an École Normale’ (Certificat process follows after the regular four-year d’Aptitude pédagogique de l’École degree. Some teachers at the upper secon- Normale) in Philosophy, in addition to a dary level are university-educated and must degree in Social Sciences or Theology. have followed a university-level philosophy There are considerable difficulties in Niger, course. In the Netherlands, a Certificate of where a B.A. in Sociology and Psychology is Higher Professional Education’ is required. required ‘because this reflects the core syl- In Italy, an undergraduate university degree labus taught at university’, but where a res- must be followed by a two-year pro- pondent noted that ‘although a CAPES is (23) in Québec, the term ‘baccalaureat’ refers to the Bachelor of gramme at a Scuola di Specializzazione required to teach in the last three years of Arts (B.A.), or a first-level university all’Insegnamento Secondario, ‘School for secondary school, because there is no degree. Specialization in Secondary Education’. training structure for philosophy in Niger, (24) G. Obiols., M.F. De Gallo, A. Cerletti., A.C. Coulé, M. Diaz, A. Offered by most Italian universities, accredi- there are fewer than ten holders of that Ranovsky and J. Freixas, ‘La forma- tation from one of these specialized schools diploma in philosophy in the country, and tion des professeurs de philosophie. Une expérience à la faculté is required for all secondary teachers. all trained abroad’. There is reason to de philosophie et de lettres Among university degrees that are prere- believe that Niger is not alone in this situa- de l’Université de Buenos Aires’. Diotime-L’Agorà, 18, 2003. quisites for training as a philosophy teacher tion. Cambodia requires no more than a www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

Box 14 Teacher training in philosophy in Argentina

There is a long tradition of philosophy as a At first the two streams are taught toge- and problems encountered in their practice subject taught in Argentina’s secondary ther, after which students in the B.A. classes (short philosophy-teaching assi- schools. Teacher training for this field is stream have to write a thesis and those in gnments in a secondary school). There are divided into two main streams: institutes of the teaching stream have to take courses weekly consultation and exchange works- teacher training for non-university higher in general pedagogy, as well as courses hops throughout the second semester, to education, and university-level Faculties. specialized in the particular didactics of tea- analyse the development of the classes as The programme of the University of Buenos ching philosophy. The conceptual content a group, to make any necessary adjust- Aires’ School of Philosophy and Letters of the discipline is broken into four units: i) ments, and to offer individual supervision of includes the teaching of philosophy, litera- the basic questions in the teaching of philo- each student’s lesson plans. There is no ture, history, geography and anthropology. sophy, ii) teaching philosophy in schools, iii) final exam, evaluation being based on the The faculty offers two degrees for each of the student, learning philosophy in an insti- students’ output throughout the year. This these teaching fields: the ‘Licenciado’ or tutional context, and iv) the didactics of phi- output is collected and submitted by the Bachelor’s degree, oriented towards losophy. The content is developed in clas- students at the end of their teaching assi- research and non-teaching activities, and ses combining theory and practice, in gnments. the ‘Profesor’, largely oriented towards the which proposals and analyses are integra- teaching of the discipline at the secondary ted into their practical work, and emphasis Source: or other levels within the education system. is placed on students analyzing successes www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

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university diploma and one year of training aspect of secondary philosophy teaching. In in a teacher-training centre. Israel requires some cases this disciplinary confusion is due to an M.A. in Philosophy and a philosophy the fact that these degrees already include a teaching diploma or teacher’s certificate. significant philosophical education. More Finland requires a university degree as well often there is a tendency to believe that a as teaching certification obtained through philosophical education requires no training in a university, though the degree can be in a special discipline, in other words, no specific Psychology or Religious Studies. In one knowledge-set is needed in order to learn Canadian province (and doubtless elsew- philosophy. It is often the case in Europe that here as well) we note a technical problem. philosophy teachers hold degrees in other ‘The greatest challenge faced by teachers in fields that have nonetheless supplied a signifi- Ontario stems from the fact that, while the cant education in philosophy. We learn from province’s curricula list a course in Germany that the situation varies significantly Philosophy, teachers cannot enrol in a according to the politics of the different Faculty of Education solely in order to Länder (state). For some, a university degree in receive certification as specialists in philoso- philosophy is mandatory in order to teach in phy. To teach in Québec’s CEGEPs, on the secondary schools. For others, philosophy other hand, a minimum of a courses are sometimes given by teachers “Baccalaureat” in Philosophy is required’(23). trained in religion or other disciplines. Among In Argentina, which seems to be typical of the latter, the most common degrees appear this region, a 2003 study by the teacher- to be in literature, history and mathematics. education division of the Faculty of Another writer from Germany informs us that Philosophy of the University of Buenos ‘philosophy courses have often been revised, Aires provides an in-depth analysis of the and new elements such as practical philoso- current situation(24). phy have been introduced; allowing teachers with other areas of specialization to be In Uruguay too, a teaching certificate for retrained to teach philosophy. But the great secondary-school teachers, granted by the majority hold a degree in philosophy’. It is suf- Instituto de Profesores Artigas, seems to be ficient in Greece to hold a university degree in interchangeable with a university degree in the humanities, – be it in ancient or modern philosophy. According to one respondent, literature, history or theology. In the Republic requirements can vary greatly; ‘Nearly 80 of Moldova, a degree indicating post-secon- per cent of philosophy teachers at secondary studies in philosophy, history, political dary school are qualified as philosophy science or sociology is mandatory. Secondary- teachers, or are graduate students in the school classics teachers in Cyprus are regularly teaching of philosophy. Others have at least given the task of teaching philosophy. In a B.A. Many have university degrees, Algeria, a social sciences degree is considered although not necessarily in philosophy, but adequate for teaching philosophy in secon- in psychology, or similar’. Another notes in dary schools. In Burundi it is usually teachers confirmation of this scenario that the who have studied literature or psychology system can call on legal or scientific profes- who give the philosophy courses. They are sionals if there are no formally qualified selected because they took one or two philo- philosophy or humanities teachers availa- sophy courses themselves (for example ble. Let us note that by ‘philosophy tea- ‘Introduction to Philosophy’) early on in their cher’, we mean not a university professor, university studies. The same holds true in but anyone holding a Profesor de Filosofia Burkina Faso for psychology graduates. There (‘Philosophy Teacher’) diploma. Furthermore, as well it is reported that ‘some secondary as we are reminded by yet a third writer, establishments recruit teachers of a low level there are a number of M.A. available in the because of problems with salaries’. In Rwanda humanities which give the right to teach secondary-school philosophy teachers are philosophy and, need be, a simple B.A. will required to have either a B.A. in Religious suffice. Yet another correspondent adds Studies or in Philosophy, or an M.A. in that philosophy is often taught by lawyers. Education. In Zimbabwe ‘the basic qualifica- 3) University degrees in other disciplines. tion for teaching philosophy in primary and Allowing graduates of other disciplines to secondary schools is a degree in education at teach philosophy highlights a delocalized the appropriate level’. In Colombia, philosophy

60 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM is taught by graduates in philosophy, literature, even come from quite unrelated fields or education, history or the social sciences. For careers’. In short, concludes another, to teach Costa Rica, training in theology is sufficient, as philosophy in Venezuela one can count on is training in social sciences in Ecuador. Haiti ‘practically any higher education qualifica- requires university training in the field of the tions’, adding that ‘there are cases of teachers human and social sciences, and Honduras in with incomplete academic training, that is, the social sciences, pedagogy, sociology or who haven’t finished their studies’. social work. There are other cases where one makes do with the available means. According What can we conclude from this overview? It to one respondent in Bolivia, only a small num- is clear that many secondary-school philoso- ber of teachers hold a degree in philosophy. phy teachers have not received a university Experience in Chile is that ‘in the smaller loca- education specializing in philosophy, with trai- lities, where there are hardly any philosophy ning limited in many cases to a few courses in teachers, practically any other degree will be philosophy, to credits equivalent to a one- or considered adequate’. In Paraguay, a philoso- two-year philosophy diploma, or to philosophy teacher could be a teacher in the social phy taught through other subjects. Sometimes sciences, a lawyer, a seminarian or a psycholo- such incomplete training is supplemented by gist. The same respondent adds that ‘a accreditation through teaching schools or cer- Paraguayan Philosophy Society was founded tificate programmes. This situation clearly ten years ago, with the primary purpose of stems in part from the gap between the num- promoting secondary-level instruction. To this ber of philosophy teachers – in those countries day it has been unable to take proper form. where the subject is included in the academic For the past seven or eight years, two institu- curricula – and the number of university gra- tions – Salesian and Jesuit – have trained phi- duates in philosophy. On one hand it is certain losophy teachers. Little-by-little they are wor- that being a schoolteacher is only one of the king their way into the system. Before that, professional options available to philosophy the subject was covered by teachers trained in graduates, and not always the most appeti- social studies, and also by lawyers, psycholo- zing at that. On the other hand, there’s no gists or ex-priests. Very few held degrees in hiding the fact that, by its very nature and philosophy. Thanks to the presence of these especially in certain labour markets, school two institutions, even though they are secta- teaching is capable of absorbing graduates of rian, the situation is changing bit by bit’. There other subjects. Philosophy, which is often are many accounts from Venezuela attesting considered to be of a low technical level, can to the heterogeneous educational back- be seen from this point of view to act as a grounds of philosophy instructors. We hear of social shock absorber. philosophy teachers with degrees in sociology, psychology, literature or education, or with a But there are other, particular situations that diploma in history, art, mathematics and even must be taken into account. For example, in law. One correspondent explains that ‘the Brazil – where, since the subject was abruptly opportunity to teach can be offered to anyone introduced into the academic curriculum, with an M.A. in teaching, or any other subject there has been a problem finding qualified that is not specifically science or mathematics. staff. But that can be seen as a transitional The same is true for related subjects such as phase; the need to review the specifics of phi- sociology and theology, and for people having losophy teaching in countries with no specific completed non-accredited ecclesiastical stu- training requirement represents a real educa- dies’. In other words, ‘as a general rule, secon- tional issue for the future. dary-school teachers are not philosophers, and

5) Observed reforms: To what end?

Two reform processes deserve to be quantity of commentaries on them, as looked at here, because each in its own well as their high profile in the press, way has had a special resonance within bears ample witness to this fact. (25) The two years of the bachillerato the field of philosophy teaching. We are An interesting view of the Spanish case is make up the final two years of referring to Spain and Morocco. The offered by Miguel Vasquez, a philosophy secondary school.

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teacher in Galicia and one of the mem- make up the missing classroom hours. bers of a working group on the teaching Remember as well that during the socia- of philosophy in that region. The secon- list period a new subject, Ethics, was dary school system in Spain is divided introduced in the mandatory fourth year into four main stages: early childhood of secondary school. This new subject, education (up to six years of age), pri- however, did not go far to compensate mary education (six to twelve years), for the ground that philosophy had lost mandatory secondary education (twelve as a subject taught at secondary-school to sixteen years), and the bachillerato level. Indeed, it must be taken into (for students of sixteen to eighteen years account that in autonomous communi- of age)(25). This structure was established ties, which have no native language of upon the passing of the ‘Ley de their own, ethics is given two class hours Ordenación General del Sistema per week, whereas students in other Educativo’ (‘Law on the General communities take only one hour per Planning of the Education System’, or week. LOGSE) in 1990. Problems in the application of the law, and the many criticisms The LCE, along with other measures it received, led the government to legis- taken before its enactment, introduced late a modified version of the law in changes in the application of the LOGSE. 2002, the ‘Ley de Calidad de la First, philosophy was once again made Educación’ (‘Law on the Quality of mandatory for all streams of the bachil- Education’, or LCE). During the first lerato. These changes also served to stage of this reform – given legal expres- strengthen its curriculum, and were sion by the LOGSE – there was signifi- favourable to new optional subjects tied cant regression in the subject areas assi- to the philosophy department. In Galicia, gned to secondary-institute philosophy for instance, the following optional sub- departments, with regard to the number jects have been offered in the bachille- of mandatory courses as much as to the rato: ‘Ethics and Philosophy of Law’, number of class hours. To better unders- ‘Philosophy of Science and Technology’, tand this regression, it is useful to take a ‘Introduction to Political Science’, and historical viewpoint and note that the ‘Introduction to Sociology’. The first relative place of philosophy in the draft of the LOE provided for the cancel- Spanish system has followed a long ling of Philosophy I in the first year of the road. Suffice it to say that two subjects, bachillerato, which prompted an impres- an introduction to philosophy and the sive mobilization of Spain’s associations history of philosophy, were offered of philosophy teachers, with remarkably through almost the entire pro-Franco virulent contributions to open Internet period. That is how things stood when forums. There are very good reasons for the LOGSE was introduced, whereupon defending the unarguably important role philosophy was no longer compulsory in that teaching philosophy can and should the first year of the Bachillerato, except play in the development of autonomous for students assigned to one of its three and critical citizens. This, notwithstanding streams. This of course entrained a some dubious extremist positions - reduction by roughly one-third in course ‘without philosophy there is no critical hours taught. Only ‘History of thinking’ -, as if the critical dimension Philosophy’ remained mandatory for all couldn’t also exist in other subject areas; final-year secondary students. If, further- as if there was no such thing as dogma- (26) An outline of the reform is available at: more, we take into account that the tic academic philosophy (as had once www.maec.gov.ma/osce/en/index.htm. educational reform also reduced the been the case); as if one of the irrevoca- One can also consult an article of the Moroccan Association of weekly hours for all subjects from four to ble purposes of the education system Philosophy Teachers at www.crdp- three, then we can understand the col- was to provide jobs for philosophy gra- montpellier.fr/ressources/agora (In lective discontent of the teaching body, duates. These reasons seem to have French). (27) Charte nationale d’éducation forced in a great many cases to teach been echoed in the Spanish legislatures, et de formation, Commission subjects foreign to their departments – for in the final version of the LOE – Spéciale Éducation Formation, such as history or geography or the already approved by parliament – philo- Kingdom of Morocco. www.dfc.gov.ma/Reforme/sommaire.htm ‘alternative’ to religion – in order to sophy was maintained as mandatory in

62 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM all streams of the first year bachillerato, and technical/vocational(28). Each of these even though the name has been chan- streams is divided into different sections. ged and new and untested content has The general stream includes scientific, been added, and even though it is literary, economic and social studies. accompanied by a troubling uncertainty There are sixteen regional academies of regarding its allocated class hours. There education and training, with the mission is talk of a reduction from three to two of enacting educational policy in the hours per week, with the goal of allo- context of a progressive decentralization wing room for a new subject from the of the system. Philosophy appears as an sciences. We could say that Spain’s phi- independent subject in the last two years losophy programme is a combination of of this secondary system. The pro- the French and Italian models. As in gramme is divided into four conceptual France, the ‘Philosophy 1’ syllabus is the- areas the human condition, knowledge, matic. As in Italy, the ‘Philosophy 2’ syl- politics and ethics(29). Under each area, labus in the final year of secondary concepts drawn from everyday language school is historical. In each case there is and introducing different meanings for a consensus among teachers as to the analysis are the starting point for reflec- practical impossibility of teaching all of tion and questioning. As an example, the the content included in the two courses. theme of ‘human condition’ introduces So in practice, each teacher in the first the following notions: ‘the person’, ‘the year decides what to teach and what to Other’, ‘history’. The courses can be exclude, making it possible, for example, adapted, with their titles changing for one teacher to devote nearly an according to the area of specialization: entire semester to logic and for another ‘General Philosophy’ in the scientific not to include it at all. In the second year stream; ‘The Human Being’ in literature; (the final year of secondary school), deci- ‘Society and Change’ in the economic sions about the syllabus are determined and social streams; and ‘Activity and by the university entrance exams, which Creativity’ in the technical/vocational are organized by the university districts stream. In this regard, Professor Zryouil of each autonomous community. The specifies that the authors of the curricula exam in Galicia comprises a philosophi- have preferred to opt for a programme cal essay based on a subject linked to a of introduction to philosophy and of pro- list of twenty authors – chosen from motion of its advantages. This is why among the greatest figures in the history only two themes appear in the curricu- of philosophy. But each centre’s depart- lum accompanied by specified directives ment is free to choose only eight of that take into consideration this age those twenty, on the basis of which the range. These themes are: ‘What is philo- work for the semester will be organized. sophy?’ and ‘Nature and culture’. ‘Citizenship Education’ is included at The reform process of the Moroccan lower secondary-school level. educational system, launched in 1999(26), Philosophy’s strengthened status made it and grounded in the Charte nationale possible for the Moroccan Minister of d’éducation et de formation(27), improves Education to announce on the occasion philosophy’s position relative to the ear- of World Philosophy Day in 2006, that lier reforms of 1975, 1978, 1981, ‘philosophy is an integral part of the 1984/5 and 1995. The 1999 reform esta- national education system because it is blished a new pedagogical organization, taught at all levels of secondary and qua- divided into primary school (six years), lifying schooling’. (28) A preliminary report on this lower secondary school (three years), reform was released in June 2005. and qualifying secondary school, which We can also refer to the instructive and Réforme du système d’Education et de Formation, 1999–2004’. includes a one-year core programme stimulating remarks made by the Commission Spéciale Éducation taken by all, followed by two final secon- Secretary General of the Moroccan Formation, Kingdom of Morocco. www.cosef.ac.ma dary school years leading to the awar- Association of Philosophy Teachers, who (29) Information provided by ding of the baccalauréat certificate. notes that the teaching of philosophy in Professor Abderrahim Zryouil, Students in these final two years are Morocco has gone through two stages. Inspector and National Coordinator for Philosophy, divided into two main streams: general, At first, philosophy was taught in French Morocco.

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using French text books. The end of the many other countries as well, Lazrak 1960s saw the ‘Arabization’ of the sub- cites those that he feels it is most pres- ject. At first, the teaching process was sing to address, namely the insufficient dominant, and philosophy teaching was time allotted to philosophy classes, the focused on content. Because of this, the lack of working materials, the fact that syllabus was reduced to the history of there is only one textbook, the absence ideas, and the course book was full with of a detailed and developed teaching knowledge in the form of courses from method for philosophy, the rift that which philosophical texts were essen- exists between philosophy teaching at tially absent. The philosophy course was secondary and at higher levels, etc. One actually a lecture series, being brought can cite Professor Zryouil once again, down, by most of the teachers, to a who emphasizes that since 2003, the concern for the doctrine to be adopted reform has institutionalized the necessity in the teaching of philosophy. The to ‘liberalize’ school textbook publi- second phase began with the reorgani- shing, in order to diversify school zation of secondary schooling, initiated manuals by introducing competition. in 1987, according to the system of academies. In this context, philosophy tea- It is not always easy to find detailed ching immediately saw a pedagogical information on secondary-school philo- discourse arise that was no longer sophy curricula, nor to access official syl- concentrated on a concern with which labi. With regard to teaching in doctrines to teach, but with ways of tea- Morocco, one respondent to the ching – the pedagogic aspects of the UNESCO survey reported that ‘philoso- acts of teaching and evaluating. phy is an integral part of teaching at all Education became to be seen as a lear- secondary-school levels, because logic ning process, understood to be focused and analysis are at the heart of all philo- on the student. This resulted, in 1991, in sophical thought, so students are doing the following changes: the philosophy philosophy without knowing it. Students syllabus was divided according to themes take philosophy as a new subject in the (for example, nature, culture, final two years of secondary school’. The religion/philosophy or work/property); reference to ‘doing philosophy without the student manual took on the form of knowing it’ deserves to be emphasized, a collection of philosophical texts; and given that, as this writer indicates, no the method of teaching, in which the philosophy is taught whatsoever during philosophical text now occupied the the first three years of secondary school. principal place, was no longer reduced Let us add that philosophy is also taught to a series of lectures. Such changes can within a particular type of traditional generate questions of pedadogy, either education, as it is included in the final concerning the usefulness of teaching three years of the secondary cycle in the philosophy, regarding the question of ‘Law and Sharia’, ‘Lettres Originelles’ how philosophy students should be evalua- (Islamic and Moroccan Studies), and ted, or concerning questions of didactics. ‘Experimental Sciences’ sections, under the title ‘Philosophy and Islamic The teaching of philosophy in Morocco Thought’, and alongside another sub- has gone through other changes since ject, ‘Contemporary Islamic Thought’. In 1995. A notional curriculum has been this respect ZryouilI explains that, even introduced (incorporating languages, though the traditional education stream art, technical subjects, etc.), as has a continues to be part of the Moroccan textbook comprising a range of philoso- education system, it is no longer exempt phical texts and excerpts. The Secretary from implementing the sole philosophy General thus makes the point that move- syllabus applicable to all streams, where ments for change in philosophy teaching Islamic thought is no longer separated have brought up fundamental questions from philosophy but is considered as a and led to a deepened examination of specific and important part of the uni- the act of teaching itself. Among possi- versal philosophical thought. In a series ble obstacles, which are to be found in of articles published in Diotime- L’Agorà,

64 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Aziz Lazrak has discussed the difficulty of Vázquez writes that one essential aspect of putting this curricular and pedagogic the reform envisaged by Spain ‘is the intro- reform into place, notably insisting on duction of a new subject, Citizenship the necessity of moving progressively Education, arising from the new law, the towards a pedagogical model based on LOE. At the secondary level, this subject will active student participation in the course, be assigned to the philosophy departments. both through direct reading of texts and It follows from this that a concern for this increased group discussion. Between the orientation towards citizenship education stated objectives of the reform, the has also led legislators to change the name ministerial programmes and actual peda- of the first-level bachillerato (fifth year of gogical practice, we find the same pro- secondary school) philosophy course to blems as in other countries. In fact, the “Philosophy and Citizenship”. likelihood of achieving the reforms’ goals seems to depend as much on an increa- Even though its curriculum has not yet sed presence of philosophy in the curri- been confirmed, it has been indicated cula as it does on any real transformation that this name change implies a change of didactic practice. In this respect, it is in content as well. The change will likely always important to distinguish between mean promoting practical philosophy, curricular and didactic norms, and tea- ethics and politics in particular, and will ching/learning practices. To examine this mean cancelling the more theoretical in depth would require grass-roots obser- branches, especially epistemology’. vation and analysis of professional practi- Although this has not as yet been confir- ces, not to mention taking into account med, and is a point of conflict between the influences of individual key teachers political authorities and philosophy and schools – that is, elements that are teachers, the driving spirit behind this relatively independent of the system in process of educational change seems to use within the country or region in ques- be similar to that in Morocco. tion. We must keep in mind the social and cultural objectives behind the Moroccan reforms, which is to intentio- nally anchor school teachings – both their content and the presentation of that content – in the contemporary social and professional reality. In this general context, the decision to increase the presence of philosophy might seem surprising - the reforms appear to expressly rebuff any suggestion of a disparity between professional training and social conscience and awareness. According to Zryouil, if one wants to sum up the novelty of the reform related to philosophy in Morocco, three salient points should e distinguished: teaching of philosophy starting from the first year in secondary education; generalization of philosophy teaching to all education streams with no exceptions; and integration of Islamic philosophy in general philosophy programmes as part of universal philosophical thought. The socioeconomic basis for up-dating school curricula in Morocco is derived from a heightened sense of citizenship. This last point brings (30) Aziz Lazrak, ‘Philosophie de la réforme et réforme de la philoso- the Spanish and Moroccan reforms closer phie’. Diotime-L’Agorà, together than one might have expected. www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

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Box 15 The philosophy of reform and the reform of philosophy in Morocco

All educational reforms presuppose a question that orientation by criticizing ches we must sketch out a strategy of global concept of teaching and learning, the violent confrontations that we can complementarity for philosophy tea- of humanity and knowledge, of life and have with the technical world. To streng- ching. This should take into considera- of value. We cannot imagine a philoso- then philosophy’s position is to streng- tion the curricular principles of conti- phy of reform that is removed from phi- then the presence of culture and to nuity, of specificity and of gradually losophy and the reform of its teaching. emancipate the education system from increasing the intellectual demands of a But we have yet to see the generaliza- its misery, from reductionism, from the course. Such a strategy also includes tion of philosophy teaching in all sec- lived world, from the struggle for self- more closely relating the teaching of phi- tions of secondary education. Have we preservation. losophy to other subjects. For example, been remiss in our philosophical duties? no training of the critical mind is imagi- Why has no consciousness of the neces- Any reform in the teaching of philosophy nable if it is separated from the practice sity of philosophy developed? What can is in danger of having only a limited of literary and historical criticism. What’s be done to properly recognize the right impact if philosophy teaching is decon- more, if it doesn’t address the real-world to philosophy? How can we make this a textualized from its legitimate position situation of the classroom – by detailing priority for intellectuals, politicians and central to the fabric of society and intel- real philosophical exercises in meaning, lawyers? Yes, the reform charter sket- lectual debate. The reform of philosophy discourse, reading and writing – then the ches objectives such as the develop- teaching depends on the curriculum. We reform of philosophy teaching will be in ment of citizens who are conscious of have learnt from prior experience that name only. We cannot reform the tea- their rights and responsibilities and are there have always been certain inconsis- ching of philosophy without also refor- tied to their dignity and their Arab and tencies between content and stated ming our current methods of evaluation. Muslim identity, but who are also tole- objectives when it comes to philosophy Evaluation has to be demystified by rant and open to the rest of human civi- teaching. Historically, we have taken two freeing it from ‘monism’ and ‘unifor- lization. These are philosophical values, pedagogical approaches, the techni- mism’. In short, evaluation and freedom and their inclusion implies there is a cian’s, which makes technique an end in must be reconciled through adopting the general need for philosophy to be its own right, and that of pure knowledge principle of plurality. taught. Philosophy’s role, as I conceive – that is, knowledge for knowledge’s of it, is to participate in training universal sake. However, these two approaches Aziz Lazrak(30) citizens and not just Moroccan citizens. wind up separating philosophy from life, Secretary General The charter may be oriented towards students from the public sphere, and phi- Moroccan Association of Philosophy the vocational, technical and scientific losophy from its own teaching. If we are Teachers streams, but it is up to philosophy to to avoid reproducing these two approa- (Morocco)

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II. Suggestions to reinforce the teaching of philosophy at secondary level

1) The construction of the critical mind: The cognitive, affective and social subject

Despite the nuances of the different tea- proposal of learning philosophy is often ching tools and methods, learning philoso- introduced, confronted with the questions, phy in an educational setting presents a implicit or explicit, that adolescents ask, relatively uniform face whatever the age of awash as they are with emotions, surprised the apprentice philosophers. Of course the by the transformations of their bodies, their age of the students will have an impact on voices, their sexuality: What is happening how they respond to being introduced to to me? Who is this person I am becoming? philosophical ideas: whether they are What actually am I, and what do I want to young children watching their powers of become? They are shaken, destabilized, by critical thinking develop from their sensiti- these questions arising from within them- vity and imagination, or adolescents selves, by the emotion of becoming inde- confronting crises of identity, or adults. By pendent people, forced to assimilate their adolescent we mean here a child entering solitude. This can explain some of their the process of puberty, around eleven to reactions to their immediate environment thirteen years of age in the West, with all of (often expressed through aggression or a the tremendous physical, psychological and withdrawal into themselves). Problems arise social transformations associated with this with how knowledge is dealt with at period.(31) school: the loss of reassuring cognitive reference points, the vagaries of learning and Adolescents seem called to question their the risk of failure weaken a self-esteem situations almost despite themselves, often already shaken by feelings of insecurity and becoming argumentative in order to affirm an absence of consistency that are com- and reassure themselves – to dampen the mon to those going through such a process question’s fire. The evolution, or even of mutation. Often, the more one is revolution of the individual during this cracking apart on the inside, the more one phase of development has significant substitutes an exuberant or confrontational consequences that need to be taken into external attitude, in an attempt to control account in his or her education. There are the unruly forces within. two essential points to keep in mind: i) if we are to believe what psychology has to The adolescent philosopher, or the begin- say in this regard, and particularly psychoa- ning of human questioning. How then do nalysis, the arrival of adolescence marks a we encourage students whose self-aware- crisis of self-perception that forces the ado- ness is fraught with emotion to rationally lescent to rearrange his or her psychologi- question their own identities as individuals cal relationship to the world into a complex with the freedom of thought? How do we flux that moves back and forth between bring them to ask questions and to apply childhood and the lure of the new environ- themselves to finding their answers (the ment. The adolescent’s relationship with philosophical attitude), especially when the world, with others, and with himself or such questioning can be so deeply distur- herself sets in motion a problematic process bing (coming as it does from a body expe- of structuring and restructuring, which has rienced as foreign and strange) that they its share of astonishment, fear, delight and often want only to silence it, or at least suffering. ii) Adolescents’ perceptions of appease it? How do we cultivate a questio- others as helpful or threatening – be they ning spirit in those who, unsure of themsel- authority figures such as parents or ves, desperately seek certainties, often tur- teachers, or a peer group – become deter- ning those very certainties on their head in mining factors in the positions they take acts of defiance? What pedagogical and (31) According to and how they react. This is the human didactic approach can teachers use to help Michel Tozzi (France) context into which the educational adolescents move from the matters that www.philotozzi.com

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continually preoccupy their thoughts to emotional to a rational response to the questioning their own identity: from an world about them?

Box 16 The encounter of the adolescent with philosophy Whereas psychologists listen clinically to understanding that is shared by the group. with the world that needs to be mediated individual adolescents, asking them to des- Because the personal implications of the by philosophical enquiry, and it is always cribe their feelings about themselves and word ‘adolescent’ may inhibit students’ wil- surprising to see just how easily they can their lives and trying to help them put their lingness to speak, we can replace it with a enter into it, perhaps even because of their suffering into words, the philosopher-facili- more generic term – ‘people’, ‘individuals’, exacerbated existential sensitivity – Lacan’s tator leads a community of enquiry, compri- ‘us’ (‘Why do we often criticize the legiti- ‘pain of being’. It is important to choose sed of rational individuals, in a conversation macy of rules?’) – students will nonetheless issues that the students can relate to, so about the search for meaning in life that is answer on the basis of their life experience. that the facilitator can draw them into criti- a natural stage of human development. cal thinking through conversation and dis- This existential search is treated as a sub- For inhibited adolescents who are often cussion that is distinct from their other clas- ject to examine and discuss, and the philo- afraid to speak out in front of their friends, ses – this can alleviate the concerns of sopher-facilitator works with the group to and for those who are used to trying to those who find written expression proble- develop their ideas through questions of a impose their opinions, it is important too to matic – and in which they don’t feel as cognitive nature, such as: ‘In your opinion, discuss the objectives of the activity. It can though they are working (which is false, what is the difference between a child and be difficult and complex for them to reco- because they are working, just differently). an adolescent?’ ‘Between an adolescent gnize that this is not a win-lose activity, nor It is important to impose a democratic and an adult?’ ‘Can an adolescent be an the time to demonstrate their toughness structure on the discussion by establishing adult already?’ ‘Can an adult still be an ado- (often a problem with boys), but it is a a few simple rules to determine whose turn lescent?’ The questions explore the search for meaning: it is a win-win situation, it is to speak, and to ensure the students concepts of child, adolescent and adult and because all can gain by listening to the opi- understand that they are not looking for any consider how far these concepts can be nions and ideas of others. This presuppo- ‘right’ answers (as this would put them back extended, by looking at particular exam- ses that everyone is committed to the acti- into a situation of being academically ples and discussing in which ways these vity – the teacher’s role and example as a assessed). The students are there to learn concepts are relevant. ‘valid interlocutor’ (Lévine) is vital here, to to express their ideas and to think through overcome moments of self-doubt or low problems rationally by exchanging ideas These questions operate through concep- self-esteem – and committed to taking the and opinions, and to heal the wounds to tualization and argumentation: ‘When can questioning ever further, to satisfy its intel- their self-esteem that can come from fee- one say that an adolescent is free?’ (the lectual requirements. The community of ling inferior or stupid when their school gra- concept of freedom); ‘In your opinion, why enquiry must inspire a climate of confi- des are bad. This can be achieved by do adolescents often question the legiti- dence between the teacher and the stu- valuing their opinions and working from the macy of rules?’ ‘Are they right or wrong to dents as well as among the group as a presumption that they can be taught to phi- do so?’ (concepts of rules and the law, lega- whole, to limit students’ fears of being jud- losophize: in short, by being confident in lity and legitimacy, ethics and politics); or ged by their teacher or their peers. their potential and letting them know it. ‘As an adolescent, what do you think of other people’s opinions? Are they justified? This is particularly important with students (concepts of other people, of opinions or who are failing academically while going ethics). through the turmoil of adolescence, and who may often be troubled by existing Whereas psychology takes a cathartic family or social problems. For these chil- Michel Tozzi approach to the verbal expression of emo- dren, it is their relationship to the world in Professor and expert in didactics tions, philosophy looks to language to work general, with others and with themselves, (France) through conceptual ideas, which can also that is problematic, and a refusal to learn be cathartic for the adolescent in the way can be a manifestation of their great that it distances and objectifies these anguish at being confronted by a destabili- ideas, and from them creates an objective zing stranger. It is this difficult relationship

2) Theoretical and historical approaches to teaching

The Italian model of teaching philosophy schools has long taken the form of a in school is often considered to be the veritable course in the history of archetype of an approach based on the thought, organized by author from history of philosophy. Philosophy is Thales to contemporary philosophers. In taught in the last three years of scientific 2003, a national conference on philoso- and literary secondary schools, as well as phy teaching organized by the Italian in teacher-education colleges. In fact, Philosophical Association (Società philosophy teaching in Italian secondary Filosofica Italiana, or SFI) provided a

68 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 17 The ‘Brocca Programmes’ in Italy

The new programmes propose to teach future both in terms of making decisions the definition (however partial and philosophy in all streams of secondary about the direction of their studies or incomplete) of learning goals; the propo- education, including technical, vocatio- professional activities and participating sal of classroom methods that empha- nal and business streams, because in creatively in society. The presence of size interrelationships between philoso- this period marked by complexity and philosophy in all streams is motivated by phy and the students; the increased rapid change we wish to give all stu- its capacity to awaken a critical and pro- value placed on flexibility in teaching that dents the possibility to learn skills that blem-solving approach; to allow for a is not constrained by having to conform are fundamental to their personal deve- closer relationship between different to pre-ordained objectives; and the lopment. This is a matter of helping fields of knowledge; to encourage stu- emphasis these programmes place on a them to come to their own opinions and dents to reflect on their conditions of life new quality of communicative, dialogical make their own choices, to develop an and its meaning; and to incorporate a and educational relationship and on new informed understanding of the world communicative dimension in the tea- ways of student assessment. around them, to think critically and crea- ching-learning experience,. tively, to understand the issues underlying different situations, to become The particularly innovative elements in conscious of values and to be able to the Brocca programmes concern the Mario De Pasquale(34) use information wisely: in short, to make way in which content is chosen; the cen- Chair, SFI Didactics Commission them able to project themselves into the tral position given to philosophical texts; (Italy) review of developments in, and the out- studying the principal philosophies that look for, this teaching method. The disputed them historically and without situation has recently evolved. The state- acquiring the conceptual and theoretical ment issued by the special commission skills with which to give them mea- charged with the reform of secondary ning’(35). De Pasquale argues that this is curricula – the Brocca Commission, how this profound revision of traditional named after its coordinator, Beniamino pedagogical practice gives rise to a Brocca – showed a turning point in the didactic proposal that is at once histori- methods and content of philosophy cal, oriented towards problem-solving, courses. Without going into the details and dialogical: the ‘confilosofare’. ‘If the (32) Brocca Commission: ‘Le pro- here of the proposals made by the com- classroom experience of philosophy poste della Commissione Brocca mission(32), it is interesting to observe occurs within the register of understan- (‘Programmi Brocca’), www.swif.uniba.it/lei/scuola/brocca.htm. how philosophy teachers and educatio- ding, of rational clarification, of pro- This is a page on the Italian Web Site nal specialists have interpreted this ‘new blem-solving, then why can the philoso- for Philosophy. On this point, cf. also Armando Girotti, ‘L’insegnamento course’ in secondary philosophical phical experience itself not open onto della filosofia in Italia: nuove teorie e pedagogy(33). disciplines that are equally oriented nuove pratiche; Alcuni riflessioni a margine del convegno della SFI’. This is a real turning point in philosophy towards the advancement of understan- Communicazione Filosofica, 13, teaching in Italy. During the 2003 confe- ding, the search for meaning – be it 2004, www.sfi.it rence, Mario De Pasquale said that through interrogation or through the (33) Although traditional curricula still exist in taly, philosophical practices in ‘these past decades of debate over the cognitive approaches of enquiry and the classroom have been consideraby didactics of philosophy have now made research? There is no need to cancel out influenced by the new directions inspired by the Brocca Programmes as it clear that there is a false opposition the specificity, the particular richness well as the proposals of the SFI in between the problem-solving and the and depth of philosophy, by merging it 2000. historical approaches. Philosophical pro- with literature and art, or by superimpo- (34) Mario De Pasquale, ‘Enseignement de la philosophie blems are born in the human sphere. sing research methods. The particularity et histoire de la philosophie’. Classical philosophical analysis has deve- of this intent, the contents, methods and Diotime-L’Agorà, 2, 1999. loped around problems. It is evident that means of doing philosophy, must all www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora (35) Mario De Pasquale, ‘Alcuni pro- the study of philosophy requires know- remain outside of the discussion. blemi attuali in didattica della filoso- ledge of history, notably in order to dis- Philosophical research methods must fia’. Comunicazione Filosofica, 13. cuss and resolve the problems of our remain solidly tied to the thought and www.sfi.it. Note also the presentation by Fabio Cioffi, ‘La situazione della own time. It is true that one cannot learn rational conduct of research itself. didattica della filosofia in Italia attra- the encyclopaedic history of philosophy Problems arise from things themselves verso l’evoluzione dei manuali scho- lastici’, presented at a colloquium at through the study of historical doctrines and are formulated philosophically the University of Medellin, Colombia, alone. It is also true that philosophical within the tradition. Students learn to in 2003. This document comes from the Web site on the teaching of phi- problems cannot be confronted and dis- recognize, discuss and resolve them in losophy, Il giardino dei pensieri, cussed seriously by students without class, starting off with reality and www.ilgiardinodeipensieri.eu.

69 CHAPTER II

appropriating philosophical content and learning to do philosophy we learn to methods from the work already done by think, the contrary is not necessarily philosophers (centrality of the philoso- true. Our French colleagues have taken phical tradition), and known through the risk in their schools that philosophy their published works (centrality of the can transform from a mannerism of philosophical text). The translation of ‘argumentative rhetoric’ or ‘pure debate these theoretical foundations into peda- of opinions’ into a ‘philosophizing philo- gogical practice requires a revision of sophy’ between students who do not traditional practices, a breaking down of know the elements of the tradition or the rigid barriers that separate different who are not equipped with the means to fields of experience and knowledge, and read and understand a philosophical dis- a tendency to promote significant philo- course, nor to prepare one either orally sophical experiences in which research or in writing. We must bring to the cen- advances through multiple enquiries and tre of attention the concrete processes a multiplicity of discourses and langua- by which students learn and produce the ges – each with its own particular content and form of philosophical know- strengths. Contributions from other dis- ledge, through which the living philoso- ciplines enrich the different methods of phy of the students today relates back to philosophical enquiry, and also allow stu- the tradition’. The Italian discussion and dents to develop hypothetical solutions De Pasquale’s proposals at the SFI are that they can then examine, discuss and direct echoes of the ten projects propo- criticize through intersubjective argued sed by the French Association for the (36) Ibid. communication’(36). Creation of Institutes of Research into (37) Association pour la création the Teaching of Philosophy (ACIREPH – des Instituts de recherche sur l’enseignement de la philosophie ‘Let’s learn from the French experience’ Association pour la création des Instituts (ACIREPH), Manifeste pour l'ensei- is De Pasquale’s conclusion. ‘Our French de recherche sur l’enseignement de la gnement de la philosophie. Paris, April 2001. friends and colleagues invite us to reflect philosophie), in response to its Manifeste www.acireph.net on the thesis that, while it is true that in pour l’enseignement de la philosophie,

Box 18 Manifeste pour l’enseignement de la philosophie – A manifesto for the teaching of philosophy (extracts)

Sixth project: Integrate knowledge and should learn about the history of philoso- (2003–2004) is indirectly asking a fun- learning to philosophize. phy. For example, philosophy has damental question concerning the distri- Learning to philosophize involves lear- always fed on things outside itself, and bution of philosophy class hours in the ning to think through appropriating philo- we wouldn’t be able to philosophize the final year of secondary school. There sophical and non-philosophical know- least bit about science, art or religion can be no question of covering, in the ledge. In exaggerating, often to the were we not equipped with a solid and space of a school year, all of the philo- point of caricature, the legitimate dis- precise knowledge about certain funda- sophical problems about the world or tinctions between thinking and knowing, mental episodes in the history of society that can legitimately be posed, between philosophy and knowledge, or science, certain artistic and aesthetic or that we all, in one way or another, ask between the course of a living thought currents, certain religious texts. If philo- ourselves. Nor can there be any ques- and the wisdom of the philosophers, one sophy is to remain pertinent, we cannot tion of explaining all stages of the his- winds up rejecting all serious reflection avoid the question of the place it should tory of philosophy, or of covering each on how to integrate all of these in the give these indispensable elements of of the doctrines that were developed classroom. For example, in a philosophy knowledge, given that they are not within them. course organized around particular pro- actually taught in secondary school. In blems, students cannot take these on asserting that ‘the aim of teaching philo- seriously without knowing the main philosophy in final-year classes is to encou- sophical options that they have engen- rage students to engage in critical thin- dered, and through a progressive masking and to make rational judgements, tery of the conceptual distinctions that and to offer them an introduction to phi- give them meaning. These options and losophical knowledge’, and that ‘these Manifesto proposed by the French group these distinctions are neither natural nor two goals are substantially united’, and of ACIREPH(37) spontaneous. They arose in the history that ‘the study of works by the major of philosophy and can only be encounte- authors is a constitutive element of any red there. We cannot avoid the question philosophical education’, the French of what students in an introductory class general syllabus in philosophy

70 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM published in April 2001. We reproduce themes to avoid giving too much impor- here the parts most directly tied to the tance to knowledge relative to the thinking dynamic between the historical, pro- process. We’ve moved away from a purely blem-solving and didactic philosophical thematic or historical organization because approaches, the sixth project of the such programmes tend to emphasise Manifesto (see Box 18). knowledge as opposed to the cognitive process – learning often becomes memory- Let us close this section with a synthesis of based, and teaching tends to stick to the these elements developed in a different book and to a predetermined body of data context. Professor Mauricio Langon of to amass, without any real interest for the Uruguay proposes an indicative argument. student. In centring the course on its According to him, ‘the third-year syllabus is content, it becomes impossible to treat pro- focused on philosophical problems and blems in any real depth, and we end up draws on readings of philosophers from sacrificing quality for quantity. A problem- different times and cultures. This pro- oriented course takes into account a uni- gramme develops a problem-solving que and fundamental characteristic of phi- approach – with students deepening and losophical thought, which is that any pro- justifying their analyses – which creatively perly-presented problem involves the whole integrates philosophy’s beneficial aspects of philosophy, but through argumentation and its thematic (systems and concepts) and not through an accumulation of and historical details, without distancing it facts’(38). from the real interests of the students. Students focus on concrete philosophical

3) Further promoting the teaching of philosophy at secondary level

Most of the respondents agree that philo- their skills in debating and analysis sophy plays a role in training the critical (Mexico), and to develop in students a taste mind. The chorus is unanimous. Mentioned of and respect for plurality of thought – in this regard, among others, are philoso- contributing to the process of intellectual phy’s capacity to: promote intercultural and ethical training (Venezuela). We should tolerance (Germany); enable students to note that these statements are just a few think clearly about their potential and their examples of the many comments UNESCO limits (Argentina); develop their critical received during the course of the present thinking (Belgium); promote respect and study. The responses to the survey speak tolerance for the opinions of others – to volumes in that they offer a glimpse at the educate for peace and democratic values many ways in which philosophy teaching is (Burkina Faso); and to develop skills of criti- lived and experienced by its central actors. cal and creative thinking, to justify opi- These reactions are equally of great impor- nions, and to identify and give criteria tance in that a good number of them sug- (Spain). Others mentioned philosophy’s role gest ideas for augmenting, or in certain in consolidating knowledge and judgement cases initiating, the teaching of philosophy. (Guatemala), teaching creative and critical We are unable to reproduce in detail all of thinking (Iceland), and promoting the criti- the responses to the questionnaire, howe- cal analysis of fundamental questions ver analyses of the proposals and critical (Lebanon). Philosophy is seen to help stu- remarks are to be found in this chapter, as (38) Mauricio Langon, ‘Aperçu sur dents learn to analyse and to make respon- indeed throughout this book. la didactique de la philosophie’. Diotime-L’Agorà 5, 2000. sible decisions (Madagascar), to develop www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

71 CHAPTER II

4) Interactions between philosophy and other disciplines

The examples presented in this section its own vocabulary and means of demons- come from the accounts of three teachers tration. This may move students to take a from Switzerland: Mireille Lévy, Daniel reflective look at the somewhat naïve Bourquin and Pierre Paroz(39). All of their notion that science presents the naked and final-year students receive instruction in unvarnished truth. From this point, stu- philosophy, in the form of a one-hour class dents can follow Newton’s demonstration given by the philosophy teacher, plus ano- of gravitational forces in the Principia ther hour in a classroom with two or three Mathematica(40) and watch him at work on teachers. This second hour depends on the his geometrical model, which illustrates to student’s option or stream – the teacher or the students that science is made and that teachers of the specific discipline and the the great physicists do not produce their philosophy teacher teach in the classroom paradigms fully-formed. There is a practice together. of science and this practice cannot be confused with finished science. This is also (39) Mireille Lévy, Daniel Bourquin An interdisciplinary approach: an opportunity for students to exercise cri- and Pierre Paroz, ‘Enseigner la philosophie en interdisciplinarité: philosophy and physics – tical autonomy. Finally, the group might un pari risqué dans un gymnase the application of mathematics take up the debate between Einstein and (lycée) suisse romand’. Diotime-L’Agorà, 27, 2005. Bergson on the absolute nature of lived www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora The difficulties encountered by secondary- time, or Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s writings (40) Sir Isaac Newton, school science students are due more to on the problem of perception. It is also pos- Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, translated by Andrew poor modelling than to lacking the mastery sible to look with the students at the per- Motte, First American Edition. New of mathematical proofs. As such, when tea- ceived world in light of the abstract quality York, Daniel Ardee, 1846. Original title Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia ching such students it may be useful – for of Einstein’s model of relativity. Descartes, Mathematica., available online at example, in looking at Newton’s laws of in what is known as the Wax Argument http://rack1.ul.cs.cmu.edu/is/newton/ motion – to stress the fact that such laws of said that to properly understand the nature (41) Gymnase refers here to the final three years of secondary mechanics do not describe a ready-made of wax requires more than perception, but education. world, but offer a paradigm complete with intelligence. For him, perception is science

Box 19 An illustration of the interactions between philosophy and the sciences

An experiment at a gymnase(41) in the approach, proponents were not trying to losophy and economics and law, philoso- canton of Bern allows us to observe a give philosophy any role other than the phy and music, philosophy and the visual number of possible ways that philosophy service of each of the other subject arts, philosophy and modern languages, can be integrated with different subjects areas: their objective was to illustrate, philosophy and psychology and peda- in the sciences. The teachers at the for example, the complex reasoning gogy. The fact that students are disco- Bienne Gymnase are convinced of the involved in the formulation of an explana- vering philosophy through the areas of importance of this, and have instituted tory or interpretive hypothesis. knowledge in which they have made the an original way of teaching philosophy in greatest investment, with which they which students are introduced to the his- A relationship based on dialogue and often have a personal interest in – and tory of philosophical ideas alongside a reciprocity can be established between which some of them will continue to be study of various contemporary issues. philosophy and other subject areas, involved with in their professional lives This method of teaching philosophy in even if philosophy plays the role of a as well – makes for greater motivation in terms of its interaction with other sub- meta-discourse. This interdisciplinary their analysis. This motivation can help jects demonstrates to students that the approach highlights the extent to which them to overcome the difficulty of taking focused approach to reality practised in the history of philosophical ideas is una- on philosophical themes. The detour any particular academic subject, scienti- voidable, even if its point of departure is through philosophical analysis hones fic or otherwise, must also be integrated outside philosophy – in the experimental their perception of their own field of study, into a philosophical questioning of reality sciences, the human sciences or the and many of them become aware of this as a whole, and of the overall meaning arts. This method aims to arouse stu- during the process. of our presence in the world. The dents’ curiosity about the classical method highlights the fact that human canon, to show that these documents reality cannot be reduced to the single- from the past continue to speak to us, focused perspective we find in, say, bio- by still confronting us with choices. After Mireille Lévy, Daniel Bourquin logy, psychology or sociology, or even three years of working under this model, and Pierre Paroz to an interaction of various scientific the school has come to a largely positive Teachers, School of Philosophy, viewpoints in a more complex model. In assessment of the interaction between Gymnase de Bienne proposing this interdisciplinary philosophy and maths and physics, phi- (Switzerland)

72 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM in the process of being born. But Merleau- on evolutionary psychology regarding the Ponty argues to the contrary,that modern relationship of self and society. The class is science makes the world comprehensible to asked to study Laborit's image of humanity us. For example, Einstein’s relativity shows and the world, which is known as natura- that there is no such thing as an observer lism. This image is frequently defended by without a location, and that no knowledge biochemists, sometimes unconsciously, and is complete. An interdisciplinary approach the philosophy teacher will counter it with that brings together philosophy and physics another. The students take sides and argue can open students to a new understanding the two positions, first on the level of gene- of the great texts of the canon by moving ral truths, then with the help of ethics- from their knowledge and preoccupations based problem-solving, the contribution of to a better view of the pertinence of the Declaration of Human Rights, or an philosophical enquiry. examination of the principles of philosopher John Rawls’ A Theory of Justice(42). To An interdisciplinary approach: finish, the students form a bioethics com- philosophy and biochemistry mittee charged with setting priorities in organ donor cases. The discussion and ‘Proof’ is a word much favoured by science debate take off quickly. and those who students. Science, especially chemistry and take an active part will gradually acquire an biology, are proven; ethics are not. As such, expanded awareness of rationality. the means of ‘proving’ non-scientific thinking, such as philosophy, religion, poetry An interdisciplinary approach: and art, tend to make science students philosophy and music smile. They are aware that many spheres of existence are exempt from the type of veri- This course is constructed so that solo- fication used in the natural sciences. taught classes allow for a critical perspec- However they tend to think that this makes tive of the themes and works studied in the them matters of opinion – subjective ques- duo hour with two teachers, thus providing tions, that is, questions of taste and prefe- matter for reflection and analysis. There is rence. Many science students feel that thus both complementarity and tension rationality is the monopoly of scientific between the two parts of the approach. practice: a restricted, narrow concept that Whereas in the music course the accent is would seem to be ruinous to philosophers. put on Gregorian chant, with texts by To philosophers, on the other hand, ratio- Boece as support, the solo philosophy hour nality is understood in quite different carries out Kantian and Pascalian critiques terms, as a counterpart to arbitrariness and of knowledge. At the same time as the fanaticism. This is where philosophy’s role theological and hermeneutic approach is comes in. As the proof-based notion of sketched out on the theme of Johann rationality corresponds to the general way Sebastian Bach’s St. John Passion, the main of thinking among these students, then currents of contemporary atheism and their we’ve no choice but to take it as our star- hermeneutical principles – Feuerbach, ting point and try to develop it further from Marx, Nietzsche and Freud – are presented there. Here are two brief historical exam- in the solo class hour. The student is thus ples. First, the attempt to reconstruct the destabilized, or moved towards the need to historical aspect of the development of take a position. Such an approach puts the modern chemistry as a science. During the question of meaning at the heart of aesthe- eighteenth century, the old alchemical tic emotion. It urges each musician to model was replaced with a new theory entertain an existential dialogue with the based on the hypothesis of phlogiston, a musical works. premise resting on the supposed existence of a fiery matter liberated upon combustion An interdisciplinary approach: and the weight of which was thought by philosophy and visual arts some to be ‘negative’. Following a discussion of this, the students watch Alain Introducing a philosophical approach to (42) John Rawls, A Theory of Justice. Resnais’ film Mon oncle d’Amérique, a film students of the visual arts is similar to intro- Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard written to illustrate Henri Laborit's theories ducing it to music students in principle. University Press, 1971.

73 CHAPTER II

Two particularly powerful points in the philosophical teaching methods into other course should be noted. First is the study of courses or the teaching of philosophical an icon by the medieval Russian artist, skills. The cross-disciplinary approach to Andrei Rublev. This is preceded by an analy- teaching philosophy, which is aimed at sis of images from the press or Benetton developing philosophical skills or reinfor- advertisements. Students also watch Andrei cing philosophical approaches in other sub- Tarkovsky’s movie Andrei Rublev. The stu- ject areas, must not be thought of as a dents, who are often irritated at first by substitute for philosophy as a wholly inde- having had to sit through the three-hour pendent subject area – a subject that is cen- long film, begin to construct an analysis of tred on the development of critical thinking a work that is resistant to any immediate and the intellectual faculties through stu- understanding, and in the process they dying the knowledge, concepts and history come to understand the interaction bet- of philosophical thought. Brazil academics, ween aesthetics and subjective truths. A in particular, stress the importance of reco- second powerful part in the course introdu- gnizing philosophy as a subject in its own ces a painting by Pierre Bonnard which by right, and point out the momentum that challenging the conception of the body as philosophy can in this way give to a greater objective gives access to the body as lived in interaction between the study of philoso- the fragile moment of a meeting. phy at secondary and higher levels. They also emphasize the importance of teachers One of the questions that arises when we having qualifications appropriate to the speak of an interdisciplinary teaching stra- different configurations of classes. tegy for philosophy concerns the co-existence of philosophy as a separate school subject, alongside the introduction of

74 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

III. Taking stock: Institutions and practices

1) The diversity of school systems around the world

Philosophy is primarily taught in secon- of little interest to the students’. He cor- dary school in one or more of the last rectly raises the question of ‘student pas- three years of secondary school. In some sivity’, and asks ‘how could it be other- countries, such as Morocco, Portugal, wise when no challenges have been laid, Uruguay and a number of sub-Saharan no discussion instituted, no dialogue ini- African countries, it is not confined to tiated, between students and teachers’. the sciences, literature, economics or ‘Knowing how to deliver philosophy tea- social studies secondary-school streams, ching in the vocational schools’ remains but is also included in the technical and an open question in his analysis. We are vocational streams. Philosophy is not unable here to go into the specifics of taught only in schools for students desti- philosophy teaching in vocational ned to go on to university, but is inclu- schools. Suffice it to remark that the ded in secondary-level vocational often marginal role reserved for the sub- schools, where the teaching strategies ject in these schools seems more the and objectives are likely to be different result of unsuitable teaching practices from those of other secondary schools. than any lack of usefulness inherent to Simon-Pierre Amougui, National philosophy itself. Alfredo Reis, a philoso- Inspector for Philosophy in Yaounde, has phy teacher in Coimbra, Portugal, has mentioned the difficulties associated explained with great clarity the key (43) Simon-Pierre Amougui, with teaching philosophy in technical issues involved in the debate over whe- ‘Améliorer l’enseignement au lycée technique’. (43) secondary schools in Cameroon . He ther philosophy should be a mandatory Diotime-L’Agorà, 4, 1999. writes that ‘in looking at the philosophy subject in all secondary schools. www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora courses or lessons given to technical stu- (44) Alfredo Reis, ‘La situation de la philosophie’. Diotime-L’Agorà 1, dents, it is clear that their objectives, 1999. content and teaching approach are often www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

Box 20 Introduction to philosophy in Portugal: a meeting place for knowledge and experience

The subject ‘Introduction to Philosophy’ is tal power to it. I would even say that the has a distinctly formative and interdiscipli- included in the general education group in Education Reform gives it a civilizational nary aspect, and is intended to develop the tenth and eleventh years of schooling, dimension in the sense that it demonstra- openness to contemporary questions by with three hours per week of classes. All tes awareness of the importance of having being student-focused, so that students Portuguese secondary students take two or not having philosophy as part of our edu- can become dynamic agents in their own years of philosophy. The Education Reform, cation during our youth. The “Introduction learning process. which stipulates that ‘Introduction to to Philosophy” course was conceived as a Philosophy’ is the second-most important ‘meeting place for knowledge and expe- subject of the core curriculum, has given rience, a special place for the emergence philosophy a level of dignity almost equal to of critical thought, the expansion of that of Portuguese classes, and accords conceptual fields, the exercise of freedom Professor Alfredo Reis(44) irreplaceable educational and developmen- and the widening of horizons’. This course (Portugal)

The fundamental difference between this goals come up against the communication type of teaching and the discipline of philo- of content that can help prepare for subse- sophy as it is taught in the literary secon- quent university study. In another article, dary schools – in Portugal a third year of Reis stresses the different skills that these philosophy, entitled simply ‘Philosophy’, is functions require of the teaching body, and included in the final year of study in the the difficulty, for teachers of the humanities, economics, and social studies ‘Introduction to Philosophy’ class, of rethin- streams – lies where formative and critical king traditional models of the course while

75 CHAPTER II

at the same time avoiding the danger of a Proposals designed to democratize philoso- simplification of philosophy for students in phy teaching in countries where it is essen- the vocational streams. It is a matter of tially reserved for secondary schools tend to ensuring that philosophical categories and inspire the liveliest discussion, particularly concepts serve the development of the stu- at the point when the courses are being dents’ character, no matter the academic finalized. stream in which they are enrolled.

2) Teaching methods and practices around the world: Case studies*

The daily work of educational specialists more of the three streams available – – school teachers, often, devoting part literary, economic and social, or scienti- of their time to thinking about the fic. There is testimony in this sense from conditions and practices of their profes- Belarus, China, Colombia, Jordan, the sion – as well as the responses to the Russian Federation, and Turkey. A gene- UNESCO questionnaire, help bring into ral survey of philosophy teaching cannot focus certain general trends in philoso- be limited to its presence as such in aca- phy teaching around the world. To begin demic curricula; a large part of this study with, it appears that teaching philosophy is necessarily devoted to the different as a distinct subject is reserved in most pedagogical systems and practices which cases for the final years of secondary govern the teaching of the subject. This schooling and in schools that centre on diversity is of interest not only with the humanities, the sciences and econo- regard to pedagogical technicalities, but mics. A lesser, though not negligible, also because the different ways in which portion is to be found in vocational the teaching is organized play an essen- secondary schools or institutes. Where tial role depending on whether the lear- the first phase of secondary school calls ning of philosophy is designed to edu- for a common initial curriculum, as in cate towards a critique of knowledge, to Morocco, it is not at all unusual to see accompany moral, civic, or religious ins- various forms of philosophy being truction, or to reinforce consciousness of taught, such as moral education, logic, identity. In federal countries, the defini- civics, ethics or, as is the case in tion of academic curricula is generally Uzbekistan, cultural identity. The deci- left to the states, provinces, or cantons. sion has been taken here to distinguish For them, diversity unfolds at the inter- between philosophy as an independent state level. We can take Switzerland as subject and the teaching of philosophical an example. concepts. The latter seem only to fulfil the functions of philosophy teaching by One thing that stands out overall is the turns, sometimes targeting reasoning, as absence of philosophy as a mandatory sub- in the case of logic courses, sometimes ject in English-speaking countries. As one seeking to impart a body of knowledge Malawian writer put it, Malawi ‘being an or values but without concern for that English-speaking country, philosophy is knowledge being used to develop the only taught here at university’. In South critical mind. In other cases, philosophy Africa it is the same. This is a phenomenon appears in the guise of moral, civic, or that gives food for thought about the religious instruction, or as a form of hori- impact at both the pedagogical and the zontal instruction most often conferred academic levels of teaching philosophy in on teachers of other fields who are then schools, not only because the English-spea- required to augment their qualifications king world today represents the leading with philosophical credentials. Some res- community of philosophical academics in ponses to the questionnaire report on quantitative terms, but also because this *Countries according to alphabetical order in the original national projects to introduce philosophy absence calls into question the relation bet- French version. into the secondary curriculum in one or ween philosophical education and democratic

76 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 21 Recognition of philosophy at federal level in Switzerland

The Règlement de reconnaissance des week during the last two years, or, phical skills, sometimes on textual analy- maturités (RRM)(45) introduced in 1998 finally, as diploma work (TM) for one sis, and rarely on a philosophical disser- brought about considerable modifica- hour per week during the final year. This tation. The goal remains essentially to tions in secondary studies in general is done with one or more teachers if the make the students themselves willing and philosophy teaching in particular. subject is interdisciplinary and results in and able to think philosophically, and to This field does not appear as a core a ten-page written report and a year-end be inspired by thinkers from the past. mandatory subject for all students, oral exam. The dominant practice is excepting, it is true, in certain principally rather historicist in the sense that it is as Catholic cantons (Valais, Fribourg, Uri, much about learning philosophy as it is Christian Wicky(46) Schwyz, etc.) where philosophy is a about learning to philosophize, with Secretary of the Secondary Education mandatory subject, taught during the course content from the Pre-Socratics Philosophy Teachers’ Society last two years for three or four forty-five- to Sartre being not at all unusual. Given (Switzerland) minute periods per week. What is truly however the great freedom granted to new is the federal recognition of philoso- the cantons as much as to schools and phy’s status, which has had multiple teachers, it is quite difficult to sketch out consequences, such as the right to phi- a dominant model. All the more so in losophy for all, obliging all cantons to that even final-year exams are not at all offer philosophy either as an supplemen- centralized. It is the teachers themsel- tary option (OC) for two hours per week ves who set the exams for their own stu- during the last two years, or as a speci- dents. The focus is sometimes on histo- fic option (OS) for four or five hours per rical knowledge, sometimes on philoso- consciousness. Nonetheless, the absence reforms regarding the final year of secon- must be addressed. Philosophy courses are dary school, which have reduced the num- offered in some secondary schools in the ber of teaching hours of literature and phi- United States, although they are not pres- losophy to the benefit of the sciences. In cribed by the national school system. They Burundi, students are taught only a compi- are in fact complementary courses left to lation of philosophy authors and certain the initiative of each academic theories. Continent-wide, there is a pro- establishment, or to the good intentions of blem in the lack of a critical mass of univer- a few teachers. Rarely will a secondary sity-level teaching capable of ensuring a school hire a teacher primarily in order to stable presence of philosophy in schools. teach philosophy. This remains a secondary Through these different situations we see duty given, if need be, to teachers of other typical examples of the interdependence of subjects who happen to have some compe- secondary- and university-level teaching. tence in the subject. On the other hand, On the one hand, the best professors tend philosophy courses are regularly offered in to be recruited by universities in other the very prestigious Prep Schools, the regions of the world – Europe and the jewels of secondary schooling in the United United States, but also China and Australia; States. on the other, those who remain cannot manage to attract enough students to gua- In French-speaking Africa and a number of rantee a minimum number of high-quality other countries, philosophy is taught accor- graduates and scholars. It is a veritable aca- ding to the French system, not appearing demic brain drain that not only deprives the until the final year of secondary school. This continent of its best resources, but also is true in Mali, and also in Burkina Faso. The shuts off the means to regenerate them. testimonies we received draw a complex picture. Writers from Côte d’Ivoire indicate Latin America and the Caribbean that at the secondary level, philosophy courses are offered as of the second-last Brazil. The Brazilian example is of great (45) ‘Regulation for the recognition year of secondary education, but there importance in a number of ways. For one, of secondary school diplomas’. have been suggestions to introduce philo- it allows us to observe the difficulties invol- (46) Christian Wicky, ‘L’enseignement de la philosophie’. sophy into the preceding year. In Niger ved in the introduction (or reintroduction, Diotima-L’Agorà, 7, 2000. there is some discontent with recent rather), of philosophy as an independent www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

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Box 22 The development of philosophy teaching in Brazil

Philosophy has been part of the school subject in 1925, with a frankly encyclo- shape of the courses required to arrive curriculum in Brazil since the opening of paedic face. The educational reforms of at such a goal, the practical result of the first secondary school by the Jesuits 1932 and 1942 maintained logic and which has been the inclusion of philoso- in Salvador de Bahia, in 1553. This said, the history of philosophy. With the esta- phy as a mandatory subject, but under for more than three hundred years, until blishment of the military dictatorship, the aegis of the states and municipali- the middle of the nineteenth century, phi- philosophy was once again officially ties. On the one hand, since being exclu- losophy in Brazil had a clearly doctrinal deleted from the secondary curriculum ded by the last military dictatorship it character, marked by Jesuit ideology. by Law 5692, and replaced by the new has become a sort of social dream, with With the arrival of the deeply positivist- subject ‘Moral and Civic Education’ des- the freedom to teach it wedded to influenced Republic near the end of the igned to guarantee national security and democratic conditions and the existence eighteenth century, philosophy was to dampen its critical and communistic of a critical and non-authoritarian citi- removed from the curriculum for the first counter-revolutionary impact. The new zenry. On the other hand, its concrete time since its inception, because for reform in 1982 brought it back as an situation in the various states is preca- positivism, science and not philosophy optional subject, a state maintained by rious. Many of them do not include it constitutes the solid foundation of edu- the last basic legislative directive from among the secondary-level subjects, or cation. From this moment onward, philo- the Ministry of National Education, num- do so only in a tenuous fashion, for sophy was caught up in a series of poli- ber 9394, written into law in December example with only one class hour per tical and pedagogical movements that 1996. In fact, according to Article 36 week during the last school year. alternated between including and exclu- (Paragraph 1, Sub-paragraph 3), at the ding it. It was to return in 1901 as a end of secondary schooling students logic class in the last year of secondary must master, among other things, the education, only to be withdrawn in philosophical and sociological know- Professor Walter Omar Kohan(47) 1911. It came back again as an optional ledge needed for the exercise of citi- University of the State of Rio de Janeiro subject in 1915, then as a mandatory zenship. But nothing is said about the (Brazil)

subject matter. For another, it highlights the the Brazilian secondary school curricula. social and cultural roles that teaching can After numerous legislative vicissitudes, play in the democratizing of a country. In including a presidential veto in 2001, a the third place, it makes patently clear the modification of Article 36 of the 1996 law trouble with training and recruitment of was approved in July 2006 by the Brazilian teachers in this field. Philosophy teaching in National Council of Education. The new Brazil has followed the rhythm of the coun- text stipulates that ‘philosophy and socio- try’s democratization. It was reintroduced logy shall be presented as mandatory sub- into schools through the teaching reform jects at secondary level’. At the heart of the law of 1996 after a long eclipse during the debate was the problem of training the tea- years of dictatorship(48). ching faculty. The difficulty in training and recruiting philosophy teachers, quite aside In 2003, a team of scholars from different from its financial implications, was at the Brazilian universities, under the directorship source of the 2001 presidential veto and of Professor Kohan, conducted a detailed also of certain measures adopted at the study of philosophy teaching in secondary provincial level. schools in Brazil, a study that deserves to be read(49). The main issue at stake in this In a study conducted in 1998 by the debate in Brazil, which has been ongoing Organization of Ibero-American States (OEI) (47) Walter Omar Kohan, for the past few years, is the introduction of and devoted to the philosophy curriculum ‘La philosophie pour enfants’. philosophy and sociology as independent at the secondary level among eighteen Diotime-L’Agorà 6, 2000. (51) www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora subjects into the secondary curriculum. Latin-American countries , we see that (48) Roger-Pol Droit, Philosophie et Introduced in 1996, the LDB (Lei de ‘wherever philosophy is still taught, the démocratie dans le monde. Une Diretrizes e Bases da Educação, ‘National educational process put greater emphasis enquête de l’UNESCO. Paris, UNESCO. 1995. Education Bases and Guidelines Law’) man- on the history of philosophy than on philo- (49) Alberto Favero Altair, Filipe dated that students master certain philoso- sophy as such’. Philosophy seems to be Ceppas, Pedro Ergnaldo Gontijo, phical and sociological knowledge, but absent from the majority of school curricula Silvio Gallo, Walter Omar Kohan, ‘O ensino da filosofia no Brasil: without requiring that these subjects be in Central America. In Nicaragua, where, um mapa das condições asuais’, taught in and of themselves. This ambiguity we are told, it ‘has not been taught in Cadernos CEDES, 24: 64, September/December 2004. sparked a very lively debate about how secondary since 2000’, we also learn that www.scielo.br these subjects should be incorporated into ‘the pedagogical trend in curriculum reform

78 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 23 A vision for philosophy... in the Dominican Republic

A study entitled ‘How philosophy and the reinforces values such as honesty, logi- philosophy; and develop training mate- teaching of philosophy in the higher cal rigour, respect, tolerance and a criti- rials designed for philosophy classes. levels of secondary school are viewed cal awareness. The study came up with by first-year students at the Pontifical the following recommendations: create The study also suggested that all school Catholic Madre y Maestra University, forums to raise awareness of philosophi- libraries should have sections devoted Santiago’(50) arrives at the conclusion, cal knowledge; offer philosophy courses purely to philosophical texts, and that an among others, that the course content with anthropological and epistemologi- annual philosophy competition should be offered in philosophy at secondary cal themes in the final years of secon- established for young people. school rely largely on memory-based dary school; increase teacher-training; learning, whereas the teaching techni- emphasize that augmenting the teaching ques, on the other hand, call upon parti- of-philosophy helps students develop Maria Ireme Danna, Johnny González cipatory methodologies. Students think values; develop a teacher-education pro- and Ramón Gil, Professors of philosophical knowledge as a tool that gramme specifically for the teaching of (Dominican Republic) no longer aims to approach philosophy as a Peru. Philosophy teaching was checked in specialized science but as a subject that is 2002 when the government withdrew it complementary to other subjects’. In from the academic curriculum as an inde- Mexico, schooling in the sciences has pride pendent subject. We might note that barely of place, and philosophy is taught, princi- two years after this governmental measure pally in the form of logic and ethics, throu- was taken, the Peruvian philosophical com- ghout secondary school. Let us note also a munity has come out openly in favour of re- 2005 study on the teaching of philosophy establishing the subject, notably in the by the Department of Human Sciences at Déclaration d’Arequipa, the name of the the Pontifical Catholic Madre y Maestra host city for the national philosophy collo- University, Santiago’ in the Dominican quium held in December 2004, of which Republic (see Box 23). the salient parts are reproduced here.

Haiti. The new National Education and Uruguay. Philosophy is taught in the last Training Plan (PNEF – ‘Plan national d'édu- three years of secondary school (students cation et de formation’) aims to improve of fifteen to seventeen years of age), irres- the quality of education across all levels. In pective of the academic stream taken by this regard, a reform of secondary schoo- the student. Weekly hours differ according ling is already in the pilot testing stage. to the option chosen. Mauricio Langon, More precisely, the need for more teaching National Philosophy Inspector and staff in the field of philosophy has been President of the Philosophy Association of pointed out. A significant shortfall of philo- Uruguay, describes the way the subject is sophy teachers can be expected and can taught in the school system in his country: lead to an eventual decline in the subject. ‘Since 1885, philosophy has been taught in the final three years of secondary school, Paraguay. In response to the UNESCO for three hours per week. We estimate that questionnaire, we read that ‘educational 60 per cent of students of fifteen to seven- reform has diminished the subject so that it teen years of age receive at least one year exists only as a specialized baccalaureate of training in philosophy, and 50 per cent subject. In the past, technical baccalaurea- receive three years. There is great unifor- (50) Prepared as part of the October tes included it in at least one year, and two mity in philosophy teaching at the national 2005 programme, in which UNESCO participated, entitled for the humanities. Philosophy has thus level, the same curricula, assessment ‘The development of critical thinking been enormously reduced at the secondary methods, teachers and inspectorates. We through philosophy education level. But the technical baccalaureates do do not necessarily find this same uniformity in the Dominican Republic’. (51) OEI, Análisis de los currículos offer subjects such as ethics and citizenship in the official guidelines and freedom of de filosofía en nivel medio en education, sociology and cultural anthropo- teaching tends rather to be increased than Iberoamérica. 1998. logy, and politics and mathematical logic’. excluded’(52). (52) Mauricio Langon, ‘Aperçu sur la didactique de la philosophie’. Diotime-L’Agorà 5, 2000. www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

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Box 24 Excerpts from the Arequipa Declaration

Assembled at Arequipa Peru for the and enhance the status of philosophy disappear from the current curriculum; Sixth National Colloquium on Philosophy, teaching in Peru by redefining its core - To express our concern, in the face of we declare objectives and by outlining rules, adap- the weak interest manifested by the - That philosophy constitutes a consubs- ted to the reality of each region, for the Peruvian government, for the strengthening tantial part of the fundamental heritage diversification of the curriculum; and reinforcing of philosophy teaching; of human reason; - That it is necessary to institutionalize - To recommend that Peruvian universi- - That our philosophical vocation is a the fundaments of a tradition of the tea- ties and educational institutions, as well vocation for humanity, its history and its ching and learning of philosophy in Peru. as the Peruvian Philosophy Society, problems; To this end, the universities and educa- come out publicly in support of the - That in the face of the expansion and tional institutions should organize acade- necessity and urgency of philosophy for consolidation of mass consumption, we mic events and exchanges; young Peruvians; hold that it is necessary and urgent to we decide - To draw the attention of the national stimulate among our youth a culture of - to proclaim philosophical education for philosophical community to the neces- the philosophical mind that will enable young Peruvians as an urgent priority for sity of creating a tradition of research future citizens to build a general unders- the veritable national education of future into and reflection on the teaching and tanding of humanity and the world; Peruvian citizens; learning of philosophy in Peru, as occurs - That philosophy enables the training of - to demand that the Peruvian governent in other countries in America and the the critical mind and freedom of thought, give new support to the teaching of phi- world. and promotes reflection on humankind losophy in our country’s educational ins- and its destiny; titutions, and that it not be diluted in Source: http://redfilosofica.de - That it is indispensable to strengthen other subject areas or be let simply to (Peru)

Venezuela. One respondent to the reform of 1962 attempted to adapt tea- questionnaire declared that ‘philosophy, as ching to the social, economic and political a subject offered to undergraduates in the realities of an independent state. Twenty humanities, leans towards psychology in years after the introduction of the national such a way that teachers do not need to languages, the landmarks for a different specialize in the subject. Worse yet, the kind of education system have been plan- official curriculum obliges them to abandon ted but the issues around the language of philosophical content’. instruction have not been resolved’. What are the consequences of using a foreign Africa language in the learning process, especially when that language has not been maste- One common issue in many African coun- red? First, there is a reduction in the level of tries is the linguistic dimension of philoso- motivation. Second, the transmitted know- phy teaching. In a study by Coumba Touré, ledge has been poorly understood and Professor in Education Sciences at the sometimes distorted. Finally, the ability to University of Bamako in Mali, we see the analyze and to contemplate is reduced. This difficulty of teaching philosophy in a school is the general context in which philosophy system characterized by a sometimes is now being taught, for the first time, in conflictual multilingualism. This ground- the final year of the secondary school, in all level study(53) reveals a situation which sections. The hours, syllabus and content seems to be shared by other French-spea- vary according the section. The most perti- king African countries. After remarking nent problem is the language, because in that the majority of students at a secondary order to understand the concepts one must school in Bamako were having difficulties in understand the language of instruction. learning philosophy, Professor Touré came Add to that the specificity of philosophical to the conclusion that their troubles ‘were knowledge through the nature of concepts, intimately tied to the problem of the lan- the divergence and diversity of ideas. This guage of instruction’. He describes it thus: study demonstrates that there are problems ‘The Malian education system is a product tied to teaching methods, problems of a (53) Coumba Touré, ‘Mali: les diffi- of colonisation. One of its consequences is linguistic order, problems tied to the wor- cultés des apprenti-philosophes’. that the first Malian students had to use a king conditions of the teachers and to the Diotima-L’Agorà, 19, 2003. www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora foreign language, French. The educational pedagogical means used. It closes in noting

80 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM that an efficient school system must com- an impact on their mutual evolution. These bine both the immediate environment and points of contact of one language with the general international context. In a another, one word with another, one philo- recent text, Pierre Okoudjou, a member of sophical concept with another, come about the school for training school inspectors in in and by translation – in the act of transla- Benin, writes that ‘learning to think, to ting, which is both a manifest act of crea- speak and to write in one’s native language tion and of reproduction. The translated, is to give the advent of African philosophy, reflected word does not come from understood in both the singular and the ‘nothing’ yet at the same time it must say plural, its best chance’, for ‘once again, something once translated. Any process of philosophy is to be found in the native lan- reflection upon or contemplation of other guage and culture’(54). One might question cultures must necessarily be distilled via lan- the pertinence and limits of these claims, guage. How is one to transpose a word, an which seem to ignore the beneficial effects idea, a concept from one language to ano- of multilingualism in many African coun- ther without denying, assaulting, dulling or tries. But linguistic diversity and multilin- falsifying it? Language both defines and gualism are, in different ways, among the bears an identity, and at the same time it major preoccupations of African teachers continually calls on itself to go beyond and scholars. It is not a simple matter of the itself, its continual evolution is an indispen- organization of instruction. In an article sable condition for its existence. We can that appeared in Politique africaine in refer here to a remarkable labour, the fruit 2000, the Senegalese philosopher of many years of work, the Vocabulaire Souleymane Bachir Diagne clarifies the cog- européen des philosophies – Dictionnaire nitive – epistemic – issue underlying linguis- des intraduisibles(56). Even though it focus- tic diversity. He asks: ‘Does language deter- ses on European philosophy, the issues this mine the logical categories we employ, and book raises and its overall polemic are our fundamental notions of being, time equally relevant in other regions of the and so on? What about translation, its pos- world. The book is a powerful invitation to sibilities and effects? What we might call thought, notably through its vision of the the philosophical and linguistic question in complex relationships between language Africa today would benefit greatly from a and thought. look at the history of translations of Greek philosophical texts in the Islamic world, and the way in which these translations turned Arabic into a philosophical language. Translating a philosophical problem into Kanyarwand, Akar or Wolof, three languages that I speak, never fails to teach me, first off, something about that language and the referential system that it constitutes, and secondly, something about the nature of the philosophical problem itself’(55). (54) Pierre-Claver Okoudjo, We can also cite the testimony of a Haitian ‘Comment enseigner aujourd’hui la philosophie en Afrique?’ In P.J. respondent to the UNESCO study, accor- Hountondji (ed.), La rationalité, ding to whom ‘the St. Francois de Sales une ou plurielle? Dakar, CODES- RIA, 2007, p.288. Institute of Philosophy has just launched a (55) Souleymane Bachir Diagne, review of philosophy teaching, aiming ‘Revisiter la philosophie bantou’. among other things to teach philosophy in Politique africaine, 77, March 2000. Haitian Creole’. www.politique-africaine.com (56) Barbara Cassin (ed.), It is in fact very enriching to consider the Vocabulaire européen des philosophies – Dictionnaire des porosity that can occur between different intraduisibles [European languages: in ways they can inflect one Vocabulary of Philosophy: A Dictionary of the Untranslatable]. another, ways they interact, and other ways Paris, Éditions du Seuil / Le Robert, their encounters with one another can have 2004.

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Box 25 Moving from one language to another: language and thought

The Vocabulaire européen des philoso- henceforth be held, or we could play the So each entry starts with a knot of phies: Dictionnaire des intraduisibles pluralism card in making the meaning untranslatable concepts and proceeds covers fifteen languages of Europe or and importance of differences manifest. by comparing networks of terminology associated with Europe. The main lan- In this dictionary we have opted for the related to the concept – the distortion of guages considered are Arabic, Basque, latter of the two, and it has been our which constitute the history and geogra- English, French, German, Greek, ambition to construct a sort of cartogra- phy of language and culture. This is both Hebrew, Italian, Latin, Norwegian, phy of European philosophical differen- a new kind of working tool that should Portuguese, Russian, Spanish and ces by amassing our different transla- prove indispensable to the expanded Swedish. The book contains 400 entries tors’ expertise. We wanted to explore scientific community presently develo- and examines 4,000 words or expres- the connection between language and ping, and a guide to philosophical sions, provided by 150 contributors wor- thought, by drawing from the problems Europe for students, teachers and aca- king over a period of 12 years. The lan- commonly encountered when moving demics. guage question is in fact one of the between languages: does mind mean most urgent problems facing Europe. the same thing as Geist or esprit? Is Barbara Cassin We could resolve it by choosing a domi- pravda justice or truth? What happens Philosopher and philologist nant language in which all exchanges will when we translate mimesis as imitation? (France)

Asia and the Pacific sense, philosophy is an extension of the moral education that is given in the first Japan. Philosophy makes its appearance in and second levels of secondary school(58). the Japanese curriculum in primary school Philosophy textbooks generally cover ideas and at lower secondary levels (children of from antiquity that are representative of twelve to fifteen years of age) in the form the world’s main civilizations, such as Greek of ethical instruction. It extends into the philosophy, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism second level of secondary as an optional and Confucianism. They also cover Western ethics course within the more general fra- philosophy, in particular post-Renaissance, mework of civic education. This is how and Japanese philosophy, including the Professor Tetsuya Kono of the University of vision of nature, humanity and society as Tamagawa describes the arrangement, in they appear in novels, literary essays and an article that appeared in Diotime-L’Agorà poetry. These texts consider contemporary in January 2005(57). Philosophy is taught ethical issues as well – such as bioethics, through moral education, and is not accor- environmentalism and the global society. It ded a proper class of its own until the should be noted in this context that the second level of secondary. At that level, concept of ‘philosophical’ questions is teachers teach their students how to judge often reduced to questions that relate to ethical questions and how to acquire good our individual sense of the meaning of life. moral conduct, in the context of teaching The content of our textbooks forms more a good citizenship. So moral education in pri- history of thought than of philosophy. mary and early secondary education often Japanese study books, in parallel with the includes classes at school or a supplemen- Japanese course in ethics, seem to attach tary training at home. Professor Kono des- more importance to the acquisition of a cribes philosophy’s place in second-level general or historical knowledge of ideas, secondary schooling as follows. It is taught philosophies and religions. The principal in the Rinri (ethics) class, which is itself a aims of philosophical education in Japan subject within Komin (civics, or civic educa- are not to develop the students’ critical (57) Tetsuya Kono, ‘La situation actuelle de l’enseignement de la tion). Komin comprises three subjects: thinking or their ability to construct a ratio- philosophie au Japon’. Diotime- contemporary society (sociology), ethics, nal argument on a given subject. L’Agorà, 24, 2004. and politics and economics. The focus in www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora (58) An example of an ethics text ethics is on issues of life, morality and poli- Thailand. Philosophy in Thailand is taught book is Ethics, 2001, published by tics, rather than philosophical issues such as throughout the seven years of secondary the Mathematics Certification metaphysics, truth, knowledge, science or schooling, but not as a separate subject. It Institute of Japan. http://www.suken.net/english/ mind-body relations, for example. In this is taught in both general and technical

82 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM schools for two hours per week. It is cove- Europe and North America red in the context of other subjects, such as literature, history, ethics, religious studies, The International Association of Philosophy civics or science. A holistic approach is Teachers (AIPPh) regularly updates informa- generally employed. The respondents to tion about curricula and pedagogy on their the questionnaire emphasize among other user-friendly on-line map of Europe(59). The points their desire to improve the students’ Amiens school district also offers summary abilities to come to grips with social and documentation in French on philosophy economic problems. They indicate the teaching in most European countries. importance accorded to philosophy tea- Some of this information has been taken chers in Thailand, be they school teachers directly from the AIPPh Web site, but it also or religious leaders such as Buddhist includes links to new material on Web sites monks. that follow specific developments in different European countries(60). What is most The study provided limited information striking in considering this region is the from other countries in this region. diversity of educational systems in Europe. Philosophy is taught in India at the upper secondary level in years eleven and twelve, Professor Michel Tozzi(61) of the University of for three to four hours per week on ave- Montpellier in France has identified five rage, as part of classes in the scientific main co-existing educational paradigms method and logic, and in history of philoso- within Europe, which allow us to see the phy courses. In Indonesia, for the moment overall trends at work in this area. What is there is no plan to introduce philosophy interesting in his work is his objective of below the university level. Nonetheless, the identifying the pedagogical practices that Department of Philosophy at the University help to establish philosophy as a school of Indonesia (UI) has organized secondary- subject in its own right: in other words, to school competitions on philosophical sub- move from a view of philosophy as a body jects, particularly in the area of human of texts to an understanding of how philo- rights. In New Zealand, we are told, there sophy, as a historically and university-based is no official curriculum in the sense that field of knowledge, can be taught in the philosophy is not treated as a separate sub- context of secondary education (and now ject in secondary school. Certain ethical primary as well) – that is, how it can and philosophical themes, notably to do become a school subject. with interracial relations, are included in the history and social studies text books as The dogmatic and ideological paradigm: well as in language studies. Since This is the teaching and learning of a state Uzbekistan’s independence in 1991, the philosophy. Philosophy appears as an orga- education system has been reformed and nized and coherent response to fundamen- new instructional norms are in place in tal questions about humanity. The focus is accordance with the Education Law of on its doctrinal aspects – questions are 1997. Philosophy is taught in all years of asked, but their answers are provided, secondary schooling, with course titles such incontestable by virtue of being based on as ‘Cultural Identity’, ‘History of World reason. Doctrine is a world view, a theore- Religions’, The Individual and Society’, tical construct that wants to account for ‘Family Psychology’, ‘Aesthetics’, and ‘The reality and enter into a relationship with Idea of National Independence and Basic Truth – understood as absolute knowledge. Enlightenment Principles’. We learn also Students can ask questions to make sure that in Pakistan philosophy is taught in the they understand the lesson, but any objec- sixth and seventh years (upper secondary), tions will be used solely to drive the doc- as an option in the Literature, Economics trine ever more deeply home. Hence the and Social Sciences sections. Philosophy is use of the term ‘dogmatic’: one cannot call taught in combination with other subjects the pillars of doctrine into question with such as literature, history or religious impunity, because it would crumble and fall studies. without them. This world view is necessary (59) www.aipph.de/euro.html to the maintenance of global society, and (60) www.ac-amiens.fr its function is to justify it. That is why there (61) www.philotozzi.com

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is a question here of an ideological para- confusion of philosophy and official ideo- digm. The teacher, as a civil servant, trans- logy that must be investigated. mits the official philosophy as doctrinal truth. We could imagine, for example, The historical and patrimonial paradigm: In Hegel’s philosophy raised to the level of this paradigm, philosophy is a major histo- official state philosophy – perfected philo- rical form of culture, the manner in which sophy as absolute knowledge in the perfec- humanity, in answer to the questions that it ted state. There are numerous examples of asks about its own condition, has moved this kind throughout history. In the Middle from mythos (myth, which tries to explain Ages, the limits of any discussions among things in narrative and metaphorical theologians were fixed by a defined inter- fashion), to logos (rational discourse, which pretation of dogma. We can see shades of philosophy shares with science). It has this in the more recent past in the form drawn up visions of the world in history, taken by official philosophy teaching in kinds of explanatory systems of humanity’s Franco’s Spain, or other regimes with close relationship to the cosmos, to others, to ties to the Catholic Church. The Vatican’s itself. A history, then, of its attempts to official philosophical doctrine of Thomism understand and to act wisely. It is incarna- appears as official state philosophical ideo- ted in the authors, so many great names logy. One can also consider the kind of phi- from history, who, in working out their philosophy teaching that occurs or can occur losophical doctrines, have left their mark on in a theocratic, fundamentalist, Muslim the history of thought, breaking with the state. Here the ties between philosophy past and introducing new ways of seeing. teaching and a religious belief in obedience This history is a precious cultural patrimony to the state are clear, and this acceptance is to be preserved, studied and passed on, used to reject the development of demo- because it is the visible trace, the testimony, cracy and secularism as their opposite. In the core and the reservoir of fundamental his thesis on the sciences of education, categories of thinking about the world. Zouari Yassine has shown, through inter- And unlike in the history of science, these views with both teachers and students of past visions are not obsolete but are alive philosophy; the extent to which the Islamic with all their depth intact. So didactization culture that is prevalent in Tunisia, a mode- here means the teaching of a history of rate Islamic country for all that, can be a ideas(63) with its powerful and essential high cultural obstacle to the spirit of free enquiry points marking this intellectual epic. For into a number of proscribed topics and, example the Socratic dialogue, the Platonic more generally, a hindrance to the develop- idea, Aristotelian rhetoric, Pyrrhic scepti- ment of a culture of inquisitiveness(62). We cism, Stoic courage, Epicurean hedonism, can also consider evangelists in the United Thomist theology, Cartesian doubt, the States who are trying to proscribe the tea- Kantian imperative, Hegelian dialectic, ching of evolutionary theory in science clas- Marxist surplus value, Nietzschean doubt, ses and, more broadly, any ideas that are Freudian unconscious, Bergson’s durability, counter to a certain interpretation of the Husserl’s description, Heidegger’s Dasein, etc. Bible. There is also an inverse but symmetri- cal atheist version of this dogmatism in the The problem-solving paradigm: This para- countries of the former eastern bloc, where digm breaks with the two preceding ones. Marxism-Leninism-Stalinism was imposed It has less to do with learning about one or as the official philosophy, hunting down two philosophers than with ‘learning to any idealist, spiritualist or liberal currents, philosophize’ (Kant). Philosophizing begins, which were judged to be politically subver- as Aristotle said, with astonishment and (62) See also excerpts from this sive. This was an attempt to eradicate the questioning. It is a process of attempting to study in the section on philosophy teaching in Tunisia on the following soviet dissidence of the mavericks – think through crucial questions and of pages. because philosophy is also often the oppo- trying to answer them from beyond any (63) One example of this view nents’ refuge – the counterpoint here of pre-formed opinions, beyond the common- is to be found in Jostein Gaarder, Sophie's World: A Novel about religious heresy, in their attempts to learn place and obvious. The challenge is to learn the History of Philosophy, to think freely for themselves. There is a link to think for oneself. In considering these translated from the Norwegian by Paulette Moller. here too between philosophy and military problems it is important to recognize the London, Phoenix House, 1995. dictatorship or moral oppression, the presuppositions that lie behind them or

84 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM that they entrain – that is, to size up what The decision-making (praxeological) and is essential and what needs to be resolved ethical paradigm: named to draw attention in order to think about the human condi- to the aspect of praxis, or action, this tion, and the obstacles that can get in the concerns learning to act, and not solely to way of that thinking. The teaching is struc- think, in order to live well and in accor- tured around philosophy texts as well as dance with values. Doing philosophy invol- the teacher’s lessons, which present exam- ves consciously adopting a certain ethical ples and models of rational thinking and of conduct. To focus philosophical education the concepts in question. Their aim is to exclusively on learning to think would be to make sense of these questions in such a amputate the subject from a fundamental way that the students begin to develop for dimension that, as Marx wrote in his essays themselves an appropriate manner of thin- on Feuerbach, aims not only ‘to interpret king that will progressively become their the world’, but ‘to transform it’. A histori- world view. No history of ideas is needed, cal form of this paradigm is the wisdom of because the concepts, doctrines and cour- the philosophers extolled in antiquity. As ses are only there in order to prompt the the philosopher Pierre Hadot said, it takes students to think; dictating an official philo- more than thought alone to illuminate our sophy is even less welcome, because the understanding of the world. It targets a goal is the students’ own personal evolu- certain kind of ‘good life’ true to reason tion. This is the case in France, for example, and leading to happiness, be it through where the culture must be invested in the judicious pleasure, Epicureanism, or the positioning of the problems and the exercise of virtue, Stoicism. So in this para- methodical attempts at formulating and digm philosophy is not just an intellectual solving them, and where ‘the aim of tea- guide to its disciples, but also a guide to ching philosophy in the final year of secon- action. We find a modernized notion of this dary school is to encourage students’ to paradigm in the ethics courses of countries access the deliberated exercise of judge- such as Belgium, Canada (in French-spea- ment, to develop a sense of intellectual res- king Québec) and Germany. In Belgium, ponsibility, to train independent minds from the starting point of an ethical capable of employing a critical awareness dilemma for example, students must use of the contemporary world’ (new analysis to learn to clarify and prioritize curriculum for 2003). values, with a view to judiciously acting ethically, and without these values being The democratic and discussionary para- imposed, for they are the result of unfette- digm: Here as well the aim is problem-sol- red examination. Engagement is a central ving. What is different is the attempt to link notion here, in both the individual and the the goal of learning to think for oneself to collective senses. democratic objectives. Thus in the legisla- tor’s mind, the teaching of philosophy is The Arab World included in the prospects of education towards citizenship or democracy (as it is As a general rule, philosophy at the secon- put in English-speaking countries), but dary level has a long tradition in North without being completely subordinated to Africa, and goes back in particular to the it. The idea is that for democracy as a poli- French school system. Nonetheless, there tical system to mature, it needs to have a are considerable differences among the thinking citizenry, that is to say, citizens different countries. with critical minds who can avoid the excesses of which democracy is always Algeria. Abdelmalek Hamrouche, Dean of capable: doxology, majority rule, sophistry, Philosophy Inspectors in Algeria, wrote in persuasion by any means, demagoguery, 2001 that ‘since the colonial occupation, and similar. As democracy is consubstan- no Arab country has managed to initiate a tially tied to debate, which guarantees the pedagogy equivalent to Arab philosophical right to speech and diversity of opinion, the thought and reality, or even to reconcile issue is to instinctively consolidate the Western and Muslim philosophy. This state democratic debate. of affairs has had disastrous repercussions in the sense that students in this situation

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have but little respect for the course’s evaluation for philosophy training. At the analysis and profundity, and turn instead to secondary level this is done through com- whatever is superficial and simple’(64). missions composed of teachers and inspec- Another inspector of philosophy, Mohamed tors of philosophy. No other authority inter- Tahari, wrote in 1999 that philosophy ‘is venes in this field, neither religious authori- considered an essential subject in the arts, ties nor political parties. Only occasionally is and marks in the subject are given a strong there consultation with political parties or weighting factor in the baccalaureate exam scientific and professional organizations’. (factor of five). It also receives a weighting According to reports that we have received, of two for the sciences, maths and techni- the textbooks used today in Tunisian state cal streams. Weekly class hours vary schools, and particularly the current text- according to the student’s academic book for the final year of secondary school stream. The philosophy curriculum is the and the new student book published in same throughout Algeria’s forty-eight 2006, give specially attention to the spirit departments – it is unified. It was put into of pluralism and diversity through their place by a ministry commission, after selection of texts that cohere to criteria of consultation, of course, with the speciali- diversity and cultural richness. In this case, zed inspectors, who meet once or twice per the centralization of teaching materials school year to discuss different issues in the seems to form a dam against the prolifera- teaching of this field’(65). tion of doctrinal or proselytizing works. It is worthwhile noting that, according to Tunisia. Philosophy teaching in Tunisia has Professor Triki, ‘in secondary schooling as in benefited from a policy of continuity at the higher education, study of the classics secondary level. This direction has been occupies an important place. Their texts confirmed and strengthened through two make up two thirds of the student text- educational reforms, in 1988 and 2006, book’. Courses run according to the model which introduced the teaching of philoso- of text and commentary, rather than follo- phy in the year preceding terminale, in the wing the historical or problem-solving para- Arts stream at first, and then in all streams. digms. All in all, it amounts to an education As Professor Fathi Triki, UNESCO Philosophy in reading and textual comprehension Chair at the University of Tunis, notes in a aiming to develop the essential skills of a report on philosophy teaching submitted to philosophical education, that is, to develop UNESCO in 2006, ‘the organization of one’s own ideas on the basis of direct exa- philosophical studies in secondary and mination of a communicative text. This skill higher education comes under the central is clearly developed under the tutelage of public power, because the ministries of the teachers, who, just as for the commen- Education and Training and of Higher taries included in the texts, are there to Education are the authorities in charge of orient the students’ reading in one direc- this subject. Especially at the secondary tion or another. Nonetheless the lesson level, they contribute to the definition of structure must be underlined over and the curricula to be taught, they decide on above the central fact of Ministerial compi- the number of teaching hours to be given lation of the textbooks. As Triki notes, ‘the to it and the evaluation methods to be prescribed methods have an interactive used. The Ministry of Education and character where students are no longer Training also organizes the development of simple receivers but partners who are called philosophy textbooks’. This last remark to take responsibility for themselves and to about the oversight of student books could participate in the building of knowledge be considered perplexing. Nonetheless, he from the basis of the textual aid. Teachers adds, ‘the role of the public authorities in are trained with this end in mind and a dia- (64) Abdelmalek Hamrouche, the administration of the study of philoso- logical pedagogy in the sights. Some resis- ‘L’enseignement de la philosophie’. phy is to define the general aims of the tance has been observed among the least Diotime-L’Agorà, 10, 2001. www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora educational system and student profiles at young of the teachers. Students’ work is (65) Mohamed Tahari, the end of each year of study. But this does submitted to a formative evaluation which ‘L’enseignement de la philosophie not lessen the role of the educational allows the teacher to properly prepare the en Algérie’. Diotime-L’Agorà, 1, 1999. authorities, which is to define and to put candidates for their examinations, which www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora into use the content, form and methods of occur in two ways: i) in the third year of

86 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM secondary school, students sit a test in the ‘literature’ and the ‘economics and social form of separate exercises relating to speci- sciences’ streams. The course is entitled fic objectives, ii) in terminale, or final year, ‘Basic Principles of Philosophy’. Philosophy there is only one kind of test: to write a is also taught within literature and ethics thesis on a given topic. A few sessions may courses. Philosophy is taught in Qatar, we sometimes be given over to student presen- learn, in the final three years of secondary tations’. Let us add that the latest reform in school for one or two hours per week. secondary-level philosophy, which came Finally, responses from Jordan and Sudan into effect in the autumn of 2006, attemp- indicate that philosophy is not included in ted to bring the classroom texts into their secondary-school curricula. alignment with current issues in philosophy by increasing the amount of time devoted to modern and contemporary philosophy from different regions of the world.

Other Tunisian teachers and academics seem to agree with the results. The UNESCO study reports the view that teaching philosophy helps the development of a critical approach, fights against dogmatism, assists students in learning to be themselves while respecting others, and helps to free them of fanaticism. The results of a study of students’ image of philosophy, conducted by Zouari Yassine(66) at the beginning of this decade, in the terminale, or final year, of the humanities stream at four different Tunisian secondary schools, highlight the fact that the values of communication, discussion and openness to other opinions and viewpoints are the most problematic.

We learn from responses to the questionnaire from Egypt that there is talk of reforming the overall philosophical curriculum as well as the classes offered and course books. Philosophy has been taught in Egypt at the secondary level since 1925. Courses are entitled ‘The Principles of Philosophy’ and ‘Logic and Scientific Thought’ (available for all streams), and ‘Philosophy and Logic’ (available as part of the Literature stream). The primary focus is on Islamic philosophy, Muslim philosophers and their contribution to the history of science. Associations such as the Supreme Council for Culture contribute equally to the teaching of philosophy by organizing conferences, public debates, and publishing works of philosophy, as well as a magazine. Respondents in Kuwait inform us of a desire to augment philosophy’s presence in the secondary, where it is taught in the final (66) Zouari Yassine, ‘Points de vue des élèves tunisiens’. year of secondary school for one or two Diotime-L’Agorà, 9, 2001. hours per week. and is mandatory in the www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora

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Box 26 The complex relationship with the Other highlighted in a study of four Tunisian high schools

Analysis of interviews with Tunisian interviewees’ image of the West is a aspects of these cultures, but in stu- students shows clearly the concurrent mixture of a number of different dying their philosophies we are still frequency of two inferred variables: aspects, with scientific progress, trying to critique them and to adopt social and cultural obstacles to the atheism, technological power and the whatever suits our thinking and our practice of philosophy, and the short- colonial past all mixed together. This society, above all because we are comings in Philosophy teaching in the image remains strongly tied to the essentially a religious society’. We country. In fact, the structure of philo- collective imagination in terms of pre- have to conclude, then, on the basis sophy courses seems based on a uni- judice, reductionism and distrust with of these ambivalent attitudes to other directional model in which discussion, regard to Western philosophy. cultures, that these students are not seen as a value that emerges from Students can feel inspired to criticize contemplating the values of dialogue the teaching of philosophical themes, Western philosophical culture, but and communication in their rational is not given any concrete pedagogical they do so not to rethink particular and critical senses. The philosophy weight. Interviewee X7 said that ‘in ideas, nor to reveal the limitations or that is being taught is not perceived class, students try harder to receive what is unsaid in a particular philoso- as a form of analysis that enriches the than to participate because it is a phical system. Their criticisms serve universality of human thought, in what heavy curriculum and there’s not more to underline contrasts with the it calls reason or the analytical faculty enough time. Students are only thin- traditional values of Islam, from which potentially possessed by every human king about remembering what is being they draw an essential element of being. Imprisoned in the elevation of taught so that they can use it later. their identity. That is why there is an their own beliefs and a purely utilita- Given how little time there is, from the ideological cast to the doubts and cri- rian relationship with other people or moment he or she enters the class- ticism they express. They are acting cultures, the students see in Western room the teacher tries to dictate the out a withdrawal into the self more philosophical thought only advantages lesson to us and that’s it’. than a natural openness to philoso- or disadvantages understood in refe- phy. Consequently the collective and rence to their religious values. That it Even though the value of openness to conformist ‘we’ that assimilates the is impossible to consider this sort of other cultures or ideas is something individual wins out over the reflexive relationship with other people or cul- touched on frequently in philosophy ‘I’, as the students’ comments show. tures as real openness is amply pro- lessons, the students’ actual images Interviewee X16 said that ‘it is within ven by the contradictions that we wit- of different cultures or different world the reach of anyone who has studied ness in these students’ comments. views is not in fact influenced by phi- philosophy to enter into a dialogue losophical concepts, and instead with Western cultures and to adopt conforms to narrow traditional views, whatever suits his or her personality, Zouari Yassine bearing witness to an absence of any society and culture. For example, we Doctor of Sciences of Education reflexive link to philosophy. Thus the can study the intellectual and literary (Tunisia)

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Box 27 The International Philosophy Olympiads

All students participating in the Olympiads that Asian students are among those who write their essays in foreign languages. One have achieved the best results at the can expect that philosophising in a foreign Olympiads. language opens new dimension for transcultural communication, using philosophy as a Two students and two teachers from each common intellectual resource. The criteria participating country take part in the IPO of evaluation are: relevance of the written yearly meetings. Nonetheless, thousands of text to the chosen topic, philosophical students and teachers throughout the world understanding of the topic, persuasive participate in national competitions – for power of argumentation, coherence and ori- example, various national philosophy olym- ginality. It should be made clear that we do piads. In many countries, the IPO has been not expect students to just write an essay an incentive and an example that has been presenting the ideas of a specific philoso- used to instigate national competitions in pher. Rather, we hope that he or she will philosophy for secondary-school students. focus on the problem suggested by the quo- Philosophical competitions such as these tation using all relevant knowledge at hand. are an excellent way to encourage students Since 1995, the IPOs have been assisted by to develop their interests in philosophy. UNESCO. In 2001, FISP also became offi- Involving teachers in the long competition cially engaged supporting the Olympiad. At process also opens new possibilities for present this engagement involves FISP them to expand their professional compe- representatives, together with representati- tences, and will certainly help in sending ves of UNESCO, in the IPO’s Steering Board, positive messages to government decision- which has a very important task in relation to makers and politicians. Countries participa- the Olympiads: the final selection of topics ting in the IPO have very different systems of for the competition. The IPO is one of a very education. In many of them philosophy is not few educational activities for secondary stu- taught at schools, and preparing students dents that are international, transcultural for national and then international competi- and can fully be credited to the initiative and tion in this area requires truly devoted tea- efforts of the teachers engaged. While chers and strongly motivated students. European philosophical traditions have dominated so far, the constructive effects of bringing this into an encounter with other philo- Professor Josef Niznik (67) www.philosophy-olympiad.org sophical backgrounds has become clear in Institute of Philosophy (68) Founded in 1946, FIST is the many of the essays written at the Olympiads Polish Academy of Sciences world’s most highly placed non- during the past years. It is very interesting (Poland) governmental organization for philosophy. Its major aims are as follows: to contribute to the development of professional relations between philosophers of all countries, conducted freely and 3) Other examples of initiatives at national with mutual respect; to encourage contact between institutions, and international levels societies and periodical publications devoted to philosophy; The International Philosophy Olympiads where they write a test on subjects selected by collect useful documentation for the development of philosophical (67) (IPO ) is an annual international philosophy the FISP. In most cases they will have a choice study; sponsor the World Congress competition for secondary students that has between sentences or thoughts from well- of Philosophy every five years, the first having taken place in 1900; been held since 1993. It was the initiative of known philosophers. The examination is set as promote philosophical education; Professor Ivan Koley of the Philosophy either textual commentary or composition, to prepare publications of general interest; contribute to the impact Department at the University of Sofia in be written in a second language: French, of philosophical knowledge on Bulgaria. Since 2001 the Olympiads have been English or German. world problems. Members of FISP are not individual philosophers but held under the auspices of the International philosophical societies and other Federation of Philosophical Societies (FISP)(68). Another telling example on this point is that of such philosophical institutions at Students are selected from participating coun- the secondary-school philosophy clubs in the national, regional and international levels. (Excerpt from tries and invited to the organizing country, Turkey. the FISP web site. www.fisp.org )

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Box 28 Secondary school philosophy clubs in Turkey

Secondary-school philosophy clubs in The first secondary-school joint study in phi- Turkey offer new and wide-ranging opportu- losophy in Turkey was conducted in 1995, nities for philosophy teaching. In Turkey, phi- with the participation of students from losophy teaching was first introduced at French, German and Austrian secondary secondary-school level in 1911. Philosophy schools. These schools thus formed the lessons were given more importance after core of the philosophy platform. Later on, the foundation of the republic by Ataturk, nearly forty state and private or independent based on the idea of ‘new person, new schools joined this group and the ILFKP society’. Today, two hours of philosophy (‘Istanbul Secondary Schools Philosophy classes per week are mandatory in all voca- Clubs Platform’(69) was thus founded. ILFKP tional and secondary schools. The instruc- functions as an advisory and guiding body tors of these courses hold philosophy that assists the philosophy clubs and coordi- degrees from universities and have teaching nates their activities. Based in Istanbul, it certificates. In secondary schools, elective has become a model for similar organiza- courses of logic, sociology, psychology, tions in various other Turkish cities. The democracy and human rights are available, Philosophical Society of Turkey(70) supports in addition to philosophy. Secondary-school the activities of the ILFKP and the young stu- philosophy clubs have provided a new dents learning to philosophize through its dimension to this mandatory philosophy tea- Philosophy for Children unit. ILFKP teachers ching, offering young people new opportuni- have also introduced an online forum(71). The ties in philosophy education in terms of both ILFKP organizes academic events, including content and format. The clubs, organized in conferences for students, academics, thin- secondary schools, conduct extracurricular kers and writers. These experiences have studies and activities in philosophy. The first shown that it is possible to teach philosophy such club was founded in 1994 in the Saint outside schools and that this is a type of Benoit French High School, soon to be follo- education that develops young peoples’ ana- (69) ILFKP – Istanbul Liseleri Felsefe Kulupleri Platformu wed by others. This club was initially des- lytic and creative capacities. igned as an instrument to prepare students (70) www.tfk.org.tr for International Philosophy Olympiads (IPO). (71) http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ It nevertheless transcended the limits of this ILFKPogretmenleri/ function and has become, together with Extracts from a text by Nimet Kuçuk (72) Nimet Kuçuk, ‘A platform of other similar clubs, an integral part of philo- Presented at the twenty-fifth International high-school philosophy clubs in sophy education in Turkish secondary Philosophy Olympiads Turkey’. Critical & Creative (72) Thinking: The Australasian Journal schools. (Turkey) of Philosophy in Education, May 2007.

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IV. Philosophy at the secondary level: A few figures

PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Conclusion: Philosophy during adolescence: A force for creative change

We often see philosophy credited with philosophy’s deconstructive effect should providing a sort of ‘apprenticeship’ in always be coupled with a consistent involve- reasoning. There seems to be an illusion here ment of the child’s teachers and peers. Like the that must be dealt with straightaway. There educational process in general, philosophy can are other subjects that would appear more sui- highlight already-present problems inherent to table to training students’ logical and analyti- the process of the child’s personal develop- cal abilities. Think of mathematics, which ment. For this reason, it is useful for children offers an education in intellectual rigour and young students to become familiar early through learning to construct proofs of things on with the practice of questioning, as that might seem superficially obvious. We can opposed to its being introduced abruptly and also mention the educative power of gram- relatively late in the educational process. What mar, in particular the study of Greek or Latin is more, there is a danger that the critical grammar, which constitute veritable tools with approach to knowledge could be used to sup- which to develop student’s rational abilities. port ethnocentrist tendencies when it is Philosophical reflection may pale in compari- brought to bear on ideas or beliefs that differ son to these powerful instruments of logical from those of the students. Philosophy should analysis. However the essential function of always be first and foremost a critic of one’s philosophy in secondary school lies less in lear- own culture. When the criticism is directed ning to reason than in learning to have a outwards, when it is used to oppose one’s critical approach to knowledge and value own culture and ethos to that of other people systems. Philosophy cannot be limited to – then it ceases to be an instrument for critical any particular subject matter, in which one openness and becomes a means for cultural could disregard certain parts of its content. entrenchment, a prop for all sorts of authori- The pedagogical strength of philosophy lies in tarianism and fanaticism. That is why philoso- both the critical structures that it teaches and phy, in the sense of the various categories of the body of knowledge upon which it rests. philosophical knowledge, is not necessarily a support for free and democratic interactions This training in critical thinking that philosophy among individuals. Philosophers who have provides – which above all concerns the ability been the most radically critical of their own to critique a culture, one’s own culture – cultures – philosophers who by their very makes philosophy a powerful instrument in essence are bearers of liberty – have nonethe- the development of the child’s emerging per- less seen themselves drafted into the service of sonality. As such it must be handled with care, the worst totalitarian systems. because it can prove to be ambivalent on at least a couple of levels. Calling value systems, Philosophy’s cognitive and cultural strength morals and epistemic structures into question lies in the critical deconstruction that it teaches is no anodyne activity at an age when the us to carry out on our belief and value systems child’s or young adult’s personality is just – and thereby in the way it teaches us to conti- taking form, and there is a strong argument to nually question the structure and ethics of our be made for moving the age of first contact world view. with philosophy and its practices to the early childhood years. In light of these aspects of philosophy – or of learning to do philosophy –

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Teaching philosophy in higher education Philosophy in the university context

Introduction: The development and teaching of philosophical knowledge 97 Methodology 99

I. The dynamics between philosophy 100 - 112 teaching and research in universities X 1) The interaction between secondary and higher education 100 > The importance of communication between the two levels > Reasons leading to a split 2) The extent and diversity of philosophical teaching 103 > The dual role of the research professors > Particular modalities > The presence of philosophy in the university context > Philosophy and spiritual knowledge 3) Specificity and adaptability of philosophical teaching 107 > The transdisciplinary nature of philosophy > The idea behind philosophy departments > Distance learning and digital access 4) Academic freedom and teaching management 110 > The principle of academic freedom > Political, religious and cultural constraints > The monographic course

II. Philosophy facing emerging challenges: 113 - 122 Questions and stakes X 1) Philosophy teaching in a globalized world 113 > A philosophical teaching and engagement in society > Philosophy – guardian of rationality? > Philosophy and cultural traditions 2) The topicality of philosophy: A practice to be handled with caution 114 > The teaching of philosophy: uniting rational thinking and history > Priorities in research and teaching 3) The question of professional opportunities 116 > Secondary education > The internationalization of research, or the global campus > Philosophy at work > The public sphere

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4) The role and challenges of UNESCO Chairs in Philosophy 119 > A new generation of UNESCO Chairs > A promising future

III. Diversification and internationalization 123 - 147 of philosophical teaching X 1) Teaching practices and methods around the world 123 > The general state of philosophy teaching around the world > Some exemplary case studies 2) The multiplication of academic exchange networks 143 > ERASMUS and ERASMUS MUNDUS > The ‘From Brain Drain to Brain Gain’ programme > UNESCO Fellowships 3) The International Network of Women Philosophers sponsored by UNESCO: 145 A universal springboard 4) Promoting interregional philosophical dialogue 146

IV. Philosophy in higher education: 148 A few figures 148 X Conclusion: The future of philosophy 149

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Introduction: The development and teaching of philosophical knowledge

The creation of knowledge and its subse- cultural traditions, and the place that philoso- quent dissemination has been the dual phy historically occupies in a particular directive of universities since their founding at culture. Philosophy is often veiled in a multitu- the end of the eleventh century. A university de of disciplines or teachings that ensue from education does not only contribute to our cultural heritages or various pragmatic personal development on a number of levels approaches; at times expressing itself as (cognitive, emotional, moral and social). It is religious thought or at others under the form intended to create the circumstances under of ethics or other practical erudition. This which students can produce new knowledge diversity is reflected, with less complexity, at – so that they can contribute to the progress the level of teaching practices. These vary pri- of their chosen fields and to allow these fields marily between the undergraduate and mas- to react to the ceaseless transformations that ter’s levels of studies and the doctorate level, affect the expression of knowledge in every fluctuating, in the majority of cases, between culture. Universities offer a technical and traditional course structures and more practi- focussed education, aimed at training specia- cal seminar-style courses, with increased lists or teachers and in which research is of active participation from the students. But, in prime importance. The hybrid nature of a uni- all cases, the university remains a place of spe- versity education is especially apparent in the cialized, professional learning, where tea- field of philosophical studies – so much so ching ceases to have the primary function of that, in general, philosophy is rarely given the educating the individual and becomes princi- opportunity to develop within other institu- pally a place devoted to a technical form of tions. The body of philosophical knowledge knowledge. that is produced and taught in university courses is quite distinct from the training in This chapter deals with the relationship philosophizing that characterizes primary and between teaching and research in universities. secondary education. For there exists a speci- It tries to show how the different university fically ‘philosophical’ body of knowledge, in systems allow students to access to the the form of research methods, categories, various parts of philosophical thinking, to concepts, criteria for validating arguments what extente they are familiar with the lea- and formal or less-formal structures that ding questions in contemporary debate, allow the construction of physical, historical, which material and theoretical tools they have ethical and rational worlds. Whether it is to at their disposal during their education and, in train teachers, to nourish an historical culture, general terms, how the different educational to learn the universal structures of reasoning structures can influence the contents taught. or to boost tomorrow’s culture of research This chapter comprises three principal sec- professors, it is the presence of this predomi- tions that deal with some pertinent questions nantly technical aspect of philosophy that relating to the function and the methods of characterizes the university education. philosophy as an academic discipline.

The reciprocal relationship between the The first section relates to a deliberation on production and the transmission of academic teaching, an approach that today knowledge, or more simply between research appears to be abandoned, at a moment and teaching, is at the origin of the forms when academia stands accused of turning in governing the presence of philosophy in on itself. It addresses the question of bridging universities. the ever-widening gap between secondary and further education in a growing number In further education, philosophy teaching and of countries. However, where philosophy is research are inseparable. However, there is a actually present in schools, the interaction considerable diversity of lesson content, between the two levels represents a conside- depending on the competences of individual rable asset to anchor the development of phi- teachers, the teachers present within each losophical learning in society and transmit a department or faculty, the curricula, the conti- vital and rich understanding of current nuity or multiplicity of the philosophical and debates to students.

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In addition, this section tackles the question is also difficult to ignore. When confronted of possible developments with respect to tea- with the increased globalization of economic ching philosophy in universities, which can be competition and the need to share the pla- combined together under the heading of net’s resources, the continuing presence of educational diversification, and which are philosophy will depend, to a large degree, on aimed more at students of other faculties, or the possibilities available to philosophers to those following other courses, rather than at sustain their profession. There is still a long students who have chosen philosophy as the way to go, but a diversification in these pros- main subject of their studies. The same goes pects on an international scale is already for the internationalization of learning prac- apparent, creating new directions and tech- tices at the undergraduate and master’s niques in teaching and new philosophical levels, as well as at the doctoral level. Lastly, specializations, as demonstrated in particular this first section discusses the question of aca- by UNESCO’s worldwide network of demic freedom, the very foundation of uni- Philosophy Chairs. versity activities, which represents a necessary pre-condition for the development and the The third section presents an overall view of production of university learning. This free- philosophy teaching at the university level. dom is currently under threat on a number of This general outline is coupled with a more different fronts, in particular those related to focused look at some particularly important the radicalization of cultural and religious philosophical practices and at their underlying identities or traditional practices. It is also sub- scientific, cultural and social functions, such ject to various types of political conditioning, as Interregional Philosophical Dialogues or the to increasing pressure to answer to economic constitution of an International Network of considerations and, in a somewhat subtler Women Philosophers; two global initiatives manner, to the creation of academic climates recently inaugurated by UNESCO. that have an effect on how teachers and researchers carry out their professional activi- The chapter is constructed around the ques- ties. By virtue of its general nature as a theo- tion of the relationship between philosophy ry concerned with different forms of know- and freedom: because, in its role as funda- ledge, philosophy today appears particularly mental condition for plural intersubjectivity, vulnerable to these external pressures. freedom remains the raison d’être of all philosophical teaching. The second section relates to the questions and issues caused by the confrontation of phi- In this context, the complex and often difficult losophy with emerging challenges. The ans- relationship between the universalism of rea- wer to the challenges posed by modernity lie son, as endorsed by any philosophical rationa- in the free exchange of ideas. It also depends lity, and the diversity of cultural traditions sur- on communication and dialogue among rounding it, represents a crucial issue for phi- people and cultures. Intellectual co-operation losophical learning. But philosophy must also on an international scale represents an extra- avoid the danger of being reduced to the role ordinary opportunity for researchers from dif- of a mere accessory to prevailing political ferent backgrounds – who do not always movements, at the risk of being stripped of its have the possibility of comparing their respec- own specifically abstract nature – which pre- tive theoretical approaches. vents it from being identified with the contin- gencies of any particular cultural denomina- This is especially the case, also thanks to the tion. Philosophy is, by nature, enduringly par- UNESCO initiative, with philosophical com- tisan in the way it chooses one ethos rather munities that in the past have been only able than another, and not one party rather than to meet together for conferences or conven- another. tions, but are now free to meet unfettered by any mediating influences, thus embracing new directions of thought in a world that is increasingly multipolar.

The question of the professional prospects on offer to someone with philosophical training

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Methodology

Several methodological questions arose at analysis through synthesis documents dea- the time this chapter was drafted. On the ling with various problems facing one hand, the very nature of this work led philosophy teaching, including contribu- to thinking initially about the level of gene- tions from UNESCO Philosophy Chairs. The ral information it should incorporate. qualitative reports we received were, for Baring in mind the extent of this document, the most part, integrated into this chapter. it proved difficult to deal in detail with These analyses are invaluable in that they every system of tertiary education throu- relate directly to the experience of research ghout the world. In addition, the objective professors while placing them into a much was as much to establish a state-of-the-art broader context. This flood of responses analysis of the place of philosophy in higher gives rise to an initial observation. The learning today as to identify future pros- UNESCO investigations represent an oppor- pects, thereby putting the assembled data tunity for researchers to consider the state to the service of a body of considerations and evolution of teaching practices in their and suggestions on the directions to take respective fields, and to make their voices and actions to consider. As for the sources heard through an organization able to used, the method was to synthesize the mobilize the international community in information collected through the study, order to transform these contributions into whether in terms of documentary resources recommendations destined for national available to UNESCO or from Internet political authorities. As Josiane Boulad- research, with a certain reserve relative to Ayoub, UNESCO Chair in Studies of the the scientific credibility of the information Philosophical Foundations of Justice and collected in this way. This work of synthesis Democratic Society at the University of is in no way designed to exhaustively cata- Québec, Montreal (UQAM) wrote: ‘We are logue the teaching methods present in the pleased to have here a striking example of world’s different institutions of higher lear- the effectiveness of such investigations in ning. Reference tools of this kind already their real role as both theoretical and exist and are easily accessible to all(1). political catalyst’.

It should also be noted that the UNESCO questionnaire concerning the teaching of philosophy, elaborated specifically for this study, was an essential means of obtaining a varied overview of the way that philosophy is taught in institutions of higher education. Beyond the institutional data provided by the responses to the questionnaire, the comments that accompanied the respondents’ answers proved to be invaluable. They indicate a vital, polyphonic and extremely varied picture of how those involved in philosophical work experience the current state of their discipline: their hopes after positive reforms, their pessi- mism regarding professional opportunities, their thoughts on the place of philosophy (1) Notably the IAU’s World Higher Education Database 2006/7. in their society and the way it is viewed. London, Palgrave, Macmillan, 25 These voices, coming from all around the August 2006, and International Handbook of Universities, 19th world, constitute one of the principal rea- edition. London, Palgrave sons behind this innovative UNESCO pro- Macmillan / New York, Palgrave St Martin’s Press, 24 Sep 2007. These gramme, and were correspondingly accor- guides are published every two ded the greatest attention. Finally, several years under the patronage of the International Association of research professors contributed to this Universities (AIU).

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I. The dynamics between philosophy teaching and research in universities

1) The interaction between secondary and higher education

The importance of communication often note paradoxical situations in which between the two levels technical advances are proposed and debated in the same seminar room as the day- In countries where philosophy is taught at to-day functional aspects of the teaching of school, the dynamics between secondary- this discipline, like two linguistic registers school teachers and teachers at higher unable to integrate. Questions asked by levels represents an essential asset in the secondary students are seldom banal, process of philosophical education. This however, and can prove difficult for resear- mutual interaction between the two levels chers accustomed to focussing on the is likely to take place according to different details of philosophical technicalities. methods. On the one hand, secondary-level Interaction between the fundamental teachers can only benefit from regular requirements of a philosophical education exchanges with their university colleagues. and of disciplinary specialization is of cru- It is by keeping in constant and permanent cial importance and can only be of mutual contact with the centres of production of benefit. philosophical knowledge – the principal source of the development and discussion The growing separation between these two of new methods and new directions in phi- levels becomes apparent once one consi- losophical research – that secondary educa- ders the way careers in philosophy are tion will be able to impress upon its stu- organized. In the majority of European dents a lively philosophical culture, a work countries, there is a history of continuity in progress that is also problematic, rather between these two levels. In Europe, tea- than a closed corpus of acquired knowled- ching at secondary level was, at least until ge. The teaching of philosophy cannot be the 1980s, an almost obligatory route to open and effective unless fed by a rich and teaching at higher levels. One first became lively debate that is measured against the a secondary-school teacher, then, through constantly renewing problems that face our academic endeavour that was carried out in cultures, by teaching students to consider a conjunction with this work, one could aspi- diversity of approaches and theoretical re to an academic post. To this day, the positions. The updating of teaching French system still testifies to this link bet- content represents a necessary condition to ween the two levels in the importance it avoid reducing philosophical education to a allots to the teacher-selection process cal- collection of moral precepts or historical led ‘aggregation’. This system, even though concepts. On the other hand, the inquiring extremely selective, had at least two positi- nature so typical of secondary-school stu- ve effects. On the one hand, research pro- dents can only encourage a beneficial, fessors profited from a formidable teaching ongoing examination of practices in acade- infrastructure. They could teach their sub- mic research. It represents a formidable tool ject at a relatively elementary level, but against the authoritarian attitude in univer- were also confronted with the questions of sity education that is still prevalent in many a very fundamental nature frequently philosophy departments throughout the posed by secondary-school students. This world. Many fundamental questions in phi- practice not only allowed them to learn losophy are simply written off by research basic teaching techniques, but also contri- that finds in the progressive specialization buted substantially to perfecting their trai- of its disciplines not only its strength but ning. On the other hand, it contributed in also its limits. Those accustomed to atten- motivating secondary teachers to continue ding conferences or seminars in which their own research work, or at least to acti- secondary-school teachers can rub shoul- vely take part in scientific activities in their ders with university research professors field.

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Today, this permeability between the two place in research centres and intellectual levels appears, in many cases, to be in dan- circles, can exert a considerable influence ger. Where secondary-school teaching is no on their students, and can introduce to longer viewed as a privileged route to a uni- them the topics approached at these higher versity career but, on the contrary, is seen levels and the problems they entail. as an impediment to further career deve- However, it is known that, in a number of lopment, teaching personnel appear to authoritarian regimes, any relative freedom have lost their motivation. The UNESCO of research is only possible at the price of a questionnaire reveals a number of firsthand clear separation between the technical and reports of this crisis in secondary education the educational settings. The participation throughout the world. There are certainly of schoolteachers in such debates repre- circumstances, as in certain African or Latin sents a virtual conveyer belt for ideas that American countries, where schoolteachers would not normally transcend the circles regularly take part in scholarly conferences where they are produced and discussed. It organized in their region. In a majority of is not unusual for university students to be European countries, this interaction is particularly receptive to heterodox ideas encouraged through continuing professio- after having been students at secondary nal development programmes that range school of inspirational teachers who taught from organized training courses to being them to be open to new points of view. excused from teaching to attend confe- This point alone highlights the importance rences which importance is recognized at of including philosophy teaching in secon- the ministerial level. However, these mea- dary education – and perhaps also explains, sures appear to be merely palliative. It is at sometimes, its absence. the level of the university recruitment system and in the access that secondary- The example of Québec, concerning the school teachers have to research-develop- dynamics between secondary and further ment tools (publications, journals, confe- education, can appear contradictory – rence papers) that any action aiming at because in Québec, as in the rest of bringing the two levels closer must be Canada, philosophy is not taught in secon- undertaken. This is undoubtedly necessary dary schools. However, differences of style, to slow down the current tendency methods and directions between pre-uni- towards separating these two levels of versity teaching – represented by ‘General schooling, either at the academic and Vocational Teaching Colleges’ (CEGEP: community or governmental level. Collèges d’enseignement général et professionnel) – and higher academic levels In addition, exchanges between secondary demonstrate the complex relationships that and further education often represent an exist between these two levels, and which important driving force in the democratiza- can be recognized in secondary teaching in tion process throughout the world. It has many countries at the moment. often been the case in the past, and continues to be so today, that intellectual opposition to authoritarian regimes finds in secondary-education teachers an essential means to forming a democratic conscience (2) French-Canadian secondary in younger generations. The action of these schools that offer both technical teachers, when it reflects debates taking and pre-university studies.

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Box 29 A particularly significant development in the interaction between secondary and higher levels: the Québec model

The conflict that arose from the gradual flight:, energetic, sharp-edged philosophical societies; annual gatherings, both reduction of philosophy teaching hours phically, inventive on the methodological regional and national, where teachers and the progressive refocusing of curri- and teaching levels. Students are called from all levels of education can exchan- cula on more applied disciplines in the upon, as part of their philosophical trai- ge and report progress in their activities; CEGEPs caused a sympathetic solidarity ning, to think critically about housing and numerous new centres and research to develop between secondary-school conditions, for example, or their demo- groups, generally interdisciplinary but philosophy teachers, students interested cratic institutions. A few years ago, with a philosophical focus, which are in philosophy and university-level philoso- secondary-school teachers and universi- very active and often generously subsidi- phy teachers on a national and internatio- ty professors could count on solid inter- zed by provincial organizations or the nal scale. active tools. It is relevant to mention the Canada Council for the Arts. Finally, impressive list of specialized philosophi- there seems to be a fundamental diffe- Along with an increased awareness of cal journals for philosophy teachers of all rence concerning the teaching content the social and pedagogical responsibili- levels, including Philosophiques, the between the secondary level – which is ties of philosophy teaching, now challen- mouthpiece of the Québec Philosophical aimed more at providing courses in ged to reconcile necessity and freedom, Society since 1974(3). Historically open civics, cultural criticism and a considera- in the eyes of philosophers, this new- to contributions from secondary tea- tion of the philosophy’s role in society – found solidarity was to have a powerful chers, this international journal has evol- and the university level, which is more impact on the place of philosophy tea- ved along with recent changes affecting marked by a technical and professional ching. This movement had its highs and the philosophical and social circles of approach to philosophy. lows, but it stimulated the organization of Québec’s intellectuals. Wanting to be University teaching is primarily an acade- numerous conferences and workshops; more ‘academic’, the journal more or mic activity, whereas secondary-level the inauguration of new, more confronta- less deliberately stopped publishing teaching is first and foremost a social tional, associations that focused more articles written by school teachers, and procedure. This state of affairs affects on pedagogy than on theoretical discus- turned themselves more clearly towards the direction teaching takes within each sions and brought together young secon- the British and American tradition in sup- context, especially on the theoretical dary-level philosophy teachers; the crea- porting the organization of special edi- level, in which the secondary-school envi- tion of new, lively journals; and the publi- tions, connected more to collective than ronment is more sensitive to socio-cultu- cation of new teaching manuals and to the traditional subjects of a journal. ral developments than its academic equi- compilations of traditional texts with valent. Although this situation is still evol- accompanying notes, for the most part This tendency, which began five or six ving, secondary-school practice conti- collective works. years ago, has largely contributed to nues to be inspired predominantly by the increasing the division that began in the French or German traditions, while uni- Lastly, attempts have been made to re- 1990s between the different levels of versities are leaning increasingly towards take the offensive, by moving into new philosophy teaching in Québec and the the English–U.S. philosophical tradition. areas in secondary education that up to respective schools of thought from now had been excluded from philosophi- which they drew their inspiration. is it not cal teaching. For example, religious stu- astonishing to see, as we mention dies having been affected by the secula- above, secondary-school teachers crea- rization of school commissions, it is ting their own philosophical journals, with understandable that secondary-school a teaching focus, reflecting their scienti- Josiane Boulad-Ayoub philosophy teachers are currently trying fic concerns and their traditional philoso- UNESCO Chair in Studies of the to influence the teaching of ethics and phical references, as well as new asso- Philosophic Foundations of Justice and civics. All these activities and projects ciations satisfying their more practical Democratic Society at the University lead to a very positive conclusion: the interests? Moreover, other forums for of Québec in Montreal taking up of philosophy teaching is in full exchange have been developed: philoso- (Canada)

(3) www.erudit.org/revue/philoso/

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Reasons leading to a split the two levels. But increasingly fewer notable scientific articles from secondary What are the reasons for this progressive teachers are being published in the princi- dislocation between secondary and acade- pal scientific publications relating to the mic education? Several factors, often inter- various fields of philosophy. In some ways, twined, can be observed. First we need to academic legitimacy seems reserved for look at the way the mechanisms of univer- researchers and university lecturers. sity recruitment have altered, in their tendency to privilege scientific production The recruitment difficulties evoked by (publications and scientific papers) over respondents to the UNESCO questionnaire teaching experience, especially experience also have important effects on the organi- at the secondary level. Extremely often, the zation of academic work. The lack of passage from secondary teaching to univer- immediate posts in research often causes sity teaching is achieved through a combi- an increase in young graduates or resear- nation of a successful teaching career and chers waiting ‘on standby’ – who collabora- the publication of journal articles: the tea- te in university research or teaching as ching experience in fact is taken less and volunteers or in temporary situations. less into account during the evaluation pro- However, these ‘fragile’ situations tend to cess. So school teaching is more of an block the increased participation of secon- impediment than an asset for those seeking dary teachers in the university world. career advancement to the research profes- School teachers often simply do not have sor level. On the other hand, involvement time to combine teaching at school with an at university level continues to impress additional workload. when it comes to university selection (whether through tutoring, delivering introduc- Lastly, the progressive specialization in phi- tion to philosophy courses or lectures, or losophical disciplines contrasts with the contributing to conferences). In other nature of teaching in the secondary words, the academic university didactics is context. At philosophy conferences or mee- implicitly accorded a scientific value that is tings, we often see very different withheld from the didactics of secondary approaches from university researchers, schools, often regarded as a purely who present highly specialized and techni- teaching activity with no scientific value. cal papers, and secondary teachers, who often seek more fundamental problems to This separation of careers can lead to, as transmit to their students. This process of seen in Québec, a separation of the tools of specialization, which has accompanied a scientific communication, beginning with reduction in the printing of works in the academic journals. Though schoolteachers social sciences in Europe, seems partly to can still have access to scholarly publica- reflect the pre-eminent role played at the tions, there is a growing tendency to sepa- international level of the English-language rate forums for expression. An exception is philosophical community, for which philo- represented by questions directly connec- sophy is primarily a university discipline. ted to the teaching of philosophy, where there is still significant interaction between

2) The extent and diversity of philosophical teaching

The dual role of the research great part due to their double role as spe- professors cialists responsible for both research and teaching. Even if, in practice, each teacher The university organization of teaching pre- can favour one task over another, universi- sents a certain homogeneity throughout ty structures generally reflect this hybrid the world. In a majority of establishments nature of the academic function. of higher education, research professors are grouped together in departments, insti- Research conditions the nature of university tutes or centres. This basic uniformity is in teaching in two ways. Initially, the directions

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and results of research undertaken by teaching and research, they often mean research professors are normally reflected that students should be taught only by tea- in the contents of their lessons, whether on chers who are at the cutting edge of resear- the level of individual teachers or on the ch in the subject. It is this extreme claim level of their administrative and curricula that is rejected by the government, on the units: departments, institutes or faculties. grounds that most undergraduate teaching This means that the persistence of traditio- is not done by leading experts in the sub- nal methods of thought or research, which ject taught, and that much state-of-the-art can sometimes characterize the same insti- research is too difficult for undergraduates tution for several generations, is expressed to understand. Obviously teachers need to through teaching but also finds a means to have up-to-date knowledge of what they perpetuate itself, because students trained teach; but such knowledge does not pre- in a given tradition will have a tendency to suppose active involvement in research. prolong that tradition through the mecha- However, if it is accepted that high-level nism of co-optation in which they will be university teaching can take place in institu- selected when the time comes to renew the tions where there is no research, the teaching corpus of the institution. But Humboldtian ideal of the indivisibility of the beyond course contents, there exists a research and teaching mission of the second method whereby research work university will be lost’(5). exerts an influence on teaching. The repu- tations of a department’s members play an Even in systems in which one could imagi- important role in the choices students ne a very clear separation between tea- make when selecting which university to ching and research, such as the American attend. University recruitment policies take model, which presents a clear divide bet- this capacity to attract students into ween undergraduate and graduate studies, account. However, a research professor’s the passage of teachers from one level to renown is only partly built through his or the other is often dependent on results her qualities as a teacher, being derived pri- obtained in their research activities. marily from research work and scientific prestige, rather than teaching experience. Particular modalities

The need to improve the connections bet- Sometimes there is an intermediate stage ween teaching and research, to increase between the secondary and higher levels, their influence on each other and the where philosophical teaching often occu- cooperation between them, has been the pies a position of distinction. This pre-aca- subject of a number of debates at the academic level acts as a preparatory school for demic and the institutional levels. In the entry into university. Examples can be current debate over the connections bet- found in the CEGEPs in Québec and in ween teaching and research in higher edu- some other states of Canada and the cational establishments in the United United States, the Ciclo Básico Común Kingdom, a text posted on the Web site of (CBC) in Argentina, which in 1985 became (4) www.heacademy.ac.uk the UK Higher Education Academy presents a prerequisite for acceptance into the (5) ‘Case studies linking teaching and research in philosophical and the problem in the following terms: ‘Ever University of Buenos Aires (UBA), and the religious studies’. Higher Education since the publication of the 2003 White preparatory classes for the French grandes Academy, UK, August 2006. (4) http://www.prs.heacademy.ac.uk/ Paper on higher education , there has écoles (France’s elite higher-education esta- projects/researchlink/index.html. been widespread debate as to whether tea- blishments, which are outside the mains- (6) These pre-university establish- ching is better conducted in the context of tream framework of the public universities ments are present in several Canadian provinces (Québec, subject research. In general, academics system). These preparatory courses are Alberta, British Colombia and believe that it is; the government believes usually attached to higher education, on Ontario) and American states that it isn’t; and educationalists believe that which they depend. Within the Québec (Ohio, Kentucky, Florida, California, Illinois). The students there is no empirical evidence either way, educational system, the CEGEPs act as an enrol after completing six years of but that teaching is likely to be better if intermediate collegial level between secon- primary and five years of secondary schooling, at the age of seven- there is a deliberate strategy for linking tea- dary and higher education, fitting adminis- teen or eighteen. Approximately ching and research at the institutional and tratively into the higher-educational sys- 40 per cent of seventeen or eigh- (6) teen year olds in Québec attend departmental level (…) When academics tem . Since the reform of 1993, philoso- such schools. www.fedecegeps.qc.ca say they believe in the link between phical teaching in the CEGEPs saw a

104 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM reduction in the common, obligatory In the French system, preparatory classes courses of philosophy to three classes ins- for grandes écoles (CPGE, Classes prépara- tead of the original four. toires aux grandes écoles) represent an obligatory passage when targeting one of The objective of philosophy teaching is to France’s illustrious higher-education esta- cast a critical eye on the ethical problems of blishments (i) economic (business and contemporary society, however, the English management schools), (ii) social, political version of this programme, which is titled and literary schools (Écoles Normales humanities, speaks rather of ‘the applica- Supérieures, École des Chartes, Instituts tion of a process of critical thinking to the d’Études Politiques) and (iii) schools of ethical questions important to the field of scientific and technological vocation (such study’. The overall direction of philosophi- as engineering and veterinary schools). cal training at this level has become more Their duration can vary between two and utilitarian over the last few years, genera- three years. The teaching of philosophy is ting a very vibrant debate between obligatory in the literary streams and occu- teachers of various school levels. pies a reasonable place, along with French ‘culture générale’ courses, in the economic The Argentinean CBC represents a classic and scientific streams. Nevertheless, this example of the role that an intermediate teaching system, envisaged as the first step stage between a school education and the on the elite higher-education ladder, new type of teaching offered at the higher applies only to a small number of level can play. Its objectives are described as secondary-school graduates(8). follows: ‘to offer an integral and interdisciplinary basic education, to develop critical We also need to add to these pre-academic thought, to consolidate learning methodo- phases the existence of schools dedicated logies and to contribute to an ethical, civic to post-doctoral education, at the other and democratic education’(7). The driving end of the further education cycle, which spirit behind this intermediary passage are active in the majority of European coun- reflects the desire to offer the students an tries, and which European teaching reforms overview of the scientific knowledge base, appear to be encouraging in countries deeper than that at the school level, and where they are as yet inexistent. This trai- before any disciplinary specialization is ning is often prolonged by post-doctoral implemented by the university. grants, but here we leave the teaching domain to attain the first levels of a career The courses offered in Argentina by the in research. CBC are organized through an approach that is both disciplinary and interdisciplina- The presence of philosophy ry. In agreement with this last perspective, in the university context the topics are studied and problems of a various nature and origin are analyzed. This At the level of higher education, philosophy variety of analyses is designed to lead the is doing rather well, and has a relatively student, subtly, towards a point beyond the prominent position: subjects going under encyclopaedic and dislocated concept of the name of ‘philosophy’ are taught almost knowledge. This type of formation also everywhere. Of all respondents to the ques- leads to the development of an integral tionnaire, only eleven said that philosophy and open vision of the world’s problems. All does not figure as a distinct subject in enrolled students take two subjects: higher education in their country. These are ‘Introduction to and Knowledge of Society Burkina Faso, Burundi, El Salvador, Guyana, and the State’ and ‘Introduction to Ireland, Jordan, Monaco, South Africa, Scientific Thought’. Philosophy is only obli- Uganda, the United Arab Emirates, gatory for students enrolled in architecture, Venezuela and Viet Nam. However, a graphic design, art, library and information serious analysis of these cases reveals that it (7) ¿Qué es el CBC? sciences, arts, science of education, and is less about a real absence than a lack of www.cbc.uba.ar/dat/cbc/cbc.html philosophy. information on behalf of the respondents. (8) According to statistics from the French Ministry of Education, Indeed, except for the International 73,100 students were enrolled in University of Monaco, which is in fact a CPGE in 2004/2005.

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business school, in the other countries perceived as sound, stable and only in mentioned philosophy actually is taught. In certain particular cases as threatened by Burundi, philosophy courses are obligatory ministerial or academic policies. A majo- for all first-year students. Departments of rity of respondents (56 per cent) noted a philosophy are present in a majority of the tendency to increase philosophy tea- universities in South Africa, just as in ching at the higher level – data that must Jordan, in Burkina Faso and in Uganda. be cross-referenced with the 70 per cent International calls for professors in the of researchers who do not see any real Department of Philosophy of the University threat of a reduction and the 85 per cent of the United Arab Emirates have also been that exclude any danger of suppression. posted recently. The University of El In Bolivia, it is revealed that two institu- Salvador offers a licenciatura (Bachelor of tions offering this discipline have plans Arts, or B.A.) in Philosophy as well as a for improvements in the near future. In maestría (Master’s, or M.A.) in Human Cameroon, a doctoral school of philoso- Rights and Peace Studies. As for Viet Nam, phy is in the process of being created. the Web site of the undergraduate philoso- From Indonesia, we learn that teaching phy programme of the National University philosophy is now regarded as important of Hanoi clearly shows the lesson content at the university level. At the University taught there. With regard to Monaco, of Indonesia (UI) philosophy teaching, higher education follows the French univer- particularly in fields such as the philoso- sity education system. On the other hand, phy of science, is obligatory. In Lebanon, no instances of teaching philosophical sub- we can see a notable increase in the jects are mentioned at universities in the number of philosophy courses at univer- islands of the South Pacific. sity level, and the introduction of a major in philosophy. In the Russian Federation, An assessment of the presence of philo- a teacher at the Academy of Sciences sophy in universities and other higher- indicates: ‘Over the last fifteen years, educational establishments throughout new philosophy faculties have been the world implies the need to constantly founded in both established and new consider the diversity of philosophical universities. A recent example is the courses. Often, philosophy is introduced Higher School of Economics, one of the through specific topics, such as human country’s most renowned higher educa- rights, religious, social or political stu- tion institutions, which established a dies. In addition, lessons are not neces- faculty of philosophy in order to put it sarily organized in philosophy depart- on an equal footing with the more tradi- ments or institutes, and have only a limi- tional universities’. In Lesotho, ‘the ted presence in certain faculties. Courses National University of Lesotho expanded in the philosophy of art, philosophy of its Department of Philosophy and exten- science, music or law, environmental ded this teaching to other communities ethics or business sometimes form part outside the university – including pri- of the curricula in professional faculties, sons, the police force and the Ministry of without ever being grouped within spe- the Interior’. This embracing by philoso- cifically philosophical institutions. phy of the public sphere can be seen in other countries, such as Turkey, where Although certain countries do not teach the philosophical teaching of human philosophy as a discrete subject, philoso- rights in prisons is practiced, or Uganda, phy is in fact entirely absent from almost where the Department of Philosophy at all levels of education in others. These Makerere University, the country’s main are: Dominica; the Maldives; the university, offers professional positions in Marshall Islands; Oman; Saint Lucia; the public administration. Doctoral stu- Saint-Vincent and the Grenadines; Saudi dies in philosophy have just been foun- Arabia; the Seychelles and Timor-Leste. ded in Mali, while in Mauritius they have just announced the imminent introduc- According to reactions collected by the tion of a Master of Arts in Indian questionnaire, in spite of a certain num- Philosophy. An Uruguayan respondent ber of difficulties, philosophy in universities is recalls that ‘over the last few years, a

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Master’s in contemporary philosophy has concepts or categories. This ambiguity been created in the humanities faculty of appears both in terms of the subjects the University of the Republic, and has taught and on the cultural level. Courses functioned continuously’, adding that in Islamic philosophy assigned during the ‘the next stage to be considered is the first year in Iranian universities are an creation of doctorates’. In Colombia, example of this overlap between philo- there is no desire to reduce the place sophy and other courses devoted to given to philosophy, ‘on the contrary, thought processes. In Bhutan, philoso- given the complex political, economic phy is taught in monastic schools. In and social problems existing in the coun- Argentina, obligatory subjects in the pre- try and being aware of them, both the academic cycle include ‘Introduction to government and educational institutions the Theory of the State’ and are actively promoting the study of ‘Introduction to Scientific Thought’ – humanities, in particular philosophy’. both subjects that are characterized by a strong philosophical content. Philosophy and spiritual knowledge However, this protean nature of acade- We are obliged to note a considerable mic courses should not hinder the reco- diversity of philosophical teaching throu- gnition of philosophy as an entirely inde- ghout the world. The presence of philo- pendent subject. Contrary to the sophy is generally linked to the cultural branches of knowledge evoked above, traditions of which it forms part. To limit philosophy as such represents a formal the presence of philosophy only to sub- knowledge system, open and aimed at jects entitled ‘philosophy’ would be, on criticizing, as well as conveying, corpora a cultural level, a delusion to avoid. Very of doctrines and knowledge. Therefore it often, courses in political theory, reli- is on the presence of this philosophy, gion, and professional ethics, or social entitled and recognized as such, that this psychology or the history of ideas, are chapter will focus. entirely derived from philosophical

3) Specificity and adaptability of philosophical teaching

The transdisciplinary nature ‘in all faculties of higher education, in of philosophy the first and/or in the second year’, in Lithuania, philosophy is found ‘in all The presence of philosophical classes faculties, as a part of a general higher extends well beyond the borders of phi- education’. Beyond diplomas and majors losophy departments, often through dif- in philosophy, the contribution of these fuse channels of single lessons or com- classes is often regarded as useful for plements to other subject structures. As improving the comprehension of pro- an example, to the question ‘In which blems specific to the various subject faculties does the teaching of philosophy domains. We see lessons in aesthetics, take place?‘, a majority of respondents philosophy of art or philosophy of music to the questionnaire indicated a multipli- appear in art and architecture faculties, city of faculties. In several African coun- in music academies and schools of fine tries, philosophy teaching is obligatory in arts. Courses in the philosophy of law the first or second academic year. In are dispensed in the majority of law Cambodia, philosophy is taught in the faculties, just as political philosophy and ‘first year in disciplines other than philo- the theory of the state are present in sophy’. In Greece, the presence of philo- faculties of political sciences and busi- sophical classes ‘in the school of ness ethics. Bioethics, the philosophy of Methodology and History of Science as sciences and the philosophy of mathe- well as law schools’ has been signalled. matics abound in faculties of economy, The same seems to be true of medicine, natural science and mathema- Kyrgyzstan, where philosophy is taught tics. These classes are sometimes

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organized in institutes or departments proposal goes back to the beginning of the within these faculties. In addition, stu- twentieth century and illustrates well the uni- dents of other faculties regularly attend versal extent of this teaching. Taking as a star- philosophy courses as a supplement to ting point the German system, certain scien- their specific subjects. tists at the time, among whom figured mathe- matician and Italian philosopher Federigo The permeability of philosophical teaching Enriques, had developed the idea of maximum represents a distinctive character of this dis- permeability between the various academic cipline. If philosophy has its conceptual spe- structures, in order to encourage postgradua- cificity, its transdisciplinary nature enables it te training rather than just the technical trai- to contribute to a whole range of speciali- ning dispensed in university curricula. They sed teaching programmes. The teaching of started with the idea that academic training philosophy concerns, in one sense, philoso- should endow graduates to evolve their pro- phy specialists, who receive a technical trai- fessional competences during their active life. ning relating to the concepts, categories, Emphasis was placed on the fact that, once methods and the history of philosophical the basic technical concepts were acquired, thought. But, in addition, it can take the the contribution of the university was measu- form of an enquiry into the epistemic struc- red in its ability to adapt to the successive tures and morals of other disciplines, lear- developments that the professional circles in ning and practices. Students in economy, question might have undergone. They then medicine, law or architecture find in philo- recommended that classes be as open and sophy courses less of an extrinsic comple- diversified as possible, where the majority of ment to their training as a tool allowing sciences and learned disciplines could rub them to perfect their understanding of shoulders so as to offer students a compre- their principal subject. This adaptability of hensive introduction to contemporary science. philosophy teaching must be accompanied In the majority of cases, the modern university by a philosophical study that originates has gone in the opposite direction, leaning with the concerns faced by these disci- more and more towards a specialized course plines. When this objective is achieved, structure. But there is a trend back to practices these courses have a real impact on the that appear to take this idea as a starting subjects they address – and they can contri- point. The success of philosophy graduates in bute in a substantial manner to developing the areas of business and communication, and a taste for philosophy in these students. as specialists in human resources seems to confirm this impression. This diffuse presence can play an important role in reinforcing the social impact of phi- Distance learning and digital losophy and should be encouraged. A phi- access losophy entrenched in its own departments, or one that has nothing to say to The use of electronic tools in teaching students of other faculties, is a weakened today is of increasing importance. Any philosophy and is destined to lose its differences are more noticeable here influence in society. It appears, therefore, than in other fields because of the dispa- that the further creation of philosophical rity of access to technology (because of chairs in various faculties must be conside- the digital divide and lack of access to red and encouraged. Such a multiplication broadband connections) and because of can facilitate the constitution of depart- the difficulties educational establishments or inter-faculty institutes, generating ments may have in obtaining powerful a positive dynamics for the development of technological equipment. In the majority philosophical studies. of United States and some European universities, distance learning is already a The idea behind philosophy daily reality. Here is an extract from departments British appraisers in the last Quality (9) (9) Subject Overview Report Insurance Agency for Higher Education Q011/2001. Philosophy, 2001 The original idea of a department or faculty of report on philosophy: ‘Philosophy to 2001. Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. philosophy was derived precisely from the departments are increasingly making use http://qaa.ac.uk/reviews/ transdisciplinary nature of philosophy. This of Internet and Intranet resources to

108 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM enhance student learning. The practice is communities and, especially the domi- not universal, but eighteen (44 per cent) nance of one language or a restricted reports commented positively on the number of languages, puts the cultural successful use of this learning resource; diversity of students at risk. We should three reports particularly praised the be delighted that a student from East effectiveness and innovation of the Africa can follow courses from the department’s use of Internet and University of Oregon thanks to the Intranet resources to enhance the delive- Internet, but it is important to prevent a ry of courses’. By 2009, 50 per cent of situation where such students can only the courses offered in the European follow courses provided by American or Union, across all disciplines, will be avai- European universities. The growth in lable online, and 80 per cent of students establishments producing distance will use mobile learning. In the majority courses and their linguistic diversifica- of American universities, lectures, semi- tion should thus represent one of the nars or other teaching practices are priorities for the future of this discipline. already available by podcast. The Another resource related problem lies in University of California, Berkeley, for the difficulty of access to international example, puts the majority of its lectures publications. In the changing context of online, organized by semester(10). On the publication in the social sciences, espe- University of Oregon’s Web site, it is now cially with regard to journals that the possible to view interviews and conver- majority of publishers are increasingly sations with research professors, several editing and distributing in digital format, of which pertain to the university’s the means of access to these intangible philosophy department(11). assets represents a considerable prize. Today, the majority of scientific publi- Access to online teaching broadens the shers offer contracts for distribution on a audience for philosophy courses of repu- national scale, allowing library networks table universities, at the same time allo- and educational establishments to access wing students in other areas of the all their publications. A shining example world to have access to an unpreceden- of this is the Brazilian CAPES Foundation ted diversity of resources. This practice (Coordenação de aperfeiçoamento de seems particularly likely to play a part in pessoal de nível superior – Foundation areas where territorial continuity is bro- for the Coordination of the Improvement ken, such as the Pacific archipelagos or of Staff in Higher Education), an organi- islands in the Indian Ocean, but also in zation created by the Ministry of continental areas further away from Education that gives online access to large university centres. An action in more than 11,000 periodicals in 188 favour of distance learning seems thus higher educational and research completely desirable, while taking care institutions. to prioritise two particular aspects of this phenomenon. Initially, it is obvious that It constitutes a veritable digital portal(13) the digital divide has not spared the phi- for the world of scholarly publications: a losophical teaching. In Africa in particu- banner on the home page of their Web lar, with the lack of documentary site draws attention to the ‘15 million resources, up-to-date philosophical articles downloaded in 2006’. This is a (9) Subject Overview Report bibliographies and other reference tools particularly successful instance, but it is Q011/2001. Philosophy, 2001 is exacerbated by an important hold-up by no means isolated. Comparable to 2001. Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. in the process of computerization. The consortia exist in Germany, through the http://qaa.ac.uk/reviews/ problem seems to stem less from a lack Max-Planck Institute, in Canada through (10) http://webcast.berkeley.edu/courses.php of access to computer networks than the Canadian National Site Licensing (11) http://oregonstate.edu/cla/philosophy/ from the lack of availability of a suffi- Project (CNSLP), and the Canadian engage/index.php (12) Most African researchers cient quantity of material. Besides, a Resource Knowledge Network (CRKN), in compensate for the lack of local diversification of teaching sources Greece through HEAL-LINK, in Italy servers by using email provided by major international services – appears to be desirable. The dissemina- through the Consorzio Interuniversitario Yahoo, Google, MSN – or dedicated tion of courses coming from one or a Lombardo per Elaborazione Automatica networks such as Refer. limited number of philosophical (CILEA, the ‘Inter-University Consortium (13) www.periodicos.capes.gov.br

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for the Automatic Elaboration of centres. One similar project is being Lombardy’) or in the United Kingdom via implemented in South Africa, where the National Electronic Site Licensing local consortia are looking to join toge- Initiative (NESLI-2) and in the majority of ther in the South African Site Licensing Western nations. Another particularly Initiative (SASLI), a national consortium interesting case is in the Republic of based on the British, Canadian and Korea, where the Korean Electronic Site Korean models. There again, encoura- Licensing Initiative (KESLI) and the Korea ging the growth of these portals for Education and Research Information acquiring and distributing scientific Service (KERIS) are responsible for ensu- information would be most favourable. ring access to digital publications from all the country’s teaching and research

4) Academic freedom and teaching management

The principle of academic freedom be indicated. Such a project could, for example, take the form of co-operation The principle of academic freedom, or, between UNESCO and specialized organi- according to the original German expres- zations such as the International sion, freedom to teach and learn (Lehr- und Association of Universities (IAU)(14), the Lernfreiheit) is at the heart of the manner in International Council of Philosophy and which research and transmission of know- Humanistic Studies (ICPHS)(15) and the ledge are structured within universities. This International Federation of Philosophy can only be measured at the level of indivi- Societies (FISP), which would make it pos- dual research professors. All members of an sible to draw up such a report and to iden- academic body must be able to continue tify target situations. Although one such their work and to communicate with their initiative would find it difficult to penetrate colleagues and students with no to the level of each department or research constraints other than the requirements of institute in the world, it would quickly professional scientific rigour and honesty. In become a tool of reference on an interna- addition, any student must be able to have tional scale for all those who, in different access to any question of a scientific natu- contexts and at different levels, work re that he or she wishes to investigate, towards freedom in research, teaching and without any political, ethnical, religious or learning. other limits opposing this desire for knowledge. This freedom applies as much to the Political, religious and cultural students, in terms of the principles of non- constraints discrimination, as to the topics and scientific arguments concerned. Only the criteria When we consider the question of freedom of scientific validity, modelled by the dyna- in terms of subjects and topics taught mics of intellectual exchanges among those within the field of philosophy, it appears involved in academic life, must control the there is a wide variety of practice worldwi- access and transmission of information. de. Though in some cases philosophy Because academic freedom represents a departments, teachers and their students necessary precondition for freedom of enjoy almost absolute autonomy, elsewhe- thought and the transmission of ideas, an re the situation can be quite different. The action in defence of this freedom, wherever diversity of the situation is such that a spe- it is threatened or repressed, should be cial study is required to draw up a clear pic- taken whenever necessary. This action ture of academic freedom throughout the should initially be in the form of a ‘white world. Overall, three main types of attack paper’ of cases where philosophy teaching, on this freedom can be identified. Firstly, and the humanities or social sciences in constraints of a political nature, where general, take place in the absence of free- governments, regimes or political systems dom or under conditions of curtailed free- attempt to impose on teachers, researchers dom. Possible remedies would also have to and students forms of obedience or even

110 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM political loyalty. This is the case when oaths a case of an attack on the freedom to learn of allegiance or political orthodoxy are in a national, or in any case, public, imposed periodically on academic commu- context, when students registered in philo- nities. This can also be in the form of sophy or in philosophical studies are forbid- prohibition, which one still finds under den, on a national scale, the possibility of many different circumstances, of taking their research in the direction they including certain subjects in teaching wish, including secular perspectives or reli- programmes; the proscription of academic gious criticism. theories regarded as opposing the ethical principles approved by the state; or the Thirdly, because philosophy is also critical of imposition, on a country’s research profes- cultural forms, it has a direct impact on a sors, of a philosophical orthodoxy with culture’s corpus of traditions. Therefore, it is which they are supposed to conform. All not surprising that cultural conditionings these are examples of acts that undermine can also attack the freedom of teaching freedom in research, teaching and training and research. This is the case when philoso- in the academic and student community. phical concepts, with their critical mandate, There is also a more subtle form of pressu- are considered dangerous for a range of re on teachers and students that is difficult ethical principles or knowledge considered to detect, and which has been denounced as invaluable to safeguard a certain cultural by several research professors. This acts, in identity. There are professed cultural identi- particular, on the political climate establi- ties that have a tendency to see a danger in shed at the core of an academic communi- philosophy, and feel that protecting their ty, and takes the form of self-censorship on identity requires considering philosophy as behalf of the members of this community, a Trojan horse harbouring values conside- in particular when one touches on political- red as ‘modern’. This situation is especially ly sensitive or controversial subjects. This difficult because freedom of education and phenomenon, widely experienced by the freedom to be critical regarding a researchers having undergone the trials of culture impinges, in extreme cases, on authoritarian regimes, is visible today even the right of cultural identities to protect in certain democratic countries, where themselves. researchers no longer dare to even express political opinions even in the absence of The monographic course laws or written legislation forbidding them to do so. Secondly, there are several cases Any research professor must be free to where religious conditioning impacts on assign courses on subjects of his or her philosophical thought, to such a degree choice. This is a principle that must that it is identified with religious thought – remain immutable, under penalty of or sometimes, with religious studies – or it menacing the very principle of academic is destroyed in the name of an alleged freedom. This constitutional practice in conflict between religious values or morali- European universities, known under the (14) www.unesco.org/iau/index.html ty and philosophical concepts. The situation name of ‘monographic course’, seems to (15) The ICPHS is a non-govern- is all the more delicate in that the borders need some explaining. Indeed, some- mental organization within UNES- between a spiritual approach to philosophy times there is, in the philosophical curri- CO that federates hundreds of different learned societies in the field and the imposition of a denominational cula, a juxtaposition of specialized of philosophy, human sciences and dogma are often blurred. Indeed, several courses in which the curricula does not related subjects. The ICPHS coordinates the international works and respondents expressed the sentiment that allow for any integration of these subject research carried out by a huge philosophical learning is in the process of areas, which could allow students to constellation of centres and networks of scholars. It favours the being expropriated by religion, often with form an overall vision of the subject mat- exchange of knowledge among the more-or-less open support of political ter. Although these deficiencies are not faraway scholars and fosters the powers. But, on the other hand, is it wise to generalized, they represent a conside- international circulation of scholars, in order to improve the com- consider religious philosophy simply as an rable problem in a certain number of munication among specialists from oxymoron? Any philosophical deliberation countries, where it is possible for stu- different disciplines; enforce a better knowledge of cultures and of within the framework of a religious faith is dents to finish their studies with a very their different social, individual and obligatorily subject to conceptual limits, uneven preparation in the different philo- collective behaviours; and bring to the fore the richness of each cultu- without these necessarily constituting a vio- sophical disciplines, and sometimes even re and their fruitful diversity. lation of academic freedom. Here it is more within a single discipline. There are cases www.unesco.org/cipsh/

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of graduates with excellent qualifications level, and a pre-eminence of traditional on Descartes or Husserl – because their courses at the undergraduate and departments were notable for work on Master’s levels. It is, however, impossible these authors – who are perfectly igno- to identify more uniformity, taking into rant of the work of Hegel, Augustin or account the enormous diversity of prac- Spinoza – never having followed courses tices employed at the local level. Thus, a on these authors. This is a sensitive sub- text from Keith Crome and Mike Garfield, ject, as is everything that touches the of Manchester Metropolitan University, freedom of teaching, and one that was used in 2003 as a base for discussion should be mentioned within the frame- on the teaching value of reading accom- work of the dialectic between academic panied by texts for the development of freedom and the management of the the analytical capacity of students(16). didactics of philosophy. Here again, the discussion at the very centre of the academic community serves The question of teaching methods desi- as a factor of scientific and teaching pro- gned to optimize the capacities of stu- gress, all the while respecting the prin- dents and at the same time to develop ciple of academic freedom for the people proper methods of training and research concerned. The principle of accompanied is at the centre of discussions on the reading also plays a part in learning the forms of higher philosophy teaching. technical vocabulary of philosophy. The Different questions arise according to the multiplication of participative teaching levels of teaching (B.A., M.A. or doctoral practices is today increasingly observable

(16) Keith Crome and Mike studies). In very general terms, it is pos- throughout the world. However, the role Garfield, ‘Text-based Teaching sible to observe practices increasingly of more traditional courses remains and Learning: A Report’. November 2005. focussed on discussions in seminars, as important, in particular in universities http://prs.heacademy.ac.uk one progresses towards the doctoral where the number of students is higher.

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II. Philosophy facing emerging challenges: Questions and stakes

1) Philosophy teaching in a globalized world

A philosophical teaching whether ours or those of others, and to cri- and engagement in society ticize the motivations and intentions behind them and their effects. A philoso- What role can philosophy play in the for- phical education is a fundamental commu- mation of today’s citizens? A review carried nication mechanism, because it is precisely out during the preparation of this study by virtue of its critical range that we learn showed that many research professors how to see in another’s world view not the argue that a philosophical education can expression of a particular and foreign sub- stimulate the development of a permanent jectivity, but a partner in a shared human capacity for questioning and critical thin- interaction, with whom it is possible to king with respect to the various types of have productive exchanges and dialogue. knowledge and intersubjective dynamics Learning Aristotle’s doctrine of the four governing contemporary societies. Some causes relies on more than just historical consider that this critical capacity must first scholarship or being a devotee of the past. be applied to the broader global processes Such training teaches us how to detect the affecting our societies. Philosophical tea- compound meanings behind human ching methods interlock quite naturally action, by putting the individual in a posi- with the place granted to philosophy in cul- tion to judge actions not only in relation to tural and social dynamics. It seems, howe- the effects they have on his or her indivi- ver, that there is a risk that philosophy dual experience, but also, and especially, in might be reduced to an immediate cultural the context of a vaster intersubjective dyna- and political engagement that opposes a mics, where each of us is only one among given socio-economic configuration. But many. Philosophical teaching finds its raison this would be a radical way of decreasing d’être in its freedom from the subjectivity the formative and creative power of philo- of particular objectives and, therefore, in its sophical thinking. Once reduced to a doc- capacity to open one’s perspectives to the trinal training, whatever the quality of the viewpoints of others and to transform a course content, philosophy becomes to a collision between inward-looking objectives certain degree dogmatic, which is counter into an open and rational interaction. to its very nature. By its very nature, philosophy’s essential function is to extrapolate Philosophy – guardian of rationality? the theoretical structures that underlie cultural objects, and it draws its vitality from Critical thinking plays an essential part in measuring itself against the concrete pro- the democratic organization of contempo- blems of people’s lives and their societies. rary societies. It also reflects the function An education for citizenship, as provided by that many accord philosophy – a guardian philosophy, helps one to face situations of rationality. This is an important aspect, as that involve a hierarchy of values. An awa- a call for rational thinking is often a defen- reness of the nature of our choices, the sive reflex on the part of those who fear capacity to model our actions on a moral their cultural identities are threatened by a law, therefore to exert in every single rationality that is based purely on Western moment human responsibility and citizen- values or knowledge structures. However, ship, can only result from an education that in a world characterized by rising irrationa- is centred on the teaching of philosophy. lism – by movements that oppose or de- Such an education aims, on all levels, to emphasize the importance of rationality – help individuals understand the complexity and by the multiplication of partisan identi- of experience. It also teaches us how to cri- ty, this role can only be played if one breaks tically consider established opinions, with any sectarian or cultural concept of

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rationality, and with any vision of a Philosophy and cultural traditions dogmatic universal rationality. Philosophical rationality can never take Because philosophy is the criticism of the form of an imposition or generaliza- knowledge – or, according to certain tion of concepts from a particular cultural directions in contemporary thought, a context to another. On the contrary, it general theory of cultural forms of know- operates by progressively letting go of ledge – Kulturwissenschaft – its impact on particular understandings, at both the cultural traditions is important. This chap- individual and the cultural levels, in order ter illustrates that the reciprocal relation- to enable free interaction with others. ship between learning and research cha- Philosophy liberates experience from the racterizes philosophy teaching at the uni- concrete finalities that renders other fina- versity level, but also that its diversity lities incomprehensible and distant. With comes from bringing formal reason to this intention, philosophical teaching can- bear on a multiplicity of cultures and not postulate new substantial entities any knowledge systems. All philosophy is more than it can replace an immediate impregnated with the values of the cultu- determination of data by a metaphysical re from which it emerges and develops. determination. A philosophical educa- The examples of ethno-philosophy in tion’s liberating power, however, lies in its Africa, thoughts on Neo-Confucianism in capacity to carry out the shift from the China and East Asia, the dialectic between particular to the general. Several research religion and secularity in the West and the professors agree that learning the skills of relationship between philosophical ratio- rational thinking, through which a philo- nality and Indian values that is often men- sophical education teaches us to elabora- tioned by philosophers from the Indian te on our individual experience, can prove subcontinent all illustrate the cultural invaluable in addressing individual inter- significance of philosophical enquiry. They ests, egoism and partisan identities. also contribute in explaining the presence Efforts to promote the teaching of philo- of philosophy in various academic and cul- sophy should thus be centred on this tural arenas. Today, cultural studies centres facet. The universality of reason – this are places for philosophical research just as should be the major direction of philoso- much as are departments of philosophy. phical teaching – cannot be synonymous This broadening also reflects a desire, sha- with disguised ethnocentrism, and should red by many philosophers, for the kind of be presented more as the possibility for cross-discipline involvement that is playing fertile and capable encounters within a an increasing part in the organization of plurality of cultural systems and value research and academic teaching. systems. 2) The topicality of philosophy: A practice to be handled with caution

The teaching of philosophy: upon by a number of today’s specialists and uniting rational thinking and history cannot be translated into reducing philosophical teaching to a discussion of social, It seems, however, that all this is valid only political, economic or cultural events. if philosophy chooses to leave its ‘splendid Philosophy teaching is not only concerned isolation’, which sometimes cuts it off from with detecting historical philosophical pro- the realities of the world, to confront the blems in current events, it also aspires to problems really experienced by men and instil skills in critical thinking and to teach women and to contribute to finding ans- students how to analyse and build on our wers to them. This was one conclusion experience of the world about us. This is an made in the report on an international essential aspect of a philosophical educa- conference on philosophy teaching in the tion. The idea that philosophy should be a context of globalization held in Dakar in product of history, and that its teaching January 2006, under the double aegis of should convey a body of concepts, doc- FISP and UNESCO. It is an idea insisted trines and convictions is a trap shared by

114 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM many dogmatic systems. It is because of from country to country, just as the just such a concept of doctrinal substantia- convictions of each specialist are different. lism that a majority of authoritarian In certain cases, a more utilitarian move- regimes have preached – and continue to ment is discernable in philosophy tea- practise today – a selective teaching of phi- ching, which some respondents criticize losophical theories; and also why, in this for reducing philosophy to a series of context, they are often sincerely in favour simple professional props, illustrated by of teaching philosophy. Philosophy gathers deontological ethics or the proliferation its force and its freedom from the formal of courses in business ethics. In other nature of its structures, its categories and cases, the overly traditional and some- its concepts. It represents an instrument of times academic nature of philosophy free conscience in that, instead of promo- courses is condemned and recommenda- ting a closed corpus of knowledge and tions are made to move towards more values, instead of opposing doctrinal cor- practical approaches, where applied phi- pora, ethical systems or traditions, it pro- losophy can be used as guide to students vides students with tools to analyze situa- of disciplines directed towards professio- tions, acts or remarks with which they are nal careers rather than towards acade- confronted. The thinking skills learnt mic research. Finally, we see that these through a philosophical education, the approaches coexist, sometimes in oppo- practice of ‘purifying experience’ that it sition sometimes working to establish imparts, generates freedom in that it makes new theoretical and teaching paradigms it possible to criticise a system from within aimed at giving philosophy teaching a it – to examine the various ethical systems practical direction, but not to the and bodies of beliefs that have developed detriment of its specificity and its history. over the course of history and are found in all of our societies. A philosophical educa- One question that arises today for philo- tion is always a critique of knowledge sys- sophy teaching relates to the role that it tems. When philosophy wants to contribu- can play regarding new problems raised te to freedom, it does not offer to replace by the processes of economic and cultural ethical, cultural or political contents by globalization. With respect to these others of the same nature, but offers a transformations, some see philosophy as strict and radical criticism of any closed cor- losing its grip on the real world, while pus of beliefs, precepts or dogma. When others regard it as definitively unquali- the teaching of philosophy is reduced to an fied to tackle these global problems. Is it ethical indoctrination, it betrays its libera- still necessary to teach philosophy and, if ting function. This is why philosophy tea- so, what content should be favoured? It ching remains the decisive field of battle is appropriate to distinguish these two between formal knowledge, with the free questions. On the one hand, we can only and open morality that accompanies it, and look favourably on the preservation, dogmatic knowledge, with its authoritarian even the expansion, of a discipline that moralizing. As several researchers claimed, offers a constitutive theory for the fun- a philosophical education can have only damental concepts of the social sciences one goal: ‘emancipation of the student – to and society. Philosophical concepts and liberate students from the illusion of categories in fact play a critical dual role. knowledge’ and the critique of this same They address the entire body of know- knowledge. ledge that comprises a culture or an ethical system, but more specifically, they Priorities in research and teaching also underlie the fundamental concepts of the social sciences, society and natu- Today, philosophy and its teaching seem re. By means of this dual role, philosophy challenged by new issues – and they also continues to hold an essential place represent by themselves an issue of a in the development of science and in the political nature. The role that govern- dialogue among cultures. In addition, it ments assign to philosophy and the would be a mistake to favour certain place they grant to an instituted and ins- philosophical content with an appearan- titutionalized philosophy differ greatly ce of greater topicality to the detriment

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of other research paths that may be less level, providing that this support does appealing to some, but are just as likely not purely benefit any particular domain to give rise to unexpected developments. of philosophical work. While not all phi- In philosophy, as in research in general, it losophical communities are necessarily at is impossible to anticipate the constant the forefront of knowledge in their field, evolution of priorities. All action aimed philosophers remain in the best position at reinforcing the presence of philosophy to decide what priorities should be given in research and educational institutions to their research. In addition, we need to throughout the world should respect this recall that the emphasis on ethics that principle of self-determination of the has characterized policies supporting academic community. What seems ancil- philosophy over the last few years is now lary today can prove to be essential shifting in response to new approaches tomorrow, hence the absolute require- insisting on the importance of knowled- ment not to penalize any field of research. ge systems to human and social interaction. This is one example among others To this end, it is desirable to support the of the reversal of priorities that is typical activities of philosophical communities of research in philosophy and, in within countries as on the international general, in all academic disciplines.

3) The question of professional opportunities

Opportunities to teach philosophy in universities especially the CAPES’. A respondent from can be divided into several categories. Bolivia condemned the ‘difficulty of going on to the magisterio (Master’s) level for a number Secondary education of graduates’. A Colombian respondent criticized the ‘feeble enthusiasm for humanities in This is a common issue for university studies in secondary education’, another, more simply, philosophy, for two reasons. Firstly, in the pointed out that ‘job opportunities are limi- majority of cases, to teach philosophy – and, ted’. A Jordanian researcher explained the sometimes history or literature – in secondary reduction in philosophy classes in the country schools, one needs to have a degree in the by the fact that it ‘does not attract students subject, whether this be at the undergraduate because of a perceived absence of employ- or graduate level. In addition, teaching at ment opportunities particularly in schools’. secondary level represents, in a number of Although secondary education is sometimes countries, the principal or the most immediate considered, in particular in Western countries, employment opportunity for philosophy gra- as a professional sanctuary, the call for posts in duates. In other words, reforms in secondary secondary schools continues to play an impor- education have a direct influence on the tea- tant role in improving enrolment rates in ching of philosophy in higher education. Just philosophy programmes. as the creation of teaching positions in secondary schools supports the development of stu- The internationalization of research, dies at a higher level, a reduction of the pre- or the global campus sence of philosophy in schools discourages enrolments in philosophy courses – and contri- Research, be it in an academic institute, in a butes to a decline in philosophical research, research centre or in any other institution, is especially where this is carried out exclusively the second most important issue for philoso- within the university network. The UNESCO phy graduates. Contrary to secondary tea- questionnaire revealed a number of testimo- ching, which views philosophy as belonging to nies to this effect from countries around the the national or regional school curriculum world, and from all countries where philoso- (though this is not always the case), recruit- phy is studied at secondary level. One French ment for research posts is universal. Obtaining respondent pointed out that one of the fac- a degree in philosophy presupposes that there tors undermining the philosophy teaching in are university positions available in this discipli- universities is ‘a reduction in numbers at the ne. It is interesting to note in this respect that selection exams for secondary teaching posts, the ratio of the number of students in

116 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM philosophy to the total number of students Philosophy at work enrolled in arts and the humanities increases considerably at the doctoral level when com- For a number of years there has been a gro- pared to the undergraduate and Master’s wing tendency to develop philosophical levels. This illustrates that a high percentage of training at work. This interaction can be philosophy students undertake further studies observed on at least two levels. Firstly, there at the research level. However, some specific are a growing number of companies which details are needed on this subject. Firstly, it is corporate identity is ‘philosophical’: com- advisable to note that, contrary to other scien- panies offering consultancy, training and tific disciplines, such as biology, physics or guidance services to large and medium- medical science, places where philosophical sized organizations. These training courses research is carried out tend not to vary. The often relate to specific subjects such as bulk of philosophical research is done in uni- business ethics, medical ethics or rhetorical versities (public or private) or national research techniques, or they focus on more funda- centres. Institutes of philosophical studies, mental aspects of company life – for foundations and other independent research example, courses in group interaction or in centres certainly exist, but their role remains the skills of rational discussion. In these relatively peripheral. Private research centres, cases, the subjects covered are often very along the lines of the start-ups seen in medical similar to those frequently found in courses and biological research, are rare in philosophy. offered by psychologists or advertising exe- cutives. The labour market for research professors is characterized more and more by a fervent A second aspect of the growing interest internationalization. This process is sometimes that companies seem to have in philoso- described as the ‘global campus’. Indeed, phy training is expressed through the although in many countries the recruitment choice of recruiting graduates in philoso- system remains anchored to national or even phy because of their recognised adapta- local sectors, systems for advertising available bility to various situations and, in parti- positions internationally are expanding rapidly, cular, trends in markets and technolo- through Web sites, newsgroups and closed gies. The speed at which the market networks that circulate hundreds of advertise- evolves seems to reward this capacity for ments for positions for which candidates from adaptation. An increasing number of all countries can apply. This practice is particu- young philosophy graduates are being larly popular among universities in English- contacted by companies once they speaking countries. One of the principal func- obtain their diplomas, in the same way tions of the American Philosophical that engineers, biologists or lawyers are. Association(17), probably the largest philosophi- This possible recruitment in the private cal organization in the world, consists in main- sector, thanks to philosophy training, is taining an up-to-date list of academic job today largely promoted by the universi- offers. From this point of view, it functions ties themselves. It has even become part more like an occupational trade union than an of the marketing strategy of Faculties academic society in the European model. where philosophy courses are taught. The added value of philosophy diplomas This internationalization of the philosophical in the private sector is used to encoura- labour market corresponds to an internationa- ge students to choose a philosophical lization or globalization of academic research education. This student recruitment in general. Besides teaching work and resear- policy is particularly visible in countries ch itself, there are a substantial number of where philosophy does not have a suffi- other centres – and therefore positions – that cient tradition or prestige to make itself support research. Academic societies and attractive. On the ‘philosophy’ home foundations, or organizations and internatio- page for the School of Liberal Arts at the nal associations often actively recruit person- University of Newcastle in New South Wales, nel from among philosophy graduates. This Australia (18), we can see one particularly also can apply to technical staff in universities explicit example of this practice. After (17) www.apa.udel.edu/apa/ and research centres. having acknowledged that ‘the subject is (18) www.newcastle.edu.au/school/ not widely studied in Australia’ and that liberal-arts/

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‘consequently, many Australians are not work, even if the time it takes to find quite sure just what ‘Philosophy’ is’, we employment corresponding to their trai- read: ‘philosophy is, above all, concerning can be longer more than in the case ned with the examination and critical of other careers. Testimonies assembled appraisal of arguments, and the ability by the questionnaire return a vague to subject complicated problems to care- concern: the tenuous nature of profes- ful logical analysis. Any philosophy gra- sional positions does nothing to encou- duate will have been trained in the skills rage in young people the idea of under- of critical thinking and the analysis and taking studies in philosophy. ‘There is no appraisal of arguments. As a result of work for graduates’ explains a Jordanian their training, philosophy graduates have academic, with a similar sentiment skills that are valuable in a wide range of coming from an academic from Portugal: working environments. Major employer ‘there is a lack of availability of work for groups within Australia are also now holders of philosophy diplomas’. In beginning to realise the value of skills Tunisia, ‘graduate unemployment’ and conferred by an education in philosophy. the ‘job market’ are seen as the worst It is commonplace to say that we live in enemies of philosophical studies. It is in a time of increasingly rapid change. The Africa that the urgency for employment specific technical training that students possibilities is the greatest. One respon- receive, particularly in areas such as dent from Mauritania, commented that information technology, will become ‘students are not motivated to study phi- obsolete in a few years. But the ability to losophy because they cannot find work’. think logically, independently and criti- In Niger, two testimonies denounce ‘the cally, and to apply that capacity to new absence of employment prospects for areas and new domains as they emerge, students’, the fact that ‘many students are skills that will always be valuable in leaving university turn towards other the future. These are precisely the skills fields of professional activities’ and that, that philosophy education confers. In within the social sciences, there is a ten- addition, specific philosophy courses will dency to forsake philosophy to the bene- have particular value for particular profit of ‘more professionalized paths like fessions and activities, and can profitably sociology’. A similar remark comes from be included in those study programmes France, where philosophy is faced with as electives to enhance employment ‘competition among the social sciences’, opportunities’. due to ‘a lack of job opportunities reserved for philosophy’. Two Indologists wri- This range of possible places where a ting from Mauritius say: ‘those who seek philosophical education could prove work choose other subjects’. However, valuable also includes all kinds of ‘creati- not all the news is discouraging. Often, ve’ professions: in the media and in obtaining a philosophy degree is a cultural institutions. The Department of means to social assertion. In the presen- Philosophy at the University of tation of the Philosophy Department at Ljubljana(19), in Slovenia, emphasizes, in the University of Makerere(20) in Uganda, addition to teaching in secondary a paragraph devoted to career-advance- schools and research work, ‘jobs in cul- ment opportunities is interesting: ‘The tural and public institutions, libraries, courses offered in the Department of publishing houses, newspapers, maga- Philosophy may offer one opportunities zines, television and other media, wri- to teach in tertiary institutions or to ting and translating philosophical and serve in the civil service in areas such as other theoretical texts – as well as jobs the President’s office and ministries of as publicists and translators in foreign affairs, labour and social welfare, interdisciplinary fields.‘ gender, culture or community development, and with NGOs and other private The public sphere institutions. Philosophy graduates can (19) www.ff.uni-lj.si also serve with the security forces, (20) Philosophy Department, University of Makerere The majority of graduates in philosophy particularly within the police force and http://arts.mak.ac.ug/phil.html eventually derive a living from their the prison system’.

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4) The role and challenges of UNESCO Chairs in Philosophy

The UNITWIN (University Twinning and UNESCO programme, as well as the sup- Networking) programme and UNESCO Chairs pression of inactive chairs. In addition to a were inaugurated in 1991(21). Their creation Chair’s traditional functions within the answered a pressing need to reverse the pro- domains of teaching, training, research and gressive decline in higher-educational esta- community actions, the new generation of blishments in developing countries, in particu- UNESCO Chairs and networks will have to lar, in less-advanced countries. Its objective satisfy new criteria, in particular as was to strengthen inter-university co-opera- concerns: their involvement with the tion by the creation of an innovative method domains prioritized by the programme; of regional and international academic co- their integration into an existing network or operation, to facilitate the transfer, the their systematic regrouping into networks exchange and sharing of knowledge among according to prioritized domains; the provi- institutions everywhere in the world, thus sion of concrete evidence of their sustaina- contributing to reducing the knowledge gap, bility; and to demonstrate an active dimen- encouraging academic solidarity, creating sion of North-South and/or South-South centres of excellence in developing countries, co-operation in their activities. This strate- and controlling the ‘brain drain’ phenomenon. gic approach aims to contribute to reinforcing the interaction between UNESCO and Because of the extent of requests emanating the Chairs and networks, by facilitating from Member States and higher-education their participation in the design, the imple- institutes throughout the world, the number mentation and evaluation of UNESCO’s of requests and projects increased rapidly. programmes and activities, to which they Today, 15 years after, the network comprises will serve both as ‘think tanks’ and conduits 661 chairs and inter-university networks cove- between academic research and civil socie- ring a broad range of subjects and fields. This ty, and between researchers and decision- enthusiasm testifies to the enormous prestige makers. This approach will also contribute that this network of UNESCO Chairs has ear- to slowing the growth of the number of new ned within the world’s academic community. Chairs, in order to privilege quality over quantity, notably in the form of relevancy, A new strategic approach for the UNITWIN follow-up and impact of the projects. programme and UNESCO Chairs is on the horizon. This approach has three major objec- (ii) This strategy also highlights the necessi- tives: (i) to create a new generation of Chairs ty of grouping together into networks a conforming to the objectives and priorities of certain number of existing Chairs concer- the UNESCO programme; (ii) to systematically ned with fields, subjects or domains of a regroup Chairs into networks (networks of similar level of priority. The goal is to rein- Chairs), and to create dynamic networks (net- force interregional and international acade- works of networks); and (iii) to move from mic co-operation in the interests of develo- being centres of excellence to poles of excel- ping countries. This regrouping of Chairs lence, through the dynamics of South-South will gradually bring about more functional cooperation. and more dynamic interdisciplinary networks. A new generation of UNESCO Chairs (iii) Lastly, in the initial plan, it was considered that UNESCO Chairs, in particular those (i) Of the 661 existing chairs and networks, created in developing countries, would approximately 450 are currently active and evolve gradually to become centres of only two thirds of these effectively corres- excellence devoted to advanced training pond to the priority areas of UNESCO or and research in key fields of sustainable (21) ‘Report by the Director- the United Nations. It is with this in mind development. However, experience shows General on new strategic orienta- that the new strategic approach proposes that various difficulties, both financial and tions for the UNITWIN/UNESCO creation of a new generation of Chairs that human, caused only a few Chairs to take Chairs Programme’. Paris, Executive Board of UNESCO. 2007. are sustainable and in measure to contribu- this route. Institutions in the majority of (176 EX/10.) te to the objectives and priorities of the developing countries have neither the www.unesco.org

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means nor the capacity to reach the critical mass necessary for activities of advanced research and training. A transnational distribution of tasks, founded on regional cooperation and solid international support, is thus both a necessity and an opportunity for these institutions to develop. The UNITWIN programme and UNESCO Chairs are ideal tools to achieve this goal. It is in this context that a transition from centres towards poles of excellence should constitute one of the principal axes of the programme’s future direction. Existing or future UNESCO Chairs in Philosophy will therefore tend to fit in to this dynamics and will certainly benefit from this encouraging impetus.

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Box 30 What is a UNESCO Chair in Philosophy?

It is firstly a pole of excellence for a and requires in the name of the right to awareness of democratic values and the living philosophy, based on a tradition philosophy the community of equals in culture of peace. where modernity is not the repetition of the work of philosophical deliberation. the same but the invention of the new. Secondly, it is a privileged forum where A UNESCO Chair of Philosophy, from its professors, researchers and high-level natural place which is the university, has students can mingle and exchange the vocation to bring the rigor of philoso- Patrice Vermeren knowledge. Finally it is a theatre of free phical thought to bear on the problems Professor of Philosophy at expression of dissensus – in the image of the modern world, and making this University of Paris VIII, of democracy – which accepts both the available to the greatest number of Director of the Centro Franco-Argentino pluralism of references and schools, people possible, because this is an de Altos Estudios seeks a dialogue beyond all frontiers essential element in creating a greater (France/Argentina)

A promising future private sector, in particular), in the service of projects carried out in developing and To derive the most from the possibilities less-advanced countries. offered by UNITWIN and the UNESCO Chairs programmes in all of UNESCO’s Lastly, this new strategic approach from fields of competence, and to implement UNESCO is intended to confront the gro- the strategic approach described above, wing geographical imbalance in Chairs, UNESCO is working to reinforce its adviso- favouring the North, from whence the ry role in relation to Chairs and networks need to systematically regroup UNESCO with regard to research projects, activities Chairs into dynamic networks, the and training schemes, as well as reinforcing objective being to increase North-South its function as a catalyst in the promotion and South-South co-operation. of partnerships and networks. This strategy will also be harnessed to actively take part It is important to stress that, as demonstrated in the mobilization of funds and to interve- in the examples in this chapter, the UNESCO ne in a more systematic manner in the col- Chairs in Philosophy illustrate a clear lection of extra-budgetary funds (from the commitment to these objectives.

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Box 31 UNESCO Chairs in Philosophy throughout the world

UNESCO currently lists eleven chairs in philosophical knowledge through its of clarifying legislative and institutional philosophy, or ethics, according to the publications and the development of acts in the domain of ethics and public title employed. Some of these attest to partnerships so as to strengthen the policies. It organize an interdisciplinary an expanding energy and activity in their international philosophical community. reflection and debate on the ethical and chosen field, while others seem less The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at cultural dimension of policy and develop- active and sometimes even absent from Simon Bolivar University ment, bringing together personalities the panorama of international university (Venezuela) promotes actions towards from the worlds of culture, education, research, at least in so far as the infor- improving standards and conditions for Sciences and arts with personalities mation that is available concerning their the research and teaching staff within representing the political, economic and annual activities. the university’s doctoral programme in social circles. philosophy. 1996. 1999. The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at 1997. The UNESCO Mobile Chair Edgar the University of Chile aims to reposi- The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at Morin in Complex Thought at the tion and raise the profile of philosophy in the University of Tunis I (Tunisia) is Universidad del Salvador (Argentina) the country’s social debates by inciting a one of most active on the network of aims to consolidate the Latin American critical reflection on contemporary pro- chairs and has the objective to promote and Caribbean region research network blems. It also proposes to promote com- tolerance and democracy, starting from concerning the philosopher Edgar Morin munication relations between philosophy research on the various contributions of and complex thought, as well as to pro- resulting from the academic world and Arab and Islamic scientific and philoso- mote teaching, research and documen- philosophy teaching practices in the phical culture, and leading to the explo- tation on this subject. educational environment. With this inten- ration of the various modes of constitution, the Chair intends to initiate and tion and use of reason and its relation- The UNESCO Chair of Studies of the implement a diploma (Postítulo) intended ship with the requirements of modern Philosophic Foundations of Justice and for secondary-school philosophy tea- life. It also promotes intercultural dia- Democratic Society at the University of chers and expects to promote a philoso- logue by reworking, starting with the Québec in Montreal (Canada) has expe- phy programme for children, by training Arabic philosophical inheritance and in rienced considerable success in the teachers of basic education. This chair light of Western philosophical assets, many activities it promotes. By concen- was also an important participant during concepts to develop an ethic of demo- trating its research in political philoso- the celebration of World Philosophy Day cratic mutual understanding. phy and in the philosophy of law, this in Chile, in 2005. chair deliberates on the fundamental The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at theoretical questions emerging from cur- The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at Hacettepe University (Turkey) contri- rent changes in society, in particular the University of Paris VIII (France) is butes considerably to the deliberation those relating to discussions around the very active and committed to a broad on the promotion of human rights in principal prerequisites for democratic and varied philosophical education, by focusing its activities on research, edu- rights and the reterritorialisation of the focusing its activity on teaching and cation, teaching and information on phi- socio-symbolic space in the context of research in the aim of contributing to the losophy of ethics and human rights. This globalization. development of philosophy in developing chair has been exemplary in particular in as well as industrialized countries. It terms of devising courses for the 2001. implements activities that align directly ongoing training of personnel in the The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at with the UNESCO Intersectoral Strategy country’s security forces. the National University of Comahue concerning philosophy, while concentra- and at the Gino Germani Institute of ting its efforts on its preferred themes of The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at the University of Buenos Aires culture and institutions, as clearly Seoul National University (Republic (Argentina) aims to promote an integra- demonstrated by its project to create a of Korea) develops teaching and ted system of research, training, infor- European University of Culture. The research activities in philosophy and mation and documentation activities in objective of this project is to promote a democracy. It encourages international the philosophical domain and, in particu- space for the intellectual development of collaboration between researchers via lar, in philosophy of science and political culture directly related to artistic, litera- the publication of a philosophical review philosophy as well as to facilitate colla- ry and philosophical creation. Humanitas Asiatica, which addresses boration between philosophers, high the current points of view and problems level researchers and world renowned The UNESCO Chair in Philosophy of of Asia. It has, in particular, played a cru- teachers from universities and other ins- Human Communication, at Kharkiv cial role in facilitating the interregional titutions of higher education in Argentina State Technical University of philosophical dialogue between Asia and and the countries known as ‘Southern Agriculture (Ukraine) aims at promo- the Arabic world. Cone’ from Latin America. ting and developing an international network in the field of the philosophy of 1998. human communication in the perspecti- The UNESCO Chair in Ethics and ve of an intercultural dialogue. Activities Policy at El Honorable Senado de la of this chair focus on the distribution of Nación (Argentina) works with the aim Source : www.unesco.org

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III. Diversification and internationalization of philosophical teaching

1) Teaching practices and methods around the world

The diversity of ways in which philoso- quality of philosophical teaching phy is taught in universities throughout depends more on individual educational the world has more to do with the strategies. Specific differences are to be content taught than the educational sys- found, nevertheless, at the regional and tem adopted. Contrary to the secondary even national levels. Generally, these dif- level, where a teaching structure organi- ferences are due to the manner in which zed in terms of hours and semesters philosophy was historically introduced determines the nature and the quality of into the university structure. courses proposed, at the university level the multiplicity of content areas offered The general state of philosophy and the presence of philosophy within teaching around the world quite disparate academic streams and faculties determines the organization of Africa. teachers and professors. In spite of many In spite of increasing difficulties, the pre- local variations, the major part of the sence of philosophy remains strong in academic curriculum is generally divided most of Africa. In the majority of coun- into two principal levels. In the North- tries, courses are taught at the university American system, these levels are pre- level. Most African universities have a sented as ‘undergraduate’ (bachelor) department, a centre or an institute and ‘graduate’ (master’s and doctorate). focussed on philosophical studies. This The corresponding levels in the new presence sometimes extends beyond European system are generally presented what one would imagine, and generates as in three levels, B.A. and M.A. – which some confusion between the question of are both considered part of the under- philosophy teaching and the possibilities graduate level – and the doctoral level. of obtaining higher-level degrees in phi- Moreover, we see the North American losophy. Moreover, the UNESCO ques- system becoming more popular in seve- tionnaire brought this contradiction to ral other educational systems throu- light. An Ugandan specialist in contem- ghout the world, in which undergradua- porary and ethical philosophy pointed te studies follow a system of principal out the absence of philosophy teaching (major) and subsidiary (minor) subjects. at one point, and then later revealed that this teaching delivers B.A. and M.A. With regard to the methods employed, degrees and that it is also present in two in a majority of countries, university edu- private universities. However, there are cation is based on a combination of tra- many philosophy departments in ditional courses and seminars, subject of Uganda. The renowned University of course to local variations (including the Makerere, for example, offers a speciali- reading of specific texts, the presenta- zed M.A. in Philosophy within the tion and discussion of students’ work, Department of Philosophy of the Faculty and in relation to teaching styles and the of Arts (one of seven departments in the different demands made of students), faculty), which also oversees the new but still reflecting a relatively homoge- M.A. in ‘Ethics, Social Management and neous structure. This limited diversity in Human Rights’. Significantly, the depart- terms of institutional practices and tea- ment is determined to underline its auto- ching methods, linked to the presence of nomy from the Department of Religious philosophy courses in almost all nations, Studies. In African countries, the majori- is quite different from the situation ty of philosophy institutes and depart- found at the secondary level, where the ments are in faculties of art or social and

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human sciences. Philosophy courses are university education is a recent fact, and also often included in faculties of law, that this is a sign of real progress, other economic science, social sciences or edu- more worrying tendencies become appa- cation. Centres for research and philoso- rent. Initially one notes, in certain more phy teaching are relatively rare, however, advanced countries, a redeployment of and are almost always to be found scientific and academic resources to the within humanities faculties. A specific benefit of applied sciences and industrial aspect of French-speaking African coun- research. This is a result of science policy, tries is the network of Écoles Normales – often at the national level. Testimonials institutes of higher learning in the huma- from South Africa report a growing nities – which are present in almost all disenchantment with regard to philoso- these countries and often account for phy, which is often regarded as unable to most of the social sciences and philoso- contribute to the economic and scientific phy teaching at the tertiary level. They progress of their country. The same atti- represent an important resource in the tude can be seen in Botswana, where context of higher education in these one respondent deplored ‘the current countries. tendency to allocate resources to science and technology’; in Kenya, where ‘the Where there is no philosophy depart- preoccupation with profitability and the ment, we can only deplore the absence. employment opportunities after obtai- Thus, two research professors in ning a university qualification determines Burundi expressed the country’s despe- the choice of which subjects are stu- rate need for philosophy. There is a mar- died’; or in Lesotho, where one ked absence of any pure philosophy bemoans ‘a lack of sponsors, because degree course, but according to these social sciences are not as much a part of testimonials, an Introduction to the government’s priorities as exact Philosophy course is taught in the first sciences are’. In Nigeria, there is a more years of all faculties, with philosophy general ‘lack of perception of the value found in later years in the form of of philosophy’. It is as though economic courses in logic (in the Faculty of Arts) development has been at the detriment and ethics (in the faculties of law and of philosophy – a phenomenon found in economics). Moreover, it is reported that other regions around the world and philosophy is taught in almost all univer- which represents one possible axis for sities and its presence is far from dimini- intervention. It is also important to shing, ‘because a few years ago, it was a underline a stunning lack of documenta- good as inexistent’. However, the Faculty ry and human resources in almost all of Arts and Social Sciences of the African countries. This is a known phe- University of Burundi comprises five nomenon and particularly affects those departments (African Languages and subjects seen as having a weak economic Literature, English Language and Literature, impact – such as philosophy, which cor- French Language and Literature, respondingly suffers from a redeploy- Geography and History), but philosophy is ment of resources towards other priori- only offered within the Department of ties. A respondent from Gabon African Languages and Literature. denounces the negative effects of a structural insufficiency in terms of the The testimonies assembled by UNESCO availability of teachers, linked to weak reveal a general sentiment that philoso- interest in philosophy on the part of stu- phy is weakening on the continental dents. A ‘teacher crisis’ is also observed scale in Africa. These reactions are inva- in Mali and Niger, where ‘the teaching luable, because they offer an overview of profession is being jeopardised by the how teachers and academics are living contractual formalization of teaching the evolution of their subject and an and the absence of documentation’. insight into the place they occupy in the various African societies. Even though In the Central African Republic, ‘the respondents from Burundi agree that collapse in the number of students enrol- the introduction of philosophy in ling in philosophy faculties’ is similarly

124 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM blamed on a ‘lack of motivation on philosophers to ensure continuity when behalf of teaching staff’ and an ‘insuffi- we are forced to act in a situation of ciency of documentation’. From limited educational resources? If the Senegal, one respondent evokes the dif- transmission of philosophical practices ficulty in reconciling a great number of between a teacher and his or her stu- students with ‘very insufficient infra- dents constitutes the backbone of philo- structures and organization’. The action sophical continuity, the reactions coming of agencies specialized in supporting from Rwanda perhaps provide some- research, such as the Francophone thing of a response. Here, introduction University Agency, along with a number to philosophy courses are taught during of NGOs involved in inter-university co- the first year in the majority of faculties. operation, make it possible to mitigate It should be noted, however, that philo- this shortage of means, but difficulties sophy teaching is flagging ‘to the bene- remain. fit of applied and natural sciences’ and that ‘courses in ethics and Rwandan cul- Another point that arises from the com- ture are being endorsed for political rea- ments of academics in Africa is that philo- sons’. But other African countries share sophy and politics do not always go hand- a characteristic in as much that it is ‘nor- in-hand. A testimonial from the Côte mally only the higher institutions that d'Ivoire indicates that ‘there are few train priests and pastors that also teach opportunities for philosophy meetings’ philosophy as an obligatory subject’. and that ‘only the organization of (UNESCO) Even though a majority of these esta- Philosophy Days has given rise to public blishments were founded in Rwanda debates’. We see this demand for an after 1994, within the framework of increased international presence in seve- rebuilding the country’s higher-educa- ral African countries, whether on the level tion system, the presence of philosophy of teaching and research or with regard in denominational establishments is cus- to methods to support academic co-ope- tomary across the entire African conti- ration on a regional and international nent. Examples include: the Catholic scale. The presence of international insti- University of Central Africa in Yaounde, tutions is viewed as a means of obtaining in Cameroon (governed by a group of assistance for research projects, but is bishops from Cameroon, the Central also, and sometimes especially, seen as a African Republic, Congo, Gabon, support for freedom of public expression Equatorial Guinea and Chad); the and debate. ‘It is in its support for the Catholic University of West Africa in freedom of philosophical expression that Côte d'Ivoire; the Catholic Institute of the action of UNESCO can be situated’. Madagascar; and Adventist Universities Admittedly, we are speaking here of assis- present throughout the continent(23). (22) As Moses Akin Makinde, a professor at Ife University in tance in relation to research rather than Testimonials received from several philo- Nigeria and a former member of teaching, however the two levels cannot sophers from Malawi in response to the the FISP guiding committee, mentioned in an address to the World be dissociated – for supporting the trai- questionnaire agree that philosophy is Congress in Boston in 1998: ‘there ning and practices of research professors taught ‘in various Catholic colleges and is no doubt that the exodus of philosophers towards Western coun- can have a profound effect on university missionary schools, such as seminaries, tries, because of the difficult eco- education, on the training of secondary- and in two universities run by the nomic climate of their country of origin, and retirement and mortali- school teachers and the education of Catholic Church’. From the same country ty among philosophy teachers has school students. The problem of a lack of we find that ‘certain non–Catholic col- had a negative impact on universi- support for philosophy teaching and leges do not permit the teaching of ty programs. The consequence of this phenomenon could prove research is connected to the exodus of philosophy’. disastrous for philosophy in Africa. African researchers towards European In short, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to train enough post- and especially North American universities On another level, we find in Kenya that graduates to replace former tea- – and in the long term, undoubtedly, ‘the combing of philosophy, theology chers when they retire’. The situation has hardly changed. Chinese universities – which considerably and religious studies in public universi- (23) In Africa, there are Adventist impoverishes the attraction that African ties has deprived philosophy teaching of universities in Madagascar academic communities hold for young a course hours’, whereas another specia- (Antsirabé), in Rwanda (Mudende), (22) in Kenya (Baraton), in South Africa students . list in the same country insists on that (Somerset West), in Cameroon How do we train a sufficient number of philosophy teaching is ‘limited and (Cosendai) and elsewhere.

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confined to the theological university Department of Theology and Religious and other theological institutions’. In Studies, which would offer a philosophy Uganda, philosophy teaching is ‘poorly programme and possibly master’s and understood as being confined to religion doctorate degrees – although testimo- and ethics, and is seen as being a mono- nials point out that ‘the process is too poly for the clergy, for whom career slow’. The situation is similar in Namibia, prospects are limited to teaching’ – this where philosophy is taught in higher may be an exaggeration, but it relates to education within the Theology a cultural climate that is sometimes igno- Department of the University of red. Finally, in Swaziland, an Advanced Namibia. The situation appears more Political Philosophy module is offered in complex in Malawi. Reactions to the the fourth year of the Political Science questionnaire in fact reveal a nuanced course in the Faculty of Social Sciences context, with one respondent pleased at the University of Swaziland. that ‘courses have been added to the curriculum, and older courses have been Although dominant, the perception of a updated’ while adding that there is a progressive decline of philosophy in ‘lack of expertise and textual resources Africa does not lessen the diversity of in philosophy, a lack of capacity in terms local situations. Some situations that go of qualified personnel, and few people against the grain emerge from the pre- appreciate the role of philosophy: conse- sent study. In addition to the Burundi quently, there are not many students case, already mentioned, and Rwanda, enrolled in the course’. To illustrate the where opinions are rather divided, seve- complexity of the matter, another ral experts, philosophers and civil ser- respondent adds that ‘certain other vants in Madagascar agree on the fact departments within the faculty feel that they cannot identify any weakening threatened with respect to the rate of in the current practices of philosophy philosophy enrolments, which is higher teaching. The picture they draw is varied. every year. They have appealed to the They point out that the number of enrol- rector’s office to limit the number of ments in philosophy has increased and courses given in the philosophy depart- that more and more students are taking ment, claiming that these are not suffi- philosophy majors, especially because of ciently pragmatic to allow students to the increased attraction of Malagasy uni- earn a living on graduating’. However, versities for foreign students (especially over the years, numerous opportunities from the Comoros). They also mention to carry out doctoral studies in philoso- the creation of new courses and in parti- phy in Malawi have supplemented the cular the inauguration of doctoral B.A. degree that was the former limit of courses in philosophy. The questionnai- the philosophical curriculum. The re also highlights the reinforcement of Philosophy Department of the University inter-university relations. We can imagi- of Malawi is well equipped to dispense ne here that respondents are referring to this triple-tier education (B.A., M.A. and the merging, still within Madagascar, of Ph.D.), and the online presentation of a doctoral school in philosophy between these classes is attracting great inter- Toliara and Toamasina, as well as increa- est(25). The situation is therefore evolving. sed foreign exchanges, in particular with It is clear that serious efforts are being institutions in La Reunion, Canada and made to remedy any significant structu- France. In Ethiopia, the University of ral deficiencies in Malawi that could Addis Ababa intends to inaugurate, hamper philosophical teaching and within its philosophy department, a gra- research. It is appropriate to finish with (24) Philosophy doctorates are available at the University of duate programme in philosophy. There the statement of a professor in Côte Antananarivo, the École Normale has also been an increase in the number d'Ivoire, who summarizes the various Supérieure in Toliara, the Catholic Institute of Madagascar, and the of requests for philosophy classes concerns in the African philosophical University of Toamasina. The coming from other departments, which community thus: ‘The grand failings of University of North Madagascar in Antsiranana offers philosophy itself represent an almost universal philosophy teaching are primarily on diplomas to the master’s level only. trend. In Botswana, there is an attempt three levels. First, documentation is non- (25) www.chanco.unima.mw/philosophy/ to establish a philosophy unit within the existent. In universities as well as

126 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM secondary schools, there is a deplorable and more traditional knowledge. On the lack of reference works. As a result, tea- one hand, these more practical philoso- chers, and those who train them, cannot phical classes, detached from their theo- inform themselves nor their students on retical basis, gradually found a new the latest developments in their subjects. foundation in an epistemology emana- Next, university lecturers cannot carry ting from traditional thought. This is out field trips, nor can they take part in noticeable in the various forms of cross- conferences and seminars outside their pollination between practical subjects own countries of origin, due to a lack of (social philosophy, political theory) and funds. Therefore, out-of-date courses Confucianism, Taoism or other forms of are continued and in no way contribute spiritual traditional seen in the work of to the training of future teachers. Lastly, Asian philosophers. Nowadays, this the fact that there is a lack of job oppor- theoretical integration is encouraged as tunities at the end of philosophy studies a means of integrating different tradi- contributes to this deterioration’. tions and cultural paradigms, and acts as a vehicle for important social, cultural Asia and the Pacific. and political issues. In addition, we see Whereas in Africa the introduction of an appropriation of the term ‘philoso- philosophy was often modelled on phy’ by the same traditional forms of European educational systems and net- knowledge that were once discarded in works, in Asia the relationship between the infatuation with practical and local cultures and philosophy – as an Western philosophy. Hence the redisco- emanation of Western thought – has, in very and overwhelming presence of ‘tra- fact, been more complex. ditional’ philosophies, which prolong moral concepts and value systems that Philosophy teaching in East Asia existed before the introduction of philo- requires, from the outset, specifics sophical teaching. A simple analysis of concerning the integration of this applications from Chinese students for subject with the country’s traditional cul- European research grants clearly indi- tural structures. In the majority of cases, cates this desire to develop projects philosophy has been associated with aimed at confronting the analytical ratio- processes of modernization and, indi- nality associated with Western thought rectly, of Westernization, which Asian with a traditional approach to philoso- societies first experienced between the phy. These are extremely complexes end of the nineteenth century and the situations that prevent any generaliza- first half of the twentieth century. From tion as to the role and social function of this point of view, it has symbolized the philosophy. In general terms, the esta- concerns of various political projects and blishment of philosophical subjects in struggles between traditionalists and university curricula goes back, in the modernists – a schism that has affected majority of cases, to the second half of a number of Asian societies. This the twentieth century. Today, a majority contrast has often resulted in the promo- of Asian countries offer doctoral courses tion of the more practical aspects of phi- in philosophy. Philosophy departments losophy (for example, ethics, political are present in almost all humanities and philosophy and, today, environmental social science faculties in the region. The ethics, bioethics and social philosophies), UNESCO questionnaire confirms this per- to the detriment of the more theoretical ception of a considerable philosophical subjects that have characterized Western presence in Asia, but also reveals how philosophical thought (such as the theo- the image of philosophy has been tarni- ry of knowledge, or transcendental shed in the eyes of the general public. A philosophy, for example)(26). This pheno- large number of testimonials in fact menon – which can still be seen today in lament a slowdown in philosophy tea- the philosophy departments of many ching when compared to technical disci- Asian universities – had the complemen- plines and applied sciences. From Japan tary and perhaps unexpected effect of a to the Philippines, academics note ‘that (26) See the case of the Republic fusion between philosophical enquiry an increasing number of students want of Korea in this section.

127 CHAPTER III

to take science courses and gain practi- study(27). Let us mention simply the cal qualifications’ and point out that ‘the numerous academic centres that offer emphasis on science has led to the mar- philosophy degrees throughout the ginalization of philosophy and to a spe- country, some of which provide an excel- cialization of disciplines’. The situation lent level of teaching in uncommon appears to be extremely complex and places, such as Goa or Darjeeling, must be elucidated. A specialist in making the Indian philosophical commu- Chinese philosophy from Thailand ack- nity one of the world’s largest in quanti- nowledges that the philosophy program- tative terms. India is also the only coun- me does not ‘equip you to earn money’, try in the world, to our knowledge, to and that consequently ‘the subject is not have created a national Council of very popular’. However, Thailand has Philosophical Research (ICPR, Indian one of the leading schools of logic and Council of Philosophical Research); a the philosophy of science in Asia, and a support organization for philosophical very prestigious doctorate in philosophy research which for some years now has programme is offered by Chulalongkorn played a pre-eminent role in the deve- University. In the Republic of Korea, lopment of studies on a national scale too, research professors lament ‘a loss of and has contributed considerably to interest in philosophy’, and add that embracing international relationships ‘recently, students have tended to take with the Indian philosophical community. more practical subjects’. The situation is very similar in Central The disparity between the perception of Asia, where the wave of interest in phi- the role that philosophy can play in society losophy education that stemmed from and the extent of its teaching, which can the process of reconstructing national also be found in several parts of the identities seems to have been prolonged. Western world, reflects a characteristic fea- An epistemologist from Kyrgyzstan see ture of philosophy’s presence in Asia. The no weakening of philosophy teaching modernizing role that it exerted historically and is delighted at the fact that ‘philoso- in many Asian countries now seems to have phy courses are taught in all universities been supplanted by other methods of tech- and institutions of higher education for nical and scientific innovation. In other all first-year students and others’. words, although the incidence of philoso- Nevertheless, some changes have most phy courses appears altogether satisfactory certainly occurred. Whereas in the midd- within higher-education establishments in le of the 1990s, one of the priorities of Asian countries, the image that philosophy the FISP consisted in promoting the has in these societies has altered. spread of philosophical thought to coun- Philosophy seems to be regarded less and ter the successive sectarian impulses that less as a key skill towards modernization – arose after the disintegration of the a role monopolized increasingly by techni- Soviet Union, today the academies of cal subjects – to become, on the contrary, a Central Asian countries appear more support for resurgent cultural traditions or, focussed on a political and cultural in some cases, to become ‘standardized’ reflection aimed at reinforcing the social within university departments and their reconstruction, and the memory, of their teaching practices. Testimonials from cultural identities. It is in this context Cambodia and the Lao People’s that, for example, the Philosophy Faculty Democratic Republic, however, point to a at the National University of Uzbekistan substantial deterioration of philosophy tea- fuses together courses in sociology, poli- ching in their countries, due to the ‘lack of tical sciences, psychology and pedagogy. qualified philosophy teachers and teaching In the Islamic Republic of Iran, intro- materials’. ductory courses on Islamic philosophy are obligatory in all faculties. Lastly, we The complex relationship between philo- should point out a characteristic pheno- sophical enquiry and traditional know- menon seen in the majority of countries ledge is at the heart of philosophy tea- in Asia, namely that postgraduate stu- ching in India – a country that, on its dies are very often followed by a specia- (27) http://icpr.nic.in own, requires an entirely separate lized (doctoral or post-doctoral) sojourn 128 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 32 The unique support structure for philosophical research in India

Since India’s independence, there has phers and institutions and those of and their relevance to a national been a persistent demand on behalf other countries; to promote teaching reconstruction; normative questions; of the country’s intellectuals, expres- and philosophical research; to provide human, environment, social and politi- sed in different professional philoso- technical assistance and advice for cal philosophy; philosophy of law, phical and non-philosophical forums, the formulation of projects and philo- logic, linguistic philosophy; critical to re-examine both ancient and sophical research programmes; and and comparative studies of philosophi- modern philosophical systems so as to organize and support education ini- cal systems or movements and reli- to evaluate them and derive from tiatives in research methods. The gions; and philosophy of education. them new directives for today’s chan- ICPR suggests fields in which philoso- ging conditions. There is a definite phical research should be promoted The ICPR undertakes numerous activi- impetus towards an independent and takes specific measures for the ties. It awards research grants, orga- Indian philosophical identity. development of neglected or underde- nizes symposiums on different philo- veloped fields of philosophy. It also sophical topics, conferences with There is a sense of an urgent need, provides grants for the publication of eminent Indian philosophers and on different levels, to reinforce papers, journals and studies in the more. It grants travel scholarships so research and philosophy studies in field of philosophy and supports the philosophers can participate in sym- India. In the mid-1970s, a team of introduction and administration of posiums and conferences abroad, academics undertook a study of the scholarships and awards for students, organizes an annual competition for question of reviving India’s philosophi- teachers and others and the develop- young researchers, aged between cal tradition and suggested that the ment of documentation services and twenty and twenty-five years old, to government found the Indian Council an inventory of current philosophical encourage critical and philosophical of Philosophical Research (ICPR). The research, including a national databa- enquiry into the challenges facing basic idea behind the ICPR was se of philosophers. Moreover, the India. The ICPR also manages an accepted in 1976, and it was registe- ICPR plans to develop a group of exchange programme between India red in 1977. Nevertheless, it only young, talented philosophers and to and other countries to facilitate the became active in 1981, under the encourage research among young flow of ideas among philosophers. It presidency of professor D. P. philosophers in general. On request, it publishes a quarterly journal of philo- Chattopadyaya. The principal func- advises the Indian government on sophical works from academics and tions of the ICPR are: to review questions concerning philosophy tea- researchers working within the ICPR, advances in and coordinate the activi- ching and philosophy. In accordance as well as analytical publications ties of philosophical research, and to with these considerations, the ICPR containing creative interpretations of encourage interdisciplinary research has indicated areas of priority in traditional Indian texts. programmes; to promote research research, such as the theory of truth collaboration between Indian philoso- and knowledge; Indian cultural values Source : http://icpr.nic.in

abroad, generally in the United States or these countries. Firstly, the force of in Western Europe. This tendency is attraction their recruitment policies exert being reversed in the case of China, upon the international scene. Today, which has even established a public Australia and, in a lesser measure per- agency aimed at repatriating researchers haps, New Zealand present excellent from abroad, but it still remains wides- possibilities for an academic career. pread. Lastly, in Pakistan, philosophy is While young local philosophers largely taught at the University of the Punjab in occupy this job market, there are gro- Lahore, the University of Karachi and the wing numbers of Americans, Canadians, University of Peshawar. These universi- Indians and British among them. An ties offer doctorates in philosophical increasing number of Europeans with areas including Western and Islamic doctorates in philosophy are also turning Philosophy. As for Palau, philosophy is to Australia for their first university post. taught at higher levels in the form of an In addition, the multiplication of interna- introductory course to philosophy and tional conferences in Australia and the religion in Palau Community College. increasingly visible presence of academics from the region participating in In Australia and New Zealand, philoso- international academic exchanges is phy diplomas are available in almost all reinforcing the tendency for these sou- universities, although it is necessary to thern countries to become important mention at least two aspects specific to philosophical research centres. The great 129 CHAPTER III

variety of nationalities represented in personalized tuition. In addition, the philosophy courses in Australia seems, in UNESCO questionnaire highlighted a addition, to benefit the quality of lessons generalized distress at the reduced num- and contributes to the extremely plea- bers of enrolments in philosophy. sant work environment. This also Although this phenomenon is not com- explains the increasing presence of mon to all countries, in those where it is researchers from other Asian countries in happening, teachers identified fewer Australian universities. New Zealand spe- opportunities to improve their teaching cialists underline the existence of ‘co- practices and instead noted signs of a operative research projects between uni- disenchantment with regard to philoso- versities’ and ‘a very vibrant philosophy phy. Thus, in Spain and Portugal there association which frequently organizes are fewer students enrolled in philoso- conferences’(28). Finally, we should point phy than there have been in the past, out that philosophy teaching appears to with testimonies from Portugal pointing be absent from the principal educational out that, in spite of the creation of two establishments in the Pacific Islands. new university philosophy courses in the (These include the University of the last few years, the number of students South Pacific, the University of Samoa remains on the decline. A teacher in and the University of French Polynesia.) Sweden complains that: ‘the large bud- A course in Philosophy of Education is getary cuts that the government has available at the University of New made with regard to universities has led Caledonia. to a fall in education standards, hence the presence of fewer students and Europe and North America. fewer philosophy courses’. These Europe is undergoing a dual phenome- concerns, however, are not always non. On the one hand, respondents from reflected in the actual data. Several Europe frequently point to the problems respondents in France consider it regret- of large-scale universities, which makes table that today fewer students are relationships between professors and taking philosophy and there is less inter- students almost non-existent both in est in it in general, at least, in the way it terms of the teaching methods and the is often taught. However, the Bachelor evaluation processes employed. Any of Philosophy course at the University of such relationship only to be formed Paris 1 remains one of the most popular seems after the master’s degree, at the courses in France, in terms of the num- doctorate level. This means that it is only ber of students who enrol. This reduc- when training begins to transform into tion in students, also noticed in Italy, to research that the majority of students the profit of ‘a growth in social and com- can count on any personalised tuition. munication sciences’, comes at a time The student–teacher relationship there- when the national media are worried fore remains subject to enrolment in a about statistics indicating there is an research programme, to the detriment of excess of students in philosophy, the arts any more immediate teaching role for and social sciences in these two coun- university professors, assistant professors tries. It is true that the phenomenon of or lecturers. This phenomenon, common ‘long-term’ students particularly affects to almost all European countries, has fur- Italy, where the average age of students thered the multiplication of decentrali- obtaining a master’s degree in philoso- sed university establishments, where a phy was twenty-six in 2005 and twenty- reduced number of students are encou- nine for students enrolled before the raged to form a more direct relationship 2000 reforms. Two German respondents with their teachers from the earliest indicate a real danger facing philosophy years. In Europe today, smaller universi- teaching in the majority of European ties and specialized schools of excellence countries. While one reports that ‘tea- with policies limiting the number of stu- ching posts are being cancelled for eco- dent admissions through difficult entran- nomic reasons’ and that in ‘some univer- (28) There is a New Zealand philosophical resources portal at ce examinations are often the only esta- sities, philosophy has lost 30 per cent of www.zeroland.co.nz blishments in a position to offer more its teachers’, another affirms that ‘there

130 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM has been a considerable reduction in phi- they argue are too focused on Western losophy teachers following policy deci- philosophical thought. A researcher in sions to lower financial assistance provi- Croatia sees a positive sign in the fact ded to universities. Reducing the tea- that several new universities have been ching of philosophy is probably not the established recently, all of which have principal goal of the political decision- arts faculties and philosophy depart- makers – however, this is the end result ments. The questionnaire reveals a gro- of their decisions and they do not seem wing interest in philosophy in Greece, a to feel uncomfortable about it’. These country that suffers (paradoxically!) from various impressions from people working an historical deficit in terms of university in the field of philosophy teaching must philosophy teaching. This optimism is be understood in the context of a stan- shared by a respondent from the dardization process in higher educational Netherlands, for whom ‘faculties of systems taking place at the moment in philosophy are seen as “Key Faculties” in Europe (the Bologna Process). Academic Dutch universities – so there is little degree standards and quality assurance chance of them being closed down’. In standards are becoming more compa- Ireland, on the other hand, there is ‘a rable and compatible throughout greater emphasis on “hard” sciences for Europe. We must consider the presence pragmatic economic reasons’. In effect, of philosophy programmes within the the European university reforms appear context of this new teaching organiza- to be accompanied by the promotion of tion. However, because of the freedom more vocational directions in undergra- that university establishments have to duate and master’s courses. Several set their curricula, the situation remains German academics have the impression extremely diversified. Moreover, the cre- that ‘the alleged reforms of German uni- dits system, which sees curricula broken versities are favouring technology and into various subject units, has contribu- natural science’ and argue that ‘for eco- ted considerably to an increase in the nomic reasons there are fewer philoso- diversity of subjects taught. phy departments in Germany, and philosophy runs a risk of marginalization While we cannot go into detail here on a because of the priority these policies case-by-case basis, an overview of the place on “economic output”. This senti- responses provided to our questionnaire ment is shared by one university teacher allows us to highlight certain concerns who evokes: ‘an inadequate understan- common to all of the university profes- ding of the value of philosophy’, while sors consulted. These reactions show a another notes that ‘because of decrea- general concern for the role of philoso- sing financial resources, many of the tea- phy teaching in today’s society. In ching and lecturing positions have been Belgium, there is general satisfaction at lost’. One testimony appears to synthesi- the fact that the University of Antwerp ze, in a rather ambiguous form, this has recently introduced a master’s vague perception concerning the tea- degree in philosophy, but some respon- ching of philosophy in Europe: ‘the decli- dents raise questions regarding the ne has been sizeable, but not dramatic’. content of philosophy courses, which

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Box 33 The Bologna Process or the construction of the European Higher Education Area

The model recommended by the and coherent systems of higher educa- higher education: among them, Albania, Bologna Process, which is being establi- tion in Europe, a unit of common measu- Germany, Andorra, Armenia, Azerbaijan, shed through several university reforms re was introduced in 1998, called the Belgium, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, in various countries, is based on a two- European Credit Transfer and Cyprus, Croatia, Denmark, Spain, tier undergraduate–master’s structure, Accumulation System (ECTS), a quantita- Estonia, Russian Federation, Finland, with a more general undergraduate pro- tive computational tool managed by France, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, gramme followed by a more specialized each establishment according to the Ireland, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, master’s programme, followed by a doc- principle of university freedom. The fun- Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, toral level recognized throughout damental principle of this system Montenegro, Norway, Netherlands, Europe. Although the majority of coun- consists in replacing years or semesters Poland, Portugal, Republic of Moldova, tries are currently implementing it, this with hours worked as the basic unit for Czech Republic, Romania, the United model varies from country to country, in measuring university training. One credit Kingdom, Holy See, Serbia, Slovakia, particular concerning the number of corresponds to twenty-five to thirty Slovenia, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey years comprising the first two degree hours of work, and a year is sixty cre- and Ukraine. But the success of the levels: three then two in Italy, four then dits. Therefore one year’s training is defi- reform, and in particular the ECTS sys- two in Spain, three or four years, plus ned in terms of the number of hours wor- tem, seems to go beyond the borders of one or two years for an M.A. in the ked, whatever the effective duration of a Europe. It is becoming a standard of United Kingdom, and so on. It is, in par- year and the number of lesson hours per reference in international circles and can ticular, the relationship between the first week. Although this does not settle all be found in several countries throughout two degree levels that makes the diffe- the problems with respect to specific the world, from Africa to Australia. rence. The LMD Reform (B.A., M.A., university systems (one thinks for Ph.D) in France foresees a B.A. in three example of the problems in integrating years, followed by two years for an M.A. into the new system the years spent in and three years for a Ph.D., while Italian preparing for the French grandes reforms introduced two levels for a B.A. écoles), it makes it possible to create Luca Maria Scarantino, (an initial three years, then a supplemen- European standards of higher education. Deputy Secretary General, tary two years) followed by a one-year International Council for Philosophy and M.A. and three years of doctoral stu- Today, more than forty countries are Humanistic Studies dies. To create comparable, compatible involved in this process of standardizing (ICPHS)

The case of Turkey is particularly interes- country’s universities (for example, in ting for a number of reasons. In general Ankara, Istanbul and of Bosphorus terms, there is a vague perception of philo- University) and played a role in structuring sophy being overly confined within specia- student curricula. This is one particularly lized departments, with a reduced amount striking example of the link between of interaction with other programmes. research, the social function of philosophy, However, there is a growing tendency in and the choices available in higher Turkey to take philosophy teaching outside education. higher-education establishments by addressing particularly sensitive professions or Perceptions of philosophy in the European social contexts. This is due primarily to the countries of the ex-Soviet bloc are in gene- work of Professor Ioanna Kuçuradi, former ral less nuanced. A respondent from president of the FISP, and the valuable aca- Bulgaria sees in the ‘democratic society’ demic activities she has carried out within and its ‘free flow of ideas’ reinforcement the University of Hacetteppe, particularly in for the teaching of philosophy, although her role as a UNESCO Chair of Philosophy. one of his colleagues decries the ‘erroneous A teaching programme on the philosophy identification of philosophy with Marxism’ of human rights, intended initially for civil as a possible reason for the decline in phi- servants within the Turkish national police losophy’s appeal in the country. This cum- force, led to a considerable wave of research bersome heritage, sometimes underestima- in the field of ethics in Turkey, and contributed in Western societies, is revealed in an ted substantially to the direction Turkish extremely interesting comment by a resear- philosophers have taken in their work and cher from the Russian Federation: ‘There careers. It also influenced the content of is a tendency, supported by official educa- philosophy courses in several of the tion policy, to teach less philosophy than in

132 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM the past. This is a reaction to the the United States there has been a dogmatism (based on Marxist-Leninist proliferation of interesting approaches to ideology) of the philosophy teaching that philosophy. Developments in areas such as was obligatory for all students during the feminist philosophy, African-American phi- Soviet period. This is a mistaken tendency – losophy or native-American philosophy are but instead of reforming philosophy tea- notable. At the undergraduate level, ching to eliminate its dependence on an courses in these subjects and in what has official ideology, there is an attempt to limit traditionally been called ‘American philosophy to the philosophy of science’. In Philosophy’, as well as courses in non- Belarus, one respondent simply states that European philosophies such as Buddhism ‘educational programmes have been redu- or Confucianism, are now far more fre- ced to programmes in professional speciali- quently offered than they were twenty or zation’. In Estonia, one academic points thirty years ago – thanks in part to the out that philosophy is no longer ‘an obliga- great demand for them on the part of stu- tory course in all faculties’. Although in the dents. Nevertheless, a good number of phi- Russian Federation the situation of philoso- losophers working in various areas, and phy teaching cannot be considered at risk, including some of the country’s most well- one respondent reveals the complexity of known academics, have found that depart- the problem in recalling that ‘the number ments other than those of philosophy – in of hours allotted to teaching philosophy particular departments of English and forei- was gradually reduced. Certain philosophi- gn languages, but also of rhetoric, as well cal subjects, such as ethics, aesthetics or as law schools, for example – are more political philosophy, which had been offe- suitable for their interest and give them red to students in the past – at least as more support’. optional subjects – are now excluded from the majority of curricula in educational institutions. Nevertheless, they can be found in universities known as ‘traditional’. The effects of the European reforms are also being felt. A professor from the Republic of Moldova argues that the Bologna Process is responsible for a weakening of university philosophy education.

Philosophy departments in English-speaking countries are very often associated with analytical thinking. In British, Australian and North American universities, the large majority of philosophy Chairs are associated with analytical approaches. Judging by job advertisements, philosophy departments in these countries are looking to fill research posts in analytical philosophy, the theory of knowledge, the philosophy of logic and linguistics, applied ethics, ontology of logic, semantics and other specializations deriving from different analytical programmes. However, not everything can be reduced to this single approach. The proliferation of departments of cultural studies, gender studies and political philosophy are all indications of diversity in the English-speaking world of philosophical learning. As William McBride, the current Secretary General of FISP wrote in a contribution submitted to UNESCO: ‘recently in

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Box 34 Philosophy teaching in higher education establishments in the United Kingdom

Philosophy is offered in a variety of Concerning teaching methods, under- With regard to evaluation methods, they forms in the U.K. Of the forty-one institu- graduate lectures are supplemented by include written essays and exams. Other tions looked at, twenty-one offer single- small workgroups. In five cases, tea- methods used in some cases also inclu- honours philosophy programmes, com- ching in small groups constitutes the de open-book examinations, oral exams, bined-honours programmes, and post- core of the programme, and lectures are smaller tests taken during the course, graduate research programmes. either non-existent or supplementary. and group work. A distinct characteristic Undergraduate philosophy programmes Tutorials exist in 30 per cent of the proof one department is the obligatory final always include courses in analysis and grammes and projects, with individually oral exam, designed to test the stu- rhetoric, but there is a certain variation supervised projects or dissertations in dents’ oral presentation of ideas and in the approaches adopted. Philosophy 41 per cent. Other methods of teaching arguments. Overall, 85 per cent of stu- can be studied in terms of formal pro- include group work, workshops and, par- dents say the evaluation criteria are perties (symbolic logic) or informally (cri- ticularly in interdisciplinary programmes, clear, they relate directly to the course tical reasoning). Greek philosophers, team teaching). In 44 per cent of institu- content, and they feel they are well epistemology, the history of modern phi- tions, learning opportunities are reinfor- understood by other students. losophy and ethics are often the princi- ced by the Internet and its resources pal fields of study. Courses dedicated to and, in at least ten cases, particular writ- non-Western philosophy are rare. ten materials are available on the depart- Master’s programmes offer a variety of ment’s or the programme’s Web site. study fields, from general philosophical Postgraduate programmes are based studies to distinct specialisations. on seminars and tutorials. Two major Quality Assurance Agency for Higher postgraduate programmes organize Education courses that combine lectures and a http://qaa.ac.uk question-and-answer session. (United Kingdom)

If we consider things from the point of and students from other faculties, sup- view of this disciplinary mix, we have to plementing their training with lessons in recognize that higher-educational esta- philosophy or logic. The ratio of these blishments in the United States –colleges different student profiles changes accor- and universities(29) – have not avoided ding to establishments, but it is interes- philosophy. The majority have philoso- ting to note that the choice of philosophy departments at the undergraduate phy as a principal subject at the under- and graduate levels. Moreover, philoso- graduate level sometimes leads to graphy classes are also included within duate studies in other subjects (law, for other departments. Courses in philoso- example). Teachers are free to teach phy are less present in community col- exactly what they choose. No university (29) Historically, the difference leges – establishments that offer two- curriculum is drawn up at the federal or between colleges and universities in year diplomas, often of a technical nature – state level. However, there is a system of the United States is that universities offer courses at undergraduate and but they are not completely absent. accreditation that allows the quality of graduate levels, while colleges are Course content is not far removed from lessons to be verified and possible gaps limited to undergraduate courses. However, this distinction is the standards of Western universities, in the courses proposed to students becoming blurred and some concerning both the history of philoso- identified(30). The great variety of studies colleges are claiming university status after creating a master’s phy presented and the subjects that the at the graduate level is the trademark of programme, while others, even discipline is divided into. An Introduction the American system. Graduate studies after the inclusion of graduate to Philosophy course is generally inclu- are an entire world in itself. In American studies, prefer to retain their time-honoured title. ded. The distinction between major and universities, they represent the real dri- (30) This is a system based on minor subjects, which is found in all ving force behind the academic process periodic inspections by expert undergraduate courses in the United and make an essential contribution to independent agencies appointed by educational establishments to States, also influences the relationship their international appeal. Today, validate the various departments between teachers and students in the approximately one hundred American against current scientific and academic standards. Most field of philosophy. Philosophy classes universities offer postgraduate studies in university or college presidents, usually include , students taking philoso- philosophy, of which approximately one- but also faculty deans, initiate these independent assessments phy as their major; students taking philo- third are limited to the master’s level. regularly. sophy as a secondary, or minor, subject; The huge competition at this level, both

134 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 35 How do we evaluate graduate studies in philosophy in the United States?

What criteria for a possible classifica- contradictions that exist between them. studies. This attitude, commonly indication? For example, examination results are far ted in contemporary American jargon by from being infallible indicators of future the expression ‘my way or the highway’ At first sight, quantitative measurements professional success, and departments has an obvious incidence on how we give the impression of greater ‘objectivi- that accept more students for whom evaluate a programme as well as on cur- ty’ than qualitative measurements. English is not their first language auto- rent and future philosophy teaching, However, nobody would support the matically have lower average grades in since it is this that is adopted, or in cer- idea that the quality of an advanced stu- entry examinations that evaluate oral tain cases rejected, by future teachers. dies programme in philosophy is directly abilities. However, when we try to devise proportional to its size. There are other qualitative measures, obstacles imme- The fact that there is an unofficial classi- quantitative measurements, more diately arise that are at least as formi- fication of advanced philosophical study convincing for some, such as – just to dable as those encountered in quantitati- programmes in the United States illus- mention a few – the total number of ve criteria. I certainly do not wish to sub- trates particularly well this alarming publications, or pages of publications, scribe to the sceptic’s viewpoint, accor- trend. This classification, known as the written by teachers and/or students of a ding to which no evaluation of quality is Leiter Report, is established by only one university department; the number of possible in philosophy, but I am not the person, Brian Leiter, who teaches philo- references to their work in books and first to stress that, more than other dis- sophy and law at the University of Texas professional journals; the average natio- ciplines, philosophy is distinguished his- (http://leiterreports.typepad.com). nal examination (Graduate Record torically, and is still distinguished today, There is a general attitude of scorn Examinations, or GRE) results that philo- by the broad range of styles and towards non-analytical approaches to sophy departments require for enrol- methods it employs. Hence, it is virtually philosophy, and young students conside- ment in their courses; the percentage of impossible, or worse still, morally ring a career in philosophy are advised professors at the university who hold a impossible, to evaluate the quality of all not to interest themselves seriously in doctorate degree (counting only working philosophies and of all philosophy pro- such approaches. His website is fre- professors, excluding those who are grammes according to a single crite- quently visited not only by young people retired or have died!); or the percentage rion. However, there is a persistent atti- in search of simple and quick advice, but of non-Americans, or members of an tude of intolerance in American philoso- even by administrators of various esta- ethnic minority or women in the depart- phical circles towards philosophical blishments, who are looking for advice in ment (since, in the United States, philo- approaches that differ from those that the absence, admirable in my opinion, of sophy is of all the social sciences the find favour or share our ideals. Be it far any ‘official’ classification. one most dominated by men). These cri- from universal, this attitude is neverthe- teria have all been proposed already, but less very widespread and is transmitted Professor William McBride it is easy to see the objections that to following generations of philosophers Secretary General of the FISP could be raised to them, as well as the via certain programmes in advanced (United States of America)

between professors (to obtain teaching neither is there any consensus on the cri- posts), and between establishments (to teria that should be used to define it. attract the greatest number of students Although the question of the need for or simply to increase their prestige), such evaluation remains, teaching and poses an obvious problem when trying research practices sometimes suffer from to evaluate the graduate programmes on an excessive attachment to such types of offer. No official ranking or evaluation classification. system for philosophy courses yet exists,

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Arab States. philosophy of science, logic and episte- Professor Abdelmalek Hamrouche, mology shares with us the following Senior Inspector General of Algerian phi- thoughts: ‘the dichotomy between philosophy , describes the current situation losophy and religion was formed during of philosophy teaching in the Arab world the Middle Ages, by Al-Ghazali, and as undergoing a kind of abandonment, continues to survive to this very day. and says that ‘this desertion from philo- During the 1960s and 1970s, with the sophy courses is specific to students in development of Marxist, Communist and scientific programmes, generating an other movements, philosophy almost impoverished and sterile philosophical disappeared for political reasons. It was education. What’s more, the real crisis is then that the majority of authorities in at higher-education levels. Indeed, stu- charge of higher education in the Arab dents are not confronted with the major world created departments of Islamic questions and problems that lead to the Studies in universities – to oppose philo- kind of high level research and analyses sophy. However, since September 11, required to be able to compete with that 2001, things have started to change in carried out in the universal philosophical favour of reinforcing philosophy, space. This undeniable fact leads us to although timidly’. the pessimistic conclusion that the time has not yet come to study contemporary As for Algeria, still according to Arab philosophical production, because Hamrouche, ‘let us say that we live in this amounts only to school publications almost total seclusion compared to what and attempts to catalogue early Moslem is happening in the Western or Arabic philosophy. In fact, this kind of superfi- worlds, whether in the field of philoso- cial work cannot hope to be considered phy itself or its teaching and didactical to be of the same order as the research developments’. It should be noted, final- and philosophical thought that is accep- ly that this established fact is however ted as such in the West. Even given this, moderated by the persevering resistance the critiques that are produced are irrele- of Algerian philosophy teachers, who are vant, because they are not based on working to improve this situation, as works written by Arabs in the philoso- demonstrated in the ‘Summer University’ phical domain in the past century, either on the didactics of philosophy in Algeria in terms of original publications or trans- held in 1998. lations. This is why we need to collect this production, to organize, catalogue, It should also be noted that the relationship analyze and evaluate it. This project must between philosophy, secular culture and be handled by a group having the neces- religion is at the centre of academic policies sary means to finish a job that could lead in the majority of Arab countries. The tea- to objective critiques that would allow us ching of traditional thought (for example, to overcome our cultural and historical the works of Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina complexes and any unjustified assimila- and Averroès) is regarded as one means of tion. Since the 1970s, we have sensed in reinforcing a scientific approach within a our neighbours in Morocco and Tunisia, Muslim culture, and it is not rare to see this and in other Middle-Eastern nations, a classical tradition studied in parallel with, desire to rectify this situation, on both usually modern, Western authors. In the the pedagogic and the didactic levels. United Arab Emirates, the College for They have succeeded in developing a Humanities and Social Sciences offers a problem-solving strategy enabling philo- major in philosophy aimed at developing sophy courses to open up to the world in ‘an appreciation of the relationship bet- an organized fashion and to take part in ween ideas and cultural development in pedagogical and didactic production, Arab and Western traditions, an understan- (31) Abdelmalek Hamrouche, ‘L’enseignement de la philosophie’. thus contributing to a contemporary ding of the foundations and history of phi- Diotime-L’Agorà, 10, 2001. philosophical vision.’ losophy, a capacity to analyze arguments www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora/ and their structures and to express them- (32) See also the case of Tunisia later in this chapter: ‘some exempla- In the area of secondary education, the case selves both in spoken and written English ry case studies’. of Morocco is exemplary(32). A specialist in and Arabic’. Among the subjects taught in

136 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 36 The first Summer University on the didactics of philosophy in Algeria

From 18 July to 30 July 1998, for the scientific means of evaluation. This will values. This isolation could be breached first time in Algeria, more than one hun- make it possible, thereafter, to change by the distribution of high-quality docu- dred philosophy teachers took part in a and re-establish traditional evaluation mentation; the provision of further summer school, of which I was the methods. The experiment undertaken by ongoing teacher-training, both inside Director, in the Hassiba Ben Bouali colle- the wilaya of Skikda during the and outside the country; and the encou- ge, Algiers. Here is the introduction to 1993/1994 school year, in which the ragement of initiatives such as the the published summary. didactics of philosophy was tested by Summer University, which enlightened teachers in their classes, greatly inspi- participants on their responsibilities in A glimmer of hope. Participants in this red certain aspects of this gathering. their daily practice and led to a reflection summer school, despite the organizatio- This experimental Summer University in on educational reforms and general nal difficulties stemming from the topic’s philosophy attained its goals despite the social changes. isolated nature and lack of framework, material and morale difficulties encoun- came away with a rather encouraging ini- tered. We hope that future events will tial education in the important realm of focus on a more scientific education in philosophy. The participants hope to this field, in view of optimising the sub- Abdelmalek Hamrouche develop these assets on further occa- ject’s future development, because iso- Dean of the General Inspectors in sions and to in future organize their tea- lation results in the extinction of creativi- Philosophy ching and didactic practices using more ty and a decline in society and its human (Algeria)

this major are Ethics, Metaphysics, levels in Arab and Islamic philosophy, and a Symbolic Logic, Arab Logic, Philosophy of secondary-school level Certificate of Science, Greek and Medieval Philosophy, Aptitude in philosophy. The Faculty of Arts Modern Western Philosophy, Theories of and Social Sciences at the Lebanese Knowledge, Philosophical Problems, University in Beirut also offers a philosophy Philosophy of Language, and Aesthetics. It specialization at the B.A., M.A., graduate is also of note that, for some time recruit- diploma (Diplôme d’études supérieures, or ment at this university has been done DES) and doctorate levels, dealing with through job offers on the international various topics from philosophy and literatu- market. re, eastern philosophy, philosophical aesthetics and Sufism to the foundation and In Egypt, philosophy is taught as a separa- epistemology of Arab philosophy. For its te subject at the higher levels. Its is taught part, the Philosophy Department of the in the Faculties of Arts, Education and American University in Beirut has a long Religion as well as in the Faculties of Arab tradition of introducing students to philo- and Islamic studies, such as in Cairo’s Dar El sophy. The courses offered cover the sub- Olum faculty. The Philosophy Department ject’s principal domains, ranging from of the American University in Cairo offers ethics to logic, aesthetics to epistemology. both a major and a minor in philosophy, Authors and texts studied include Western and accepts students beyond the introduc- and Middle-Eastern traditions, the Pre- tory level. Courses tackle questions arising Socratics to Ibn Rushd, and Descartes to from reflections into religion, ethics, art, Rawls. The university offers a minor and a politics, science and the theory of knowled- major in philosophy, and also has a master’s ge. Course titles include: Philosophical programme in philosophy. Several of its Thinking; Informal Logic; Self and Society; graduates have gone on to careers in jour- Philosophy of Religion; Introduction to nalism, law, management, education or Ethics; Political Philosophy; Philosophy and information technology. Art; Ancient Philosophy; Metaphysics; Islamic Philosophy; etc.

The Saint-Joseph University of Beirut, in Lebanon, offers several philosophy programmes at the B.A., M.A., and doctorate

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Latin America and the Caribbean. Peru fears that ‘certain academics in The first thing we notice when we look fields other than philosophy (for example at this region is the scattered presence of in the social sciences) want to eliminate philosophy – with individual instances all reference to philosophy and limit subject to economic and social research to their own subjects’. Another constraints. Low wages for teachers and aspect that seems often to characterize the attraction of young students towards philosophical teaching in the region is other fields of study are both issues that the call for ‘national thinkers’ and a ten- came up frequently in contributions to dency to want to build a repository of this study by researchers from Latin- ‘Latin-American philosophy’, if not of American countries. However, every outright national philosophies. This researcher knows the intellectual wealth trend reflects the nationalist urges that of Latin America’s philosophical commu- periodically traverse Latin America and nities and the abundant opportunities can be observed, for example, in the for exchange and co-operation among continent-wide presence of Philosophy these philosophers and with the rest of Chairs in Latin-American thought, such the world. In effect, despite numerous as we find in Nicaragua and Cuba. In structural difficulties, philosophy tea- this context, philosophy courses are ching seems to receive a certain atten- often, though not necessarily always, tion from public authorities and speciali- connected to a theoretical movement for zed associations. In Argentina, we see a ‘localized philosophy’ or ‘localized uni- that special one-day programmes aimed versalism’, particularly well represented at improving philosophy teaching are on the South American continent. organized annually by UBA (the Similarly, a study carried out in 2003 on University of Buenos Aires) and the how students in secondary school and Asociación Argentina de Profesores de higher education in Costa Rica percei- Filosofía (SAPFI). In Colombia, ‘the com- ved philosophy, revealed that ‘in univer- plex situation in the country and the rest sities, students often quote national of the world has made philosophy even authors’(33). more important’. In other countries, such as El Salvador, Uruguay and From Guatemala, we hear that most of Venezuela, emphasis is placed on the the efforts currently carried out in favour political aspects of philosophy teaching of philosophy teaching concentrate on and the successive repressions and higher education: the state-run reconsiderations this field has experien- Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala ced through changing authoritarian (USAC) and nine private Universities regimes and a return to democracy. (Universidad Rafael Landívar; Argentina, in particular, is a country that Universidad Mariano Gálvez of occupies a considerable position on the Guatemala; Universidad Francisco international philosophical scene – the Marroquín; Universidad del Valle of presence of various philosophical socie- Guatemala; Universidad Galileo; ties, including the FISP, testifies to this Universidad Panamericana; Universidad political commitment. A respondent Rural; Universidad del Istmo and from El Salvador says that ‘during the Universidad Mesoamericana) are all loo- war of the 1980s, philosophy ceased to king into the possibility of establishing be important because it was regarded as courses or studies in philosophy. an instrument of subversion’. This is an Moreover, respondents noted that other observation that can be applied, a academic fields – such as medicine, contrario, in a good many other coun- management, legal and social sciences, (33) Álvaro Carvajal Villaplana and tries, where the process of democratiza- and the political and social sciences – Jacqueline García Fallas, ‘Cómo perciben los estudiantes universita- tion saw a spectacular resumption of also include philosophy components. rios la enseñanza de la filosofía, enrolments in philosophy, and in the Examples of such discipline-related sub- según sus experiencias en la edu- cación diversificada costarricense’. humanities and social sciences in gene- jects include: Philosophy of Intercultural Instituto de Investigación para el ral, where philosophy courses are usually Education, Political Philosophy, Mejoramiento de la Educación Costarricense, 2004. taught. This situation seems to generate Philosophy of Central American Regional http://revista.inie.ucr.ac.cr/ some tension: a phenomenologist from Integration and Philosophy of Law, and

138 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM others. In predominantly technical philosophy of art courses are taught careers, it is a priority, we are told, to within the framework of training prima- reinforce the philosophy component, as ry-school visual-arts teachers. Once is the case in architecture, engineering, again, philosophy teaching is part of agricultural and environmental science, specific curricula. In Trinidad and in particular with regard to the basic Tobago, philosophy is taught in higher human right to a healthy and ecological- education. There are Introduction to ly-balanced environment. There is also Philosophy modules within the History an insistence in Guatemala on the need Department of the Social Sciences facul- for all ‘generalized’ secondary-education ty at the University of the West Indies. In programmes to include a philosophy Haiti, a country that benefits from the component course, and for those that presence of an excellent teacher training already do, such as the magisterio, to school, it is said that ‘the École Normale improve and modernise this course. The Supérieure at the State University of School of Social Sciences in the Francisco Haiti has just opened, in its department Marroquín University coordinates a num- for philosophy teachers, a master’s pro- ber of conferences, held at various dates gramme in arts and philosophy, in liaison throughout the year, on given philoso- with the University of Paris VIII. The Saint phical topics and subjects. Teachers and François de Salles Institute of Philosophy specialists from universities and other has just launched comes philosophical educational institutions in Guatemala – review with the objective of philosophizing governmental or not – attend these in Haitian Creole’. meetings. It is interesting that the National Education Plan for 2004–2007, Some exemplary case studies the Strategy for Improving the Quality of Education and the Strategy for Looking at specific cases allows us to Education in Civic Values (2004–2008), illustrate some of the general features of as well as general directives regarding philosophy teaching and to clarify the education policy in Guatemala could contributions that these examples make lead to the creation of a subject centred to an overall examination of the on civic values and on the exercise of presence of philosophy in universities. citizenship, and so reinforce the philosophy of freedom, and projects such as the Brazil. We must acknowledge the gro- Citizen Project and the Project for the wing role that the Brazilian philosophical Nation, all in the framework of promo- community plays on the international ting democracy and a culture of peace. scene. It has not only, over time, acquired an eminence in linguistics, philoso- The lack of equipment in Latin America phy of language, analytical philosophy is less dramatic than in Africa. However, and social philosophy but also in several local researchers reveal a systematic history of philosophy domains such as delay in updating documentary classics or modern and contemporary resources. Bibliographies, often produ- philosophy. Today, doctors of philosophy ced in Europe or the United States, arri- in Brazilian universities are on par with ve late, and library acquisitions are spo- their European counterparts, and a num- radic and tend to prefer regional produc- ber of centres of excellence, such as the tion rather than works written in other Campinas State University, also known languages. Foreign reviews can some- as UNICAMP, are renowned around the times be acquired only through fortui- world. tous academic exchanges. The generalization of electronic publications, never- Canada. Professor Josiane Boulad- theless, will probably cure, in the long Ayoub, holder of the UNESCO Chair in term, these difficulties. Studies of the Philosophic Foundations of Justice and Democratic Society at the In the Caribbean, the university presen- University of Québec in Montreal, in a ce of philosophy is in decline in response report on philosophy teaching in to each country’s priorities. In Barbados, Canadian universities which she presented

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to UNESCO, explains the considerable one or another of these areas, reflecting permeability that frequently the specialization of research professors characterizes of philosophy courses in or the desire of the philosophy depart- Canadian universities. The majority of ment or faculty to distinguish itself from students enrolled in philosophy courses others. in Canadian universities or colleges are not enrolled as majors in specialized All the same, some courses do fall outsi- philosophy programmes. According to de the subject’s dedicated branches, Boulad-Ayoub, most ‘are enrolled in one often answering the needs of other uni- or two philosophy courses in order to versity departments. These courses often supplement their main subject area concern questions of duty or obligation (natural sciences, social sciences, applied – dealing for example with the national sciences, administrative sciences, law or evolution of philosophy; with applied literary studies). Some philosophy philosophy (especially in the realm of courses also form part of relatively new business ethics); or, more recently, with programmes – for example, feminist stu- medical ethics. These courses are taught dies, programmes related to questions of by teachers in philosophy departments the environment, or programmes in but are not necessarily part of the philo- sciences and technology’. It should be sophy programme itself. Concerning stressed that in Canada, as in the majo- content, philosophy teaching has certain rity of Western countries, philosophy specificities according to whether it is departments and faculties are entirely practiced in a university in English- independent as to course content, speaking or French-speaking Canada. programme reforms, evaluation and the organization of student’s programmes. It seems clear that in Canada, close ties with universities in the United States Philosophy departments in Canada enjoy have been formed as a natural conse- a similar degree of autonomy when it quence of discussing American thought comes to the recruitment and selection and basing philosophy courses on a tho- of research professors. However, rough knowledge of the English-langua- Canadian universities, whether public or ge philosophical tradition. In epistemolo- private, remain subject to the require- gy and in metaphysics, for example, tea- ments of profitability, which can result ching and research have both been either in the reduction of certain courses influenced by the tradition of neo-prag- or in the introduction of other courses matism and, in political philosophy, by that are seen as more relevant to social the traditions of contractualism and and cultural realities. According to libertarianism. In French-speaking Boulad-Ayoub, the task of professors in Canada, the importance accorded to the Canadian universities is generally tripar- European tradition of hermeneutics, tite: teaching, research and the provision through the teaching of Paul Ricœur and of other services for the university com- several other philosophers, has suppor- munity. In combining teaching and ted the development of a more ‘conti- research tasks in this way, teachers at the nental’ philosophy. However, the university level tend to model the influence of English-language philoso- contents of their courses according to phical tradition is clearly on the increase. traditional divisions in philosophy and The attenuation of this rigid division also research specializations. Thus, even contributes to the richness of philosophy though there is no centralized ministry teaching in Canadian universities, which imposing a uniform programme, the today represents an exceptional example Canadian student will find from one of the integration of philosophical tradi- university to another lessons that are tions that are so often viewed as very similarly distributed according to tradi- separate from one another. It should also tional fields: history of philosophy; epis- be added that academic exchange pro- temology; philosophy of language; logic; grammes, thesis co-supervision and metaphysics; or social and political philo- other international forms of cooperation sophy. An emphasis might be placed on have multiplied over the last few years.

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Republic of Korea. According to pro- commented on in Korean classrooms; fessor In-Suk Cha, holder of the UNESCO Confucianist and Neo-Confucianist thin- Chair of Philosophy and Democracy at kers are also interpreted. It is also inter- the Seoul National University, and esting to observe that scientific and President of ICPHS, the social and politi- technological development has led to cal implications that have accompanied philosophy teaching playing a more the development of philosophy in the important role than in the past. A strong East has strongly influenced the type of sense of philosophy’s capacity to encou- philosophies prioritized by Korean intel- rage social and political modernization lectuals. Because philosophy was used (and in opposition to this, the appearan- against forms of traditional spirituality, it ce of ‘conservative’ forms of philosophy was initially appreciated as a practical that promote traditional value systems) approach, a guide for action anchored in seems gradually to have been replaced an historical contingency and able to by an awareness of the educational provide answers to the practical ques- capacities of philosophy to the benefit of tions posed by Korean society. This all curricula. Today, Korean professors approach went as far as place a high value on the diversity of stu- inspiring reforms in higher education dents attending philosophy courses, and that, since the 1980s, have allowed the see such courses as an opportunity to proliferation of philosophy curricula and develop the critical and intellectual capa- enabled philosophy departments in cities that are so important to reaching a Korean universities to multiply. level of excellence in their own disci- Philosophy has been regarded as an plines. In this evolving context, lessons in essential subject in education for citizen- critical thinking or simply an introduction ship and, more generally, as an intellec- to philosophical thought seem destined tual tool in the service of democratic to play an increasing role. development. Today, more than eighty Korean universities have a philosophy Tunisia. Professor Fathi Triki, holder of department or offer degrees in philoso- the UNESCO Chair in Philosophy at the phy. A rapid overview of courses offered University of Tunis 1, recalls that ‘the in the principal higher-educational esta- first philosophy lessons in Tunisia were blishments allows us to observe the mas- provided by French teachers in the sive presence of practical-oriented sub- 1960s: among them Jean Wahl and jects: logic and critical thought, a philo- François Châtelet, later followed by sophical understanding of contemporary Gerard Delledalle, Claude Drevet and society, bioethics, cyber-ethics, a philo- Olivier Reboul. Since 1966, the sophical understanding of science, envi- Philosophy Department at the Faculty of ronmental ethics or social philosophy. Arts and Social Sciences in Tunis has The literature used in these fields comes organized lecture series by Michel largely from the United States. The majo- Foucault, Gerard Lebrun and, for limited rity of students read English and in most periods, Pierre Aubenque, Jules universities a second foreign language Vuillemin, Gilles-Gaston Granger and (French or German) is obligatory. Jean Hyppolite. Today, there are four philosophy departments in Tunisia: in the This quality of the Korean university sys- Faculty of Social Sciences at the tem is undoubtedly at the origin of the University of Tunis, at the Institute of considerable Korean presence on today’s Social Sciences at the Al-Manar international scene. This system has also University, at the University of Kairouan produced a substantial assimilation of and at the University of Sfax. Philosophy traditional Western philosophy, regarded courses are also taught in the country’s today as an integral part of Korean phi- literary and scientific preparatory losophical culture, almost on an equal schools; in schools and institutes of tech- footing with Neo-Confucianism. The nology, cultural sciences, theology or pri- principal classics of philosophical mary-school teacher education; in insti- thought, from Plato to Wittgenstein and tutions of applied arts; and in university Rawls, are systematically read and faculties of social sciences, law and, to a

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lesser degree, science’. We see in whereas Tunisia has witnessed a growth Tunisian higher education the same of research in logic and epistemology relationship between philosophy and over the last twenty years, today ethics, other subjects already observed in other political philosophy and especially ques- countries we have examined. According tions relative to law (such as human to Triki, ‘programmes in social sciences, rights, the rule of law, or civil society) cultural sciences, theology and the arts have become central concerns in the include subjects of a philosophical natu- various higher education programmes. re in their syllabi. The history of science and bioethics has also begun to be As Triki says: ‘the Master’s of taught in some scientific institutions. Contemporary Philosophy from the Institutions of applied arts and schools of Faculty of Human and Social Sciences at fine arts often include courses in aesthe- the University of Tunis comprises three tics and other philosophical concepts. seminars on ethics and three seminars Philosophy of law is taught in law on political philosophy of a total of twel- schools and legal institutes. It is ve seminars. In other words, these two estimated that almost 40 per cent of ter- subjects account for 50 per cent of all tiary-level students in Tunisia take at seminars offered to students. Moreover, least some type of philosophy class. in all philosophy departments, questions Also, according to the most recent data, of human rights, tolerance, democracy almost half of Tunisia’s philosophy stu- and political life are taught as compo- dents (44 per cent) are women. In addi- nents of value theory in undergraduate tion to undergraduate programmes, courses, and as components of moral each of Tunisia’s four philosophy depart- and political philosophy at master’s level. ments offers a specialization to master’s As for the doctorate level, it comprises level, although only the Faculty of Social several seminars with a specialization in Sciences at the University of Tunis offers political and moral philosophy’. Finally, a doctoral programme. With regards to we see a growing interest in the tea- course content, we can also refer to ching of aesthetics and art theory and Triki’s testimony: ‘for your information, history, undoubtedly because they can we can signal the presence of the follo- lead to employment in the new institu- wing classical authors in the various phi- tions of applied arts within Tunisian uni- losophy programmes in universities: versities. The Arabization process seen in Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, al-Farabi, higher education, including philosophy, Avicenna, Averroes (Ibn Rushd), is an outstanding aspect of the Tunisian Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Hume, situation. Contrary to the secondary Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, level, however, in universities, the passa- Heidegger, Foucault, Rawls and ge to teaching in Arabic has only been Habermas. As can be seen, the classics partial. Tunisian researchers endeavour used in philosophical teaching are repre- to publish in international reviews, but sentative of the world’s philosophical also to bring an international audience heritage, and especially the Greek, to publications such as the Revue tuni- Arabic, Latin and European heritages. sienne des études philosophiques. We are, however, missing an opening Accordingly, French remains the langua- towards traditional Asian civilizations’. ge of reference. The same phenomenon (In this respect, we would like to point can be observed in Morocco, where the out that the interregional philosophical policy of Arabization began in 1972 but dialogues between Asia and the Arab where a strong knowledge of French World, set up by UNESCO in 2002, remains important. constitute a genuine means to address this lacuna.) The central role occupied by the classics seems increasingly unclear, however, with higher-education following the example of secondary education to the profit of a more practical approach to the subjects taught. Thus,

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2) The multiplication of academic exchange networks

ERASMUS and ERASMUS MUNDUS leave to study abroad to return to their countries of origin. The ‘brain drain’ Created in 1987, the European ERASMUS net- towards universities and scientific centres in work (European Region Action Scheme for the the West constitutes a serious problem for Mobility of University Students), by far most the majority of African countries, but also famous of the exchange and university mobi- touches other countries around the world. lity networks, has been used by approximate- Actions to support a reversal of this tenden- ly 1.2 million students(34). Today, 2,199 tea- cy could play an essential role in reinforcing ching establishments in 31 countries(35) take the presence of philosophy in the educatio- part in the programme. The programme’s nal systems of these countries. A 2003 impact on philosophy students varies and article by Gumisai Mutume illustrates the tends to have been relatively reduced over the urgency of taking action to counter brain years. According to European Commission’s drain(36). The scientific, cultural and social latest statistics, in 2004/2005, humanities stu- conditions at the origin of this emigration dents represented 3.8 per cent of participants, play a much greater role than do academic that is 5,393 students out of 144,037. In circumstances. An additional difficulty is 2001, the ERASMUS programme was dou- presented in finding the necessary means bled in size with an extension called ERASMUS to reverse this trend. A considerable effort MUNDUS. Reserved primarily to encourage will be necessary to encourage the return the mobility of master’s students, ERASMUS of expatriate specialists. It is significant that MUNDUS is open to students from all over the the majority of strategies implemented to world and aimed at attracting young talent to this end have been initiated in countries European universities and to encourage that have the resources necessary to sup- European students to move beyond the bor- port the return of these talents. ders of Europe. The success of the ERASMUS programme and its development at the inter- Italy is a case in point. A programme called national scale represents an example to be ‘from brain drain to brain gain’ has been followed in the field of university education. In set up by the Ministry of Universities and light of this, philosophical disciples seem, by Research to provide academics who have the very nature of their content, particularly carried out research activities abroad for at likely to benefit from this kind of initiative, least three years with the opportunity to which not only promotes a scholarly education obtain posts as associate professors or full- but also encourages interaction between tenure professors in Italian universities. young people of different cultures as well as These contracts vary from one to four years the learning of new languages, customs and and present two principal characteristics. practices. This is a very promising agenda. A Firstly, they are intended for both recogni- more generalised action aimed at creating zed specialists and younger researchers, other programmes to promote international sometimes at the beginning of their mobility would benefit, in particular, students careers. The goal is to return to the Italian and young researchers in countries where the university framework expatriate academic lack of resources rarefies the opportunities for professionals, who will make their scientific studying abroad. The mobility of researchers, and academic networks available to Italian and in general all initiatives in favour of inter- colleagues and students and so contribute national intellectual co-operation, seem likely to an expansion in the international hori- to play a increasing role in the current process zons of the Italian academic community. At of internationalizing scholarly research. the same time, the programme offers (34) ‘The European Community younger specialists the possibility to carry programme in the field of higher education. European Commission’. The ‘From Brain Drain to Brain Gain’ out research activities within their commu- http://ec.europa.eu programme nity of origin. Secondly, these teaching and (35) The twenty-seven EU Member States plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, research contracts are financed by the Norway and Turkey. One fundamentally important action neces- ministry to a total value of 90 per cent, the (36) Gumisai Mutume, ‘Reversing sary to maintain the presence of philosophy financial costs for the universities is hence Africa’s “brain drain”’. Africa Recovery, 17: 2, July 2003. in less-developed countries relates to the considerably reduced. The participation of http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/ opportunities open to researchers who researchers in philosophy is far from vol17no2/172brain.htm

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negligible. Although this programme does Incentive Programme, the Programme of not solve all of the problems raised by the Academic Short-Return for Scholars and flight of Italian researchers abroad, it is an Research Overseas (2001) and the support interesting of the type of programmes that agency, Scientific Research Foundation for are being initiated up by or in a number of Returned Overseas Chinese Scholars. European countries(37). Pierpaolo Giannoccolo, an economics researcher at the University UNESCO Fellowships of Bologna, compares the various initiatives adopted throughout Europe in this area. The UNESCO Fellowships programme Giannoccolo examines the different strate- consists of the attribution and administra- gies used to encourage the immigration of tion of fellowships, study and travel grants. foreign talent towards foreign educational It has twin objectives, to contribute to the centres, and the various attempts made to enhancement of human resources and repatriate emigrated specialists to their national capacity-building in areas that are country of origin. These answer to two closely aligned to UNESCO’s expected stra- distinct requirements – they are certainly tegic objectives and programme priorities, related, but are given different degrees of and to increase fellowships co-sponsorship priority in different parts of the world. arrangements with interested donors(38). the Another example that deserves mentioning UNESCO National Commission of the can- relates to the various actions implemented didate’s country is the official channel for in China to support the return of resear- the submission of fellowship applications. (37) Pierpaolo Giannoccolo, Brain chers who have left to study or work The fellowships offered under this scheme Drain Competition Policies in abroad. The Chinese government is cur- are of short term duration (six months Europe: A Survey. February 2006. http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/miswpaper rently making the return of expatriated maximum) and are intended for specialized /20060201.htm researchers and graduates a priority, training at the postgraduate level. Priority (38) www.unesco.org through programmes such as the Fund for targets are promising and qualified specia- (39) The principles and conditions governing this programme are des- Returnees to Launch S&T Research (1990), lists who seek to undertake advanced cribed in a circular addressed to the Programme for Training Talents toward research or to upgrade their skills and the National Commissions for UNESCO at the beginning of each the Twenty-First Century (1993), the Chunhui knowledge of state-of-the-art develop- two-year call for fellowships. Programme (1996), the Changjiang Scholar ments in their field of study or work(39).

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3) The International Network of Women Philosophers sponsored by UNESCO: A universal springboard

The International Network of Women more visible and present. The end result Philosophers was launched by UNESCO in was the creation of a place for the March 2007, from an idea based on an exchange of ideas, for dialogue and dis- observation: the absence of women phi- cussion, for debate and construction. losophers at philosophical forums and conferences. For economic or personal To achieve this, it is necessary both to reasons, sometimes institutional and emphasize the diversity of origins and sometimes the result of fixed ideas, backgrounds of participants and the pos- women philosophers can be less in sibilities offered by UNESCO’s various demand than men and are often less fields of competence. The International mobile, which makes exchanges between Network of Women Philosophers thus institutions – and countries – more diffi- aims at being an instrument to bring cult. Many women may have already together women philosophers so that resolved this problem of representative- they can give their points of view on a ness, but they tend to come primarily vast variety of subjects, and not only on from Europe and North America. This topics related to gender. non-representation does not represent a lack of interest on the part of women phi- To construct this network, UNESCO has losophers, but rather disguises a series of called for tenders to establish, as a first problems that we need to underscore, step, a database of the world’s women while at the same time seeking to unders- philosophers. This call was sent to tand their profound causes. The idea UNESCO’s entire global network of part- behind this network is therefore to help ners. At the time of drafting this study, those women philosophers who have not the database includes more than one had the opportunity to confer with other thousand women philosophers from philosophers by circulating their work, around the world (including professors, publishing their articles and inviting them researchers and doctorate candidates). to conferences and seminars where they can share and communicate their philoso- The specific activities of the network will phical work. This network is for women be defined by committees at the national, philosophers wherever they are, in parti- regional and international levels on the cular those from developing countries basis of the network’s objectives as stated who have chosen philosophy and who do above and UNESCO’s programme priori- not necessarily benefit from a university, ties. Activities envisaged for 2008 include editorial or even professorial platform. creating a portal on the UNESCO Web site Beyond their lack of recognition, the with a database of women philosophers question of their visibility, the very posi- by region and field of expertise, and deve- tion of women philosophers is cause for loping, along the lines of a Who’s Who, a reflection. What language is used in tal- biographical repertory of important king about women philosophers? Where women philosophers around the world. do they fit in? How are they viewed? UNESCO will also promote the participation of women philosophers in World After giving much thought to the best Philosophy Days, Interregional way to overcome these obstacles and to Philosophical Dialogues, the World devise a participative process that would Philosophy Congress and in other forums lean in the direction of creativity, emula- organized around the subject of philoso- tion and even encouragement, UNESCO phy. Through this network, UNESCO will arrived at the conclusion that creating a also encourage other more specific activi- platform for these women philosophers ties, such as promoting philosophy tea- would be the best solution – a forum ching around the world, as well as where their voices and their works could concrete North-South and South-South be heard, in other words, to make them partnerships and bi-lateral activities.

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Box 37 Call for the constitution of a UNESCO International Network of Women Philosophers

The Social and Human Sciences fight against gender-related discrimi- sustainable intellectual partnerships Sector of UNESCO, nations and for the defence of the in favour of philosophy. cause of women in finding their full Convinced of the crucial and central place in our societies, 2) Asks you all to assist us in giving place of women in philosophical this initiative its necessary depth by reflection and their precious contribu- Attentive in particular to the preoccu- responding to this call and thereby to tion to an insightful understanding of pations of young philosophers regar- kindly send us a list of the names of the great challenges of our time, ding the evolution of their curricula by women philosophers who work today encouraging them in earnest to take in research, teaching and for the ope- Working to associate women to actions part in this network and by inviting ning of philosophical debate to the lar- undertaken in all fields of competence of their professors and research supervi- gest possible public, as well as send UNESCO, and in particular those aiming sors to support them in such an us, as far as possible, their contact at the promotion of reflection and dia- endeavour, details and biographies, so as to be logue among the different regions in the included, together with references of world in the spheres of research, tea- 1) Announces the launching on 8 their work, in the database of the net- ching and debate, March 2007, on the occasion of work. International Women’s Day, of the Noting the need to reinforce the par- UNESCO International Network of 3) Invites you to diffuse this call ticipation of women philosophers in Women Philosophers, assembling the as widely as possible to your philo- the different activities implemented greatest possible number of women sopher colleagues, acquaintances by UNESCO in the field of philosophy, philosophers – philosophers/artists, and friends. You will find herewith and recalling in this regard the provi- philosophers/writers, philosophers/ below the text of this call in the six sions of the UNESCO Strategy on poets and similar – from all countries official languages of UNESCO Philosophy, which aims at reinforcing and philosophical traditions, so as to (English, French, Arabic, Chinese, the networks of philosophers throu- involve them in a dynamic and partici- Russian and Spanish). ghout the world and encouraging phi- pative manner in the different projects losophical reflection in all its forms, and activities of UNESCO in the field of philosophy, and to convey to them Determined to pursue tirelessly the the support of the Organization in the UNESCO, January 2007 action of UNESCO in favour of the development of interdependent and www.unesco.org/shs/en/philosophy

4) Promoting interregional philosophical dialogue

The Interregional Philosophical Dialogue a search for identity that takes the form of programme aims to encourage open and a retreat into a particular religion or spiri- productive dialogue at the very centre of tual tradition to the exclusion of all others. the province of philosophy: the fight Beyond any individual political factors, against ignorance deliberately fostered by these antagonistic forms of retreat result dogmatists who would still have us believe, from an ignorance of the long history that in the name of a school or a tradition, not binds different peoples, their cultures, their only that they alone know the Truth, but, religions and their spiritual traditions, toge- more than this, that theirs is the only cor- ther. One of the objectives of philosophical rect method of verifying knowledge. This dialogue is to highlight the dynamic inter- programme represents a unique opportunity play between spiritual traditions and their to take a fresh look at the potential that specific cultures by underlining the contri- dialogue holds in a globalized world. It is butions they have made to each other’s imperative that we place strong significan- development, through the discovery of ce on the concept of dialogue and seek common heritage and shared values. To dynamic and global strategies that reinfor- achieve these goals we must work toge- ce its relevance and its strength. Dialogue ther, through joint actions, to reinvent must become a tool of transformation, a forms of ‘living together’ for the peoples of means of making tolerance and peace the world, whose experience of conflict or prosper, a vehicle for diversity and pluralism conviviality constitutes the building blocks and, finally, a way to serve the common of our collective memory. At a time when, good. Many conflicts are partially fuelled by throughout the world, we are witnessing

146 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM the rise of separatist movements based on for destructive purposes. Conversely, it is claims to cultural specificities, with conse- vital to emphasize the positive contribution quences that are sometimes deadly, we of inter-cultural exchanges, particularly in have a duty to promote and to establish a the field of ethics and values. In this regard, framework for intercultural and philosophi- the educational dimension of inter-cultural cal dialogue. I should add that it is also very dialogue, through the promotion of mutual important we seek ways to reduce any knowledge, is essential. We must also negative perceptions of particular aspects ensure that this sensitivity to others, in both of another civilization, so removing the their closeness and their difference, is possibility of these perceptions leading awakened at the earliest possible age. directly to conflict, or being manipulated

Box 38 Interregional Philosophical Dialogues

Through this project, UNESCO proposes The dialogue between these two regions during this two-day event centred on the to act as an interface for the formation was launched with a brainstorming mee- overarching theme of democracy and of dynamic networks of philosophers ting held in November 2004 in Paris, social justice in Asia and the Arab world. from different parts of the world, and back-to-back with World Philosophy Day. In this age of globalization it is indeed particularly from regions between which Its aim was to provide a space to dis- even more important to look at the ways there is no tradition of philosophical dia- cuss the issue of establishing a philoso- in which the heritage of Asia and the logue. Meetings organized within the fra- phical dialogue among scholars of the Arab region has coped with democracy mework of this programme aim to foster two regions and cultures, the possible and social justice in the past, and how constructive, free and open–if need be, challenges and obstacles, and the objec- we may work together to find new solu- critical–dialogue between two regions, tives of such encounters. tions to implement philosophy into prac- so that the philosophers can exchange tice to promote justice. [… ] ideas on all of the great questions that The philosophers present at the meeting interest them. […] Regardless of the underlined the need for an Asian-Arab UNESCO, acting on the strength of its regions that have been involved, the philosophical dialogue to counter the conviction, is wholeheartedly committed meetings organized so far within the obstacles of prejudice and fanaticism to actively promoting philosophical dia- context of this programme have all and to narrow the cognitive gulf between logue. The meetings held so far have addressed questions such as: […] In the two regions. clearly demonstrated the enormous what way could philosophical dialogue interest in initiating and strengthening contribute to the development of the While emphasizing the existence of interregional exchanges among philoso- study of philosophy? […] Which transcending and universal questions phers from various regions of the world. themes/problems should such dia- and issues common to the philosophical Unfortunately, at present we lack the logues focus on? What action plan traditions of the two regions, partici- financial means to bring together all the should UNESCO take up in order to laun- pants also stressed the importance of philosophers in these regions who would ch a successful programme of interre- understanding the particularities of like to participate in such conferences, gional dialogue? What methodologies these traditions and developing a plura- but by acting in cooperation with exis- could be employed to teach Asian philo- listic conception of philosophy. With this ting forums for dialogue, together we sophy in different parts of the world, in mind, and in view of a need for philo- can awaken the calling of philosophers such as Africa and Latin America? What sophers from all regions to critically to break through the barriers of geogra- types of programmes directed at capa- respond to contemporary problems rela- phy and other dividing lines. […] city-building and the exchange of ideas tive to the general human condition, par- could be considered that would offer ticipants agreed that it was essential to young philosophers a possibility for reci- have a dialogue on such topics as demo- procal learning? How can an understan- cracy, poverty, social justice, moderni- Extracts from the introduction by Pierre ding of each other’s traditions of thought zation, terrorism or violence. The inter- Sané, UNESCO’s Assistant Director- be promoted in the two regions? […] regional conference at the origin of the General for Social and Human present publication took place in Sciences, to the publication Inter- In the framework of a philosophical dia- November 2005 in Seoul, Republic of Regional Philosophical Dialogues: logue between Asia and the Arab region, Korea. In a follow-up to the conclusions Democracy and Social Justice in Asia two events have already taken place. from the meeting in Paris, discussions and the Arab World.(40)

(40) Pierre Sané, ‘Introduction’, in Inwon Choue, Samuel Lee and Pierre Sané (eds), Inter-Regional Philosophical Dialogues: Democracy and Social Justice in Asia and the Arab World. UNESCO / Global Academy for Neo-Renaissance of Kyung Hee University / Korean National Commission for UNESCO, 2006. www.unesco.org/shs/fr/philosophy

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IV. Philosophy in higher education: A few figures

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Conclusion: The future of philosophy

The last two world congresses of world, despite continuing and obvious philosophy have had for title, respectively, inequalities, reflects the importance of this ‘Paideia: Philosophy Educating Humanity’ education as a counterbalance to the rise (Boston, 1998) and ‘Philosophy Facing of irrationalism and intolerance. World Problems’ (Istanbul, 2003). This progressive opening of philosophy to society’s For this function to be fully effective, problems and the role that philosophy philosophy teaching must remain free. teaching can play in the training of Academic freedom, the freedom to teach tomorrow’s citizens is wholly consistent and to learn philosophy, is a necessary with the place it currently occupies within precondition for a philosophical education. contemporary learning. Today more than philosophy teaching will never be perfect. ever, philosophical teaching is being called Its quality will reflect the competences of upon to inspire a critical approach to all each research professor. But no authority knowledge that might otherwise be taken external to the dynamics of academic for granted, and to all dogmatic or doctri- exchange can claim to determine research nal conceptual systems. By its very nature, priorities, nor judge the relevancy of discus- philosophy assumes the task of extracting sions, nor establish the limits of the the intentional, fundamental structures subject’s scope. Where interventions are from all cultural and human activity, indivi- legitimate, as in the case of historical revi- dual and social, so as to place them in an sionism of any kind, they are always in historical perspective and to release them response to a violation of sound scientific from any absolutist ambitions. It liberates principles and are supported by the entire individuals from the burden of their inheri- peer group. ted ethical, cultural and social conditioning – and by this very act of criticism, can run Like any learned discipline, philosophy is up against resistance from one or another continually evolving, and previously neglec- cultural community. ted approaches can prove rewarding. This is why support for philosophical research and Because above all it develops and encou- teaching should represent a strategic priori- rages critical thinking, philosophy exerts its ty for UNESCO and its Member States. Any liberating action through an educational action of support can only aim at reinfor- process. It teaches us to understand the cing philosophical communities, while complexity of human actions, to see in leaving them free to develop to a maximum each act and each attitude an expression of diversity of methodological and conceptual spiritual forms, the historical nature of approaches and themes. To subordinate the which it recognizes and places in a context defence of philosophy to prioritising speci- for interaction and mutual change. A fic subjects means sacrificing approaches dialogue among cultures only becomes that may appear negligible today, but possible when we learn to see, in the which are likely to hold, tomorrow, traditions and ethics of others, the expres- un-hoped for theoretical and cultural sion of a world view that is able to commu- rewards. nicate with our own. It teaches us, to some extent, a universal language of reason that allows us to go beyond the historical crystallizations that express themselves through the diversity of ethical systems. The presence of philosophy throughout the

149 CHAPTER IV Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Other ways to discover philosophy Philosophy in the polis

Introduction: The other dimensions of philosophy 153 Methodology 153

I. The need to philosophize 154 - 160 1) Cultural 155 2) Existential 155 3) Spiritual 156 4) Therapeutic 157 5) Political 158 6) Social 159 7) Intellectual 159

II. The various kinds of philosophical practice 161 - 177 1) The present situation: How philosophy is practised 161 > Philosophy counselling > The philosophy café > Philosophy workshops > Publishing successes > Philosophy with children outside school > Philosophy at work > Philosophy in difficult contexts 2) What should the philosophy practitioners’ status and position be? 170 > Discussion leader, philosophy content provider, referee of philosophical form > Paying the philosopher 3) Philosophical practice: An analysis 174 > Common features > Critique of this pratique > Philosophical skills

III. Twenty suggestions towards action 179 - 192 1) Non-academic philosophy and institutions 179 2) Institutional recognition 180 > Understanding philosophical practice and its essence > Recognizing the cultural aspect of philosophical practice > Ministerial point of contact, youth and associations > Recognition of philosophical practice in the area of healthcare > Recognition of philosophy in training institutions

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3) Training and providing professional status 183 > Broader availability of a Master’s Degree in Philosophical Practice > Setting up professional structures for philosophy practitioners > Promoting philosophical practice as a professional opportunity > Development of Service Learning in philosophy 4) The philosopher’s role in the polis 186 > Working with marginalized youth > Philosophy for those in precarious situations > Philosophizing in prisons > Philosophizing with retirees > Promoting philosophical activity at work > The polis philosopher > Philosophy Day(s) > Internet Projects > Philosophy Olympiads > Debates following film screenings > Philosophy ‘House’

IV. Informal philosophy: A few figures 194 Conclusion: Is it philosophical? 195

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Introduction: The other dimensions of philosophy

Does location make a difference to the way argues that truth can be found in our philosophy is done? Philosophy outside innate capacity for reason, but has to be academia is an activity that is not easy to ‘given birth to’ by answering intelligently detect or define. What should it be called, proposed questions). There is ambiguity in to start with? ‘Informal philosophy’? the term ‘sophia’: philosophy as the trans- ‘Natural’, ‘popular’, ‘non-institutional’, mission of knowledge, or philosophy as ‘extra-mural’? None of these seems quite apprenticeship in wisdom. The distinction to do justice to this different kind of philo- between popular and academic philosophy sophy. After all, a religious sermon might in recurs in Kant. Indeed, the debate is never- a way engage the listener in philosophical ending: more recent philosophers can be activity; so might the storyteller reworking found arguing whether there is or not any old folk tales from an oral tradition; so such thing as non-Western philosophy, indeed might a yoga teacher, a militant namely African, Chinese or Indian. advocate for a fairer society, or a personal Partisans of the ‘classical’ thesis – who, fol- development therapist of one kind or ano- lowing Heidegger, maintain that philoso- ther invite their hearers to reflect: can we phy was born in a specific place (Greece) at be certain that these reflections are less a specific time (the classical age) – will not philosophical than that of the philosophy only reject a broader view of philosophy, teacher in the classroom or lecture hall? but may well find the idea scandalous; and their restrictive approach is certainly one of It all depends, of course, on what we mean the reasons why the discipline seems until by ‘philosophy’. The issue began with the recently to have been for the most part opposition between the teaching of the confined to the seminar room or library. sophists and the Socrates maieutics (which

Methodology

Our purpose here is to imagine how a and what is its future? In tackling these specific kind of philosophical activity questions we learn from the examples of might be developed which, while not the diverse practices already instituted in ignoring academic work, is not itself aca- different parts of the world. Some come demic but seeks to be deployed in from personal interviews and some from various forms throughout society. We written accounts of meetings, collo- shall accordingly be looking at the ori- quiums and other encounters. Their gins of this need, strongly manifested for main purpose is to inform, to show, to many years now, to engage in philoso- illustrate, the many ways people approach phy. We shall also be paying attention to ‘philosophy elsewhere and otherwise’. the nature of this non-academic tea- These examples and illustrations from ching of philosophy: how did it begin? such a variety of sources bear witness to How is it practised? What are the issues the growing importance – and real pre- at stake? How is it perceived by conven- sence – of such philosophical practices in tional or academic philosophy? What the world today. Finally, this chapter will forms can it take? What varieties are draw from these varied experiences a there? How long has it been around – series of practical ideas and suggestions.

153 CHAPITRE IV

I. The need to philosophize

For a number of years now there has been a growing demand for ‘extra- mural’ philosophy – less parochially institutional, struggling for an identity, but at the same time apparently corresponding to a fundamental or essential need in our society.

The nature of this need and the reasons for noting that this ‘concern with oneself’ has it are doubtless heterogeneous and com- always been somewhat at odds with the plex, as always in this type of paradigm major philosophical doctrines. Although shift. Rather than analyse its origins, this such doctrines themselves have to do with chapter represents a study of the forms reality (of the world, of thought or of that it takes: after all, the desire to ask phi- being), it is generally viewed more as a rea- losophical questions is utterly natural, as lity that conditions the individual, as oppo- natural as the desire for beauty. We can, sed to activities involved with the singula- nonetheless, put forward some suggestions rity of individuals, which were regarded as as to its origin. Most obviously, this revived more prosaic and less elevating. Even exis- need to philosophize, to think critically and tential philosophy, although it makes much creatively, has risen from the collapse (or of the notions of ‘identity’ and the ‘perso- loss) of numerous traditional ways of life, nal project’, seems more concerned with whether in terms of ideologies, politics, the universal than with the particular. It is morals or religion. Even references to tradi- ironic that the founder of Western philoso- tion involve ‘re-establishment’. Intellectual phy, Plato, who espoused Socrates’ ‘know life nowadays, especially within the sphere thyself’, hardly ever made use of it as an of influence of ‘Western’ culture, is largely everyday practice. a matter of suiting oneself. Even those who adhere to a particular world-view often Conceptualizing, formulating problems, claim the right to adopt tailored variants or classifying ideas, generating systems, logic, autonomous ways of relating to it, either dialectics, critical thought: these are the for themselves as individuals or for their tasks that have remained at the heart of particular community: people seek to for- Western philosophical work; the cross-exa- mulate for themselves the values, aetiologies or mination of the subject behind all this existential purposes that give sense and exposition has virtually disappeared. Noting direction to their personal lives. this, indeed, Lacan was led to denounce a corporation of ‘Filousophes’ for their denial In this context, ‘thinking’ – philosophy – of the Subject. Here and there in the course offers a path or a perspective that may be of history we catch a glimpse of the exis- ideally suited to a real search for such mea- tential notion of philosophy as consolation ning. This kind of goal is at odds with the (Boethius, Seneca, Abelard), or as concern academic outlook, in which existential with the self (Montaigne, Kierkegaard, needs, though not entirely absent, play a Foucault); but these initiatives never made distinctly less dominant role. A second rea- more than a passing appearance. son, which echoes the first, is the transformation of traditional socioeconomic We find another echo of the same modern mechanisms: these ever-accelerating chan- phenomenon in pedagogy, in a growing ges destabilize established structures of elevation of ‘thinking’ above ‘knowing’. identity and force people to look for new Many educational reforms around the anchor-points and new values. A third world tend - rightly or wrongly, to a proper consideration is the spread of a popular or an excessive degree - to de-emphasize psychology in which ‘searching for oneself’ the transmission of knowledge and instead is set up as a legitimate preoccupation, foster work on appropriation, dialogue and with the natural consequence of a prolife- analysis. It may be in the form of ‘critical ration of practices aimed at ‘personal thinking’ exercises, classroom discussions, a growth’. As a matter of history, it is worth community of enquiry or ‘learning to

154 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM learn’, but today’s taste is for the conversa- these motives, for they clearly vary among tional, subjective, interpersonal aspect of themselves and in some cases are even knowledge. Demonstration by what is flatly opposed. While there may be simila- objective and universal has become rity of form and substance among the somewhat suspect, with the risk, of course, expectations and demands in an absolute of glorifying the singular instance and the sense, they can nevertheless be distingui- merest opinion. Personal experience trumps shed quite markedly. We shall try to deli- thought a priori, it seems. This is the amor- neate a few main categories in this chapter, phous compost that provides the rooting which should be seen not as corresponding medium for the present resurgence of a to clearly-defined groups of people but desire to engage in philosophy. rather as tendencies which overlap but have different versions or weightings. What drives this desire? We find many kinds of motive among those who choose to become involved with philosophy. It is surely worthwhile to understand and map

1) Cultural

We begin with the cultural demand for phi- courses which give them a panorama of losophy, not because it is necessarily the the big issues rather than going into a par- most important or even the most common, ticular subject in depth; otherwise they but because it is the most traditional. This is would be taking a more conventional uni- the driving force behind philosophy in versity course. Among the retirees we often many Open Universities, Leisure find men and women who have worked all Universities, All-Age Universities – institu- their lives in some technical, administrative tions offering courses, lectures or conferen- or other domain that has left them cultu- ces for the public at large. Those who rally unsatisfied, and who would like to use attend – mainly housewives and retirees – their leisure to make up the deficiency. are usually embarking on something of There will also be people who have not had which they know little or nothing before- a great deal of education but have read hand but which they feel, as part of a books all their lives or done their best to desire to improve their general knowledge. educate themselves by their own means, The homemakers find themselves with a and would now like to engage in the task little more free time and wonder what use more continuously. Some, for each of these they might make of it. As they grow older, groups, will go on to more formal or advan- they might find they want to devote a little ced studies, aiming for the self-esteem that less of themselves to others (even their nea- comes with a degree. For others, the goal rest and dearest), and a little more to them- will be their first postgraduate degree. selves. Some will have interrupted their Open Universities have more recently been education to start a family, but feel too old looking for ways to overhaul the format, by now to take on advanced study: an ama- offering more participatory arrangements teur, generalist format accordingly suits or even workshops. them very well. Those who attend this kind of institution very often prefer a wider, less specific view; they appreciate lecture

2) Existential

In the above category it was knowledge take part in philosophical activities on their that came first, although the search for it own initiative. There are two reasons for may of course be connected with other, this, and they have to do with existential more existential aspects. We find that it is matters. First, it is around the age of forty mainly those in their forties or older who that people tend to review their personal

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existence for the first time. In economically practical matters to the next generation; developed societies, this is roughly the start one steps back, one becomes a sage, of the second half of life, and there may be moving away from the ‘pursued course’, an attempt to examine what has happened whether that course had been practical in the first half, namely its benefits, its mea- activity, the conduct of business or the ning, its value, and so on. People begin to search for worldly pleasure. Depending on wonder whether ‘all that’ is not rather individual temperament, knowledge and empty, whether life is perhaps something means, this stage generally begins around other than an accumulation of small daily the age of forty; but its timing and form acts. will vary with character and circumstances. We should also not forget that there are The second reason, connected with the social and economic situations in which, first, is that the practical side of life is now even at a considerably greater age, it is to some extent more settled. The effort to impossible for practical reasons to escape find a career is over: it is more or less map- the struggle to survive. ped out. One’s status is fairly established and it becomes harder to fantasize about To sum, when it is a matter of existential what one might do or become. On top of quest, philosophical activity generally res- that, there is a certain mental and physical ponds to a need to understand oneself, to fatigue; running around to build castles in understand the world better, to think about the air – even for practical or material the finite nature of existence, to come to ‘rewards’ – becomes less attractive. This terms with an imperfect world, even to corresponds to the third age of the begin to contemplate death. It is the echo Brahmanical tradition: the first is apprenti- of this that we find in the popularity of ceship, the second action, and the third ‘personal development’ initiatives of meditation. At this point one leaves various kinds.

3) Spiritual

The spiritual quest is very closely connected opposition between the human and the with the existential one, but with more spe- divine. Its recurring concepts or subjects are cific formulations and needs, which we can universal one-ness, global harmony and call ‘metaphysical’. This category may be personal autonomy; a new age in which considered a special case of the existential humanity is supposed to realize its physical, quest, but it encounters specific issues if psychic and spiritual potential, in which only because particular or personal exis- individuals will be themselves and tence can here be seen as secondary or of limitations will be overcome. lesser consequence than ontological issues or more abstract concerns. Philosophy in One of the paradoxes of this sensibility’s this case is regarded as a substitute for relationship with philosophy is that the religion, the risk being that it may be seen New Age advocates ‘getting beyond as a dispenser of truths. The rejection of thought’: that is, it champions intuition institutional religions, especially because of against conception, which is somewhat their ritual obligations, rigid hierarchies and contrary to the classic ideas of philosophy. moral imperatives, has done much to It is, however, possible to see some rela- encourage this craze. We commonly find tionship with philosophical activity, firstly quite a marked receptivity among these because the New Age influence is not groups for New Age(1) ideas and oriental always at its most radical or extreme, and philosophy. A quick review of this sensibility secondly because new philosophical practi- (1) ‘New Age’ is a widespread shows it is a syncretism of highly disparate ces are widening the domain of philosophi- Western spiritual trend of the elements: religious and philosophical, cal knowledge and its cultural references as twentieth and twenty-first centuries: its main features are an individualistic Oriental and Western, theological, esoteric well as its paradigms of thought. A consi- and eclectic spirituality driven by a and animist. Its tendency is to depersona- derable number of ‘cultural Christians’, in desire to prepare humanity for the coming of a ‘new age’ of universal lize the deity and to deify the human being, particular non-practising Catholics, will harmony. mainly with a view to overcoming the likewise find themselves engaged in

156 LA PHILOSOPHIE, UNE ÉCOLE DE LA LIBERTÉ philosophy because it enables them to the philosopher as a substitute priest, a tackle metaphysical subjects without neces- purveyor of otherworldly goods. sarily depending for their language on any Nevertheless, the fact that people come to revealed truth. Those who hold more or a philosophy workshop rather than going less consciously to such patterns will come to a guru or to church is an indication that to philosophy for answers to their ques- they do have some desire to take a tions: here the danger is that they may see philosophical path, however odd.

4) Therapeutic

Another particular form of the existential maintain that it is going too far to requirement is the therapeutic one. The classify as pathological behaviour which main difference between the two is that may simply arise from existential pro- the problem posed in the latter is more blems: for existential problems also may acute. When the search for meaning on occasion be acute, but can and takes the form of a pain that is hard to should be addressed by the practice of bear, when the questioning becomes an philosophy rather than of some suppo- obsessive dread and doubt paralyses eve- sedly medical discipline. They charge the ryday functioning, then there is what current climate of ‘psychologism’ with may be regarded as a disorder verging infantilizing humanity, with a loss of on the pathological. If a distinction can human autonomy, overblown medicali- be made between the philosophical pro- zation, regressive reductionism or even blem and the psychological problem, it is mental consumerism that suggests that perhaps at the point where there is still everything must be done to ‘feel good’ an ability to reason, to stand back a little and so eclipses the tragic and the finite from oneself; but it is not so clear or in human existence. The issue brings up obvious where such a supposed line is to another important question, about the be drawn. From time to time, for exam- status of rational thought in relation to ple, philosophy presents itself as a acti- feeling, pain, grief and passion. Should vity that provides consolation in the face rational thought be regarded as that of the world’s woes; and even if this is which makes the individual a person, or not (or not avowedly) its most usual is it on the contrary what stops the indi- form, it nevertheless remains one of the vidual from being truly alive? There are possibilities within its scope. Indeed, few, of course, who would take up some philosophers explicitly work with either of these extreme positions, but people recognized by the experts as everyone will tend towards the one or mentally ill – in hospitals, for instance, or the other. As for those wanting to take in special schools – with a view to recon- part in a philosophical activity, there will ciling them to their status as thinking be some who find over time that it does beings. Quite apart from such extremes, answer their purpose and ‘resolve’ their some people attend workshops or parti- problems or relieve some of their suffe- cular forms of consultation when they ring, while others will only find are suffering from difficulties that are themselves back in the same old swamp. evident even to a non-specialist. In these various situations one may ask how much real philosophy can be done in such cases, or even whether it has any use or relevance; but the fact is that some of philosophy’s consumers do belong to this category. There are practising philosophers who openly and directly challenge the unwarranted appropriation of all mental disturbance by clinical psychology, psychiatry, psychotherapy or psychoanalysis, and

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Box 39 Philosophy, suicide prevention and ‘mental illness’

For the last two years I have been a In my own practice as a counsellor with housing estates east of Paris. For two voluntary counsellor and trainer with SOS SOS Suicide Phénix, I am confronted with hours every seven days, the patients of Suicide Phénix, a charity founded in Paris what I could, simplifying somewhat, call this day-care hospital meet as a group in 1976. Thinking about suicide entails two kinds of despair – and despair is the with a clinical psychologist to review their thinking about death more generally, and only motive for suicide. One is where phi- week, talk about their experiences, both the history of philosophy offers many losophy, in the sense of reflection on the in the world outside and in the depart- points of view on this, as well as a meaning of life, is no help at all: there ment in which they follow their courses of wealth of different approaches. Some are, for instance, suicidal callers who treatment and take part in art and craft even say, with Montaigne and following despair not through the lack or loss of activities of all kinds. I join them once a Plato, that the main object of philosophy meaning, but because they do not have month: we start by getting each one in is ‘learning to die’. Now the Association any occasions of happiness, pleasure or turn to express his or her concerns and volunteers are not taught the history of joy. The only thing to do in such a case is desires, and then choose a subject for philosophies concerning death and sui- to help the caller search in his or her life discussion. The patients are very keen to cide, but new counsellors are put and see whether perhaps some occa- get away from solely psychological through an exercise in the Socratic vein, sions are being neglected or passed considerations of their unhappiness, in which each of them tries with help heedlessly by, some of those ‘moments which they find rather too constricting. from the others, to elucidate his or her of being’ (as Virginia Woolf named them) The ability to connect their individual lot own stance on death generally and on which he or she finds necessary for ‘life to a broader, more universal issue, as suicide in particular. The group facilitator to be once more worth the trouble of philosophy has sought to do ever since (who draws on personal familiarity with living’. Socrates (‘Know yourself and you shall the history of philosophy) only reformula- know heaven and earth’), has a therapeu- tes, clarifies, connects, reintroduces or The other kind of despair, though, is a tic effect that cannot be denied. extends the new counsellors’ contribu- clear call for philosophical reflection, first tions. There are two hours of this initial and foremost. This is the caller who des- Patients who are closed and self-obses- training at present, but there are sugges- pairs because his or her life has ‘lost its sed at the start of these discussions tions that it might be followed up by regu- meaning’. The ensuing conversation then open up remarkably and become far live- lar, ongoing training sessions. The initial turns on what kind of thing ‘a life’s mea- lier when they find that a particular point introduction to personal reflection on ning’ might be: something to be found, or exchange ‘hits the spot’ – and later death and suicide is also a part of two as one finds buried treasure? Something conversations with a therapist may fur- other training courses, one on the history to be constructed, alone or with others? ther their progress to a clearer unders- of suicide prevention and sociology of sui- In the case of this second kind of despair tanding of why. cide, and the other on psychopathology of the dialogue that follows is not very diffe- suicide. rent from that which occurs in all the phi- Günter Gorhan losophical discussions I facilitate, for ins- Philosophical discussion facilitator tance in a psychiatric hospital among the (France)

5) Political

Just as some people treat philosophy as a but to be ‘free and independent’; we prefer substitute for religion, others come to it as informal structures – clubs, action groups, a substitute for politics. There are many committees – to parties, factions or clans. reasons for this. First, the refusal to ‘buy’ We like to discuss ideas because such dis- ready-made schemes. Such schemes are cussions are open; opinion is the fashion- out of fashion; we all want to put together able matter of debate, in private as in our own ideology, though we may not public, in the media as at work. Now there always be aware of it. Next, there is today remains of course the question whether a prevailing lack of trust in politicians, who philosophical activity lends itself to this type are widely perceived as greedy for power or of exercise, whether it can espouse the money, corrupt and given to underhand debating of political opinions. As to their dealings. Thirdly, the immanent is nowa- relationship with debate and opinion, phi- days valued above the transcendent, inter- losophers will no doubt have individual and personal relations are more popular than even jarring views; but it is clear that there institutions, fellow-feeling receives better are many people who come to philosophi- press than justice, and the humanitarian is cal activity precisely for this reason: to regarded as more trustworthy than the debate their ideas about justice, econo- politician. Fourthly, commitment is out of mics, ethics, politics, the environment, free- style: the ideal is not to be a party worker, dom, the power of money or the media –

158 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM to mention only some of the subjects that the two are not always easily distinguisha- arise. They are looking for a place to ble. There are philosophical situations, express their ideas and hear what others though, which would quickly be blighted have to say, to share their opinions with by the confinement that can follow if a par- their fellow citizens or to confront them, to ticular vision or tendency gains an ascen- hone their arguments or demolish those of dancy there, a blight that settles wherever others. Do they come to convince, to learn, a particular way of thinking about a given or to reflect? After all, professional philoso- subject becomes the established order. The phers frequently defend systems: why only difference is that political debates tend should the amateurs not want to do the to stir up ideological enmities more readily same? In some philosophical arenas it is than other subjects. In any case, this kind of maintained that philosophy has no mea- debate still allows a somewhat deeper exa- ning unless it ‘leads to action’, or that it has mination of the issues by getting people to be political if it is to have any reality at involved in the discussing of ideas rather all. However that may be, the desire for a than mere political showmanship, the pro- better or fairer society is surely one that can tection of special interests, or political in theory furnish material for philosophical advertising – provided, of course, that it is as well as political reflection, and indeed carried on properly.

6) Social

Oddly enough, part of the impetus behind who would be ill at ease speaking can sim- philosophical activity, and one of the rea- ply keep quiet and listen. There is an aspect sons for its existence, is the desire to make of caricature about such places, to be sure; contact with one’s fellows. Philosophy is and some purists will find them laughable; indeed an excellent way of meeting other but they do help to weave the fabric of people, especially in large cities where society. The people we find to talk with will opportunities for sociability and conversa- not always be exactly the ones we want, tion are not always obvious. This is particu- especially if we want to talk about ‘impor- larly true for those who want such encoun- tant’ subjects which are not everyone’s cup ters to include a certain amount of thinking of tea. Furthermore, since philosophy and subject-matter, rather than just a chat covers a whole range of activities with very with anyone or everyone. We may expect different requirements, everyone will be that somebody who frequents a philosophy able to find the right place with the right venue will have a certain level of education, company to match his or her expectations – a certain social and financial standing, a or possibly not. Surely it is useful that such grasp of good manners, and so forth – places exist: places where one can go to though experience tells us this is not neces- meet one’s fellows simply to exchange sarily so! Magazines sometimes recom- ideas, just as there are places where one mend the philosophy café as a place for can go to play football or to visit a museum meeting people, not least because talking in a group. Once more, though, the purist with the people at the next table is entirely will complain that this dating activity deba- natural in such places: discussion is, after ses philosophy by using it as a mere tool to all, what they are there for. Unlike other make up for people’s poor capacity for activities, it accepts bystanders: anyone forming relations.

7) Intellectual

Another category is intellectual motivation, intention here that deserves to be mentio- which has to do with a quite specific need: ned. For while traditional philosophical acti- learning to think, the pleasure of thinking. vity often takes a ‘general culture’ form, This can, of course, overlap other motiva- encouraging people to think by teaching tions – the existential, for example, or the them what canonical philosophers have cultural – but there is surely a specific written, there are also certain philosophical

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practices (group or individual) that, without who is not necessarily someone who has necessarily neglecting the cultural contribu- attended a university’s Philosophy tion, concentrate above all on the activity Department. This mode of philosophical of thinking – for instance, with the aid of a activity is surely one which rightly deserves technique such as Socratic questioning, or to be popularized and recognized, for the maieutics. Here, thinking is set up as an non-initiated will find themselves less spon- activity in itself, one that is bound neither taneously drawn towards it and yet it is pre- to cultural elements nor to existential, cisely this kind of activity which is the pre- social or indeed any other specifics. It will supposition for all the others. How can one naturally be unable to ignore such particu- think about the world or oneself, if one lars completely, and all of the time, on the does not learn to think? Strange and ini- one hand because these issues will always tially unsettling though the exercise may be present as a backdrop, and on the other be, it is nearer to the essence of what because it is impossible to philosophize makes us what we are than any amount of about nothing at all: one has to start cultural enhancement or congenial conver- somewhere. Nevertheless it is possible to sation. Getting under the surface, casting approach thinking for thinking’s sake – the problem with care, organizing concepts thinking about thinking – in which thinking without attending to the implications for is its own end and its method. Those who immediate existential interests, without choose to engage in such a mode of prac- immediately giving in to the desire for self- tice, which can require a serious investment expression, is a hard discipline which does of energy and even personal risk, will gene- not come naturally or offer an obvious way rally be among the most strongly motivated forward. This is the principle of the discus- of all and the most likely to promote philo- sion in the gymnasium, the hand-to-hand sophy actively. For this, it seems, is the combat of ratiocination as Socrates essence of the practising philosopher – understood it.

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II. The various kinds of philosophical practice

1) The present situation: How philosophy is practised

Philosophy counselling The most famous practitioner in this field is without doubt Lou Marinoff, whose The first official philosophy counselling work Plato not Prozac(2) has been a best- service was set up in Germany in 1981, seller in many countries and brought him by the educational philosopher Gerd a great following. Marinoff claims to Achenbach. At his practice he receives treat his clients’ problems by suggesting what he refers to as his ‘guests’: people they read a particular philosopher, cho- who want to engage in a philosophical sen by him, who will illuminate their pro- dialogue about some subject or problem blems and show them how to resolve which is exercising them. They go to a them for themselves. There are various philosopher for a discussion that will philosophers who likewise offer to teach enable them to handle, clarify or resolve self-awareness, an understanding of the problem that is bothering them. The others, the art of living, self-expression, philosopher accordingly takes the tradi- ethical insight or other forms of wisdom, tional place of the spiritual counsellor or, according to the personal and cultural more recently, the psychologist, coach or inclinations of their clientele. For many mentor – but there is a theoretical diffe- years now, these practitioners have been rence: the ‘trade mark’ of philosophy is gathering at various international mee- that it works on ideas and existence tings around the world. The movement is using rationality. More specifically, philo- already splitting along the fault lines of sophy uses logic or other instruments of faction and authority for the usual rea- critical thought as tools to escape the sons, some ideological but most – as unreflecting self and find one’s ground always – tainted with intellectual self- as an individual being, for instance by importance and questions of cash. Of mobilizing the capacity to apply logical relevance here is a highly revealing dis- regression or an existential deconstruc- pute between those who think it essen- tion. Nevertheless, although some pro- tial to maintain respect for the establi- fessional philosophers within the vast shed forms of philosophy and those who and vague boundaries of philosophical want to adapt them for smoother selling practice try to keep to the philosopher’s in the marketplace; it is the eternal traditional role, as strictly understood, debate between the ‘purist fundamenta- others have no hesitation in shifting hap- lism’ of the traditionalists and the pily towards a function that more closely ‘pragmatism’ of the modernists. matches that of a spiritual or religious guide, a psychologist or a psychoanalyst, The philosophy café or even a career adviser. The line between philosophy and various cognate 1992 was the year of the first philosophy activities may thus be fairly unstable. In café, and the idea soon spread to many Achenbach’s view, the philosopher is a countries. Marc Sautet, a philosophy sort of ‘Life Coach’, who uses the inter- professor at the Institut d’Etudes view to add depth to the account offered Politiques in Paris and founder of the by the ‘guest’, to help clarify the issues philosophy café, has told the story of in the guest’s life by suggesting various how it began: he had mentioned on a interpretations of their account and of radio programme that he was in the the ‘moments of being’ it evokes. In this habit of meeting friends on Sunday mor- view, the philosopher should be quite nings at the Café des Phares in central prepared to draw on his or her own life Paris to engage in philosophy. The next experience to enlighten the guest, as Sunday he was amazed to see a large (2) Lou Marinoff, Plato not Prozac! Applying Philosophy to Everyday one would in discussion with a friend. number of people arrive, keen to take Problems, London and part in these informal discussions. The Philadelphia, HarperCollins, 1999.

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Box 40 Philosophy counselling in Norway

The philosopher Anders Lindseth set up years, and despite the work done by the ning the philosophers down. In one the first philosophical counselling group philosophers themselves to raise their case, however, the prison system has in Norway in the university town of profile by organizing philosophy cafés called in a young philosophy practitio- Tromsø. He has gathered in his wake a and others discussion groups, no-one ner: it remains to be seen whether this number of professionals concerned to has yet managed to make a living at phi- exception will confirm the general rule. bring philosophy to the people by offe- losophy counselling. Though people are More specifically, the key people within ring philosophical consultations for in general interested in finding out more the NSPP have found work in research those with no training in the discipline. about a practice, and say they think it a institutions not specifically dedicated to Young philosophers in Tromsø and also good idea, few actually consult a philo- matters of philosophical counselling. in Oslo have set about following this sopher. Apart from some successes – Since they are recently trained philoso- example, and have organized face-to- prisons, for example, which call in philo- phers, few have been taken on for coun- face consultations for their own training. sophy counsellors to facilitate prisoners’ selling work in either public or private discussion groups – both private bodies organizations. Others have found jobs In 1997 these pioneer counsellors foun- and public institutions such as libraries while still doing their training and have ded their own association, the tend to turn down suggestions for dis- then continued as employees, without Norwegian Society of Philosophical cussion groups unless offered free of devoting a great deal of time to the esta- Practice (NSPP), which has conducted charge. At present there is an internal blishment of their own practice. There training courses mainly in the Oslo debate among NSPP members as to are accordingly very few philosophers at region. The movement has resulted in a whether it is really advisable to make present trying to make a profession of philosophical counselling scene in philosophy counselling a profession in their craft. The lesson seems to be that Norway which has been well-organized itself. There is a move for philosophy it is easier to make a living within a firm and united from the start. There are now counsellors to give up their ambition of or an institution, while there is very little more than twenty philosophers who developing a separate practice, and ins- opportunity for the independent have completed the two-year part-time tead looking for work where their coun- philosopher. training and been awarded the Society’s selling qualification would be (more or diploma certifying their competence in less) appropriate. The health sector has the field. The NSPP aims to make philo- been rather a disappointment in this res- Morten Fastvold, sophical counselling (or consultancy) a pect: the response has generally been Philosophy counsellor, fully-fledged profession in Norway; but it to decline any service which does not University of Oslo is proving a hard task. Despite many hold out the prospect of improvements (Norway) favourable articles in the press over the in patient health, which has meant tur- www.fastvold-filopraksis.com

situation was quite unexpected; there that Sunday painters paint? Or does was nothing for it but to organize the philosophy have some sacred essence? discussion in a way that could include However that may be, we may wonder these ‘new friends’. Though the occa- why philosophers did nothing to take up sion was thus rather a matter of chance, this new tool, why they did not throng it was nevertheless Sautet’s taste for this public gathering, why they did not ‘democratic’ philosophical activity which respond to the ensuing demand, instead enabled him to turn it into the new of immediately denouncing it as illegiti- informal institution which has since mate. There were many reasons: let us become such a great success. Media consider the two main ones. Firstly, there attention admittedly played a considera- is the view of philosophy as ascetic, for- ble part in promoting the activity; but mal and learned, the very view which even so, the reaction of the philosophi- already makes it so unpopular with those cal establishment was virulent: philoso- who are forced to study it; and secondly, phy cafés were not ‘philosophical’, and the characteristic professional feeling of never could be. There were few philoso- impotence, the psychological impotence phy teachers, therefore, who put their stemming from a more or less scornful standing at risk by taking part. It has to dismissal of ‘ordinary’ minds in any be said also that although there was a connection with the ‘sacred cows’ of show of demanding some degree of philosophy. The result was that a lack of rigour, many venues that claim the title philosophically-trained participants left a hardly deserve to be called ‘philosophi- void which was filled by amateurs with – cal’, but have the feel of a chat session all too often – little real understanding. rather than an exercise in thinking. Yet might not there be Sunday philosophers, One consequence of this thorough pola- who do philosophy in the same sense rization of opposing views was a sort of

162 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 41 The Café Philo’ in Algeria

The first experiment with an Algerian phi- would, of course, be some residual ten- pened, however, was that many of the losophy café was in 1998 at the annual sion, according to the cultures and situa- teachers found themselves reduced to poetry festival in the town of Bejaia, the tions involved, and this might have a silence, unwilling or unable to join in on Poésiades. A meeting was organized in slightly chilling effect on the process: those terms. Some of them tried, des- the theatre cafeteria, attended by more the task of the facilitator was accordin- pite the rule, to insist on making strong, than seventy people. Of the ten subjects gly to ‘slow down’ the discussion, res- well-knit, impassioned speeches; others offered to the floor, the one that recei- train the over-zealous, and put the parti- left the room in frustration and anger at ved most support was that of ‘Kabylie’. cipants’ attitudes through a thorough finding what they said stripped of its The debate started with declamatory examination. usual ex officio authority. Later on, in and fairly dogmatic speeches of the informal discussions elsewhere, many ‘militant’ genre, which provoked replies To illustrate this, here is another exam- people said how much they relished this and counter-replies in the same style. ple from our experience. This happened manner of proceeding, even though they Various crucial issues were raised: the during a debate in a tertiary education had been surprised by their first encoun- problem of identity (the tension between institution in Algiers, attended by a large ter with it. I was offered one rather inte- the particular and the universal), the pro- number of pupils and teachers. The resting explanation for the opposition in blem of language (the opposition bet- question of identity was under discus- principle which my rule had provoked. ween signifier and signified), the issue of sion, among other things; and very ‘You don’t understand the situation,’ I modernity and traditionalism, and the rapidly a generations gap appeared bet- was told; ‘you don’t appreciate the emer- relationship between national loyalty and ween the (older) teachers, for whom the gency!’. ‘Emergency’: once that word is global consciousness. In that this parti- core of the problem was the Algerian let loose then all is drama; emergencies cular setting provided for the primacy of identity, and the pupils, the younger par- leave no time for rational thought to an appeal to reason and respect for ticipants, whose national identity was have its say, not even time to breathe. others, there was a high value placed on evidently less important to them than No time for anything but brutal the individual; and individuals quite their individual one, as they wanted to be constraint – because ‘circumstances’ understandably tried, together with their part of the world, and felt that ‘modern demand it. When a country is in crisis, of fellows, to answer important questions culture’ was essential. We had a rule in course there is an emergency: but what that were often neglected through lack our debate: in order to avoid a mere if the emergency itself is what needs – of time or problem-characterizing techni- chaotic succession and collision of dis- urgently – to be given up? For emergen- que. The philosophy café was the per- connected opinions, assertions would cies of every kind, even mutually oppo- fect response to this demand for a neu- be made to give way to questions asked sing ones – in fact, opposing ones espe- tral venue where various tensions would by the participants of each other. This cially – all merrily feed and fan the same be left outside, where people could meant that contributions were valued flames. meet others with similar concerns entirely according to their listening, without feeling that a result or even a questioning capacity; and the procedure consensus had to be the outcome. The was also thought to enable arguments important thing was to have dialogue, to from all quarters to be more thoroughly Oscar Brenifier, put one’s own thoughts to the test, and examined so that people could not sim- President of the Institut de Pratiques to draw from the resulting discussion ply announce opinions or rely on argu- Philosophiques what profit each might find in it. There ments from authority. What quickly hap- (France) populism that rejects the heritage of phi- of everyday citizens, has become an ico- losophical knowledge; with it, though, nic emblem of this movement, in has tended to go the power and disci- contrast to the elitism of sophists pline it embodies: a case of throwing out jealously guarding their turf and their status. the baby with the bathwater. Nevertheless, although the criticism is Philosophy workshops broadly fair in the case of France, where everyone fancies himself or herself as The philosophy workshop is older an something of a philosopher and such idea than the philosophy café, but it has venues have proliferated (certainly as changed a great deal with the develop- many as a hundred and fifty, possibly ment of the latter, which inspired it and two hundred at present), it does not played the role of a scarecrow. For there apply in many other countries, where have always been, in this place or that, philosophy cafés are fewer in number various people with a philosophical edu- but tend to be led by people with some cation who would like to share their philosophical education. All this makes it enthusiasm with the general public. Until understandable that Socrates, with his recently these workshops were quite simplicity and face-to-face buttonholing rare, or intended for a particular kind of

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participant; but as philosophy has grown century by the German philosophers more popular this mode of engaging in it Leonard Nelson and Gustav Heckmann, has spread and diversified. The works- following Plato and Kant. The Socratic hop should be distinguished from the Dialogue is a philosophical practice for philosophy café on the one hand, and on everyone, in which a small group of peo- the other from the lecture, although in ple led by a rigorous facilitator carry on a its original and commonest form it dialogue over many hours in order to get resembles a lecture, the main difference to the bottom of some fundamental being in the amount of time allowed for question of general interest and find an the initial presentation by comparison answer. The question at the centre of the with the subsequent discussion. Indeed, dialogue is not handled in the abstract, since the principle of a workshop is that but must apply to the actual experience everyone lends a hand, its purpose is to of one or more of the participants, a par- encourage all those present to produce ticular experience which has been selec- thoughts as well, rather than listening ted by the group and is accessible to all. passively to what the expert has to say. There is a systematic reflection on the What distinguishes it from the philoso- experience related, in the course of phy café is the contribution of the which shared value judgements must be expert, who makes sure, by various established and the principles underlying means, that the discussion is philosophi- those judgements made explicit. Under cal rather than degenerating into a mere the rules, each dialogue is in search of a clash of opinions. All the same, it is as consensus, which is ex hypothesi consi- well not to be too rigid about labels: for dered possible and desirable. Effort and there are some ‘philosophy cafés’ which discipline are required to this end: each are in fact workshops but, for one rea- participant has to clarify his or her son or another, prefer the other name. thoughts as far as possible, so as to be understood: every contribution made to There are many workshop formats. The the dialogue must be based on the parti- most typical has already been mentio- cipant’s actual experience rather than ned: the one where the participants are mere speculation. A group view is requi- invited to debate ideas put forward by a red, so each participant may not concen- speaker, with a view to thoroughly exa- trate only on his or her own thoughts. mining them and internalizing them. The philosopher in charge has the task These workshops remain however within of seeing that the debate is properly the traditional pattern where a knowled- conducted, brought back to the point if geable philosopher regularly intervenes necessary and made to move forward, to make a point, provide some informa- but does not take a position or deter- tion or put something right. The amount mine the dialogue’s content. of room for manoeuvre left to the parti- Explanations and arguments are delibe- cipants, and the extent to which they are rately and carefully dissected and evalua- obliged to venture themselves in the ted by the group; the whole process is a exercise of thought, depend on that lea- slow one, which enables the participants der’s temperament, attitude and tea- to go deep into the substance of the ching skill. This is one of the things issue in hand. As we can see if we com- which emerged in the Open Universities pare these two procedures, there is a (a fairly old idea which had a certain revi- considerable difference which turns on val in Europe starting in the 1970s, and whether the philosopher is primarily a another more recently). This format can provider of content or the invigilator of a also be found in a number of philosophy philosophical task; even if we readily cafés, where again the time available will agree that both are important, every phi- be divided between an introduction and losopher will tend to choose a different a discussion. position along the scale that runs from content to form. At the other extreme in terms of functio-

(3) Founded by Oscar Brenifier. ning there is the Socratic Dialogue insti- There are other patterns of philosophy www.brenifier.com tuted at the start of the twentieth workshop which can be described more

164 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Box 42 The Mardis de la Philo (Philosophy Tuesdays): A special kind of gathering

The idea behind Philosophy Tuesdays is teaching skill and open-mindedness. and by including the anatomy of politi- to make the thinking of the great philoso- Each session lasts an hour and a half cal power alongside our usual sub- phers available to those outside the pro- and includes the initial talk followed jects. There will also be a series dea- fession, and in particular to those whose by time for discussion. ling exclusively with Spinoza, another experience of academic philosophy is no on the founding texts of various reli- more than a distant memory. Philosophy Tuesdays are neither a gions in the history of humanity, ano- school of meditation nor a philosophy ther looking at ‘Philosophers and Philosophy Tuesdays are designed to café; they have no connection with Love’, and yet another on leading set out philosophical ideas in a sim- organized religion, and receive no contemporary artists. ple, clear and lively way without the subsidies, public or private. barrier of complicated language. They offer talks by experienced philosophy This year (2007) we are shifting our teachers or experts chosen for their horizon slightly by exploring China, Source: www.lesmardisdelaphilo.com briefly. One is where two or three parti- mentioned here. As its starting date we cipants each prepare a short presenta- may take 1991, when Sophie’s World(4) tion on a given subject, and the group by the Norwegian author Jostein then tries to analyse what is at issue bet- Gaarder was published: it has since been ween the various treatments of it. Or a translated into many languages and has short piece of philosophical writing, cho- sold twelve million copies. This was not sen beforehand and distributed to the the founding of a movement, and our participants, is read out to the group and choice of date is by no means absolute; a discussion follows with the aim of brin- but it was a special moment when an ging out the content of the piece and extensive underground trend was the issues it raises. Alternatively a debate brought to light and a widespread desire can be organized on a given subject, in to engage in philosophy was powerfully which particular people take on various and unexpectedly expressed. To engage tasks of analysis or criticism. A film may in philosophy, that is, not as the recon- be shown, or a short play, followed by a dite and superior activity confined to a debate aimed at deciphering its themes masterly elite, the fiefdom of established and the issues involved. The French intellectual and academic power, but Institut de Pratiques Philosophiques(3) is rather as the natural deployment of peo- one of the bodies which has over a num- ple’s capacity and readiness to think. It is ber of years developed various highly worth pointing out that the country structured ways of organizing a discus- which gave birth to this book is not one sion: one such is the exercise known as of those where ‘formal’ or ‘official’ phi- ‘reciprocal questioning’, where a hypo- losophy is well established; nor do philo- thesis is put forward that the group must sophy and philosophers have the status challenge and work together on before and importance in Norway’s cultural or moving to another, afterwards analysing intellectual life that they have in France, the issues that have arisen. The emphasis for instance, or Germany; yet Norway is on the analysis of opinions (of one has nevertheless, somewhat against another and of oneself), and of recogni- expectation, decided recently to put the (3) Founded by Oscar Brenifier. zing presuppositions, blind spots, or limi- teaching of philosophy on the official www.brenifier.com tations, rather than simply increasing the curriculum even in primary schools. (4) Jostein Gaarder, Sophie’s World: A Novel about the History quantity of opinions voiced. Other writers (Ferry, Onfray and Comte- of Philosophy, translated from Sponville in France; Savater in Spain; De Norwegian by Paulette Moller. Publishing successes Botton in England) have also ventured London, Phoenix House, 1995. (5) André Comte-Sponville, L’Esprit into the publishing of ‘philosophy for all’ de l’athéisme [‘The Spirit The publishing success of some philoso- texts, with some success both in their of Atheism’], Paris, Albin Michel phy for the general public has played its own country and abroad. While they (‘Essais’ series), 2006. (6) Michel Onfray, La Puissance part in the philosophical revival, and its have more or less had the media’s blessing, d’exister. Manifeste hédoniste. origins and development should be they have also on occasion been Paris, Éditions Grasset, 2006.

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find their partisans among the reading Box 43 public, but also their detractors. Street children in Burkina Faso The recent popularity of traditional sto- Being a teacher by profession, I have are still thinking about their choice of a rytelling is part of the same phenome- always been particularly sensitive to the trade in terms of their own aptitudes and non. Whether we go by the number of situation of children with problems. the practicalities of access. In the works published or the proliferation of There are many here who have lost their course of my work for underprivileged storytellers of all genres in certain coun- childhood and have to work because children, I come across difficulties of their parents are totally destitute, or various kinds: for instance, they have tries, the traditional story – parable or have died of HIV/AIDS. These children no-where to sit down while we do our folk tale – has flourished greatly in are mostly out in the street and exposed lessons; and getting the children to recent years, as an integral part of ‘world to all its dangers (drugs, stealing, pros- attend and keep attending is hard titution). My job is to educate children; because there is no transport. Besides, culture’. An outstanding example is and since I realize that the State cannot children need motivation; they are kee- Amadou Hampâté Bâ of Mali, now reco- solve all our problems on its own, I ner when there is something, such as gnized around the world for his work on always meant to extend my work, if I food, to look forward to at each meeting. the oral tradition of West Africa(7); could, to include the ones who have not had the chance to go to school but have This is an example of one of my lesson another is the endless stock of tales been left to their own devices on the plans: Title: ‘Stealing’. Duration: forty- about Nasreddin Hodja(9), [Turkish in street. I took my first practical steps in five minutes. Objectives: to foster the origin] with their wealth of philosophical this direction thanks to the philosophy children’s self-confidence and bring content, which circulated widely under teaching of Isabelle Millon(8). I mention them to see that stealing is contempti- this philosophy teaching because my ble. Basic text: there once was a boy various names in the Arab world and in dealings with the children involve no called Maka who lost both parents and the Mediterranean. Here, incidentally, constraint on them. What I did was bring had to take to the street to survive there is an important publishing task still because none of the other members of together sixteen street children, bet- to be done to raise awareness of the ween ten and seventeen years old, in his family would look after him. Rather November 2006 for discussions about than look for work or learn a skill he for- various different cultural modes in which the way they were living. Next I offered med a gang with some other young chil- philosophy can be expressed, to avoid these children some things to think dren. Maka could steal skilfully: he spent the danger of falling into a kind of eth- his time thieving, and by these wicked about concerning decency, truthfulness, nocentric narrowness that appears to assertiveness, dignity, solidarity, cou- means he could make a little money and rage, work, family regard, respect for would use it to live a wild life. One day, bedevil this field. Last, but not least, others’ well-being and keeping clean. Maka was caught red-handed stealing there are the lay philosophy periodicals The ultimate aim was to give the chil- some jewellery from a woman. The peo- that have had a modest success in the ple rushed at him and kept on hitting dren a sense of rights and duties that (10) could make things change for the better. him; Maka very nearly died. Guided dis- United Kingdom (Philosophy Now ), in These various subjects were covered in cussion: What was the name of the boy France (Philosophie Magazine(11)) and in two-hour philosophy sessions on in the little story? Why did he leave his the Netherlands (Filosofie Magazine(12)). Thursday and Saturday afternoons, in home? What do you think he should have which the children gave their views on done, and why? What would you have each subject and then I explained, by done in his place, and why? If you were Philosophy with children outside means of the subjects we were discus- called on to give Maka some advice, school sing, the strong reasons for doing the what would you say to him? right thing in life. This method produced In 1969, a philosophy teacher, Matthew quite encouraging results: six of the six- Daniel Ouedraogo, teen have already agreed to learn a Teacher at Bilbalogho primary school Lipman, began a major educational inno- trade (two in mechanics, three in wel- Ouagadougou vation when he suggested using a narra- (Burkina Faso) ding and one in calligraphy). The others tive to furnish and stimulate children’s critical and creative thinking so that they criticized by their fellow philosophers, could discover the main concepts and partly because of their efforts at popula- problems of philosophy for themselves rization (a much despised trade), but and in groups(13). This gave rise to a kind also because this kind of writing natu- of teaching which has gradually develo- (7) Amadou Hampâté Bâ, Vie et rally tries to convey a sort of subjective ped its own letters patent. In some coun- enseignement de Tierno Bokar, le sage de Bandiagara [‘The Life and and universally accessible wisdom, rather tries – Brazil, Canada, Australia – Teaching of Tierno Bokar, the Sage than ‘learning’ which is supposedly government and university support has of Bandiagara’]. Paris, Seuil become available over the years, and (Collection Points Sagesses), 2004 objective, scientific, and not easy; or (8) Isabelle Millon, Director of the again, because it offers a way of being though these practices are relatively new Institut de Pratiques or an attitude rather than knowledge – they have had some tangible results. Philosophiques, and a leader of philosophical discussions for incidentally revealing, no doubt, why it is Beyond the boundaries of what could children and adults, visited Burkina so popular. Thus the atheistic spiritualism strictly be called ‘philosophy’, these Faso in October 2006 to conduct (5) teaching innovations accorded well with workshops in a number of public of Comte-Sponville or the materialistic primary schools in Ouagadougou. hedonism of Onfray(6) will quite naturally the UNESCO’s vision of education as not

166 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM only handing on factual knowledge, but street children in some developing coun- also ‘learning to do, learning to be, and tries provide an interesting example of a learning to live together’(14). This upset- different direction that could be follo- ting of educational paradigms has wed: they address these children’s pro- various consequences. One key issue in blems of identity, their cognitive pro- education is whether philosophy can blems, and their problems in relating to only be taught by a specialist, as it has other people or society generally. tended to be until now, or whether, like mathematics or literature, it can also be Philosophy at work taught by generalists. There is also the question of how such workshops can be ‘Philosophy at work’ refers not only to a set up. venue but also to a specific way of doing philosophy and a different rationale for Philosophy workshops for children are a it. It may be a workshop open to the somewhat special category, as many of staff as part of the programme of activi- the people involved do not attend and ties organized by a works council, or it engage in philosophical activity perso- may be part of the employer’s training nally, but by proxy: they send their chil- programme, which is different in that it dren. They feel that philosophy is a good is then the employer who decides that thing, but it scares them: they do not the activity is worthwhile, and either feel up to it, or they see it is something advises or requires the employees to take for ‘other people’. At the same time they part. There are various motives: to for- are attracted by what they feel is a mulate the values of the enterprise, to necessity, something important or even learn teamwork, for recreation, or to very important; and it is just this ‘glorifi- provide personal advice. ‘Values’ in the cation’ of philosophy that both attracts case of a business are what gives it both and awes them. Just as parents who an internal and an external identity: the themselves do not paint or play an ins- internal identity means that its staff rally trument send their children to beginners’ around certain main ideas or principles workshops in art or music, so some that serve to let them know when they parents send their children to a philoso- have done well and to provide rules for phy workshop, if there is one nearby. their behaviour and relationships. The There are a number of practical problems idea of this philosophical activity, then, is that arise: first, the children are not to formulate these values, see what they always as keen on the activity as their mean, examine any problems arising, parents, initially at least: it may take discuss them and bring them to life by some time before they become used to seeing how they work in practice, all in the way it works, accept the lack of conjunction with the establishment’s immediate gratification, and eventually various stakeholders. ‘External identity’ take pleasure in thinking as an activity. involves the values forming part of the Children may tolerate things at school, image of the business, representing it in where they are compulsory and the the eyes of the consumer or the general question does not arise, which they will public. The idea is to enhance the firm’s not accept as readily when they view the image, and sometimes also to think session as a leisure activity. Secondly, about its decision-making processes and children enrolled in such workshops will the criteria applied, especially in terms of (9) Jean-Louis Maunoury (Trad.), often be those who in a sense have the ethics. Sublimes paroles et idioties de Nasr least difficulty with thinking as an acti- Eddin Hodja. Paris, Phébus vity: their parents will probably have had The second motive concerns thinking (Collection Libretto), 2002. (10) www.philosophynow.org a certain degree of contact with acade- and working as a team. One of the com- (11) www.philomag.com mia, otherwise they would not have monest ways in which energy is wasted (12) www.filosofiemagazine.nl entered their children for a workshop of at work, as in society generally, is on per- (13) See Chapter 1. this kind. One way to alleviate this pro- sonal conflicts or clashes of ego. A philo- (14) On this, see Learning: the blem is to organize philosophy works- sophy workshop can consequently pro- Treasure Within, Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on hops at leisure centres, holiday camps vide a way of re-learning to work toge- Education for the Twenty-first and community centres. Centres for ther, either by taking a look at the daily Century, UNESCO Publishing, 1998.

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Box 44 Philosophical counselling at work

What can be introduced into the work- mean by ‘initiative’? If a business is date their reactions, and present them place is philosophy as a way of thinking, facing corporate or group inertia, it with my revised, validated and therefore a culture that allows a special view of might be ‘what is change?’ My dialogues definitive summary. At the next dialogue, the world. Here I describe the way I set invite people to start with a definition of accordingly, we move on. The philoso- about helping employees of a company. the concept that is precise yet open, phical points articulate the dialogue and and then to put questions and ideas appear at the end of the written sum- The introduction of philosophy in a firm together with a view to understanding mary. During the dialogue itself I cast starts with two things I will not do: I what ‘initiative’ or ‘change’ means out- light on what is said by referring to phi- refuse to work mindlessly and mechani- side business. This approach enables losophers, and such references have at cally with living creatures, and I refuse to them to interact on a different terrain least two advantages: first, they really do emergency work. This two-fold refu- from that of immediate action; and it get people’s minds off the ground, and sal is of a piece with my reliance on the enables me to identify the world view secondly they give people a healthy thinking activity of all those involved in which lies behind each person’s words dose of the narcissistic pleasure of fee- the situation I am called on to handle. and actions. As the dialogue proceeds, ling smart. People at work tend to forget That situation could be one of many the participants return to business mat- that their intelligence is not restricted to kinds: the incorporation of staff from a ters – but now, with the added endow- handling only what the business requires firm that has been taken over; the des- ment of what they have come to unders- them to handle. ign and/or implementation of a project; tand, they see things differently. The dia- a survey or investigation of some sub- logue always ends with a practical ques- My way into the enterprise is through the ject; a redefining of landmarks after a tion; and that question provides the sub- HR manager, but I only go in on two change of general manager or a merger. ject of the next dialogue. These dialo- conditions. The first is that the HR mana- In each case I start from the premise gues reveal the culture of the firm, that ger is open to human considerations that the people involved in a situation set of representations and behaviours and convinced of the need to think hold – though they do not yet know it – which helps or hinders the thing at issue before acting. The second is that he or the keys to optimal handling of that (in these examples, initiative and readi- she must have the senior management’s situation. I go about my task at speed, ness to embrace change). In my written full confidence. to keep things lively. Each dialogue summary I set out the dialogue’s out- bears on a subject connected with the come, avoiding company jargon. I send Eugénie Végléris matter in hand: if a manager wants his this to all those who have taken part, Consultant, qualified teacher and or her employees to act independently, asking them to make corrections and Doctor of Philosophy then the subject could be: what do you additions. I then re-work it to accommo- (France)

round from a different angle, or by tack- philosophical counselling offers a means ling issues entirely disconnected from to clarify their thinking and reveal the ordinary life, to bring a breath of fresh underlying issues. The aim is not to play air in a confined environment, or to the psychologist: it is mainly thinking, enable people to realize what the diffi- not feeling, that is involved here: identi- culties are. The third motive is recreation, fying a view of the world, exploring the pursuit of a thinking activity that what problems might arise from it, and allows people to tackle worrying subjects taking up a position with respect to it. in a free, relaxed manner, stepping back This is not ‘coaching’, either, since there and re-charging the intellectual batteries should be no question of examining just as physical recreation does for the actual problems and issues with a view body. This is done through practical to making an immediate decision – workshops or in the form of lecture/dis- although the distinction is not always cussions with some cultural content. quite clear. Fourth, philosophy can be used for personal consultations. This is especially Opinions are bound to be divided on the valuable for senior managers who are legitimacy of initiatives to introduce phi- constantly having to take difficult deci- losophy into a business enterprise: are sions and can often experience the lone- they in truth aimed at improving the liness of responsibility; but it can also be concept of business, or the well-being of useful for all members of staff, who the staff, or just a form of manipulation sometimes feel caught in an existential or internal PR on the part of the bind, what with their personal needs, management? their family obligations and their professional duties. On these occasions

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Box 45 A philosophy workshop in a Child Psychiatry Crisis Unit

As part of a multidisciplinary child psy- sense of direction which briefly puts develop their aptitudes for thinking and chiatry in-patient unit at the University back upright a ‘narcissism gone wrong’. their capacities to think objectively. Children’s Hospital in Brussels, we set The philosophy workshop works along up a philosophy workshop. The unit, these lines, serving to help the children After the philosophy workshop comes which accommodates ten children bet- think by offering them an additional an art workshop, in which the patients ween the ages of eight and fifteen for dimension of time, which transforms are invited to illustrate a subject that has four to six weeks, has been in existence their closed universe of suffering into a come up (through drawings or sculp- since 2001 and treats 80 children a three-dimensional space that is open to ture). These works are shown to the year on average. On admission, the thought and open onto the world. treatment team at the weekly meeting patients are offered social and educatio- and are on display in the unit. The artis- nal help in addition to medical and psy- A member of the treatment team, a tea- tic efforts are astounding combinations chological treatment. This involves ching assistant, and a primary school- of practical approach (knowledge in taking part in group activities designed teacher work with the group leader, who action) and manner of thought (interior to enable them to rediscover some of is a philosopher. The children are invited monologue). The children’s creations the pleasure of functioning on their own to put their thoughts in a notebook, a reveal raw sensitivity and suffering, both resources and for themselves – with kind of private diary, which symbolizes in the act of creation and in the expres- their peers, but with adults around as their inner world – a real sketch of an sion of their ideas about the world. well. The main reason for these chil- emerging identity. There is a rule that dren’s admission is a behavioural mani- the team must never look inside this We think – and the treatment team cor- festation of a deep malaise of identity: notebook, even when it might provide roborates this – that the philosophy they present self-harming, aggression real therapeutic material. The point of workshops make it possible to help the towards others, rule-breaking or eating this workshop, then, is to teach the chil- young patients construct their own thin- disorders. These behaviours, taken as a dren to follow the path of their own king that is open to the world, and to put whole, are always an indication of the thoughts, to create a place in which they them on the road to independent search for a structuring and protective can think, and to enable them to direct thought. Philosophy workshops in this framework for themselves and their rela- and enjoy this new-found ability. We feel setting must of course be properly com- tions with others: hidden behind the that in this way we make them capable bined with the rest of the therapy: they masks are lost children who want adults of more finely-shaded judgements are not ‘educational’ in the sense of to offer them something really concrete (seeing problems and concepts more conveying academic knowledge. that will give them access to a proper clearly), of learning to express logical representation of their problems in their and coherent reasons, and of standing Marianne Remacle own minds, so as to find solutions to back to take a critical view of facts and Philosopher, Professor in Ethics and their difficulties. Recognition of this suf- their complexity, as they rid themselves Assistant in Pedagogy at the Université fering by the outside world injects some of emotional assumptions: all this will Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium)

Philosophy in difficult contexts Just as in the case of doing philosophy with children, we have to push philoso- This is another situation for philosophy phy to the limit; to ignore what is super- in which the people invited to engage in fluous and go straight to what is essen- it are not those who would naturally do tial, in the most stripped-down manner; so – quite the opposite, at least if we are to ask ourselves why philosophers do it, thinking of philosophy under its formal what philosophy has that humans need, guise- otherwise this might well not and what there is in philosophy that apply: we sometimes find people on the remains unchanged whatever the edge of society, for instance, who have anthropological background. We then an originality and freedom of thought find ourselves in a sort of paradox: for seldom if ever found among those who philosophy is an activity of formalizing are socially much better integrated. thought and existence, yet the very thing Situations of such ‘difficult circumstan- that characterizes social outcasts or peo- ces’ are found when working with ado- ple in difficult circumstances generally is lescents who have dropped out of often that they are unable, unwilling or school, or at occupational centres for the not given a chance to formalize either disabled; centres for the homeless; pri- their thinking or their functioning. The sons, literacy classes; associations for task, then, is to reintroduce a measure of people suffering from social, psychologi- form, not by imposing some arbitrary cal or physical difficulties; hospitals; or formality but by suggesting some mini- refugee camps. mal formalisms, trying to work out, in co-operation with the people concerned,

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what rules could be implemented to citizenship, with full possession of his or guide their thought and their exchanges her own resources, rather than a depen- and allow them to rediscover themselves dant, patient or outcast. Philosophical as individuals. This work has two results. intercourse assumes an encounter bet- First, it provides structure, which is the ween two philosophers (though they purpose of formalization; it enables peo- may be unequally matched in skill), not ple, to the furthest extent that each indi- one between a patient and a therapist or vidual is capable of, to find themselves a dependent and a helper. People’s situa- once more in the confusion of their tions may be difficult, but their ideas will thoughts, to become aware, to discrimi- be no less legitimate, have no less uni- nate, evaluate and investigate. Second, versal scope on that account than those this activity raises self-esteem, as it of the licensed philosopher, for it is the makes possible more elaborate thinking, ideas themselves which furnish the stepping back, and turning thoughts material for shared thinking. Even if only into action: it facilitates inter-personal the one who is familiar with philosophy exchange and the sharing of thoughts can be called a philosopher, nevertheless through the rituals of speaking in turn. the other is invited to become like a phi- At the same time it is quite unlike psy- losopher, for as a human being he or she chological work, which focuses the is regarded as a de facto philosopher, at exchange on pain, difficulty, and sponta- least potentially. In such difficult cir- neity: here the point is to appeal to the cumstances it will prove possible to do thinker, the person who is capable of radical work, because the need to going beyond his or her feelings and engage in philosophy, to escape from resentments and is assumed to be in preoccupation with oneself and the control, or capable of self-control. This limitations of a simplistic and belittling changes the very identity of the person egoism, is perhaps even more fruitful concerned, who is restored to full here than elsewhere.

2) What should the philosophy practitioners’ status and position be?

Discussion leader, philosophy often become the teacher’s main tools for content provider, referee inducing people to do their philosophy: but of philosophical form the extra-mural philosopher lacks both stick and carrot; nor, in many cases, is it possible What is the philosopher who leads or faci- to impose some presumed authority. litates a philosophical activity? What should Indeed, the attempt would risk either a the status, function or position of such a fairly rapid loss of what initial stock of person be? This is undeniably one of the authority might have been accorded, or an most interesting questions raised by infor- utter failure to engage the people whom mal philosophy: the philosopher may be a the philosopher is supposed to be interacti- teacher, but need not, for it is not necessa- vely addressing. The same applies to erudi- rily a teacher that is being sought by the tion: in many situations it is not knowledge person who deliberately sets about joining which is at issue, and for this reason it is some philosophical activity. The institutio- dangerous to wield abstruse language or nal academic professor does not, as such, recondite references in order to impress ins- need to ask the question (though it is of tead of convincing: people may go deaf, or course permitted), since it is the academic turn their backs. institution which determines the nature and requirements of the philosophy post: As always, the philosopher is somehow the programme is defined beforehand, not between Charybdis and Scylla since ano- tailored to the needs or desires of individual ther pitfall lurks for the philosopher. participants. The prospect of a degree and Besides the teacher who knows it all, there the threat of academic penalties for failure is the philosopher who is a best friend:

170 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM there is a strong temptation to demago- a view – which may be more radical or less guery, to acceptance of belief in anything, so, and will be characterized as libertarian a display of saintly relativism in which any or democratic accordingly. In the more opinion is as valid as any other. This may ini- extreme case there may be a rather passive tially satisfy the customer, happy to have part for the philosopher; no part at all, per- found an attentive listener and an opportu- haps, except a mere presence to indicate or nity for self-expression; but the conversa- symbolize the philosophical nature of what tion is liable to start going round in circles is going on. Philosophy can, after all, only before long, especially for those who are happen where people of good will agree to listening to the litany of opinions but also compare views on a given subject: the fun- for the one intoning it, who will – with any damental requirements are sincerity, free- luck – come to realize that he or she is only dom, equality and a sense of community. regurgitating commonplace views. Some philosophers regard this ‘unpacking’ phase Of those philosophers who do intervene, as a sort of preliminary to the real philoso- two categories can be distinguished: inter- phical activity: it allows people to get to ventionists of form and interventionists of know each other, and creates a climate of content. The first prescribe the manner of confidence. Others feel it is to be avoided: expression, length of contributions, allotted someone must strike the tuning fork and roles or other features of form: in a word, set the tone of the discussion from the very all the ground rules for the exchange. This beginning. Once the exercise has become turns the philosopher into a referee who bogged down in the quicksand of opinion makes sure that the exercise is a philosophi- it can be difficult to haul it out. There is an cal one by seeing that the rules are applied, important matter to settle here: whether and working mainly on the basis of those ‘giving an account of oneself’ is a necessary philosophical capabilities which the ground element of engaging in philosophy, or on rules are supposed to embody. The require- the contrary just gets in the way. ment here is a matter of capability, self- development and self-awareness. Whether as a matter of principle or for practical reasons, some philosophers refrain The content interventionist, on the other from intervening in this at all; and there are hand, is more like a conventional teacher, various theoretical rationales for this non- enthusiastically giving a lesson. As the phi- intervention. There is the psychological losopher, he or she principally feels called consideration that one is dealing with a upon to convey elements of cultural person, with feelings, needs, wants and content; to introduce philosophical sufferings, who should on no account be authors, schools, and systems of thought; bullied or frustrated, for this will only add to give an account of established concepts; to their unhappiness. Then there is a cogni- to develop issues; or to illustrate the back- tive consideration, based on the principle ground to ideas. This does not necessarily that any forced intervention from outside mean objecting to any contribution from may tend to alter or divert the train of ideas the student, but there will be no reluctance and lead the speaker to traduce himself or to put people right, to interpret, to finish a herself through reflex defensiveness, imita- statement if it appears incomplete, and so tion or fear: what is needed is rather to forth. The basic requirements here are encourage spontaneity and ensure perso- familiarity with and understanding of the nal authenticity. Then there may be a politi- material. Though it is possible in theory to cal concern for a thorough-going equality claim that one’s approach includes both that disallows any claim that qualifications attitudes, experience tells us that each or position give an entitlement to interrupt, interventionist philosopher will have a very challenge, re-phrase or interpret another’s strong tendency towards one or other end words: they belong to the speaker alone, of this scale. who should determine without interference what to say, how to say it and at what For each of these three basic stances – faci- length. Any outside attempt at alteration, litator of discussions, provider of philoso- influence or constraint of any kind would phical content, and referee of philosophical be regarded as an abuse of power on such form – we also need to try to determine

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who is entitled to set up a philosophical is already enough to oblige the group to practice and what the requirements are to work towards a certain amount of self- call oneself a philosophy practitioners. awareness. Now people who do not neces- Must these practitioners, for instance, have sarily have any philosophical background a degree? If so, in what? The problem is by could, provided they are capable of being no means a theoretical one, but practical: initiated into philosophical attitudes and for the increasingly widespread popularity skills, be trained as philosophers for the of philosophy coupled with the reluctance purpose of conducting a discussion quite of some professional philosophers has effectively and with some degree of rigour. sometimes left a void to be filled by people In principle what is needed is a training in many of whom are not necessarily equip- general competence, something that is by ped for this kind of activity. This then leads no means impossible. This is the case, for to a confusion about what is wanted: a example, of an adult who is to conduct dis- desire for discussion, an ideological debate cussions with children: a teacher, social or a long-winded personal diatribe. This worker, librarian, cultural or other kind of potential confusion aside, it seems a worth- leader can quite readily be taught the tech- while aim, in an age which veers between nique of chairing a philosophical discus- home-bound privacy and media over-expo- sion, and will pick up a number of tips for sure, that members of the public should be engaging a group of children in doing phi- able to come together for a discussion or losophy together without the discussion debate in some public place. A keen devo- degenerating into a formless and incohe- tion to live discussion is something to be rent swapping of opinions. The same fostered, not feared; especially so in some applies – up to a point – to chairing a group cultures, where the establishing of a simple of adults. It may be a practitioner of some universal right to be heard in public is a real other profession adding another string to cultural revolution in itself (however limited his or her bow – a coach, psychologist, it may seem to the purist), and offers one team leader or teacher – or it may even be way of moving towards civic participation a working group that wants to improve the and democracy. The same applies in way they discuss things and aim for more schools and universities, indeed, where in profound group reflection. many countries the word of the Master is still the only law. Whether a particular exer- A provider of philosophical content will by cise of the right to speak results in some- definition require some philosophical back- thing philosophical or not is the next ques- ground. Generally this will come from a tion; and here again different and contras- conventional university course, although ting things will be said, which will need there will be occasional – rather rare – cases argument, development, deeper investiga- of self-taught enthusiasts who have mana- tion, testing for weaknesses and missing ged to acquire the necessary cultural back- content: and some will come out of this ground on their own. Nevertheless, if the successful, others not. It may be that, to a object is simply to give a class or a lecture, lesser degree, instances are already occur- we are no longer within what could really ring naturally of what could happen more be called a ‘philosophical practice’ – intensely if the meeting were facilitated by though the result may well be useful and a person who has some familiarity with interesting. Philosophers interested in this philosophy in both theory and practice. idea of practice will either develop their own methods to deliver philosophical Let us examine the above three positions in content, using tools provided by the history turn. In the case of a facilitator of discus- of ideas and their own cogitation and prac- sions, the person who presides will be a tical experience, or they will begin by wor- sort of first among equals, who can give king directly or indirectly with experienced way to others without any real change in colleagues and later adopt elements of the situation. Nevertheless, the fact that whichever methods seem to them reasona- someone is chairing the meeting, regula- bly effective, or develop their own. In gene- ting the succession of speakers and trying ral, such philosophers will behave as peda- to establish connections, ask for clarifica- gogues – as teachers transmitting a certain tions, slow things down and ask questions, philosophical content and culture, concer-

172 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM ned to improve the assimilation of that a profession and being subject to the law content by their pupils. These providers of of the market: this, according to them, can philosophical content will naturally act, only tend to corrupt their judgement or then, as professional philosophers rather their actions. Indeed, this is one of the main than merely as members of a group or as criticisms directed at philosophers. The knowledgeable generalists; for them, philo- most recent criticism, whose origin is sophy is a specific subject, with its own somewhat different, comes rather from the canon of authors and texts. world of the philosophy café, where it is felt that engaging in these philosophical For those who intend to be referees of phi- discussions is rightly distinguished from the losophical form, while some philosophical work of the teacher or professor, since it knowledge will again be necessary, their consists of a gathering of equals, it is not a core activity is the wielding of philosophical job, and therefore no-one should be paid. tools. Classic philosophical issues and Both groups, though, champion a vision of concepts should be familiar to them and philosophy unsullied – not to be sullied – by will be useful for doing the job, but this money. knowledge will be in the background, functioning implicitly rather than expressed in Those who think such work should be paid full. Their concern will not be to transmit include, naturally enough, people who find content as such, nor to introduce philoso- it hard to make a living at all, either phical writings for their own sake: the because they cannot find a teaching job or emphasis is on philosophy’s operational because they live in a country where tea- requirements alone. They will draw from ching does not earn enough to live on, or classic distinctions to encourage the discus- simply because they are out of work but sion, to make the participants’ work more have a philosophical education. Then there productive, to analyse, synthesize, connect are those who cannot make a living as phi- problems, conceptualize, and so forth. In losophers; that is to say, they are forced to sum, the job is one of demystifying the ply a trade that does not suit them, and genius of the philosopher, to extract the would rather be working in philosophy. techniques of philosophy and then admi- Again, there are those who remain outside nister them. General philosophical know- the world of education, perhaps only ledge is very useful as well, because it because in their view the institutional enables the philosopher to personally grasp constraints of that world do not favour phi- and decode the issues that arise, and so losophy, or simply because they find they guide the questions and challenges put to cannot live with formal academic structu- those present. That is not to say that for- res. They answer the Socratic objection to mally referenced connections cannot be payment by saying that time and circums- made from time to time for purposes of tances have changed: Socrates did not explanation, if this seems necessary for suc- need to work, was not forced to make a cessful practice. living; and besides, they add, the present arrangements have more of Hegel than of Paying the philosopher Socrates about them: they suit the philosopher as servant of the state – which can be Should philosophers be paid? We can cer- just as corrupting as money. State money is tainly ask the question, though some say it no cleaner than private money: the state does not, or even that it must not arise. Let servant is the prisoner of a system – and us first consider some of the arguments gaoler, too. Furthermore, this objection is a philosophers themselves have put forward luxury, the objection of the well-endowed against payment. The classic one goes back who do not have to worry about making a to Socrates who, himself driven by a lofty living – though if they wrote a book they view of philosophy, criticized the sophists(15) would not scruple to pocket the royalties. who wanted to make money. The argu- Lastly, many philosophers are not necessa- (15) Sophists: teachers of rhetoric and philosophy who in the fifth ment is most often advanced by philosophy rily thinking of being paid by those they do century BCE offered lessons teachers (generally in receipt of a salary philosophy with, but rather by the organi- in the arts of public speaking directly or indirectly from the state), who zations that invite them or organize the and subtle argument in support of all propositions, including reject the idea of philosophers belonging to venues: ministries, local authorities, firms. mutually contradictory ones.

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There remains the problem of volunteers: if is so novel, many have to offer their servi- some do an activity for a living, there can ces almost free of charge initially, to show be a fear that unpaid volunteers will be what they can do. We can only conclude that depriving those who live by it. This issue the various modes of functioning and philo- can only be settled according to national sophical concerns will no doubt find their economic circumstances, especially given advocates, and will eventually settle into that, because the position of a philosopher some more or less comfortable coexistence.

3) Philosophical practice: An analysis

Common features is true subjectivity; the subjectivity of a real and acknowledged subject rather than of It is worth analysing what these various an abstract composition based on some non-academic activities have in common, disembodied reality, either historical or the- and just how they bring together the matic. Four: these practices all champion concepts of ‘practice’ and ‘philosophical’. thinking for oneself, and firmly reject argu- They are philosophical in that they seek, in ments based on a blind acceptance of various proportions and to various degrees, other authorities, especially the canonical to make sense of observed phenomena and authors that academic philosophy often to encourage people to express, compare regards as providing the essential points of and analyse ideas, while accepting that reference for a philosophical perspective. these ideas are relative, imperfect or sub- Five: (and this is connected to the previous jective. They are philosophical in that they point) these practices share a democratic question the reality of what is known or ideal and a dislike of elitism, including the thought, they investigate causes tho- rejection of the idea that some people have roughly, they test the possibility of entertai- a greater capacity for thought than others, ning opposite views, and in they constantly or that their views have greater legitimacy, reconsider the criteria for legitimacy. This is, which represents a challenge to any tradi- of course, a governing ideal: it remains to tional concept of the master philosopher. be seen whether this is really being done – This naturally favours constructivist sche- but the same could be said of philosophy in mes rather than a priori forms of thought. general, and there are no obvious grounds Six: there is a defence of ‘ethics’ as oppo- to suggest that this is a distinct form of phi- sed to ‘morality’, the conventional and arbi- losophy (except for its reduced emphasis on trary aspect of any requirement as to how the history of philosophy: it is on this point to think, speak or act, and a collective that the main criticisms of these practices rather than an individual or universal deter- do in fact turn). mination of right and wrong: in this domain all recourse to transcendent or By far the most important common factor revealed truth is disallowed. Seven: a high in all these practices is the exercise of dialo- value is put on subjective characteristics, gue, the effective presence of another per- that of feeling or opinion, which is regar- son, whether the format is that of discus- ded as not susceptible of reduction to some sion, exchange, confrontation or cross- universal reason, logic or principled truth: questioning. This distinguishes it from any this might perhaps be called a ‘psychologi- conception of philosophy as more of a cal’ view of thought. Here we have the very monologue: the thinker meditating in soli- fashionable rejection of such transcenden- tude, or the professor holding forth to an tal concepts as Truth, Beauty and audience. The second point is the impor- Goodness, the preference being for emo- tance of questioning, because theoretically tion and sensibility that are regarded as the task involves finding out what the other more personal, more real and more authen- person thinks, or putting oneself in the tic. Eight: there is a certain criticism of other person’s place: viewing an issue as a knowledge, especially traditional ones but problem to be tackled together rather than sometimes also empirical experience – epis- trying to argue for or support a thesis. temological and ontological primacy is Three: (still connected with dialogue) there accorded rather to feeling and intention.

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In sum, this philosophical mindset might this is often perceived as tolerance. The perhaps be characterized in general as a very idea of critical thought can be felt to mixture of pragmatism, psychologism and be at variance with this rule against jud- postmodernism. It is clear that we have ging, as can clearly be seen in the absence moved on from the reign of transcendence of any critical analysis of methodology in to that of immanence; or even beyond most philosophical practices. Criticism four: that, to rupture or fragmentation. discussions bear more on differences of Furthermore, ‘I think’ has become ‘we opinion than on the consistency or cohe- think’ (however inchoate this new ensem- rence of the ideas put forward: this shows ble). This analysis of the paradigm shifts is insufficient depth of analysis. All too often not, however, necessarily a criticism and what matters is to talk, to express oneself, nothing else, for in the end these are to share: the behaviour ranges from pedan- admissible philosophical choices. try to psychologism, from consumerism to populism. Criticism five: on the pretext of Critique of this practice encouraging empathy and good relationships, there is often greater concern for the Whether one agrees with the underlying speaker’s good intentions than for what is assumptions, or prejudices, of these philo- actually said, the propositions advanced or sophical practices in general, or of any the logic of their connections; this leads to practice in particular; there remains the all manner of interpretational abuse and a task of dealing with the problems (or lack of rigour or authenticity. Criticism six: indeed the pathology) of such practice. For often thinking is constrained by a ban on while the movement is quite ready to see any interpretation seen as liable to give rise and point out certain defects in academic to conflict or tension: indeed, critical analy- philosophy, it is of course less perceptive sis of another person’s contribution can be and far more shy about its own. deprecated with the formidable argument (or counter-argument) that ‘You can never The first criticism is that, under cover of be sure’, or ‘Perhaps we’ve got it wrong.’ admitting a plurality of viewpoints, they Daring hypotheses and risk-taking become have a tendency to glorify personal opi- outlawed. Criticism seven: often a strong nion, which undercuts their critical spirit. desire to be on the right side, to be kind, This applies mainly to individuals’ relations- well-intentioned and of clear conscience hips to their own ideas, but also to their tends to obscure the important issues at relationships to the ideas of others: it is the stake in a debate, and can even result in an natural corollary of the unspoken non- unspoken ban on all really singular propo- aggression pact that declares all ideas of sals that might break the existing consen- equal value. We could call this lack of criti- sus or established moral orthodoxy. In cer- cal capacity in the face of personal opinion tain venues there is a strong tendency, visi- ‘subjectivism’, though what it fosters is ble in one form or another, to ‘political cor- sometimes a kind of narcissism or egoism. rectness’, which may take many forms The second criticism is that any dialogue is including the ethical, psychological, envi- very liable to take the form of an exchange ronmental or indeed political. Criticism of opinions, very like the sort of debate that eight: there can be an anti-intellectual atti- has become a staple of television, in which tude, whether openly expressed or not, many participants contribute very little in that reveals itself in a rejection of concepts the way of rigorous argument, objection or and abstractions in favour of a preoccupa- analysis, and there is little actual work done tion with what is comparatively trivial, on the issues. Criticism three argues there is concrete and ordinary, under cover of ‘kee- an absence of judgement – indeed, a rejec- ping closer to real life’. Criticism nine: the tion, fear or even denunciation of it. primacy of the individual or the small group Judgement is regarded as a threat to indivi- against the whole of humanity, or tradition, dual integrity; but this eclipses the most or universality, can result in an anti-know- characteristic activity of the intellect, its ledge attitude: this can go so far as a rejec- faculty of discrimination. Through this ban tion of knowledge and objectivity. It is all on judgement, conversation is admittedly very well to appreciate that each of us facilitated – but also made facile, though thinks for himself or herself; but one may

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still doubt the supposed corollary that eve- Philosophical skills ryone can, by an exercise of personal brain- power, recreate the full range and wealth Having identified certain problems and of every human intellectual discovery. offered some criticisms, we can neverthe- Criticism ten: the criticism of elites can lead less remain practical (without embracing to a kind of demagogic populism, under pragmatism as a school of thought). the pretext of refusing to allow power to be Conventional philosophy provides a num- captured by a minority. It can also lead to a ber of thoroughly useful educational, exis- certain levelling down, as anything that tential and conceptual tools to approach threatens the group or its established such questions; and the exercise will per- values is considered dangerous, starting haps suggest a way to reconcile the history with any radically individual proposition. of philosophy with the emphasis on thin- Criticism eleven: there can be a certain king for oneself. The following list is far intellectual complaisance on psychological from exhaustive: it has been deliberately grounds (psychologism): this derives from kept short and offers only a few samples of the belief that individuals’ quiet enjoyment our illustrious predecessors’ wares – though of their identity must on no account be dis- some are crucial ones. Philosophy ought to turbed. Criticism twelve: these practices be understandable through techniques and can also include a tendency to narrow-min- pathways as well, not only through erudi- dedness, though in recent years, thanks to tion and familiarity with the literature. Internet forums and a proliferation of inter- Authors such as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, national gatherings this (sometimes wilful) Hegel or Russell offer us the best of theore- ignorance of other people has slightly dimi- tical bases for the practice of philosophy. nished. It has to be said that in this field some theoreticians or leading teachers First, there is work on negativity recom- have actually encouraged this ignorance, or mended by Hegel as an integral part of the even a fear of diversity. Indeed, as a per- dialectic process, and a necessary condition verse effect of sectarian tendencies, whole for access to reality or anything deserving realms of philosophy are carried on in the name of ‘thought’. According to Hegel, mutual ignorance, distance or mistrust. a thing, an idea, or a reality is defined just Thus certain specialist consultants regard as much by what it is not as by what it is – the practitioners of philosophy for children the reality of the world and of thought is a as no more than teachers, not philoso- dynamic, a supersession based on the fact phers, while they in turn regard consultants that we are able to conceive and assert the as mere psychologists or business coaches; negation of what we have previously main- yet the whole idea here is to demonstrate tained. From this point of view, everything the cross-cutting nature of philosophical is constructed through a multiplicity of rela- practice. Criticism thirteen: we regularly tionships, each of which is a transformation find a certain New Age tendency, in which and accordingly disproves all rigid identities every person – child and adult alike – is – so much so that even Being, the essence ‘wonderful’, especially if those involved are of that which is, is identical to nothingness. ‘on our side’ or belong to ‘our school of Now whether or not we accept the premi- thought’, in which case extreme hyperbole ses of Hegelian thought, there is no doubt and exaggerated praise attend a general that operating the filter of negativity is an rejection of reality, analysis and criticism; excellent exercise that empowers us to the next step is frequently flat denial of any escape from our presuppositions, a sine tragic aspects of existence. Sometimes this qua non of any philosophical achievement. is directly connected with the marketing of It allows us to overcome the rigid dogma of some product, guru or school, where the our own opinion or our own subjectivity, as label, brand or identification with a particu- we are led to accept (or generate) our own lar project counts for more than the otherness. content itself.

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For another example, consider Kant’s idea The inverse is also true, especially among of the necessarily reciprocal relationship philosophers, though also in everyday between ‘intuitions’ (perceptions) and conversation: we produce concepts, concepts. Without the concepts, intuitions conscript words, and even claim to give are nondescript; without the intuitions, them definitions with a view to homing in concepts are meaningless – thus the on the realities involved, when all the time famous quotation, ‘Intuitions without we would be at a loss if challenged to pro- concepts are blind; concepts without intui- duce examples so as to make sure, or make tions are empty.’ Kant argues that all too visible, what the actual content is. This often we produce examples without analy- constant traffic between concrete and abs- sing their content, without going beyond tract, universal and particular, enables us to the particular to think how it applies uni- realize what we are talking about and what versally or at least across particulars. We we mean. restrict ourselves to the concrete without daring to think about the unity within multiplicity that ‘abstraction’ denotes and signifies. So many accounts or discussions become lost in this way in the unending wilderness of mere lists of examples, without ever managing to progress further, through a sheer inability to unify experience by means of generating hypotheses.

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We could also consider the refusal to his scientific method and its various rules of accept the obvious, which we owe to thought can help us work on our own opi- Socrates, Lao-Tzu and many others. nions and determine their validity, if any. Whenever one of Plato’s characters says Too often we let ourselves speak out on the that something ‘goes without saying’, this basis of mere impulse, without daring (or is a hint that Socrates is preparing a trap for perhaps even knowing how) to assess the his interlocutor – and for us poor innocent content of what we mean to say against readers. (Aristotle, incidentally, indulgent some more universal yardstick that would father of science that he is, does nothing of save us from ourselves, take us out of our- the sort: for him, general acceptance is selves so as to be able to start thinking. In actually one criterion of validity.) The True, practical terms, logic enables us to escape the Beautiful and the Good are always to from our confining subjectivity into reason, be found elsewhere, never where one from the personal to the universal; and thinks; and indeed it is to this radical indeed it is this very critique of mere desire otherness that they owe their worth. and familiarity that makes logic so unpopular.

The last example on my list is common sense. How are we to protect our thinking from degenerating into soliloquy or solip- sism, except by exposing ourselves to something that goes beyond it, something to which we have access but which we simply do not use? How is it that this good sense, this ‘reason’ we are so proud of, this incoherence- and inconsistency-detector, does not save us from making the direst mistakes of judgement or expression? The rational procedure offered by Descartes in

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III. Twenty suggestions towards action

1) Non-academic philosophy and institutions

It is not easy here to give recommendations for popularity, it is still often seen as something for practices that are by definition outside institu- an elite; and, secondly, the authorities in tions – in that this study is to some extent charge of the teaching of philosophy may not addressed to institutions, among others of necessarily approve of this form of practice, course. That is, the present study is directed to which they may regard as too revolutionary – a great part to those who are not, in a sense, or simply foolish. Nevertheless, some public directly concerned with such external arenas – authorities at the local level are taking an or not yet. Nevertheless, one may invite them interest in philosophical practice, and subsidize to think about these practices with a view to such activities on the same principles as a foot- understanding them, before they even consi- ball club or art workshop. These are still very der taking any particular steps in these direc- limited steps, though, found in very few coun- tions. It is precisely this point – the understan- tries and pioneered by a handful of local ding of this relatively new phenomenon – authorities even there. which it would seem useful to bring to the attention of the public authorities. In the great The next question is whether this situation is majority of countries there is so far virtually no satisfactory. After all, why philosophy, rather institutional body to deal with: no organiza- than something else? There are plenty of areas tion with a direct interest in philosophical prac- where public authorities ought to be spending tice, and very little in the way of administrative more, and those involved in them will say – bodies which are (or which feel) concerned perhaps rightly – that their needs should come with it. This is very largely because of the well before those of philosophy. It might just actual nature of philosophical activity and its be illuminating to mention, though, the kind history: on the one hand, philosophy is an aca- of objection or concern expressed by one demic subject and therefore involves universi- town hall spokesman when asked about the ties or teacher-training institutions, which pro- chances of support for the setting up of a phi- duce professional philosophers and teachers; losophy workshop in his district: ‘It’s not a sect, in this scenario the audience is a captive one: is it?’, ‘You’re not intending to run for council- of people who need to attend lectures, to lor in the next elections?’. Both questions are qualify by means of examinations and to take quite revealing, for both have to do with the degrees. The idea here is to see how the prac- dangers of thinking: on the one hand, thin- tice can be generalized, especially given that king as perverted, or an uncustomary manner the matter in hand is philosophy, a discipline of thinking – the distinguishing feature of phi- that too often appears to be reserved for so losophy, and which caused Socrates to be very few. convicted; and on the other, the political empowerment inherent in exercising the It is important to show that philosophy can faculty of thought. interest and involve a great number of people, and as something to do rather than simply This observation could lead us to a justification something to consume quite passively. The of non-institutional philosophy and an public authorities, however, generally apply account of the vital part it can play. It is no two criteria: numbers and tradition. Under the accident that many philosophical practice ini- first one, they consider how many people tiatives, including some that affect state insti- appear to be interested in an activity, and will tutions such as schools, originate either in take decisions based on this criterion alone: structures outside the institution or in parallel they note, for instance, that football is more with it. Once more, though, philosophy is not popular than philosophy, so it is football they alone in this. We may take the example of phi- tend to promote. The other criterion is tradi- losophy with children: in many countries, if tion, which still plays a considerable part in the only because philosophy is not taught in pri- decisions made. Philosophical practice strug- mary school, this activity has grown up out- gles on both counts: first, despite its growing side the institution, in venues for

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philosophical thinking and education One last warning: we need to consider the where interested teachers were free to issue of the institutionalization of philoso- attend. It was only subsequently that tea- phical practice, or its systematization. It cher trainers were able to include this acti- seems not accidental that the rich diversity vity in the official curriculum of their esta- of non-academic philosophy has grown up blishments, although in some instances and outside our institutions and is only now locations the development met with deter- being reintegrated or recycled by them. mined resistance and even open opposition The power of these practices undoubtedly from certain members of the hierarchy. stems from their freedom, despite There have been few countries where this uncertainties about the philosophy itself, type of practice has been introduced from the uneven value, questionable quality or above; in most cases it has developed from variable efficacy of these practices. below, through the personal interest of Nevertheless even now there are major individual teachers who had perhaps come obstacles in the way of this philosophical across someone who offered training, or activity; it is held back by being closeted in perhaps a textbook or ‘teach yourself’ special places and excluding a large num- guide published for teachers or general rea- ber of people. We may therefore consider ders, young or adult. Even the training that the time has come to think about given within the school system was optio- steps towards its institutionalization, to nal, though courses have featured recently suggest some arrangements that could be in some places as options within a compul- set up without great difficulty. Most of the sory curriculum. However, the inclusion of suggestions that have been made are the rudiments of philosophical practice to a based on real experiments; they have been greater or lesser extent in institutional cur- shown to be possible, not by any theoreti- ricula has been entirely due to the growing cal demonstration but in practice. The task popularity of these activities, especially in now is to establish these various forms of those circles where philosophy never used arrangement as best suited to particular to be part of the programme. If it had been situations and circumstances. otherwise there would almost certainly have been resistance to such a novelty.

2) Institutional recognition

Understanding philosophical social relations. In terms of cognition, practice and its essence (One) philosophical practice develops the analytic capacity needed to understand the The first recommendation to any kind of world around us, to critically handle the institution is to comprehend the nature growing quantities of information with of philosophical practice as an activity. which we are endowed – or rather, bom- Those in charge can then decide, on a barded. In terms of identity, those who basis of true understanding, how worth- engage in philosophy develop a concep- while or relevant the activity is, and whe- tion of themselves as thinking beings, ther it should be promoted – if so, how capable of giving sense to their daily far and where. For a moment the com- lives and basing their thoughts on rea- mon assumptions about philosophy need son, as independent and active citizens to be put aside, starting with its elitist rather than mere consumers passively and exclusively academic image as a par- experiencing the world around them, ticular ‘subject’. The object here is to good or bad. In terms of social relations, think of philosophy in a different way: as those involved learn to think and to a practice that invites all members of the engage in dialogue with others, to deli- public, whatever their personal level of berate collectively rather than simply education or their general knowledge, to colliding with their fellows (and all too engage in dialogue and reflection. This often thinking of those fellows as an allows work to be done on three main obstacle or a menace). In their existential levels: cognitive capacity, identity, and relationships to themselves as well

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(frequently unperceived or ignored), and various cultural networks would then be in how they approach their work (again, mobilized to publicize these measures and often taken for granted), the exercise of make sure that a number of activities took philosophy brings opportunities for place such as conferences, workshops, improved self-awareness, fosters a capa- philosophy cafés, the screening of filmed city for commitment and a capacity to sessions, or other similar events. Such initia- stand back, and helps to break down tives could likewise be organized by NGOs, barriers that might prevent them from foundations or other organizations aiming making positive changes or hold them to promote cultural activity and innovation, back from taking their thoughts and which could either arrange this kind of actions as far as they otherwise could. activity themselves or provide financial, Above all, it contributes to the aware- practical or logistical support to the bodies ness that is an essential aspect of human directly involved. lives. As for the fear which it might prove a waste of time, or an unnecessary com- Ministerial point of contact, youth mitment: such fears are nothing but the and associations (Three) result of short-term thinking, which has not even attempted to understand the The government offices that deal with issues basics or essentials in question. For these of youth, sport and cultural activities and reasons, it is vital that these myriad phi- Associations differ from country to country. In losophical practices are more broadly developing countries, NGOs are often respon- understood, and that the potential they sible for many such youth activities as well. All can represent is supported through a such organizations, national and local, public generalized promotion of information and private, should learn about the practice of concerning these practices. philosophy and consider how to integrate it into their various existing activities. Group lea- Recognizing the cultural aspect of ders will need to be given special training so philosophical practice (Two) that they can add philosophy to their present activities: this will be a matter of acquiring, for In many countries, there is no designated example, a certain number of leadership tech- point of contact for matters concerning niques that will enable mentors or those in philosophy within Culture Ministries or charge of activities to encourage young peo- Departments of Cultural Affairs. Either ple to think from time to time about what they there is no provision for philosophy at all, do and how they do it, and in particular about and it is relegated to the Education the social relationships they form and keep up: Department, or it is considered only for- problems of violence, for instance, which can mally, as a part of history. A proper contact be tackled and handled by thinking and dis- person, familiar with these practices, could cussion. For while it may not be the explicit be appointed; or the function could be assi- aim of philosophical activity to reduce vio- gned to an existing official in central lence, it will nevertheless be noticed that a government and/or at the local or regional great deal of violent behaviour is partly levels. Further down the administrative hie- connected with a certain inability to articulate rarchy, it is important that officials are and analyse problems, and difficulties in facing aware of these practices and the initiatives others – especially those in authority – in a that they or others could promote. Central rational way. The idea therefore would be to government should accordingly make sure add a philosophical dimension to people’s that relevant information is collated and usual activities, to trigger moments of philoso- distributed. It would find it advantageous phical reflection, rather than necessarily to to establish relations with the organizations establish any specifically philosophical activi- or individuals directly involved in philoso- ties, although that is by no means something phical practice, by selecting one or more to be avoided. The object would simply be to people to act as technical advisers. As soon foster and formalize this tendency, and to as such a decision has been taken, it would teach this aspect of language and thought to be useful to launch an information and those to whom it is relatively foreign. Giving awareness campaign – on the occasion of those who work as professionals or volunteers the World Philosophy Day, for example. The with young people an initiation in the

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philosophical approach would enable them to recognize different ways of thinking, to develop attitudes that should facilitate and appreciate their legitimacy rather than sim- improve their work. Philosophy seminars could plistically concentrating on their pathology. be offered as part of training courses for adults This view would help to raise the self- who work with young people. esteem of those whose intellectual functioning tends to be seen mainly as aberrant; it Recognition of philosophical practice would encourage efforts at self-reconcilia- in the area of healthcare (Four) tion and the acceptance of the concept of reason. Philosophy can still offer its ancient Philosophical practice can play a role in the power of consolation, its ability to provide area of healthcare in many ways. The trai- a sense of meaning; though often neglec- ning of professionals in this area should ted, this could provide precious help in the perhaps include some minimal training in work of therapy. Here one could recall the the practice of philosophy. This sometimes words of the Ottawa Charter for Health happens at present, for example in the Promotion(16): ‘To reach a state of complete form of an introduction to some of the physical, mental and social well-being, an main concepts of ethics; but such classes individual or group must be able to identify often remain very theoretical. A philosophi- and to realize aspirations, to satisfy needs, cal initiation would make it possible to and to change or cope with the move away a little from a purely technical environment’. approach to healthcare (which remains dominant in the world of medicine, despite Recognition of philosophy in many efforts and discoveries in recent training institutions (Five) decades) by considering certain philosophical or existential questions. Such training Many organizations are concerned with would be useful both in relations with lifelong learning, and at various levels: at other professionals and in the professio- work, in society, or via occupational re-trai- nals’ relations with their clientele. Learning ning. As a rule, philosophy plays no part at to think together would help to transform all in this kind of education. And yet it pro- the way patients are viewed, so rather than vides – or can provide – tools that enable being seen purely as pathological cases or people to think more clearly about their diseased bodies, they are approached with lives, their family and work situation, the the understanding that there is a mental way they relate to society and to other peo- and spiritual life closely connected to the ple, their plans, attitudes and abilities: all physical body. How should medical practi- the basic things that make up individual tioners approach their patients? What does and collective human existence. Very often, the patient think of himself or herself? questions of providing training or dealing What do they think of their illness? Just as with various problems or difficulties are hospitals have resident psychologists or approached in either practical terms (as a chaplains, they could have resident philoso- question of career choices, or a choice bet- phers with a variety of functions: sitting in ween between technical or non-technical on ethics committees so as to clarify their training) or psychological terms (for those discussions and help in the decision-making seen as having behavioural problems, or lia- process when it concerns important aspects ble to come up against problems because of hospital life; facilitating discussion of the occupational circumstances). groups among professionals; making them- Philosophy could provide an important fur- selves available for discussions with indivi- ther dimension to the training offered in all dual patients who would like help to think these areas, if only because it enables peo- (16) The first International through their situation – particularly with ple to ask more searching questions about Conference on Health regard to existential or ethical questions. the meaning of a given activity and the Promotion, held in Ottawa in November 1986, produced a Furthermore, such training would also be relationship they have towards it, or might Charter for Action to Achieve useful for professionals working in areas have. This could enable them to avoid some Health for All by the Year 2000 and Beyond. This conference directly or indirectly connected with psy- obstacles or deal with particular failures. was primarily a response chology – including speech therapists, for Philosophical practice also helps us know to growing expectations for a new public health movement example, or psychomotor specialists –as it ourselves better, observe how we think around the world. could help them to understand and and act, become aware of the way we

182 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM relate to others, and thus make better- practitioner: the specialist philosophy trai- informed decisions. The idea therefore ner and the all-round trainer who has would be to invite professional philoso- been taught the rudiments of philosophi- phers to take a hand in such training cal practice. In my view, many NGO directly, or alternatively to have them help workers could benefit greatly from train the trainers, making a number of mastering the basic set of such tools. philosophical tools available to them. For there is a need for both types of

3) Training and providing professional status

Broader availability of a Master’s procedure, rather than narrowly degree in Philosophical Practice concentrating on one specific school of (Six) thought or practice. Partnerships with private and public organizations could To make philosophy into a fully-fledged be arranged, so that students could take profession, a postgraduate degree in up internships and obtain work philosophical practice could be establi- experience. The courses should be orga- shed in various universities, as is already nized in accordance with training the case in Argentina, Denmark, Spain requirements, not for the sake of and Italy. These courses should be open providing work for members of to philosophy graduates and to people Philosophy faculties – this is an impor- with career experience and sufficient all- tant point, because such postgraduate round education to follow such a pro- courses are often accepted only on this gramme. The Master’s degree pro- condition, even though most university gramme should cover various aspects: in philosophy professors have little expe- the first place, there would be courses in rience in this area at present. A commit- philosophical knowledge, an occasion tee should be set up to regularly assess for revisiting the history of ideas, key the skills of undergraduates and gradua- concepts and major issues, with a view tes of the Master’s course, and an open to practice. Next, there would be an relationship established with non- introduction to some of the main academic professional bodies working in currents of psychology and psychoanalysis, this field. as well as other counselling and facilitating disciplines such as coaching, which Setting up professional would help to clarify the nature of speci- structures for philosophy fically philosophical contributions. practitioners (Seven) Thirdly there would be an introduction to various techniques for conducting group Many countries already have philosopher discussions or personal interviews, dra- associations, some more informal than wing on the history of philosophy and others. These have various objects, also on the experience of practising phi- which differ from place to place. Some losophers. Fourthly, there would be a exist to establish a qualification certi- certain amount of the practical, legal fying the professional quality of philoso- and administrative information needed phers, either on the basis of degrees and for setting up a professional practice. experience, or as a result of specific trai- Fifthly, various forms of practice assi- ning for the certification process itself, gnment, some within the institution and whose duration and demands can also some outside, properly specified and fol- vary. Others work to establish a charter lowed by a descriptive report and analy- to spell out the philosopher’s practical sis of the practical work done. There and ethical commitments. Others, howe- seem to be some important recomman- ver, are less concerned with certification dations for setting up such a Master’s than with providing a meeting-place and programme: it should recognize the source of philosophical tools for those diversity of philosophical inspiration and who want to learn the basics of

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any other financial or administrative Box 46 measure that might facilitate the work of Masters in Philosophical Practice and Social Management, these bodies or federations, without trying to impose a single uniform struc- University of Barcelona ture but welcoming a plurality which echoes the diversity of philosophical The Master’s in Philosophical Practice three hour lectures followed by two and Social Management is a project with hours’ discussion chaired and guided by schools and sensibilities in the history of more than three years’ research(17). It a consultant philosopher. This is the thought. began in 2002 in the framework of general tendency in the first year, but continuing discussions about creative we intend to provide more practice in thinking, problem-solving and applied the second. We have decided that stu- Promoting philosophical practice philosophy. Over the last four years, dents should have at least two sessions as a professional opportunity thanks to the fruitful interaction of mem- with a consultant philosopher; next, they (Eight) bers of the profession and national and are meant to develop a consultancy international associations, this Master’s practice for individuals or a group. has become a reality, the first of its kind Assessment of this kind of subject We invite public authorities and the in Spain. Its curriculum and content are depends on a report provided by the various private and public organizations designed to give students the basic advisor and another provided by the to work for the promotion of philosophi- knowledge needed by anyone wanting to recipient of the advice. Our suggestions study philosophical practice: issues have also been tailored to the new form cal practice as a professional outlet, if concerning subjectivity, various types of of philosophy degree which the Faculty only because many philosophy graduates philosophical dialogue, the use of logic has recently been arguing for within the have difficulty finding jobs, or do not for understanding, field of applications, the university’s governing body. This degree want to launch into a career of teaching. need for adequate research methods and would foster all-round professional abi- the aim of practising philosophy. lity and fit students for freelance work, A range of measures should be adopted involving skills in the management of for this, designed both to give the acti- We had no teachers with experience in organizations of people and professional vity official regulation and to publicize it. such practices, because they are so teams, as well as training philosophers Besides setting up a Master’s degree in few; but we were able to call on all the who can contribute to personal develop- teachers in the Philosophy Faculty. I was ment by means of philosophical reflec- the field (mentioned above), work conducting personal interviews for tion. should be done to make the appropriate nearly a year, and doing research with institutions and corporations more the help of the Head of the Department. Our hope is that a Master’s of this type We are now able to provide content of a be able to generate employment, aware of the potential. As a first step, high quality, all taught by recognized research, combined qualifications and, national, international or regional mee- experts. This exercise has helped to above all, to succeed in promoting mul- tings could be organized or supported, reconcile academic philosophy with phi- tidisciplinary abilities. and should be given official status: offi- losophy practice. To ensure the dynamic character of the course, the content of Rayda Guzmán cials and teachers should be authorized each subject in the Master’s is on the Philosophy counsellor to attend as part of their duties. It may responsibility of an expert who gives (Spain) well be necessary to institute or encourage philosophers to have more than one job, as do those in the legal and other philosophical practice or to improve the professions, by making it possible for way they work – a sort of gathering of philosophers to teach in universities or peers for mutual help in advancing their secondary schools, or to do research in practice. These bodies sometimes also national research facilities as well as act as a shop window for making philo- practising as philosophy counsellors out- sophical practice better known. This side traditional institutions. National or could eventually lead, at international local government and NGOs could set an level, to the establishment of a charter example by including philosophy practice laying down the conditions for the trai- within their various modes of operation, ning and the responsibilities of philoso- organizing public debates, for instance, phical practitioners. It would be useful if or as part of their official arrangements national or local public institutions, for improving relations between their NGOs or private firms could accord reco- staff and the public. Just as it has gnition to these organizations – as trai- become standard practice in emergen- ning bodies or approved contacts – cies to set up psychological crisis units , giving them official status and making it we might set up philosophy working easier to promote philosophical work. groups for the various people involved in Depending on the situation, this might handling a situation, a business, a be a matter of tax advantages, subsidies, department or some other organization, (17) www.ub.edu or grants in the form of tax reductions or along the lines of a workshop – not as an

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Box 47 Service learning in philosophy

In ethics courses, service learning (inte- of the applied moral theories they study. thy and concern for oppressed popula- grating service and academic study into Students are further challenged as they tions, yet harbour unspoken, unrecogni- a unified learning experience) contribu- realize that the theories are powerful zed prejudiced and bigoted beliefs, tes to a discourse model in which stu- principles governing human conduct often recognize and confront the disso- dents are invited to participate in the rather than inert and sterile ideas, espe- nance in their guiding moral beliefs and great moral conversation, adding cially in a discipline such as Philosophy practices. context to their moral understanding. which is, all too often, prone to scholas- Designed to actively engage students in tic purism. Service-learning is a uniquely Service learning is a vehicle for students the practical application of course mate- efficacious pedagogical instrument to to understand that Philosophical Ethics rial, students in the class experience help them bridge theory and praxis. is an activity, a practice, and far more firsthand the sometimes ambiguous than a body of memorized facts. They nature of moral decision-making when Finally, if we accept the idea that stu- learn to view Philosophy as a dynamic ordinary people face perplexing moral dent’s autonomy, broadly construed, is process that figures into the nuanced issues. In a context such as this, stu- predicated upon self-directed delibera- complexities of human life and the broa- dents encounter existential situations. tion, then the reflective component of der social agenda. Consequently, they often confront their service learning contributes to students’ own uncritical moral relativism and naive ability to think independently and criti- moral cynicism. When students in my cally about ethical issues. When stu- interdisciplinary Philosophical Ethics dents observe the stark existential classes address the moral reality of conditions of those who suffer from compassion, cruelty, kindness, empa- harsh or otherwise unfortunate condi- thy, or the lack of it, as well as justice tions, these students often re-examine Karen Mizell and injustice, they find an opportunity to their own tendencies toward narcissistic Associate Professor, Philosophy and advance their grasp of moral psycho- preoccupation and self-absorption. Humanities Department, Utah Valley St. logy and to witness the interpretations Students who may overtly voice sympa- (United States of America) emergency measure, but with a view to the project is started and everyone is the medium or longer term. aware of its potential impact. Students subsequently write a report and then Development of Service Learning analyse and assess their work. In the in philosophy (Nine) case of philosophical work, this means firstly that population groups that have Service Learning is an educational never had an opportunity for any real concept that began in America and aims contact with philosophy will gain an to combine teaching, apprenticeship and introduction to it. Secondly, the philoso- reflection by adding to the academic cur- phy student who might otherwise never riculum some sort of community service have experienced anything other than designed to further the student’s educa- the school classroom so far as training tion and at the same time enhance the and future work are concerned will come life of the community. It is founded on into contact with real life and learn a lit- constructivist principles and is designed tle about the relationship between philo- to provide education through enriching sophy and everyday living, not as a tea- experience which helps the student to cher whose task is defined only in terms develop a sense of responsibility and of the requirements of a subject or the civic duty, encourages loyalty and deve- official instructions of an academic insti- lops social cohesiveness. The outside tution, but as a citizen for whom the activity must be clearly related to the needs of fellow citizens are a formative student’s academic work, and should influence along with others. An initiative make use of his or her particular skills of this kind might awaken vocations for and competences. The students should the career of philosopher, at the same choose, design and implement their pro- time as making the idea better known to ject themselves, working with partners in the general public. circumstances where there are real needs and real benefits. Various forms of peer exchange are organized so as to ensure that there is sufficient thought before

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4) The philosopher’s role in the polis

We may distinguish two main kinds of elementary help in material or activities for philosophers engaged in educational terms. Philosophical exercises everyday public life: activities of a social would make a considerable difference to nature (Proposals 10 to 15), and activi- their ability to organize their thoughts, ties with a cultural dimension (Proposals and to their self-image. Educational 16 to 20). organizations (public or private) that deal with the rehabilitation of groups Working with marginalized with difficulties or excluded pupils would youth (Ten) find it useful to promote philosophy workshops, organized along the same It is important to alert the public autho- lines as existing literacy lessons. The rities and all manner of other people in point here is not to assume a hierarchical positions of responsibility to the pre- order or chronological sequence: lear- sence of a section of society that is ning to read, write, add up and then rea- excluded from school, or on the edge of son logically; rather, all these activities exclusion. Now philosophy has traditio- will benefit from being tackled head-on nally tended to be taught to the ‘good’ and simultaneously, because philosophi- pupils, those who are better integrated cal exercises enable the mind to work on into the system; yet it seems that philo- the basic questions that often underlie a sophical practice could and should play resistance to learning, and to address an important part in dealing with groups issues of personal identity that can be – children and adults – who are effecti- very important to those partially or vely excluded from the benefits of totally excluded from school. Critical school. To address troubled young peo- thinking is a natural activity that ple as thinking beings – which for some demands support, and there is no reason will be a complete novelty – is in itself to to assume that the ability to read, write work on their self-esteem. We should or add perfectly is a necessary precondi- also consider countries where many chil- tion for thinking. In this context it would (18) Bureau of Justice Statistics dren and teenagers live on the streets, be beneficial to mount information cam- website, Department of Justice, and have been more or less abandoned paigns and to organize training seminars 2007 http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs to themselves, or receive only the most – firstly for those in charge of education

Box 48 A philosophy programme for at-risk children

Imprisonment has become an educatio- school and altruism: the results were able to offer contributions in discussion nal, social, legal and of public health cri- triangulated using discursive interviews and record their thoughts in diaries, two sis in the United States, with some 2.2 with the students themselves and the aptitudes which they felt would help million people in prison on any given teaching assistants working in the pro- them reach their future goals. These day(18). The justice system disproportio- gram. The outcome indicated the follo- results suggest, quite contrary to the cli- nately penalizes children suffering from wing conclusions: the students showed chéd view of philosophy as a discipline illiteracy and mental or physical health significant gains in accomplishment; for the elite, that including philosophy in defects. Minorities are incarcerated in they found the enrichment activities a course for young people regarded as inverse proportion to their representa- more inviting; relationships, especially at risk because of recurring delinquency tion in society. In response to this, the those with their community and those or school failure can significantly John Carroll University (JCU) has set up they had developed with the teaching improve the way they interact with the a partnership with the Cleveland assistants during the program, had educational program. This method also Municipal School District (CMSD) to become more important for the partici- makes it possible to boost their confi- develop an alternative education pro- pants; their writing levels showed signifi- dence and facility in writing and expres- gram. This association, the Carroll- cant progress in areas requiring critical sing themselves on issues they find Cleveland Philosophers Program thought, written expression, and the like. important. (CCPP), focuses on a curriculum des- The teachers’ perceptions of the oral igned to foster academic success and contributions also indicated growing Jennifer Merritt, Christopher Gillman reduce recidivism. The CCPP has been involvement on the students’ part. and Carolyn Callahan assessed for student learning enhance- Altogether, the students considered that Professors, University of Virginia ment and shifts in attitudes towards this programme had made them more (United States of America)

186 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM programmes, and then with the teachers the generating of abstract discourse. We working in the field. These would make often think of the psychologist, the doc- teachers aware of such practices, give tor or the social worker in emergencies; them an introduction and then a training but one aspect of any emergency is the in certain practices: most importantly, need to learn to emerge from the emer- how to teach by means of a give-and- gency and rediscover our freedom to take debate; how to lead an educational think and to be. discussion; how to detect and reveal the philosophical issues that arise in such a Philosophizing in prisons (Twelve) discussion; and how to apply the attitudes and skills connected with If there is one place where problems of philosophical practice. direction and meaning are to be found, it must be prison. This is precisely the Philosophy for those in kind of life in which philosophical prac- precarious situations (Eleven) tice might offer support or even help to provide meaning. We can see various For vulnerable people, displaced persons advantages to philosophy in prison: for in the third world, homeless people in the many offenders who have not had developed countries, inhabitants of run- the chance to receive much education, it down urban areas or shanty towns, a provides at the very least a form of study constant refrain is that their priority and a way to access a body of ideas that needs are obviously not philosophy but for many has not been possible before. It material issues – ‘survival issues’. Yet can also provide a means of rehabilita- there is an error of reasoning here. True, ting a poor self-image to a certain these people need society to try to solve extent; of experiencing moments when their basic material problems as far as the mind can escape and contemplate possible; but thinking together is just as new or strange prospects, without important a feature of human life, and having to hide from reality; of standing just as basic, in that it concerns the rela- back from oneself and one’s immediate, tionship of individuals with themselves contingent situation; of working on one- and with the world around them. It is self. It helps with living, helps in finding amazing (say those who have experien- meaning where meaning may have been ced it) to see how someone who seems missing, and lets people encounter to have given up on life, or rushes blindly others and exchange ideas on something after some consumer product, can else besides immediate practical pro- become a changed person as soon as he blems which in themselves do little for or she is invited to think. No-one should self-respect. Here it may be pointed out be reduced to the status of merely survi- that while some people prefer to discuss ving. On this subject, it is worth pointing their own situation directly, others would to the people who have lived through rather embark on subjects far removed wars or genocide and still struggle not to from their daily lives; and while it may be be reduced to victim status despite their thought that the former is a stage that trauma and their living conditions. To must be gone through and that the lat- take part in a philosophical discussion ter is mere escapism that hides a lack of group is to reclaim one’s full dignity, to will to go through it, this is not really the re-establish a relationship with others point. The real stake rather consists in that does not consist of threats or com- the experience of being a thinking per- petition. There does, of course, have to son, capable of reflection, reason and be assistance; and this must all the more articulated ideas. This has significant attentively take into account the situa- potential for the rehabilitation of those tion of the people involved, how they who are radically at odds with society; live and what they are have gone for it involves remedial work on the indi- through; but real philosophy is precisely vidual’s identity, without which any a matter of encountering one’s partner social life or rehabilitation must remain in dialogue as he or she actually is, not impossible. Through group workshops or

187 CHAPTER IV

personal consultations, prisoners learn daily round. Two aspects of such work in to be no longer a passive object of social particular have important benefits to forces or incarceration, but individuals offer them: the fact that concentration who generate their own view of the and mental exercise are required is valua- world and make themselves who they ble in itself; and thoughtful reflection are. can give them a brief respite from the minor – or major – difficulties of their Philosophizing with retirees daily existence. (Thirteen) Promoting philosophical activity As people in the developed countries live at work (Fourteen) longer, the period of retirement has also lengthened. For very many people nowa- For a number of years now, philosophy days there is a question about what this has been starting to find a place here or new existence – called in different coun- there at work, though it remains a very tries ‘old age’, ‘the third age’ or ‘the marginal activity by comparison with Golden Age’ – might mean for older what it could be and with the role it people (or ‘senior citizens’). Often they could play. Firstly, it can provide a theo- suffer from a comparatively ill-recogni- retical contribution to problems arising zed kind of exclusion. Philosophy works- in business life in terms of ethics; com- hops conducted for this population pany values; sustainable development; or group have many functions. One, for thinking, working and living together. example, is to give some meaning to Then there is the establishment of their past life and experience – this is not workshops for thinking about matters to always easy, either because their life has do with practical questions which need been difficult and they feel a sense of thorough examination, or which may not failure, or because they have, one way or affect business or working life immedia- another, lost what used to give them a tely but bear on existential subjects or reason for living: work, a husband or social questions which are of general wife, or children, who are now scattered interest and allow the development of abroad. They may have diminished physi- other kinds of working relationship besi- cal or mental capacities, or the prospect des the practical and the immediate, by of leisure that stretches out before them addressing questions of deep impor- might give a terrifying impression of tance to members of the staff. Lastly, emptiness, or their circumstances may there is the principle of ‘philosophy make them lonely. Whatever the reason, counselling’: personal interviews in workshops for the elderly would sometimes appear to be a fundamental but unrecognized need – which would explain the popularity of those workshops that do exist, in retirement homes, pensioners’ clubs, or various public venues. Nevertheless, there are some potential pitfalls. First, many retirees, especially older retirees, have little self- confidence and will not go to a philosophy workshop under their own steam. Second, we find a certain number of intellectual difficulties connected with failing memory, diminished capacity for concentration, greater self-centredness or a lack of physical and mental fitness. None of this means, however, that such people lack interest in important questions, and it would be a mistake to assume their only concern was with the

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Box 49 Philosophical debate in prison

One of the aims of philosophical debate this was a necessary stage in which the turn’ and get the participants to listen to in prison was the participation of people convicts could describe their lives to me each other and respond in a rational who were not voluntarily attending such as someone from the outside, and manner. As to the civic objectives, the education as was on offer. It helped tackle their social invisibility. It was also convicts managed to adopt an autono- immensely in getting the project off the necessary for me to listen to this so that mous and responsible attitude when sta- ground that the activity involved was I could give my attention to and unders- ting their positions, and to think together oral. These philosophical discussions tand their real situation, and express my about issues where individual answers were able to benefit inmates whose edu- feelings to them and also report back to could not be found. In terms of personal cation had not gone beyond secondary the world outside. In terms of the pro- development objectives, they were able or in some cases primary school, and ject’s objectives it was very successful. to develop their self-esteem, to practice, even those who did not know how to So far as the philosophical objectives sharpen and enrich their vocabulary and write: these might otherwise never have were concerned, the convicts were able add to their all-round general knowledge. gone to the prison school. The subjects to take their first steps in articulated initially chosen concerned prison condi- thinking, to look for independent Jean-François Chazerans, tions and the situation of the inmates. thought, use rational speech and tackle High school philosophy teacher, Since what goes on in prison is virtually philosophical problems. It proved fairly Philosophical debate facilitator hidden and society tends to keep it so, practicable to regulate ‘speaking out of (France)

which members of staff who want to can The polis philosopher (Fifteen) look at a problem which bothers them without going into considerations that Just as local authorities employ social are too personal, private or ‘psychological’, workers, psychologists and mediators, so and at the same time discover principles they might also use the services of a phi- governing the construction of rational losophy practitioner. This role would to thought as well as tackling various obs- some extent resemble the others mentioned tacles in the way of such thorough and above, but with one important diffe- methodical examination or other modes rence: there is no urgency to the philoso- of intellectual functioning. The useful- pher’s work. He or she is not there to ness of these consultations is that they solve problems – at least not to find invite the philosopher’s ‘clients’ to for- immediate solutions – but to reflect dee- mulate their worries clearly, with a view ply, to stand back and work out issues to understanding them and making deci- which may be less immediately visible sions accordingly. Formulating a worry but may be none the less important for clearly means converting it into a ques- that; to invite people to take a critical tion, clarifying it and also seeing its stance and think with greater rigour importance relative to other things. The before taking decisions. Such philoso- conversion is done by means of certain phers would therefore have various techniques of verbal manipulation which tasks, including the preparation of analyses are learned in the course of the dialogue considering problems that affect com- with the consultant philosopher. This is munal life, and on the other hand orga- not a matter of ‘free association’ but of nizing public debates, acting both as finding the right words for things that philosophy advisers and as facilitators. A happen to us and actions we envisage. variety of papers could be written for the These words also enable us to communi- use of the authorities and/or the public. cate our own individual visions to other Regular workshops would be organized, people. This is not a superfluous task: it designed to involve all sorts of people: is essential to business and working life, for while some will find it natural to just as it is to life in general; but work is come to a philosophy workshop or a needed to make those in charge of busi- debate, others will not; there will there- nesses and their Human Resources fore be a need to spread the word managers aware of this, and invite them through existing clubs and societies. to think beyond the immediate matter in Children’s workshops would also be held hand and outside a simplistic pragmatism. (in municipal libraries for example), where school classes could come in turn;

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Box 50 Children’s philosophy workshops in public libraries

I am not a philosopher by training, nor a who agrees or disagrees with the idea game and challenge anyone who breaks teacher, but a librarian. That may seem suggested and why, as the following them; they are also confronted with unusual as a background for doing philo- brief exchange shows: ideas different from their own, which sophy with children – but the practice of Pupil A: ‘Growing up is becoming adult develops self-assurance and recogni- holding discussions with a philosophical and having responsibilities, because you tion. Lastly, their attitude to the library approach in the public library came can do things you couldn’t do before.’ changes: it is not another place just like about quite naturally. Pupil B: ‘I don’t agree: you can be a child school; reading for pleasure begins, and still have responsibilities, like loo- along with collections of children’s philo- The workshops always take place at the king after your little brother.’ sophy books for them to compete over. same venue and time of day throughout Pupil A: ‘Sure, you can be a child and still So is it a good idea to do philosophy the school year. They are organized in a look after your little brother; but if you workshops with children in public libra- highly theatrical manner and presented don’t know it’s a responsibility, then it’s ries? Yes, because just like the various as a game – ‘the thinking game’ – with not a sign you’ve grown up.’ kinds of special lesson based on multi- three basic rules: put your hand up if you These workshops have repercussions of media or involving books (reading sto- want to speak; don’t interrupt; listen to two kinds: among the teachers, the ries, choosing books on a subject, docu- the others. The children repeat these reactions are generally favourable, and mentary research), the philosophy principles at the start of every meeting: they ask for workshops again each year. workshops take care of one part of the they come to enjoy this ritual element. As far as the pupils are concerned, I library’s mission – though of course Then we ask a question, such as ‘What have not managed to receive any real there has to be partnership with the is growing up?’, and ideas and argu- end-of-year reports. I do, though, get school. ments are written on a board to bring news now and then that this pupil or that out the concepts and – if possible – the now has the confidence to speak up, or Patricia Azérad, oppositions among them, like that a class is better at listening to each Librarian, Public Libraries Director, ‘weak/strong’ or ‘big/small’. Then we try other. As the sessions proceed, the chil- Villeneuve St Georges to broaden one suggestion, by asking dren gradually accept the rules of the (France)

and this would also help to furnish the (or Night) on other dates, or even a teachers attending with philosophical Philosophy Week (or Month). The idea is tools. A philosophy clinic for individual that a number of events of many kinds consultation would be held free of are organized, in various places and in charge on council premises. If there were various formats, so as to reach as many sufficient interest, an introductory semi- people as possible: lectures, conferen- nar in the practice of philosophy could ces, workshops, philosophy cafés, wri- be offered as initial training for people ting workshops, introductions to authors who wanted to start on such activity: or particular works, various kinds of that would not be hard, especially for practical demonstration, debates on spe- people working with children. One of cific themes, and so forth. The occasion the principal aspects of this work would serves to show, by briefly occupying one be to help develop civic-mindedness particular part of the city, that philoso- among the population of the local phy has a place in all parts, that it authority area. concerns everyone. So far as possible there is publicity in the media to broaden Philosophy Day(s) (Sixteen) the event and reach people who would never normally have anything to do with World Philosophy Day, a UNESCO initia- such things because they think that phi- tive held on the third Thursday in losophy is not for them. The purpose is, November, has been an annual fixture in one sense, to make philosophy more for many years now. The manner of its ordinary and bring it out of its ghetto. celebration varies from country to coun- Against that background it is possible to try, in some it is more academic, while in invite the public to come and take part in others it involves many different ele- the activities being organized; but in the ments of philosophical practice. It may case of those who would not make the be the occasion for just one single mee- effort to come of their own accord, the ting, or for many. Some major European organizers can also offer events within cities have begun holding their own Day existing structures, associations or

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Box 51 Philosophy Month and Philosophy Night in the Netherlands

Since it was first held in April 2002, intervening month, and a growing num- More interactive proceedings are plan- Philosophy Month has had an enormous ber of libraries and bookshops orga- ned as well, like the ‘Flying Socrates’ influence in popularizing philosophy in nize various activities. In 2006 a total scheme in which white-robed characters the Netherlands. The idea is to bring of 130 events were held throughout the will wander among the crowd asking together a collection of events within a country. questions and inviting chosen individuals short time span and thus raise the pro- to debate with each other. There is also file of philosophy as a whole. The Month Philosophy Night is the Month’s flagship an Essay of the Month each year: a begins with an opening ceremony in one event. At a historic venue in Amsterdam, nationally known author writes a story of country’s biggest bookshops: a fairly 750 people visit 25 activities distributed with a philosophical inspiration. These small event (free of charge) with just a over five different halls and rooms. The events attract considerable publicity: few presentations and a hundred visitors emphasis is on academic debates with a Philosophy Night, in particular, gets noti- or so. In 2004, Philosophy Day at the current affairs viewpoint as well as ‘philo- ced in the national media, involving over University of Tilburg was added to the tainment’: quizzes or performances. Half thirty journalists. The Month also gets main events. The university’s Philosophy of those who attend Philosophy Night coverage on radio and television, with Department is not well known, and it come from Amsterdam itself, and half twenty broadcast items and a total of wanted to organize a Day to put the phi- from the rest of the country. Most of those three million viewers and listeners. losophy community on the map, with the present only come to the Night once, and hope of attracting more students. The for many this is their first significant brush Month ends with a closing ceremony at with philosophy. In 2007, a neighbouring Hans Kennepohl the International School of Philosophy, museum will be giving screenings of video Philosophy Month Project Manager Leusden, which includes presentations art, giving the Night a festival atmosphere Stichting Maand van de Filosofie and again attracts around a hundred and the visitors a taste of art that has (Netherlands) visitors. Many events are held in the been inspired by philosophy. www.maandvandefilosofie.nl

institutions. Such initiatives will reach a of forum: either it is moderated (which is new public, which is important even if not always easy, and involves a considera- those who take part are unlikely to ble amount of work) and the debate is lia- continue a direct and active involvement. ble to be restrictive; or it is not moderated, Though we may agree that philosophy, and drifts towards becoming a sort of chat like any exercise, really starts to make room. Or it can fall victim to one individual sense once it is pursued with some conti- or a small group who monopolize the dis- nuity, one could argue that the mere fact cussion, which spoils the site and frustra- of coming into contact with it now and tes its original purpose. Nevertheless, such then has some effect: to some extent it a forum can at least provide a means of awakens or reawakens a wondering or disseminating news about the various acti- questioning attitude. vities, publications or data that are likely to interest the community of philosophers. Internet Projects (Seventeen) In countries where hardcopy publications are very expensive it can also be a cheaper As IT and the Internet develop, they pro- and easier way of accessing documents on vide tools that have already been shown relevant subjects. An online training pro- in many places to be of valuable help in gramme could also be organized, either promoting philosophical practice. There based on an established course or by use is every reason to take up these opportu- of mentoring, which can provide support nities: one way is by creating an online to people who wanted to start in the pro- journal in the local language, publishing fession, for they often feel alone and reports of experiments, conferences, lacking resources. Another form of organi- analyses, practical news and informa- zation is by pairing philosophers, for ins- tion. This could also be a site for develo- tance as a means of developing remote ping practical innovations based on cul- philosophy counselling in which two peo- tural diversity, among other things. Next, ple question each other over a period. It an online forum might be established would also be possible to bring forward that would act as a site for exchange and various initiatives which appear to deserve discussion, although experience teaches greater notice that they would otherwise us not to expect too much from this kind receive.

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Box 52 An interesting experiment: The Philosophy Olympiads in Uruguay

Uruguay’s Philosophy Olympiads were idea of such a development in every positions on the set of problems designed in the context of a democra- country and every mother tongue. The given. The second part is individual, tic view of the practice and teaching work evaluated is oral as well as writ- and written: it is an essay, to be writ- of philosophy that aims to encourage ten, to lessen competitiveness and ten in three hours on a proposition set everybody to think philosophically. encourage more people to become by the national jury. The participants The objectives are to foster: philoso- involved. The Uruguay Philosophy are required to take the earlier debate phical attitudes (doubt, critical and Olympiads have been taking place into account. creative thinking, or the community of every year since 1999. enquiry); the production of philosophi- Next, local juries evaluate the written cal ideas or thoughts through various The Olympiad is organized simulta- submissions, and choose one sen- activities including listening, reading neously in all the country’s high tence from each to construct a small and discussion; and the production of schools: there are neither preliminary publication. The nine best works are philosophical works both individual selection nor a national final so that chosen by a national jury, and their and collective. The inspiration came everyone can take part in the event. It authors take part in the Olympiad of from the experience of the IPO takes place in two parts, generally on Río de la Plata, in Argentina. (International Philosophy Olympiad) the same day. The first consists of a and the Olympiads of Argentina: from debate on a given question, lasting the former we took the idea of a writ- around two hours, in groups of about Mauricio Langon ten essay and the evaluation criteria, twenty people, and on a single sub- Professor of Philosophy while the latter inspired us with the ject. The basic idea is to compare (Uruguay)

Philosophy Olympiads (Eighteen) transform education, and creating public venues where any citizen can participate Various interesting experiments have – in other words, it should be carried out been inspired by the International in tandem with other activities. Philosophy Olympiads (IPO)(19). One initia- Participating philosophy students or tive that could mobilize people’s ener- teachers would be invited to move gies might well be to organize such a beyond philosophy’s purely academic Philosophy Olympiad, or an annual phi- framework by offering material on sub- losophy essay competition. To avoid over jects of current or social interest. Lastly, emphasizing academic or elitist aspects, it would be useful if the competition’s which can easily occur with such a com- winning essays could be published. petition, a mixed jury could be established, not drawn exclusively from profes- Debates following film sional philosophers. Similarly, competi- screenings (Nineteen) tion rules should stipulate that entries should be written for the general public, One of the main difficulties philosophy and if possible there should be a range has is that of reaching the general of different categories (for example: for public: it still retains rather an elitist younger people, adults, philosophy stu- image. One simple way of inviting ordi- dents or professional philosophers). If nary people to engage in philosophical the competition is national, an initial activity, or encouraging participation in a regional or local round would amplify philosophical debate is to organize such the activity’s impact. Geographical proxi- a debate following the screening of a mity is important, as it would allow for film or a theatrical performance. It is local meetings, where oral elements possible, of course, to choose the film could be included as well as the written for the way its particular subject echoes submissions. Organizers should take care real experience and deserves to be exa- not to emphasize competition between mined in depth since it bears on matters individuals so much as emulation in proof existential or social importance or for moting critical thinking. The Olympiads other reasons; but there is no reason in should be designed as an experiment theory why people should not be invited with a view to developing a form of phi- to think philosophically about the issues losophical learning that can really help to involved in many kinds of film: it is not

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necessary to hunt for a particular one. Philosophy ‘House’ (Twenty) Films made for children should not be neglected neither; for children also If possible, it would be useful to create a should be shown how to decode images. special place for philosophical practice, a This non-specificity of the film used is an sort of Philosophy House. Many different important point, for it makes it easier to kinds of activity would be organized in include such activities in any given situa- this place open to a wide range of prac- tion or to combine it with an already- tices, methods, and purposes, subject established schedule of screenings. Such only to the principle that the proposed work following the projection of a film is activity should have to do with philoso- all the more important in that nowadays phy. As the demarcation between philo- we live very much in a world of images: sophy and other related activities is not we are surrounded by images, and the always clear-cut or complete, a commit- general public does not always manage tee would be needed to consider propo- to stand back from these icons – or idols. sals for activities. This could provide an We need only note the persistent lack of opportunity for ongoing reflection about any critical reaction to what is seen and the nature of philosophical practice. If heard on television, in magazines or at there is a national or local organization the cinema. Consumer education, then, of philosophers, it could be one of its is needed; as well as education of the tasks to handle this business and take citizen. Against this background, one of the appropriate decisions. Workshops the most crucial aspects is still the disco- and public talks/discussions could take very, by those who take part in such place there, and training seminars in phi- debates, of just how different the inter- losophical practice for professionals or pretations of the film they have just seen amateurs, as well as meetings of mem- together can be – or even how diffe- bers of the profession, personal consul- rently they can report what they have tations, and so forth. There could be a actually seen. Only then do they notice regular ‘clinic’ for anyone who wants to that they themselves are sometimes meet a philosopher and discuss subjects blind to certain things, or that their of concern. There could also be a regular vision can be quite partial or simplistic. telephone-based service for people The other important point of discovery is undergoing an existential crisis of loneli- the relationship between the facts, the ness, worry about some particular observations we make, and the interpre- question, or some other reason. Various tation we draw of these with the various public and private institutions could turn depths of penetration perceiving the sta- to the Philosophy House when they need kes involved. The discussion following a point of contact for any information the film thus becomes a sort of prepara- about philosophical activity, which tion or antechamber to discussions of a would make it easier to develop and more specifically philosophical and thorough- promote the practice of philosophy. going kind on more general subjects.

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Conclusion: Is it philosophical?

Criticisms of non-academic philosophy – sociological sense, it is indeed a quite apart from proposals that are movement – is precisely this: to avoid occasionally made to obliterate it entirely falling into the very dogmatism that it – can sometimes appear hard-hitting, yet denounces. It is dogmatism which is to there is nothing in them that warrants be found at the heart of the problem, ruling out such activity. Intellectual life has which always makes people rigid-minded surely seen worse things. We may wonder and prevents them from thinking, a whether ‘philosophical practice’ is indeed mental stiffness that stops people philosophical, but we can ask the same of hearing what is said or viewing many other ways of doing philosophy. difficulties as problems. The pathologies Furthermore, as far as practice is concer- or excesses mentioned in this chapter are ned, the philosophers themselves are lar- neither systematic nor universal; the gely responsible, by refusing on occasion essential thing is not to be defensive to cover areas which are accordingly left about them or constantly protesting to educationalists, psychologists, or one’s innocence, but merely to be aware indeed to anyone; why then should there of them. Moreover, some of these be complaints if such people take an inte- problems can counteract others; the rest in philosophy and ‘have a go’, seeing aberrations and difficulties will vary that it is anyone’s business and no-one’s depending partly on the practitioner and property? It is, to be sure, the the school of thought, but also on the philosopher’s field of technical expertise; culture in which these practices develop but it can be worked at and learned. There and operate. For cultures, like philosophical remains to provide an education in such currents of thought, individuals and activities, despite the obstacles and the groups, theory and practice, pluralism resistance. Nor can we be certain that and truth, never work in the same way, philosophical practice is so very much but have different strengths and different more generous than traditional blind spots. philosophy, for we find the same problems occur within it: personal concerns trum- The death of philosophy – if such a death ping authenticity, special interests obscu- could be imagined – would only occur if ring or disguising the general interest, the it lost its lively multiplicity. Its essence dread of being forgotten and somehow ‘no rests fundamentally on the differences longer existing’. among people – on embracing this It appears that the challenge for this ‘otherness’, in the spirit of a constant movement – as in the philosophical or challenge to our opinions.

195 CHAPTER V Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

The teaching of philosophy as revealed by UNESCO’s online self-administered survey

Introduction: An inclusive, collective procedure 198

I. Principal results by subject 199 - 221 1) Initial review of philosophy teaching around the world 199 > Professional profiles of respondents > Merits and objectives of philosophy teaching - Overall analysis - Regional breakdown > International cooperation and the engagement of those involved in philosophy teaching within the international community > The teaching of philosophy at the various educational levels: principal results by country 2) The geography of philosophy teaching 207 > General state of philosophy teaching, by country group > Decline in philosophy teaching > Strengthening philosophy teaching > Past and future changes in philosophy teaching

II. Tools, method and organization of the survey 222 - 228 1) Choice of an application to carry out the survey 222 > Characteristics of a self-administered survey > Drafting the questionnaire and putting it online 2) The progress of the survey 223 > Preparing the correspondent database > Gathering the data > Chronology of the survey’s progress 3) Status of the survey and of the results 226 > From the ambiguities of a country-by-country analysis to the building of a synthesis of countries’ situations > Putting the information together at country level

Conclusion: A ground-breaking survey 229

The UNESCO online questionnaire 230

197 Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki CHAPTER V

Introduction: An inclusive, collective procedure

This section is devoted to the results of the Commissions for UNESCO, to gather the UNESCO survey on the teaching of names and contact details of those in philosophy throughout the world. Data charge of philosophy programmes within was collected by means of a self-administe- government (the various Ministries of red online questionnaire. The survey is Education, Higher Education and Research) primarily intended to be a dynamic tool and the academic world (University to promote an exchange of ideas and Philosophy Departments, UNESCO Chairs to facilitate interactions among and/or Institutes). We received many highly UNESCO’s various partners and their activities informative replies; together with our com- in the area of philosophy teaching. plementary research, this enabled UNESCO to draw up a very wide-ranging contact list, From the beginning of our preparations for to which we sent out invitations to this study, in 2005, UNESCO decided to complete the online questionnaire. construct it in a collective and participatory way. Through a broad-based consultation In view of the scale of the survey and the process, we did our best to encourage international diversity of education systems, it representatives from every UNESCO was of primary importance to reach the National Commission and Permanent greatest possible range of people involved Delegation to contribute to this study. The in philosophy teaching, whether inside or involvement and support of UNESCO’s outside institutions, for this would allow the partners in this ground-breaking investiga- necessary cross-checking of the information tion into philosophy teaching around the supplied. What follows is based, therefore, world could be expected to be commensurate on meaningful and instructive replies from with the importance accorded to philosophy a great number of countries – though it by UNESCO’s Member States. should always be borne in mind that some replies require a certain weighting relative Energetic co-operation and impressive to others, because they may at times commitment marked this consultation convey a subjective opinion that does not process, so that the process itself can be of itself necessarily establish the facts of a regarded, on its own terms, as one of the whole national situation. most encouraging features of this investigation: one of its noteworthy aspects, in The questionnaire (Part III) included some fact, is the Member States’ response to this open-ended questions and others that procedure. By comparison with earlier were multiple-choice or short-answer. The surveys on the same subject (the survey open-ended questions gave rise to conducted in 1951 by Georges additional suggestions and comments, Canguilhem, for instance, which involved 9 which are more fully discussed in Sections II countries, or that of Roger-Pol Droit in and III of the study. As for the other results 1994 on ‘philosophy and democracy’, and their cross-tabulations, these are which involved 66), the 2007 Study involved subjected here to a more fully-developed no fewer than 126 countries. The number of analysis using criteria chosen to suit the respondents who gave ‘valid’ and usable usable data. replies was 369, covering more than 65 per cent of those countries. When studying the various graphs, tables and charts included here, the reader is A rigorous procedure was followed in advised to keep in mind that they cannot identifying individuals to whom the and do not claim absolute accuracy. The questionnaire should be sent. From the out- initial results by subject that appear in set, the study’s methodological framework this section are themselves a preliminary required targeted contacts to be found account, which is to be amplified and within the various countries, to ensure that amended in due course. the questionnaire follow up is trustworthy. For this purpose, an information request sheet was sent to all the National 198 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

I. Principal results by subject 1) Initial review of philosophy teaching around the world

The following paragraphs briefly present some general findings of the questionnaire, in the form of an initial review of the results of greatest interest for government and academia.

Professional profiles of respondents

On reading the questionnaire and a certain number of replies to the open-ended questions it becomes apparent that one aspect of importance for understanding the individual replies is the respondents’ professional profiles. We decided to follow up this observation more thoroughly by examining the replies to question Q0c(1). This then enabled us to assess any effects this may have on particular subjects. Question Q0c is a closed, multiple- choice question, where an individual may tick more than one reply. This means that the replies to this question can be read in either of two complementary ways (this ‘other functions’ response is not negligible: 13 Graphic 1: Categories of respondents applies to all the multiple-choice questions). per cent of all respondents. In considering the – professional profile On the one hand, one may look at the response proportion with combined roles (23 per cent), from the point of view of the respondent and we may note that these are practically always concentrate on his/her declared profile – that ‘teachers’. It can be seen from the replies that is to say, work on the possible combinations of there are few countries where the teachers are the question options: for example, by coun- in the minority: just 26, barely 20 per cent of ting how many people are ‘teachers and the countries represented in the survey. administrators’ or how many are ‘teachers Among these, the 18 countries where no (1) Question Q0c: Professional only’. On the other hand, it is just as legitimate replies at all are from teachers are countries in profile: administrator - teacher - expert, other ? to break the question down and consider each which there was only one respondent (or (2) Question Q03: What are the option as if it were a single ‘yes/no’ question. occasionally two); these are in many cases recognized principal merits of the Question Q0c can be regarded as broken countries for which UNESCO, having tried teaching of philosophy in your country? Strengthening the down into four sub-questions (‘Q0c1: Are you unsuccessfully more than once, finally mana- autonomy of the individual – an administrator? (yes/no)’). Each sub- ged to receive at least one response from the Building a methodology – Reinforcing knowledge – Building question can then be dealt with separately, country concerned by making an appeal up capacity for judgement – and this means (among other things) that the through its institutional contacts. Contributing to civic education – Other. replies can be added to obtain total numbers (3) Question Q09: In your opinion, of ‘teachers’ or ‘administrators’ for each Merits and objectives of philosophy what is the objective of the country, region, or other grouping. That is the teaching teaching of philosophy at primary level? Strengthening the autonomy way in which we choose to examine profiles of the individual – Building a here (Graphic 1), which does not mean that in Overall analysis methodology – Reinforcing know- (2) ledge – Building up capacity for the commentary that follows we cannot We should recall that questions Q03 , judgement – Contributing to civic reckon in terms of professional functions quite Q09(3), and Q12(4) are somewhat subjective – education – Other. independently of the profiles. especially the last two; so while we can cal- (4) Question Q12: In your opinion, what is the objective of the culate an overall world-wide result on the teaching of philosophy at More than half of the respondents were ‘tea- basis of these individual points of view, and secondary level? Strengthening the chers’ – three-quarters, if we include teachers even observe regional differences, we can- autonomy of the individual – Building a methodology – with non-teaching responsibilities as well. not arrive at any conclusions in relation to Reinforcing knowledge – Building ‘Administrators’ make up 25 per cent of the national differences. At this point it is up capacity for judgement – Contributing to civic education – respondents, and ‘experts’ 17 per cent. The important to recall the regional differences Other.

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‘building a methodology’. While scores for the other options remain roughly the same, ‘contributing to civic education’ has here become the respondents’ second most popular choice. This distribution would seem to indicate that the teaching of philosophy at the primary level lays more emphasis on the children’s personal development than on their acquisition of knowledge. This finding confirms the analysis developed in Section I of the investigation. There was also a slight rise in the number of respondents ticking ‘other’: that is to say, there was a greater tendency for the options offered to fail to satisfactorily cover respondents’ feelings in relation to (Q09), the objectives of teaching Graphic 2. Recognized principal in participation to the survey, to avoid over- philosophy at primary level. An examination of merits of philosophy teaching, by region of the study interpreting the study’s results. It should the additional suggestions and comments again be noted here that these questions made in connection with this question is are multiple-choice: in summarizing the accordingly of interest, as it reveals other replies, we have chosen to count each of ‘goals’ that the respondents attribute to the options offered in these three questions philosophy teaching. separately, rather than to calculate them in relation to personal profiles: we have simply In relation to secondary education, (Q12): counted the number of times a particular the scores received by the various suggested option was ticked. The percentages shown goals very closely resemble the classification of are the ratios between the number of ticks the merits from a general point of view for each option and the total number of (Q03). At this level of education the percen- replies given for the question, without tages are generally a little higher, indicating taking non-replies into account. that the respondents tended more strongly to endorse the suggestions and that they General question, (Q03): disregarding cover the goals of philosophy teaching national differences, we find that four of more adequately, though the ‘other’ option the six suggestions are ticked in over 50 per still makes a strong showing. Over 50 per cent of responses. The suggestion ‘building cent of respondents ticked all the sugges- up capacity for judgement’ is just slightly to tions. ‘Building up capacity for judgement’ the fore in being viewed as the main merit was chosen by over 75 per cent, and of teaching philosophy (of the options ‘strengthening autonomy’ came second (63 listed). Next come, in order, ‘reinforcing per cent). This confirms the predominant knowledge’, ‘strengthening autonomy’, role of philosophy teaching for providing young and ‘contributing to civic education’. people with the means of individual ‘building a methodology’ gets fewer ticks development. (45 per cent). These five suggestions together would appear to cover quite An examination of the regional variation in adequately the merits of teaching philosophy in a philosophy teaching’s recognized merits and country: the category ‘other’ was ticked by aims reveals some interesting differences only 15 per cent of respondents. (Graphic 2). We find that for Europe and North America, for Latin America and the In relation to primary education (Q09): the Caribbean, and for Africa the most ticked range of goals here is noticeably different option is ‘building up capacity for judgement’, from the classification of philosophy’s while interestingly enough in the case of the merits from a general point of view (Q03). Arab States it is ‘strengthening the autonomy The most obvious differences are the consi- of the individual’ that receives most ticks; in derably lower score of the options ‘reinfor- the Asia and Pacific region it is ‘reinforcing cing knowledge’ and (to a lesser extent) knowledge’, by a considerable margin.

200 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Regional breakdown First, however, we should recall the pattern of response to the survey in the various study regions, and especially the differences from region to region in the number of ‘valid’ returns: for they must make a difference to any attempt at interpreting these results. While the Europe and North America region are strongly represented, some other regions are less well represented, in part because of the relatively small number of returns from those regions. Furthermore, representativeness within regions is problematic: in some regions (the Arab States, for instance, or Latin America and the Caribbean) there is an abundance of replies from just one or two countries and conversely a great many coun- Europe and North America, Africa, and Asia Graphic 3. Recognized principal tries are not represented in the survey at all. and the Pacific all favoured ‘contributing to merits of philosophy teaching, by the respondent’s profile civic education’ and also gave a relatively General question, (Q03): we find marked high score to the ‘other’ option. The most differences among the various geographical frequent first choice in Latin America and regions. The Europe and North America the Caribbean was ‘strengthening auto- region is in line with the pattern of replies nomy’ while in the Arab States it was we have already noted at the world level – ‘contributing to civic education’. Few or rather, the converse: the global situation respondents from these two regions ticked takes on much of the profile of this region, ‘other’, indicating a general satisfaction because it accounts for so many of the with the options suggested. Another replies. Two regions – Africa, and Latin regional difference concerns the suggestion America and the Caribbean – show patterns ‘building a methodology’, which was which again resemble the overall situation, chosen more often than the world average except for the following points: though by respondents in Africa, Latin America and ‘building up capacity for judgement’ still the Caribbean, and the Arab States (5 per gets most ticks (more markedly so in cent to 10 per cent more often) and less so Africa), the order of the next two options is by those in the two other regions (10 per reversed, as ‘strengthening autonomy’ cent fewer ticks). comes before ‘reinforcing knowledge’ – but the differences are slight, and surely of In relation to secondary education (Q12): little significance. We also find fewer ticks here the regional ranking of the suggestions for the option ‘contributing to civic educa- followed the worldwide average. In tion’. In the case of the last two regions, three regions (Latin America and the the situation is quite different: ‘strengthe- Caribbean, the Arab States, and Africa) ning autonomy’ makes a strong showing in the options were ranked, in order, the replies from the Arab States, though ‘building up capacity for judgement’, the other options also do well, being at the ‘strengthening autonomy’, and ‘reinforcing same level (over 50 per cent) apart from knowledge’. ‘Building a methodology’ ‘reinforcing knowledge’ (40 per cent). For also received a considerable number of the Asia and Pacific region, the pattern is ticks (over 50 per cent). Two regions reversed: ‘reinforcing knowledge’ receives were clear exceptions to this pattern: many ticks (nearly 75 per cent), while Europe and North America, and Asia and ‘strengthening autonomy’ is ticked by only the Pacific: here ‘reinforcing knowledge’ 40 per cent of respondents from this came second, well ahead of ‘strengthening region. autonomy’. There were also fewer ticks for ‘building a methodology’, which indicates In relation to primary education, (Q09): as a more theoretical - rather than applied- in the global situation, the three regions of bent to the teaching of philosophy in

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these two regions’ secondary schools. Lastly, International cooperation and the respondents from these regions were less engagement of those involved in likely to select ‘other’. philosophy teaching within the international community In considering the implications of the regional figures and the rankings they give on all The aim here is to produce an indicator three questions, we find that there are of the degree to which those involved in certain broad geographical characteristics a country’s philosophy teaching are part in the aims and merits ascribed to philoso- of the international community. The phy teaching. As we have already said, the questions relating to this are Q45(5), Q47(6), Europe and North America region tends in Q48(7), Q49(8), and Q50(9). The chosen indi- general to accord with the worldwide dis- cator is the number of ‘yes’ responses as tribution on all three questions. The Asia a percentage of the combined total ticks and Pacific region selected ‘strengthening (‘yes’ or ‘no’) for the question: a figure autonomy’ less often than the world of less than 50 per cent indicates that a average (and less than the other regions). In minority of the country’s respondents the case of the Arab States, ‘building a answered ‘yes’ . The last two questions methodology’ and ‘contributing to civic (Q49, Q50) each offered four possible education’ tended to be favoured more replies: (1) ‘no’, (2) ‘yes, for students’, than elsewhere. The Latin America and (3) ‘yes, for professors’, (4) ‘yes, for Caribbean region generally produced a narrower students’ and ‘yes, for professors’. These range of distributions than the other two questions were dealt with, for the regions: differences among the scores of purposes of calculating our synthetic the various options were smaller than indicator, by expressing (for each coun- elsewhere, though the rankings were the try) the total of at least partly positive same. The contrary was true of Africa, responses (2+3+4) as a percentage of which tended towards greater differences, the total non-void responses obtained though the rankings were again the same (1+2+3+4). The ‘international summary’ as the worldwide rankings, with just a few indicator is then the number of these exceptions. We should note the general five questions to which the ‘yes’ tendency for few respondents in the responses strictly exceeded 50 per cent. Europe and North America and Asia and The extent to which a country’s philoso- Pacific regions to tick the ‘other’ box. As we phy teachers and students are in touch have already suggested, this indicates that with the international community varies the proposed options adequately match considerably from place to place. Map 1, the real situations of these regions as far as which shows this indicator, is instructive: (5) Question Q45: Would you say philosophy teaching is concerned. The the differentiation follows the bounda- that the philosophy professors and other regions were by contrast less satisfied ries of the major Western countries, as researchers from your country regularly participate in research with these suggestions, above all the Latin the regional breakdown confirms. The networks (seminars, symposiums, America and Caribbean region, where the region whose countries’ philosophers are meetings of specialized societies, etc.) at regional and international number of respondents ticking ‘other’ was most constantly in contact with the rest level? in excess of 20 per cent for all questions. of the international community is Europe (6) Question Q47: Would you say and North America (in 70 per cent of that researchers in your country are sufficientlyrepresented in world Because of the large proportion of respon- countries in this region a majority replied congresses on philosophy that take dents with the professional profile ‘teachers’, ‘yes’ to at least three of the questions). place every five years? distributions for this profile were no diffe- The Asia and Pacific region also had (7) Question Q48: Would you say that researchers in your country rent from those for all respondents combi- some countries where philosophers are are sufficiently represented in ned (Graphic 3). The other group in this very engaged internationally (Australia, international philosophical associations? breakdown (‘non-teachers’), though small, India, New Zealand and Thailand) and (8) Question Q49: Is there a pro- showed more distinguishing features. The others where their involvement is only gramme of international academic ‘non-teachers’ tended to tick the ‘other’ average (China and the Russian exchange for philosophy in your country? box less often, an indication of greater Federation). This has the effect of (9) Question Q50: Do scholarship satisfaction with the suggestions offered; somewhat masking the fact that there programmes particularly promote the difference is very marked at primary are also countries (40 per cent of the the international mobility of researchers and students exist in and secondary levels. total) where philosophers have little or your country? no such contact. In over 70 per cent of

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the countries in each of the other three of thirteen) or in secondary education regions fewer than three of the (eight countries out of thirteen). questions received a ‘yes’ reply from a Moreover, among the countries where a majority of respondents: Latin America, majority of respondents reported that Africa, and the Arab States would thus philosophy was expected to be introduced appear to be sparsely represented in shortly in primary schools (Q08a(11)), four international philosophy activities. of these (Finland, Iraq, Iceland and the Lao People’s Democratic Republic) The teaching of philosophy at already have experimental initiation in the various educational levels: philosophy at pre-primary level. principal results by country In relation to secondary education In relation to primary education (Q05)(10), (Q13a)(12), the chosen indicator is the the chosen indicator is the number of number of ‘yes’ responses, as a percentage ‘yes’ responses to question Q05, as a of total responses (‘yes’ or ‘no’): a figure percentage of total responses (‘yes’ or of less than 50 per cent indicates that a ‘no’): a figure of less than 50 per cent minority of the country’s respondents indicates that a minority of the country’s answered ‘yes’, and conversely a figure respondents answered ‘yes’, and above 50 per cent indicates that a majo- conversely a figure above 50 per cent rity did so. Philosophy is taught in secondary indicates that a majority did so. In very school in 73 countries out of the 126 few countries did such a majority in fact represented in the survey. These are report that philosophy was taught at pri- countries in Europe, West Africa and mary level (seven countries: Belarus, Latin America; apart from a few exceptions, (10) Question Q05: Is philosophy specifically taught in your country Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Australia, Norway, such teaching is not offered in East at primary level ? Iraq and Brazil; all regions are represen- Africa or in Asia. (11) Question Q08a: Is the ted except Africa). Experimental early teaching of philosophy envisaged to be introduced shortly at primary introduction to philosophy at the pre- As far as the training of those who teach level in your country? primary level is not associated with the this philosophy is concerned, it is in the (12) Question Q13a: Is philosophy teaching of philosophy at primary level Asia and Pacific region that we find the still taught at secondary level as a separate subject? If yes, in which in the same country, but rather with its highest proportion of respondents type of secondary education is inclusion at a higher level (twelve coun- reporting that secondary teachers are philosophy taught? tries out of thirteen) and most often in not required to have a university degree * Countries according to alphabetical order in the original association with another subject, either in philosophy. In the Arab States and French version in informal education (nine countries out Africa, on the other hand, a majority of

Table 1. Presence of a philosophy teaching at secondary level: country results by the regions of the study*

General Secondary ‘Literature’ Total GENERAL SECONDARY – Literature option Incomplete information 5 South Africa, Cameroon, Lithuania, Nicaragua, Sweden Compulsory teaching 51 Algeria, Argentina, Bahrain, Belarus, Benin, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Chile, Cyprus, Colombia, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Ecuador, Spain, United States of America, Russian Federation, France, Gabon, Greece, Haiti, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Mexico, Monaco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Syrian Arab Republic, Central African Republic, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Islamic Republic of Iran, Romania, Rwanda, Senegal, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Uruguay, Venezuela, Viet Nam Optional teaching 16 Germany, Australia, Bangladesh, Belgium, Denmark, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Finland, Iceland, Israel, Latvia, Mauritius, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Korea, Republic of Moldova No reply 44 Afghanistan, Netherlands Antilles, Armenia, Austria, Barbados, Belize, Bhutan, Botswana, Cambodia, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, United Arab Emirates, Ethiopia, Fiji, Georgia, Ghana, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lesotho, Malta, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Slovenia, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, Thailand, Ukraine, Vanuatu, Zambia, Zimbabwe,

204 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

General Secondary ‘Science’ Total GENERAL SECONDARY – Science option Incomplete information 11 South Africa, Belgium, Cameroon, Chile, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Venezuela, Viet Nam Compulsory teaching 37 Algeria, Argentina, Belarus, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Colombia, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Spain, United States of America, Russian Federation, France, Haiti, Honduras, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Monaco, Namibia, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Senegal, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Uruguay Optional teaching 11 Germany, Bulgaria, Denmark, Finland, Gabon, Iceland, Israel, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Sweden No reply 48 Afghanistan, Netherlands Antilles, Armenia, Austria, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Bhutan, Botswana, Cambodia, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, United Arab Emirates, Ethiopia, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Fiji, Georgia, Ghana, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lesotho, Malta, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Syrian Arab Republic, Republic of Korea, Slovenia, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, Thailand, Ukraine, Vanuatu, Zambia, Zimbabwe

General Secondary ‘Economics’ Total GENERAL SECONDARY – Economics option Incomplete information 10 South Africa, Belgium, Cameroon, Canada, Estonia, Greece, Lebanon, Lithuania, Niger, Viet Nam Compulsory teaching 32 Algeria, Argentina, Belarus, Benin, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Spain, United States of America, Russian Federation, France, Honduras, India, Iceland, Japan, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Mali, Morocco, Monaco, Namibia, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Islamic Republic of Iran, Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Uruguay Optional teaching 18 Germany, Croatia, Denmark, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Finland, Gabon, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Latvia, Mauritius, Nicaragua, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Moldova, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Sweden

No reply 47 Afghanistan, Netherlands Antilles, Armenia, Austria, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Bhutan, Botswana, Cambodia, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, United Arab Emirates, Ethiopia, Fiji, Georgia, Ghana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lesotho, Malta, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Syrian Arab Republic, Republic of Korea, Senegal, Slovenia, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, Thailand, Ukraine, Vanuatu, Zambia, Zimbabwe

Secondary Technical and vocational Total GENERAL SECONDARY – Technical and vocational secondary education Incomplete information 10 South Africa, Algeria, Germany, Belgium, Cameroon, Lithuania, Nicaragua, Republic of Moldova, Turkey, Viet Nam Compulsory teaching 36 Australia, Bahrain, Bolivia, Brazil, Burundi, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Colombia, Croatia, Denmark, Ecuador, Estonia, United States of America, Gabon, Greece, Grenada, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Luxembourg, Malawi, Mauritania, Mexico, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Islamic Republic of Iran, Czech Republic, Romania, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Rwanda, Sweden, Venezuela Optional teaching 21 Argentina, Belarus, Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Spain, Russian Federation, France, Honduras, Japan, Madagascar, Mali, Morocco, Monaco, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Slovakia, Togo, Tunisia, Uruguay No reply 50 Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Iceland, Latvia, Mauritius, Netherlands, Central African Republic, Serbia, Montenegro Afghanistan, Netherlands Antilles, Armenia, Austria, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Botswana, Cambodia, China, Costa Rica, El Salvador, United Arab Emirates, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, Georgia, Ghana, Haiti, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iraq, Jamaica, Jordan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Lesotho, Malta, Mongolia, Nepal, New Zealand, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Syrian Arab Republic, Republic of Korea, Slovenia, Sudan, Sri Lanka, Switzerland, Thailand, Ukraine, Vanuatu, Zambia, Zimbabwe

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question Q31(13), as a percentage of total responses (‘yes’ or ‘no’): a figure of less than 50 per cent indicates that a minority of the country’s respondents answered ‘yes’, and conversely a figure above 50 per cent indicates that a majority did so. Philosophy is taught in the universities of 106 of the 126 countries represented in the survey.

Country profiles: the awarding of philosophy diplomas/degrees in higher education. A synthetic profile was drawn for each country on the basis of a multiple-choice question: a given type of degree was considered to be Graphic 4. Documentation: secondary level present if and only if at least half of the replies to this question from the country concerned reported its presence. Each degree type (BA, MA, research degree, PhD) was then associated with that country’s profile or not, depending on whether it was or was not ‘present’ by this criterion. While the percentage of countries where degrees are awarded at all levels of higher education is remarkably similar across regions (approximately 20 per cent), there were differences in the prevalence of BA and MA philosophy courses.

Graphic 5. Job opportunities: university level Job opportunities for philosophy gradua- respondents reported that a university tes (Graphic 6): we found that teaching degree in philosophy is required for provided most of the job opportunities for those who teach it in secondary schools. philosophy graduates in all regions, fol- Graphic 5 illustrates the most important lowed by research; private sector deficiencies in secondary-school libraries employment came only third. or documentation centres in the respondents’ opinion, as far as philosophy is concerned. Respondents’ opinion of the documen- From these responses it seems that in the tary resources available in philosophy Arab States, Europe and North America, (Graphic 7): we should note the wides- and the Asia and Pacific region, respon- pread dissatisfaction in Africa, Latin dents most often regard the lack of America and the Caribbean, and the access to philosophers’ works, and in Arab States. particular to translations of original works, as a serious problem. In Africa, For the informal teaching of philosophy this deficiency is rivalled by a lack of phi- (Q41a)(14), the chosen indicator is the losophical dictionaries and encyclopae- number of ‘yes’ responses, as a percentage dias. Worldwide, it is the lack of access of total responses (‘yes’ or ‘no’): a figure (13) Question Q31: Is philosophy to the work of philosophers – through of less than 50 per cent indicates that a taught as a separate discipline in higher education institutions? translations or journals, for example – minority of the country’s respondents (14) Question Q41a: Are there which is cited most often in replies. answered ‘yes’, and conversely a figure other associations, institutions, above 50 per cent indicates that a majority etc., that contribute to the teaching of philosophy in your coun- At university level, the chosen indicator did so. The informal teaching of try? Please specify. is the number of ‘yes’ responses to philosophy was reported from 68

206 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM countries, that is, over the half of the countries represented in the survey. It is found throughout the American continents, except for Colombia, Bolivia and a few countries of Central America, and also throughout Europe except in Sweden, the Netherlands, Denmark, Switzerland, Iceland, and Ireland. In Africa it is the exception rather than the rule: it is present in Mali, Nigeria, Togo, Cameroon and the Central African Republic. In the Asia and Pacific region it is the larger countries – the Russian Federation, China, India and Australia – where this kind of teaching is available.

Graphic 6. Documentary resources: university level 2) The geography of philosophy teaching

General state of philosophy Islands, British Virgin Islands, Kiribati, (Macao, teaching, by country group China), Maldives, Federated States of Micronesia, Myanmar, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Once the issue of synthetic country indicators Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, San Marino, has been settled, proper tools are available for Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, São Tomé analyzing the survey at individual country level: and Principe, Seychelles, Timor-Leste, Tokelau, we are in a position to construct tables of and Tuvalu. Countries not shown on the map results by country and by geographical region. but who contributed responses to the ques- The geographical analysis of the survey has tionnaire were Barbados (1 respondent), been done mainly by generating maps onto Grenada (1 respondent), Mauritius which the replies to particular questions, or (2 respondents) and Monaco (1 respondent). the values of certain synthetic indicators calculated for each country, are projected. This To provide the results and the information in serves as a guide to interpreting the pheno- statistical form, it is perhaps advisable to group mena to be examined on the basis of the the countries with a view to studying the geo- survey, which examination amounts to graphy of philosophy teaching and bringing considering the question of the territorial out any regional regularities. The world can be continuity of parameters concerning philoso- divided in a number of ways for the purpose phy teaching. In this way it is possible to look of describing whatever particular geographical for fault lines, frontiers and discontinuities, information is relevant to the subject in hand: and see whether regions and continents are we have chosen as our default pattern the homogeneous or not. To make the maps we broad division customarily used by UNESCO, have used a software application by Philippe with a few modifications. This division has the Waniez called PhilCarto.(15) We should note immense advantage that it already exists and that the background map of the world’s coun- matches the functioning of the institution in tries used with this software does not include charge of this survey, so that we may hope it every one of the countries represented in the commands widespread agreement as to its database of the present survey. The maps validity; and it will accordingly be very interes- generated do not, therefore, include the ting to see whether it does in fact apply in results for the missing countries, although terms of the subject of the present survey. some of them did take part. The countries not Other divisions are of course possible, and des- shown are: Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, irable: it may, for instance, be very useful to Netherlands Antilles, Aruba, Bahamas, Cape design one which groups countries in accor- Verde, Comoros, Dominica, Cayman Islands, dance with the analysis of the survey itself; Cook Islands, Marshall Islands, Solomon one could also consider classifying countries as (15) http://philgeo.club.fr/Index.html

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a function of the various profiles found. How To conduct the analysis in terms of country such a typology ought best to be represented groups, it is first necessary to choose what it is spatially would be another issue; but it will be one really wants to observe. For the work useful to remark on the other phenomena done on this survey there are two ways in measured by the survey in the light of this which the results could be presented by typology as well. UNESCO already has a regio- country group. It is possible to assign each nal division of its member countries, and that respondent to a country group according to division follows the make-up of the that respondent’s reply to question Q0j(16). The Organization itself in being not strictly geogra- result of sorting the individual questionnaire phical but in terms of electoral groups. It is returns by country group will then be a count used for the conduct of regional activities: of individuals. This means that all the respon- fifty-three countries for Africa, thirty-seven for dents from a given study region are treated as Latin America and the Caribbean, forty-nine an established group, despite the considerable for the Asia and Pacific region, twenty-one for differences between the region’s countries in the Arab States, and fifty-one for Europe and terms of how well they are represented. This North America. Under this classification of approach is useful primarily in the case of countries, some belong to more than one general questions that do not refer explicitly to region. To simplify the handling of the infor- the situation of a particular country. A second mation and offer summary tables that avoid kind of result is arrived at by grouping the double counting, it was decided to work on results calculated country by country: this is a the basis of wholly separate regions, and legitimate procedure if one is making compa- therefore to assign one region to those coun- risons between countries, for in that case it is tries that usually belong to more than one. the number of countries that matters, in abso- This definition of regions for the purposes of lute terms or as a percentage of the total num- the present study, then, reproduces the origi- ber of countries in each group: one counts, for nal regional classification with certain modifi- example, the number (or percentage) of cations: Africa (without its Arab countries), countries showing this or that characteristic in Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia and a given region. It should be noted that the the Pacific (with the Russian Federation, overall total of contacts in the database is Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Turkey), the Arab 1339. The e-mail addresses of 44 contacts, States (without Malta), Europe and North however, could not be associated with any America (with Malta, but without the Russian particular country. Federation, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan or Turkey). (16) Question Q0j: Country(ies) of This classification will be referred to ‘Valid replies’ are those used for the expertise. throughout the present chapter as ‘study analysis. The ‘invalid e-mail addresses’ are * Countries according to alphabetical order in the original region(s)’. those from the list of contacts where the French version survey’s Web server received a ‘failed

Table 2. Distribution of the survey’s contacts by the regions of the study*

Region of the Number Number Number Overall Effective Study Region’s Study of e-mails of valid of valid response rate: response rate: Weighting contacts e-mail returns returns/ returns/valid / valid replies addresses email contacts e-mail addresses

Africa 201 149 59 29% 40% 16% Latin America and the Caribbean 288 234 82 28% 35% 22% Asia and Pacific 177 140 53 30% 38% 14% Arab States 146 105 41 28% 39% 11% Europe 483 424 134 28% 32% 37% and North America Total 1295 1052 369 28% 35% 100% as a percentage 100% 81% of contacts

208 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM message’ report. No doubt these include a 36 per cent of all valid replies) and of the considerable number of wrong e-mail Latin America and Caribbean region (22 addresses; but one should also take into per cent of all valid replies). Graphic 14 account mail server availability at the time broadly illustrates the study regions’ differing of the survey: temporarily or permanently degrees of coverage: it will be noted above non-functioning e-mail addresses, mail- all that 90 per cent of the countries in boxes full or servers down during the sur- Europe and North America are represented, vey, incoming e-mail filters (some institutio- while the figure for the other regions is nal servers, for example, reject ‘spam’ – around 60 per cent. If there is indeed inte- sometimes even all commercial e-mails). rest in the survey, it still affects only half the The category ‘e-mail addresses with no countries in the Arab States region (out of response or invalid returns’ indicates that that region’s total of twenty countries), in the e-mail address was reached but produced contrast to virtually all the countries of no reply. A distinction must be made Europe and North America. Thus the among these, between a lack of response following observations can be made: which was voluntary (the survey and its questionnaire did not interest the person - A preponderance and over-representation whose e-mail address was on the contact of Europe and North America (in terms of list) and one that was involuntary (where both individuals and countries); the invitation e-mail was blocked by personal spam filters, or the e-mail was forgotten - An under-representation of the Asia and after a few days, for example). Though Pacific region, both in terms of valid replies these two cannot be quantified, they do from the region and in terms of countries allow a more nuanced view of the survey’s represented; low overall response rate (valid returns: 28 per cent), which is seen to be somewhat - The marked over-representation of valid more respectable after discounting the replies from the Latin America and wrong e-mail addresses (‘effective’ Caribbean region, for example. response rate: 35 per cent). Working in terms of geographical regions, we note It has already been explained that the that the rate of ‘valid’ responses remains survey’s organizers aimed to engage all steady within the range 28–30 per cent, UNESCO’s Member States in the project. that is, participation in the survey was the Efforts were therefore made during the same across all study regions. Inter-regional search for contacts to ensure that there differences appear only when we discover was at least one respondent from every the reasons for non-participation in the sur- country. Out of all the countries tried, only vey. In the case of Europe and North 10 failed to provide any contact at all, and America, and to a lesser extent the Latin 160 provided at least two. Some countries America and Caribbean region, the main were well represented in the survey; those reason for not replying was lack of interest with the longest lists of contacts were in the questionnaire, while in Africa and the Venezuela (124), Spain (79), Germany (57), Arab States it was the number of e-mail Tunisia (37), Sweden (28), Uruguay (28), address errors, which made it harder to Turkey (26), Colombia (21), Ireland (19), reach people in these two regions. The France (17), Hungary (16), Latvia (16), quality of the contact list here, then, was Portugal (15), South Africa (15), Lebanon less reliable; yet in these two regions those (15) and the United States (15). The who did in fact receive the invitation e-mail countries providing the greatest numbers must then have had a greater tendency to of ‘valid’ returns were Venezuela (31), respond to the survey than those in the Tunisia (18), Germany (15), Uruguay (13), other regions, so we should perhaps infer a Sweden (12), France (10), Italy (7), Mexico relatively greater interest in the survey and (7), Turkey (7), South Africa (6), Colombia its aims in these two regions. We should (6), Lebanon (6), Madagascar (6), Côte moreover note the heavy preponderance of d’Ivoire (5), United States (5), Ireland (5), the Europe and North America region Latvia (5), Malawi (5), Niger (5), and (nearly 37 per cent of the contact list, and Portugal (5).

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Table 3. Breakdown of valid returns, by the regions of the study*

Region of the No. of Countries in the regions of the study: name and degree of representation No. of % of study respondents (country’s returns as % of all returns for the Study Region). countries Region’s Countries accounting for over 10% of a region’s returns in bold with a countries respondent covered Africa 59 South Africa (10%); Benin (2%); Botswana (2%); Burkina Faso (3%); 27 61% Burundi (3%); Cameroon (3%); Congo (5%); Côte d’Ivoire (8%); Ethiopia (2%); Gabon (2%); Ghana (2%); Kenya (2%); Lesotho (3%); Madagascar (10%); Malawi (8%); Mali (2%); Maurice (3%); Namibie (2%); Niger (8%); Nigeria (2%); Ouganda (2%); Central African Republic (2%); Rwanda (7%); Senegal (2%); Togo (2%); Zambie (2%); Zimbabwe (2%); Latin America 82 Netherlands Antilles (1%); Argentina (2%); Barbados (1%); Belize (1%); 21 57% and the Caribbean Bolivia (1%); Brazil (1%); Chile (4%); Colombia (7%); Costa Rica (1%); El Salvador (2%); Ecuador (1%); Grenada (1%); Haiti (2%); Honduras (2%); Jamaica (1%); Mexico (9%); Nicaragua (2%); Paraguay (1%); Peru (2%); Venezuela (38%); Uruguay (16%); Asia 53 Afghanistan (2%); Australia (2%); Bangladesh (4%); Bhutan (2%); 25 51% and the Pacific Cambodia (2%); China (8%); Russian Federation (8%); Fiji (2%); India (8%); Indonesia (2%); Islamic Republic of Iran (6%); Japan (6%); Kyrgyzstan (4%); Mongolia (2%); Nepal (2%); New Zealand (2%); Uzbekistan (2%); Philippines (4%); Republic of Korea (6%); Lao People’s Democratic Republic (2%); Sri Lanka (2%); Thailand (2%); Turkey (13%); Vanuatu (4%); Viet Nam (8%); Arab States 41 Algeria (10%); Bahrain (2%); United Arab Emirates (2%); Iraq (2%); Jordan 11 55% (7%); Lebanon (15%); Morocco (7%); Mauritania (2%); Syrian Arab Republic (2%); Sudan (5%); Tunisia (44%); Europe 134 Germany (11%); Armenia (1%); Austria (1%); Belarus (2%); Belgium (3%); 42 89% Bulgaria (1%); Canada (1%); Cyprus (2%); Croatia (2%); Denmark (2%); Spain (1%); Estonia (2%); United States of America (4%); The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (1%); Finland (1%); France (7%); Georgia (1%); Greece (2%); Hungary (1%); Ireland (4%); Iceland (2%); Israel (2%); Italy (5%); Latvia (4%); Lithuania (2%); Luxembourg (2%); Malta (1%); Monaco (1%); Norway (2%); Netherlands (1%); Poland (1%); Portugal (4%); Republic of Moldova (2%); Czech Republic (1%); Romania (3%); United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1%); Serbia (1%); Montenegro (1%); Slovakia (1%); Slovenia (1%); Sweden (9%); Switzerland (1%); Ukraine (1%); Total 369 126 60%

Table 3 shows how countries were alloca- is higher and the degree of preponderance ted to the study regions and the percen- of individual countries is neither so variable tage contribution that each made to the nor so great. total of ‘valid’ responses for its region. Reference to the percentage of countries In Map 2, entitled Participation in the actually represented in the survey (the UNESCO survey, each country is coloured ‘coverage’ of a region’s countries) reveals to show its degree of participation in the the relative over-representation of certain survey. The number of valid returns is countries in the results obtained. Thus not shown by means of proportionally-sized only is the Arab States region represented rings centred on the country’s capital. by barely half of its countries, but also Outside the Americas (where very few almost 50 per cent of its ‘valid’ responses countries failed to produce any response at come from just one country, Tunisia. We all), the geographical distribution of partici- find a similar pattern, though to a lesser pation in the survey tended to favour the extent, in the Latin America and Caribbean northern hemisphere. Africa (especially East region, where there is admittedly a slightly Africa), the Arabian peninsula, Central Asia greater coverage of the region’s countries, and Oceania are the areas with the greatest but over half of its ‘valid’ responses are number of countries for which there were * Countries according to alphabetical order from just two countries, Venezuela and no returns at all or only a low level of in the original French version Uruguay. In the other regions the coverage participation (just one respondent).

210 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

The manner in which individual countries’ state of philosophy teaching in each of the replies were combined was as follows: the countries, which could then be ranked chosen indicator is the number of ‘yes’ according to the availability of philosophy responses as a percentage of total teaching, and a world map of philosophy responses (‘yes’ or ‘no’) to the four teaching in 2007 could be drawn. questions (Q05(17), Q13a(18), Q31(19) and Furthermore, the construction of such an Q41a(20)): a figure of less than 50 per cent overall measure of the availability of indicates that a minority of the country’s teaching could provide a new key to the respondents answered ‘yes’. Graphic 15, interpretation of the questionnaire. Distribution of countries by educational level at which philosophy is taught, gives a It was also decided that informal synopsis of the replies on the present situa- philosophy teaching should continue to be tion of philosophy teaching in the world’s included as part of the assessment of the countries. The various profiles listed under state of philosophy teaching around the ‘general state of philosophy teaching’ were world. constructed by combining the replies to these questions, only counting the country’s reply as positive if at least half the individual responses from that country were ‘yes’. The profile ‘secondary+university’, for instance, indicates that the countries concerned (Algeria and Austria, for example) teach philosophy in its own right at both ‘secondary’ and ‘university’ levels. Over half the respondents in each of these countries replied ‘yes’ to these two questions, but over half replied ‘no’ to the questions asking about the ‘primary’ and ‘informal’ levels. A note of caution: the way (17) Question Q05: Is philosophy these profiles were constructed means that specifically taught in your country at primary level? countries where there was no response (18) Question Q13a: Is philosophy concerning a particular level of education still taught at secondary level as were treated as not teaching philosophy at a separate subject? (19) Question Q31: Is philosophy that level (that is, a ‘no’ response and an taught as a separate discipline absence of any response were in this in higher education institutions? instance regarded as equivalent). It might (20) Question Q41a: Are there other associations, institutions, be worth suggesting a form of summary etc., that contribute to the teaching that would provide a measure of the overall of philosophy in your country?

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Table 4. Distribution of countries by educational level at which philosophy is taught*

Profile: general state of philosophy education No. of countries List of countries Primary+university+informal 2 Iraq; Norway Primary+secondary+university 5 Australia; Belarus; Brazil; Uzbekistan; Ukraine +informal Secondary 3 Benin; Mongolia; Namibia Secondary+university 24 Algeria; Austria; Bangladesh; Bolivia; Cyprus; Costa Rica; Côte d’Ivoire; Denmark; Ecuador; Gabon; Honduras; Iceland; Japan; Lebanon; Luxembourg; Madagascar; Morocco; Mauritania; Nicaragua; Netherlands; Syrian Arab Republic; Rwanda; Senegal; Sweden Secondaire+universitaire+non formel 40 Germany; Argentina; Bahrain; Bulgaria; Cameroon; Canada; Chile; Colombia; Congo; Croatia; Spain; Estonia; The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; Finland; France; Greece; Haiti; Hungary; Israel; Italy; Latvia; Mali; Mauritius; Niger; Paraguay; Portugal; Central African Republic; Republic of Korea; Republic of Moldova; Lao People’s Democratic Republic; Romania; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland; Serbia; Montenegro; Slovakia; Slovenia; Togo; Tunisia; Turkey; Uruguay; Venezuela Venezuela Secondary+informal 1 Monaco University 17 Belize; Botswana; Ethiopia; Georgia; Ghana; Grenada; Indonesia; Islamic Republic of Iran; Ireland; Jamaica; Kyrgyzstan; Malta; Peru; Sudan; Vanuatu; Viet Nam; Zimbabwe University+informal 18 Barbados; Belgium; Cambodia; China; United States of America; Russian Federation; India; Kenya; Lesotho; Lithuania; Malawi; Mexico; Nigeria; New Zealand; Philippines; Poland; Thailand; Zambia Informal 5 Burundi; United Arab Emirates; Jordan; Uganda; Switzerland Void 11 South Africa; Netherlands Antilles; Armenia; Bhutan; Burkina Faso; (no reply or ‘no’ to each question) El Salvador; Fiji; Nepal; Czech Republic; Sri Lanka Total 126

University courses would appear to be The ‘general state of philosophy educa- the keystone of philosophy education, tion’ in the various countries shows and are available in 85 per cent of the some rather fragmented results, and it countries (Table 4). Where philosophy is was felt useful to group some of the not offered at university it is seldom rarer profiles and then rank these offered at any other level of education. profiles, from countries where philoso- Secondary school philosophy is less fre- phy is not taught at all to those where it quent (60 per cent of countries), and is taught at all educational levels. These very seldom the only level at which marginal adjustments make it possible to philosophy is taught. The situation of bring some order and clarity to the informal philosophy teaching is similar; interpretation of the various country in the case of each of these, where it is profiles or national situations: categorizing available philosophy is generally taught them in this way allows us to draw a at two or more other levels as well. map of the state of philosophy Elsewhere they ‘compete’: it is a case of education around the world. one or the other, secondary or informal, in forty-four countries where the subject Map 3 has the merit of bringing out is taught at university level, and in eight clearly which countries have the fullest countries where it is not. Only Monaco provision of philosophy throughout the offers both and nothing else. Lastly, educational career: Australia, Belarus, primary school philosophy is rare and Brazil, Uzbekistan and Ukraine. The never alone; and fewer than 10 per cent ‘multi-level’ teaching of philosophy is of the countries represented in the concentrated in certain geographical survey have no philosophy teaching at regions of the map: Europe, Latin any level at all. America and West Africa teach philosophy * Countries according in at least two educational levels. to alphabetical order Philosophy is more restricted in the in the original French version

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Sudan, for example). Among the study regions, we should note the widespread dissatisfaction in the countries of the Arab States region and to a lesser extent in those of Latin America and the Caribbean. Africa, though, accounts for nearly half the countries where respondents tend to be ‘satisfied’ – especially in countries where there is ‘multi-level’ philosophy teaching. Respondents from most of the countries in the Europe and North America region are satisfied with the state of philosophy education, though there are some exceptions, one of which is France.

Decline in philosophy teaching Graphic 7. Presence of philosophy teaching at several or fewer than two educational levels (countries from which responses were received) The notion of a decline in philosophy countries of East Africa (which includes education in a given country is in one the greatest number of countries where sense dependent on the presence of no philosophy is taught at all), and in some philosophy education in that Asia, the United States and Mexico: the country: indeed, what is not there to profile ‘university+informal’ is widespread start with cannot diminish... We trust in these countries. accordingly that the reader will compare the results obtained on this point with In the light of this examination of natio- the reported state of philosophy education in nal philosophy education profiles, we each country. The first two questions may perhaps define a measure that (Q02b1(21), Q02c1(22)) are designed to elicit roughly captures the state of a country’s any overall experience of a decline, to philosophy teaching but still has the some degree or other, in the teaching of advantage of distinguishing the various philosophy; the other two concern particular profiles clearly – and also enjoys both a education levels, though in both cases strong logical basis and some geographical (question Q36a(23): university level; question coherence. This is done by reorganizing Q17(24): secondary level) they have global the previous arrangement in a way that implications, if only because those two at the same time combines university levels make up the core of philosophy and secondary levels of philosophy education in these countries as a whole. teaching. If these two levels are affected by measures designed to diminish or suppress Dissatisfaction with the state of philosophy the teaching of philosophy, this is education in the respondent’s own country without doubt a strong indication of a extends from Latin America to southern decline in such teaching throughout the (21) Question Q02b1: Do institu- Europe, and includes Africa. It also affects country. In the case of the first three tional projects exist in your country that aim at limiting the teaching of two of the biggest Asian countries, India questions (Q02b1, Q02c1, Q36a), the philosophy? and China. This dissatisfaction does not chosen indicator is the number of ‘yes’ (22) Question Q02c1: Do institutio- coincide with the above ‘state of responses as a percentage of the combined nal projects exist in your country that aim at eliminating the tea- philosophy education’ in the country: some total of ticks (‘yes’ or ‘no’) for each question: a ching of philosophy? of the countries in which there is general figure of less than 50 per cent indicates (23) Question Q36a: Do you think satisfaction are ones that do not have that a minority in the country concerned that philosophy has been taught less in the universities of your ‘multi-level’ philosophy teaching (the answered ‘yes’. The procedure for question country in the last few years? United States, South Africa) as well as Q17 is different because there are many (24) Question Q17: Was the tea- others that do (Finland) – see Graphic 7. sub-questions and each of these invites a ching of philosophy interrupted / provisionally suspended / replaced Among those where dissatisfaction is more ‘yes’ or nothing – there is no provision by another course judged to be general, a majority have ‘multi-level’ teaching for an express ‘no’ response. For each of one and the same / reformed - in the last 20 years? (In secondary (France, Spain and Ukraine, for example), the sub-questions, then, the ‘yes’ schools.) and only some do not (India, China and responses to each question were

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PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM counted and expressed as a percentage Maghreb and some in West Africa, of that country’s total number of replies including Mauritania and Nigeria. to the question (if the ‘yes’ box is not ticked, it is not possible to tell a ‘no’ Strengthening philosophy from an absence of response). teaching

There is a risk, under this arrangement, As with the notion of ‘decline’, and indeed of underestimating the number of ‘yes’ still more strongly, the notion of responses simply through the over-repre- ‘strengthening’ in a country’s philosophy sentation of non-replies. To mitigate this education is inevitably connected with the effect, the overall value given for existing condition of such education. We question Q17 as a whole is formed from trust accordingly that the reader will these three results by taking their largest compare the results obtained on this point rather than their mean value. A country with the reported state of philosophy such as Chile (Q17a=0%, Q17b=33%, education in each country. Though a general Q17c=67%) will thus have a score of 67 question concerning observed measures of per cent for question Q17 as a whole. improvement (Q02a1(25)) can be relevant to The ‘Decline’ index is the number (0 to 4) all countries, question Q15a(26) would of these four questions that received the appear to be relevant only to those coun- answer ‘yes’ from 50 per cent or more of tries that have no separate philosophy the country’s respondents. teaching in secondary schools as yet; and the last two questions (Q08a(27) and Combining the replies to questions that Q10a(28)), since they refer to education are ultimately very different into a single levels at which philosophy is very seldom summary figure is, of course, a highly taught at present (pre-school and primary), indeterminate procedure. The aim here is are more likely, if ticked, to be indicating a not to build a case of any sort concerning significant strengthening in philosophy the decline in philosophical education, but education. Without going into details of only to indicate those countries where the nature or causes of an improvement in signs of a decline in the teaching of phi- philosophy education, we can still look at losophy are visible from an analysis of the geographical distribution of those the returns. A synthetic index such as countries that have experienced such a this can be mapped and compared with strengthening. No country gave an overall other themes in the survey; but it would positive response to all four questions: be quite hopeless to set about offering a those with the highest indices include full account of the decline observed Iceland, Finland and Iraq. Once again we merely by setting out these figures. For find Brazil (strengthenings reported by that purpose it will be more relevant and replies to two questions out of the four) useful to examine the qualitative part of and its neighbouring countries, and also the survey country by country, and the the Russian Federation, China, Norway, the replies to the questionnaire’s United Kingdom, the Lao People’s open-ended questions (for this, see Democratic Republic and Ghana. Sections II and III). Past and future changes (25) Question Q02a1: Do institu- Without going into details of the nature in philosophy teaching tional projects exist in your country that aim at reinforcing/improving or causes of a decline in philosophy the teaching of philosophy ? education, we can still look at the Here we shall be combining the earlier (26) Question Q15a: If philosophy geographical distribution of those results concerning any strengthening or is not taught in your country at secondary level as a separate countries that have experienced such a decline in countries’ philosophy education, discipline, is its introduction decline. Those showing a high level of to generate a summary overall profile of envisaged in the short term? the index include Brazil (decline reported the evolution of philosophy education in (27) Question Q08a: Are there any proposals to introduce philosophy on all four questions) and the geographical each country. The ‘decline’ and ‘strengthe- at primary level in your country in area made up of Thailand, Cambodia, ning’ indices are combined to obtain a the near future? the Lao People’s Democratic Republic measure of the particular direction in which (28) Question Q10a: Is there some experience in your country and Viet Nam. We also find, though to a philosophy education is (or is not) evolving regarding the introduction to lesser extent, some countries of the in a country. Four replies are possible: (0) no philosophy at pre-primary level ?

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PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM change reported, (1) decline only, (2) Caribbean region) the situation most fre- decline and improvement’, and (3) impro- quently reported (35 per cent of countries) vement only. It should be pointed out that was ‘improvement only’, though there is a this classification in itself only conveys informa- considerable contrast: some 20 per cent of tion on the existence and direction(s) of chan- the countries in each of these regions show ges in philosophy education: it can be sup- only a decline). In the Asia and Pacific plemented with further quantitative details region it is the mixed situation that is the about the changes, by comparing the num- most frequent, but a clear tendency ber of questions in answer to which an towards improvement can be seen by com- improvement or a decline was reported. bining the figure for ‘improvement only’ The region with the greatest number of with that for ‘improvement and decline’ countries from which only improvements in (60 per cent of countries). The reverse is their teaching of philosophy were reported true of the Arab States region, where none is Europe and North America (nearly 50 per of the questionnaire respondents reported cent), and only two in this region report only improvements and one point at least nothing but a decline. In two regions of decline was reported from nearly three (Africa and the Latin America and quarters of the countries.

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II. Tools, method and organization of the survey The survey drew from an international sample of respondents from an initial database of some 600 contacts. UNESCO prepared the survey questionnaire, which contained around 60 questions – it was drawn up in French and then translated into English and Spanish. In view of the survey’s international nature and its fairly short deadline, it was decided to use the online questionnaire method, enabling the contacts to reply via the Internet or, if necessary, by downloading the questionnaire and faxing their responses to UNESCO to be entered into the database.

1) Choice of an application to carry out the survey

It did not seem sensible to commission Web terminal-based survey delivery methods. programmers to create a software tool Unlike administered surveys, which are especially for this study: it would be quicker usually delivered face-to-face or over the and above all a great deal more secure to telephone, there is no live canvasser to ask use existing IT facilities specially designed questions of the respondent. Without such for online surveys. Though sometimes more direct contact, there is no inherent motiva- restrictive, such facilities nevertheless offer tion on the part of the potential respondent a sound framework for managing surveys to take part in the survey or to answer each of this kind (such as tools for questionnaire question. If a satisfactory response rate is to distribution, distribution to an electronic be achieved, therefore, every effort needs mailing list and multilingual processing, for to be made to motivate respondents and example) and provide for dedicated access reduce the personal ‘cost’ to them (in time to a special survey website to host the or mental effort, for example) as far as questionnaire, the e-mails and the replies. possible. To ensure full and consistent After a rapid consideration of the facilities replies it is also advisable to offer a currently available on the Web, an applica- questionnaire that is clear, brief and readily tion known as e-Questionnaire(29) was cho- understood by all respondents, especially sen, which enables users to create and when it is addressed to an international initiate their own surveys. This facility has population encompassing speakers of all of the functionalities required for many different languages. Online distributing a survey to an international questionnaires are generally short, because sample – including the possibility of offe- the respondent’s attention and motivation – and ring a multilingual questionnaire – and has therefore the reliability of the replies – tend an adequate track record in terms of its to wane as time goes by. In this consistent availability and functional particular instance the initial questionnaire design, confirmed in this instance by the was not short, and the risk that people competence of its customer support and would give up along the way was accordingly the welcome technical advances made serious, though lessened to some extent by during the course of the survey. This facility, the fact that the population addressed was once the questionnaire had been put a ‘captive’ directly concerned with the subject online, enabled the potential respondents and strongly motivated by the nature of the contacted via the mailing list to answer the contact. Furthermore, detailed technical survey questions at their convenience using options offered by the ‘e-Questionnaire’ any Web browser and from any locality, or application made it possible to mitigate the even from multiple localities. impact of the questionnaire’s length (a progress bar, for instance, indicated to Characteristics of a self-administered respondents the percentage of the survey questionnaire that had been completed, and a pause/resume function allowed Online surveys are a sub-set of the ‘self- respondents to interrupt their survey and administered survey’: an extensive group resume again later, rather than having to (29) http://www.e-questionnaire.com/en that includes online, postal and multimedia cancel their submission entirely).

222 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Drafting the questionnaire the responses, although the original num- and putting it online bering system was still taken into account. This operation led to some radical changes: UNESCO’s original questionnaire contained the 50 questions in the original version fifty questions on a variety of subjects in increased to nearly 110 in the online the form of a Microsoft Word file. In view version(30). The questions were of the of the constraints explained above, integra- various types normal in sociological surveys: ting the questionnaire into the application a mixture of questions inviting short- required a certain number of rearrangements. answer replies and closed ‘yes/no’ or multiple- Care was taken, though, to keep the origi- choice questions. To ensure that the survey’s nal overall framework: the changes mainly prospective respondents were familiar with involved a reorganization of the subjects these arrangements, the original invitations and pages, and the breaking down of the sent to the mailing list provided potential initial questionnaire’s more complex multi- respondents with a description of the types ple-choice questions. Going online means of questions to expect. no longer working in terms of paper pages but of screen ‘pages’, and reorganization The e-Questionnaire application offers was needed to make the questionnaire various support tools so that users can present short screens, each with a few check the input of responses and make questions concentrating on a single sure that replies are consistent in terms of subject. This was necessary not only to their logical organization. Questions were keep the respondent’s attention, but also in filtered in accordance with this logic: the view of technical requirements such as the respondents’ answers determined which recording of the replies, which is carried page they would be taken to next. The out at each screen change. The exercise of software could also guide the input of cer- putting the questionnaire online thus led to tain information: for instance, respondents an Internet version of twenty-nine pages: were restricted to entering numeric one introductory page, twenty-seven pages responses in reply to certain open of questions and a final ‘thank-you’ page. questions, such as a question about the The various subjects dealt with in the paper number of universities offering philosophy version were all retained, each spread over courses. However, it was found that these a number of pages; some were broken tools only work properly if the respondent’s down, however, where the subject as a computer and software present a particular whole involved too many questions. configuration: this depends on the browser Moreover, many of the questions in the and version used and the user’s security original questionnaire in fact contained a settings (in particular whether the system number of inter-dependent queries (for allowed or blocked Javascript(31)). At the example, ‘if yes, please give details’). It was start of the survey the presence of these necessary to separate all these sub- input checks sometimes caused the process questions so as to clarify the questionnaire to freeze suddenly, and this occasionally and ensure that all of the questions were caused respondents to give up the used in the processing stage. The result was questionnaire before completion. These that a new numbering system had to be setbacks quickly led tthe organizers to turn established to facilitate the processing of off such ‘user aids’.

2) The progress of the survey

Preparing the correspondent of people professionally connected with database philosophy and to reach all UNESCO Member States. As it turned out, the The survey exercise started with a contact contact list was put together through a list of just under 600 e-mail addresses; by combination of many different collection (30) for a sample of the questionnaire: the end, it had amassed some 1400 methods. An initial exchange with the http://eq4.fr/?r=C5818062-2A2B- 4EBD-96CA-CAAFD453F5D6 contact details. The objective was to collect National Commissions for UNESCO (31) Javascript is a scripting language the greatest possible number of addresses provided a set of contact details for people mainly used in Web pages.

223 CHAPTER V

represented in the survey. It also seemed wise to ask those successfully contacted through the electronic mailing list to suggest additional contacts (snowball sampling). This idea – of asking people who had been contacted because of their knowledge of the philosophy field to provide in their turn a list of others who might be interested in the survey – proved an original and ultimately fruitful source.

Gathering the data

Once the questionnaire had been published online and the contact list set up, the survey proper was begun by contacting everyone on the list and explaining how they could respond to the survey over the Internet; Graphic 8. Distribution of e-mail contacts each person contacted was given an individual number. The invitations to take part were sent by e-mail in the first place: as well as a message urging participation and explaining the overall framework, each of these ‘recruitment’ e-mails gave the individual respondent a unique URL with which to connect(32). These personalized Web links made it possible to control access to the questionnaire so that no uninvited person could respond to the survey.

The ‘e-Questionnaire’ software included the means of sending out this survey to the mailing list. It provided for four types of e-mail, to match four main stages: a little while after the sending of the invitation e-mail, any of three different e-mails could be sent to the contact, depending on his or Graphic 9. Number of countries from which responses were received, by region of the study her reaction to the first. If there had been no reply yet, there was a ‘re-start’ e-mail working in the area of philosophy: with a reminder to participate in the survey. administrators, teachers and/or experts. If the respondent had answered the whole Other contacts were then added by the questionnaire (every page had been visited, UNESCO secretariat, as the survey proceeded, and access gained to the final page), then gleaned from the responses obtained. For he/she received an e-mail of thanks for some countries (Germany, Tunisia and taking part. If the questionnaire had been Venezuela, for example) a long list of philo- begun but not completed, a follow-up sophy teachers was collected in this way. It e-mail was available, to remind the was also thought essential to include all of respondent to complete it. the National Commissions for UNESCO in the contact database, so as to have inter- Chronology of the survey’s progress mediaries in those countries from which few returns were being received, or none. One of the outstanding features of online In these cases the National Commissions surveys is the speed with which the replies were asked to associate themselves with arrive. In general, the response takes place

(32) As http://eq4.fr/?r=C5818062- the replies through the institutions concerned in the three days following the e-mail, with 2A2B-4EBD-96CA-CAAFD453F5D6 and thus make sure that their country was a ‘peak’ in the first two days and a rapid

224 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Graphic 10. Chronology of the registred survey responses falling-off of respondent numbers thereafter. that had originally been scheduled to end Most recipients deal with e-mails imme- on 30 March 2007. To avoid giving diately: either they delete them, or they offence, and to respond to the inevitable take action without delay. Some keep this requests made by those contacted, it also kind of e-mail with a view to replying at a proved necessary to deal with a number of more convenient moment – especially if request e-mailed to the survey’s address the questionnaire appears to be a long ([email protected]) – for one – but few of these do in fact return to example, requests to be removed from the them in the end. It is vital, therefore, that list of contacts or to resolve any technical the invitation e-mail should convincingly problems encountered in trying to access establish the survey’s professional status the questionnaire. and engage the respondent’s interest; but this is not sufficient to ensure a satisfactory Though the start of the survey was promising, response rate. with nearly one hundred responses in just a few days, the flow lessened over the following It is why it is customary to send reminders months. By the time of the third reminder, (33) ‘Spamming’ (or ‘spam’) is the massive and sometimes to all the contacts who have not replied at ten days before the deadline, replies had repeated sending of unsolicited all, or have not completed the question- been received from less than two-thirds of e-mails to people with whom the sender has never had any naire. Sending too many reminders, howe- those contacted. Some fifteen respondents, contact and whose e-mail address ver, can be seen as ill-mannered and even for whom Web-based data entry had not the sender has got hold of in some as spamming(33), which would do neither worked or had proved unsuited to their underhand way. Spam consists of messages addressed the survey nor its organizer’s image any local circumstances, faxed their answers or on the basis of the unauthorized good. In general it is advisable to send an sent them as MSWord files, and these were harvesting of e-mail addresses using search engines in the public initial invitation and follow this up with no then re-entered by UNESCO. By the close of areas of the Internet (Web-sites, more than two further attempts/ the survey period, 404 people had been discussion forums, distribution lists, chat-rooms, etc.), or through reminders; though there may be particular entered in the application’s database as the handing on or trading cases that warrant a greater number respondents: 328 of these had reached the of addresses without the people concerned being informed or (personal friends, colleagues, or subordi- final page, and 76 had given up along the having any opportunity to give or nates). This was in fact the situation in the way. withhold their consent. Such case of this survey, and in the end there address gathering is accordingly an improper practice, and outlawed in were, in addition to the ‘recruitment’ Not all the replies were usable, however: France by Article 25 of the Act of e-mail (18 December 2006) another four some were ‘invalid’ and could not be included 6 January 1978. See the 1999 Report on ‘Publipostage sets of reminders during 2007 (on 8 in the analysis for fear of vitiating the Electronique’ (e-mail advertising) January, 20 February, 22 March and 30 results. The first condition for a completed by the French Data Protection Authority CNIL. March 2007), the last of these announcing questionnaire to be valid was that question (34) Question Q0j: Your country(ies) (34) a four-day extension to the survey period Q0j was answered: this question, as we of expertise. Ò

225 CHAPTER V

shall see, was essential for the compiling of The degree of completion of a ques- statistics by country. Replies to questions tionnaire is calculated by the number of Q01(35), Q05(36), Q13a(37), Q31(38) and Q41a(39) questions answered as a percentage of were also important, to a lesser extent, the total number of possible questions, since they introduce the questionnaire’s which in this case were 110. The main themes. It was also advisable to distribution of the returns by percentage of compare replies in order to weed out any questions answered gives an overview double counting. At the end of this valida- of the respondents’ participation in the tion process, 34 returns had been set aside, survey. Most of the respondents 25 for failing to answer the essential completed between 45 per cent and 75 questions. The analysis was therefore per cent of the questions. We should carried out on the 369 respondents note that it is to be expected that total who had provided valid returns. It will be questions completed will fall short of noted that nearly 75 per cent of 100 per cent because some questions these do contain the sequence act as filters and, according to the ‘Q0j+Q01+Q5+Q13a+Q31+Q41a’, that is, replies, prevent access to irrelevant replies to each of the questions that portions of the questionnaire. introduce one of the questionnaire’s main subjects.

3) Status of the survey and of the results

Before the analysis begins, it is necessary to profile and type of e-mail address: so much consider the status of the survey and the so that it is possible to measure the relevance of any analysis of its results. This determinants and their effects on the gene- survey cannot, for a number of reasons, ral representativeness of the survey. claim to be statistically sound, nor can its replies claim to be representative: the exer- It goes almost without saying that different cise was from the start a survey, and not a individuals would have different reactions, poll. The initial sample was not a represen- or reflexes, when faced with such a tative one, and the only representativity questionnaire; they would draw on actively sought was in relation to the different kinds of previous experience and involvement of all UNESCO Member States. knowledge. And they would not necessarily This is the only criterion by which a all understand the questions in the same comparative analysis can be supported. way neither, and so forth. This applies in fact to all sociological surveys; but working with Moreover, this absence of representative- an international population multiplies the ness was magnified tenfold by the eventual impact of such differences on respondents’ participation rate and the final replies interpretation of the questionnaire. The obtained. The means of transmission of the most essential thing is to be aware of this, questionnaire caused some technical above all when it comes to the analysis, so problems, which amplified these as to avoid over-interpreting similarities in uncertainties. The initial electronic mailing replies that are not in fact based on simila- (35) Question Q01: How would you list had its share of incorrect or unreachable rities in thinking, and to avoid partiality to generally qualify the state of philosophy teaching in your country? addresses, and there was no way of schemata based solely on the majority (36) Question Q05: Is philosophy preventing losing a number of contacts. culture among the survey’s organizers. In specifically taught in your country at Widespread proper use of the Web-based view of all these reservations, it will be primary level? application to respond to the questionnaire appreciated that the results at individual (37) Question Q13a: Is philosophy still taught at secondary level as a was also at the mercy of Internet access level must be treated with great caution. separate subject? (which varied greatly), a minimum level of For analysis, everything in fact depends on (38) Question Q31: Is philosophy technical competence and tenacity in the type of question: ‘subjective’ questions, taught as a separate discipline in higher education institutions? responding, or the availability of the people such as the one that asked respondents (39) Question Q41a: Are there other to be surveyed, for example. Indeed, rates how they rate the condition of philosophy associations, institutions, etc., that contribute to the teaching of philoso- of response and non-response varied education, can still be meaningful at a phy in your country? greatly according to country, personal worldwide level whether or not the replies

226 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM are representative, because they concern comparable, as far as this is possible. As the sphere of the individual and the realm well as these sub-populations defined by of feelings and perceptions. ‘Objective’ exogenous criteria (on the basis of the questions, on the other hand (for example respondents’ characteristics), there are ‘Is there any philosophy teaching at the others that can be defined on the basis of primary-school level?’) essentially depend the analysis itself. If some particular analysis on a knowledge of the country under suggests relevant indicators, it will then scrutiny – though this does not guarantee provide an opportunity to define certain there will be no contradictory replies. The sub-populations in an endogenous way. legitimacy of putting together replies of These ‘thematic’ sub-populations will be this kind is strictly dependant on the degree defined on the basis of issues inherent in to which the survey obtains a representa- the survey (the state of philosophy education tive response rate for the countries or the degree of international connection of concerned. those involved, for example), and it is then highly worthwhile subjecting them to The low number of responses to the survey analysis in their turn. That is precisely what (369) disallows any precise targeting of we have done in this summary chapter, sub-populations. The number of analytic which aims to produce the tools for a sys- criteria that may be combined to interpret tematic analysis of the whole of the ques- the various results is limited to one or two. tionnaire. The questions can be grouped At this level, the tables and curves are only according to the kind of information reliable if read one way, in terms of general required of respondents: identification and tendencies. Minimal interpretations, and description of respondents; facts about the fairly rough ones, will have to suffice for state of philosophy education; the questions that, as we have seen, must be respondent’s feelings about the state of viewed in relative terms. Here, the open- philosophy education and its evolution, in ended questions and the additional the recent past and in future; the merits suggestions and comments made in attributed to philosophy education; the connection to the closed questions afford degree to which a country’s philosophers some appreciation of the regional and are engaged in philosophy internationally; cultural differences involved, and of any access to documentation; and questions consensus that may have materialized on a concerning institutions; primary education; particular issue. secondary education; higher education; and informal philosophy teaching. Apart from the level of the individual, we can consider a number of sub-populations. One basic object of the survey was to Considering the replies in relation to the observe the way UNESCO Member States respondents’ professional profiles (question behave when it comes to philosophy Q0c) certainly helps in explaining certain education: the organization of philosophy answers: for example, those concerning the teaching, for example, which was one of merits of teaching philosophy. Then again, the survey’s main subjects and can only be it is of course possible and desirable to approached at the national level. The analyze the distribution of the replies by geographical component is a variable that country; indeed, analysis of national truly applies across the whole of the survey; situations is of the essence in this survey. as a result we may, and indeed must, The country in which the respondent works interpret the survey at this level of observation, (question Q0j) was chosen as the primary for this is one of the principal keys to its criterion for associating a given response analysis. The shift from individual respondent with a given country. It should be noted to country as the unit of observation itself that, in sampling terms, this analysis by poses certain technical problems and countries is fraught with problems: it obli- important issues of interpretation. ges us to work with some very small samples, and this unavoidable circumstance forces us to bring specially-designed solutions to bear on the country figures in order to make the national profiles

227 CHAPTER V

From the ambiguities of a country- ended questions and in the suggestions and by-country analysis to the building comments offered, but also in the concerted of a synthesis of countries’ qualitative analysis that forms part of this situations investigation.

It must be borne in mind that the replies Putting the information together at obtained through this survey are subjective country level and, above all, personal rather than official. Obviously, therefore, responses to some If we are to work at country level it is advisa- questions will at times be partly or totally at ble to set ourselves rules for combining individual odds with the true situation of the country in replies into a single-country summary. This is question, all the more so where the number of all the more necessary that the number of respondents from that country is low. It also replies varies greatly from country to often happens that respondents from a single country, and this is then the only way of country provide quite different replies, even in successfully making comparisons. There is a the case of questions about ‘objective’ range of possibilities for constructing a synthesis, features of the state of philosophy education. and which is chosen will vary from question to Here, the greater the number of respondents question; but as a general rule there are two from a country is the greater the divergence problems which any such indicators need to we are likely to see. This survey does not have overcome. Firstly, it is necessary to get beyond the resources to reconstruct the official or the inconsistencies among a country’s respon- ‘real’ condition of philosophy teaching in each dents, and adopt a rule for expressing a clear country, nor indeed any such remit: that is not position for the country. In the case of ‘yes/no’ its object, and it would be an inadequate questions, we generally chose the following instrument for drawing up an inventory of indicator: the number of ‘yes’ replies as a per- that sort. The persons contacted as the sur- centage of all explicit replies (‘yes’ + ‘no’) for a vey’s potential respondents have a very great given country. This was not a naïve choice: it range of profiles, and only some of them works on the assumption that every ‘yes’ could claim to embody any kind of ‘official’ response is a voluntary act; and, crucially, by response from the country in question. Their using explicit replies as the denominator it contribution to the survey was based only on avoids confusing the answer ‘no’ with no answer their own knowledge and opinions about the at all. Secondly, the indicator must be indepen- condition of philosophy teaching in their own dent of the number of responses from the country and in the world, from a strictly personal country, a number which varies among the point of view. Individuals’ characteristics and countries in the survey. For if we want to com- situations will affect their responses, not least pare national situations it is important to work their status, their professional and philosophical on the basis of information that does not take experience, their personal beliefs, and someti- any account of these countries’ relative preponde- mes also their attitude to the survey itself and rance. Here again it is a sufficient response to their intentions in completing it (to denounce work in terms of percentages, provided we do a situation, to express dissatisfaction, or to not attach too much importance to the figu- express their lack of interest, for example). res in themselves, for the range of variation of While it is inevitable that there will be contra- these percentages is greatly affected by the dictions and inconsistencies in the replies number of respondents in the country concerned. forthcoming from a single country, these can It is rather the dominant tendencies we should nevertheless be useful for the analysis; for in be looking at: a simple observation that ‘yes’ their own way they provide information about responses to a particular question are (or are the state of philosophy teaching in that country, not) in the majority is often quite enough for about people’s positions and the current deba- analysis and interpretation. Another level of tes and tensions within the discipline. This is synthesis is the combining of replies to a number information which would not have emerged of questions so as to construct a general indi- from a simple census of official reports and cator for the matters they concern; here the statements, but which becomes apparent and indicator is generally the number of questions explicit once the contributors have time to to which responses from a country are express themselves and give free rein to their ‘positive’ in the sense, for instance, that a thoughts, not only in the answers to open- majority answered ‘yes’.

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Conclusion: A ground-breaking survey

The essential object of this survey was to bounds; but other problems can arise, for provide up-to-date information on the instance, in regard to translating the teaching of philosophy worldwide. questionnaire: vocabulary and syntax choi- Working on a global scale poses many ces have a notorious impact on the answers challenges and requires certain ambiguities given to questions asked in sociological sur- to be dealt with. A questionnaire addressed veys. We cannot, of course, measure their to people in every country of the world in impact on this particular survey; but we fact presupposes a certain consensus that may be quite sure that it is there. Cultural the subject of the survey does actually exist, differences can also arise in the way people and some agreement on how it is to be relate to technology: there may be different defined, as well as the terminology and ways of using the Web and its tools in concepts used within the survey. That is not different cultures, just as there are easily achieved, of course, especially in view differences in Internet access – the of the variety of cultures, the wide range of difference between broadband and dial-up, national traditions, and the wealth of to mention only one. different influences – religious, political, and other. This diversity would appear to be This survey, then, is an important particularly noticeable in the case of a milestone, but it marks only one stage. It discipline such as philosophy, especially as would only be an exaggeration to say that the object of the survey is not philosophy the work of extracting information from itself but the teaching of philosophy. Here the results really begins with the end of this again there are clearly very marked cultural chapter. For there are some analyses that differences among regions and countries, need a more sophisticated refining; a new in educational organization and teaching version of the questionnaire needs to be styles. Of course the very purpose of the drafted, taking observations and suggestions survey is to review this situation; but in into account; the database of people order to do so the questionnaire had to connected with philosophy and its teaching incorporate many preliminary assumptions, around the world needs to achieve a denser some of which can prove a hindrance to coverage; and the survey would benefit that purpose. Education is not organized in from being offered again a few months a uniform way around the world, and yet from now to incorporate additional categories the questionnaire was largely based on the of returns. These are the tasks we face; experience of the resource persons in the and by tackling them we shall be in a position, countries which responded. Accordingly, on a regular basis and for the medium questions that are well-judged for one term, to have up-to-date information on particular geographical area can be incon- the state of philosophy teaching around the gruous or incomprehensible in other pla- world, and on the feelings and everyday ces. UNESCO’s experience in this domain experience of those most closely involved has certainly kept these ambiguities within in it.

229 CHAPTER V

The UNESCO online questionnaire

I. GENERAL OVERVIEW 1. How would you generally qualify the state of the teaching of philosophy in your country? Tick the corresponding box Excellent Satisfactory Not too satisfactory Inexistent Other

2. Do institutional projects exist in your country that aim at: Tick the corresponding box > Reinforcing/Improving the teaching of philosophy Yes No If yes, at what level: Primary Secondary Higher If yes, please specify > Limiting the teaching of philosophy Yes No If yes, at what level: Primary Secondary Higher If yes, please specify > Eliminating the teaching of philosophy Yes No If yes, at what level: Primary Secondary Higher If yes, please specify

3. What are the recognised principal merits of the teaching of philosophy in your country(1)? Tick the corresponding box(es) Strengthening the autonomy of the individual Building a methodology Reinforcing knowledge Building up capacity for judgement Contributing to civic education Others

II. PRIMARY EDUCATION First six (6) years of education 4. How many academic years does primary education count for in your country?

5. Is philosophy specifically taught in your country at primary level? Tick the corresponding box

(1) Particularly with reference Yes to official programmes and texts No 230 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

6. If yes, in which year (grade)?

7. In the case of philosophy taught specifically, can you indicate the main methods used? Initiation Discussion workshops Direct teaching Other

8. Is the teaching of philosophy envisaged to be introduced shortly at primary level in your country? Yes No If yes, please specify

9. In your opinion, what is the objective of the teaching of philosophy at primary level? Tick the corresponding box(es) Strengthening the autonomy of the individual Building a methodology Reinforcing knowledge Building up capacity for judgement Contributing to civic education Others

10. Is there some experience in your country regarding the introduction to philosophy at pre-primary level (i.e. before primary education)? Yes No If yes, can you briefly describe the objectives and methodologies used?

III. Secondary Education 11. In which year(s) of secondary education is philosophy taught? Tick the corresponding box(es) Secondary education First part (first years of secondary education) 1st year 2nd year 3rd year 4th year Second part (last years of secondary education) 5th year 6th year 7th year

12. In your opinion, what is the objective of the teaching of philosophy at secondary level? Tick the corresponding box(es) Strengthening the autonomy of the individual Building a methodology Reinforcing knowledge Building up capacity for judgement Contributing to civic education Others

231 CHAPTER V

13. Is philosophy still taught at secondary level as a separate subject? Tick the corresponding box Yes No If yes, is the teaching of philosophy tailored according to the specialisations (orientations) of students in their secondary education? Yes No If yes, in which type of secondary education is philosophy taught? Tick the corresponding box(es) General secondary education Option “science” Option “literature” Option “economics and social sciences” Yes Yes Yes Obligatory Obligatory Obligatory Optional Optional Optional No No No Technical and professional secondary education Yes Obligatory Optional No

14. What is the exact title of the course taught? Level of teaching Exact title of the course If the title is not «philosophy», please indicate the one used. First part (first years of secondary education) Second part (last years of secondary education) Technical and professional secondary education General secondary education - Option « science» - Option « literature» - Option « economics and social sciences»

15. If philosophy is not taught in your country at secondary level as a separate discipline, is its introduction envisaged in the short term? Yes No If yes, in which type of secondary education? Tick the corresponding box(es) General secondary education Option «science» Option «literature» Option «economics and social sciences» Technical and professional secondary education

16. Would you say that in your country philosophy is also taught in the framework of other courses/disciplines such as: Tick the corresponding box(es) Course Literature Yes No History Yes No Moral education Yes No Religious education Yes No Civic education Yes No Sciences Yes No 232 Please explain: PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

17. Was the teaching of philosophy interrupted / provisionally suspended / replaced by another course judged to be one and the same / reformed in the last 20 years? Action Official motive(s) Interrupted Provisionally suspended Replaced by another course judged to be one and the same Reformed

18. How many hours per week are in average dedicated to philosophy in the secondary education? Tick the corresponding box(es) General secondary education Technical and professional secondary education 0h 1h –2h 3h – 4h 5h – 6h More than 6h

19. Do all philosophy professors at secondary level have university degrees in philosophy? Yes No Not as a necessity What are the degrees required to teach this discipline?

20. Do philosophy professors at secondary level benefit from continued training (seminars for the renewal of knowledge)? Yes No Not necessarily

21. Are official handbooks available to philosophy professors in secondary education for the teaching of the discipline? Yes No If not, what other materials are being used?

22. Are official handbooks available to students in secondary education for the study of philosophy? Yes No If not, what other materials are being used?

23. In what way is philosophy most often taught at secondary level? Tick the corresponding box(es) Traditional courses (lectures) Reading and critical analysis of philosophical texts Discussions/ Debates with the participation of students Other:

233 CHAPTER V

24. What are the pedagogical tools most frequently used by philosophy professors at secondary level? Philosophy handbooks Files produced by the professor (with excerpts from texts, etc.) Other :

25. How is the knowledge of the students evaluated in practice? Written work Oral examination Evaluation of participation in debates / discussions Presentations (on a notion, a philosopher’s work, etc.) Other :

26. Is, in secondary education, the accent placed primarily on one of the following aspects: Tick the corresponding box(es)

Dimensions of the teaching Type of teaching of philosophy General Secondary education Technical and Option professional Option “science” Option “literature” “economics and secondary social science” education Strengthening the autonomy of the individual (Studying ethics and values) Building a methodology (Developing capacities for logical thinking) Reinforcing knowledge (History of philosophy and of ideas) Building up capacity for judgement (The place of philosophy in reflection on contemporary problems) Contributing to civic education (Deepening certain notions)

27. What place is given to local philosophers or to philosophers close to your culture in the philosophy programmes in your country? Very important Not very important Negligible Please specify:

27bis. Are the other philosophical traditions taught at secondary level in your country? Yes No

Access to publications and documentation

28. How would you qualify, in general terms, the documentary resources on philosophy in the libraries / documentation centres of the institutions of secondary education? Excellent Satisfactory Not too satisfactory Inexistent Other:

234 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

28bis. Can you say that there are significant inequalities in the availability of these documentary resources? Yes No If yes, on what basis? Urban / Rural Private / Public

29. In your opinion, what is missing the most in terms of documentary resources on philosophy in the libraries / documentation centres of the institutions of secondary education: Tick the corresponding box(es) Philosophy encyclopaedias Philosophy dictionaries Philosophy anthologies Translations of the original works of philosophers Periodicals specialised in philosophy Introductory works on philosophy IT support materials Documents in the national language Documents in a foreign language Other:

30. Do students have access to Internet in your institution? Yes No

IV - Higher Education

31. Is philosophy taught as a separate discipline in higher education institutions? Yes No

32. In which faculties is philosophy taught? Faculty of philosophy Faculty of letters Other:

33. What types of philosophy degrees are awarded in the higher education? Tick the corresponding box Bachelor’s degree in philosophy Master’s degree in philosophy Research degree in philosophy PhD in philosophy

34. Can you give an estimate as to the number of universities in which philosophy is taught? In numbers: 0 1 - 5 More than 10 In percentage: 0 % 20% More than 20%

235 CHAPTER V

35. Is philosophy also taught in private universities? Yes No If yes, in how many:

36. Do you think that philosophy has been taught less in the universities of your country in the last few years? Yes No Please specify the motives:

37. What are the job opportunities for students with university degrees in philosophy? Teaching Research Private sector Other:

Access to publications and documentation

38. How would you qualify, in general terms, the documentary resources on philosophy in the libraries / documentation centres of the institutions of higher education? Excellent Satisfactory Not too satisfactory Inexistent Other:

39. In your opinion, what is missing the most in terms of documentary resources on philosophy in the libraries / documentation centres of the institutions of higher education: Tick the corresponding box(es) Philosophy encyclopaedias Philosophy dictionaries Philosophy anthologies Access to philosophical works: Translations of the original works of philosophers Periodicals specialised in philosophy Publications popularising philosophy CD ROMs Documentation in the national language Documentation in a foreign language Other:

40. How would you qualify the use of Internet in the teaching of philosophy in your country? Excellent Satisfactory Not too satisfactory Inexistent Other:

V- Institutions

41. Are there other associations, institutions, etc., that contribute to the teaching of philosophy in your country? Yes No Please specify: 236 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

42. If yes, do they organize training seminars for professors teaching in secondary and/or higher education institutions, and public debates? Yes No Please specify:

VI - Informal Teaching Dissemination of Philosophical Debates

43. Are there in your country any practices that contribute to the promotion of philosophical debate? Public conferences in philosophy Cafés philosophiques Events: « Days » dedicated to philosophical debate Other: Please specify:

44. What space do the media in your country, including the press, give to philosophical debate? None Little Some (periodically) A lot

VII - International Cooperation

45. Would you say that the philosophy professors and researchers from your country regularly participate in research networks (seminars, symposiums, meetings of specialised societies, etc.) at regional and international level? Yes No

46. If not, could you explain the reasons? Lack of means Political difficulties Little access to information Other:

47. Would you say that researchers in your country are sufficiently represented in world congresses on philosophy that take place every five years? Yes No

48. Would you say that researchers in your country are sufficiently represented in international philosophical associations? Yes No

49. Is there a programme of international academic exchange for philosophy in your country? Yes, for professors Yes, for students No

50. Do scholarship programmes for research promoting particularly promote the international mobility of researchers and students exist in your country? Yes, for professors Yes, for students No 237 POINT OF VIEW PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

W ‘It is especially needful to make once again a serious business of philosophy’ Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Preface from The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)

Having read with great interest the many tion that philosophy is not sophia – at once analyses and ideas presented in this study, science and wisdom – it is the desire for, the Reading committee wished to offer its the search for, the love of this sophia. Only reflections with regard to the scope of this zealots or the ignorant cling to their cer- work. tainties, whereas the philosopher is a pilgrim in quest of the truth. Today, at a time when At the end of what constitutes one stage in science is seen to constitute the essence of a long-term process, what can we draw our knowledge, and technology the from the experience represented by this essence of our capacities, philosophy seems study? What have we learnt? What are its a resolutely reflective discipline. As lessons for tomorrow? The vastness of the concerns science, philosophy promotes a subject naturally reflects the vastness of the critical reflection on the foundations of this philosophies of the world today. knowledge. As concerns technology, ‘Philosophies’, because it concerns, as it wisdom, in the modern sense, is a critical always has and always will, a multiple reflection on the conditions in which tech- vision – we cannot limit it to any one vision nological capacities are developed and of philosophy; even less, to a ‘pre-eminent’ used. Philosophical teaching is defined as philosophy. A truly reflective, demanding bringing freedom into the exercise of critical exercise, one that is formative and ideally thinking – and through critical thinking, liberating, philosophy comes in a variety of exercising freedom. It goes without saying, guises, arising from the diverse methods, thinking in this case is guided thinking: the understandings and inflections that have pupil and the student are not left to find developed from different cultural, political, their way alone through the vastness of historical or religious traditions. The broad knowledge and the practice of philosophy. compass of the present undertaking serves This objective, which could be said, in a to illustrate the myriad facets of this disci- way, to be that of any teaching – if teaching is pline, which is sometimes taught as a dis- to be understood as instruction, the trans- tinct subject, sometimes as an element mission of knowledge or specific skills, and within other disciplines, such as literature, a preparation for social and professional life ethics, history or the sciences. In some – should and does direct the teaching of cases, sadly, it is absent from the education philosophy. Because it is a question of system entirely. making rational judgements and not simply expressing opinions, because it is not only a One of the great merits of this study is that question of knowing, but of understanding it has reminded us with force and convic- the meanings behind, and the principles of

239 POINT OF VIEW

this knowledge, this objective requires time Other crucial issues were tackled in this – a substantial amount of time. It is a long study. The question of how to institutiona- and difficult process, even when supported lize and give more recognition to philoso- by solid instruction and rigorous, open, auto- phical practices that, leaving the school or nomous reflection. university context, have been introduced into other situations where philosophical The genuine vitality that we see in the tea- reflection and teaching also have their ching of philosophy today is cause for hope place, even if on the surface they seem dis- and enthusiasm. This is not to ignore the tant from this discipline. The question of criticisms that some can address in relation the careers that students and doctoral can- to the state of philosophy teaching today, didates in philosophy could hope to pursue nor its limits or the efforts to curb or check was also the object of in-depth analysis. its practice that we find in some places. But This examination of the state of the art of the many initiatives being carried out in this philosophy teaching today allowed us to field – from philosophy for children to inno- highlight the great variety of doors that can vative practices such as philosophical classes open to philosophy graduates: in journa- and workshops being introduced in busines- lism, communications, publishing, human ses or prisons – illustrate a real presence of resources, or within international govern- philosophy and of its teaching today, even mental or non-governmental organizations. though these are non-traditional practices. Here again it comes down to a question of Indeed, as Roger-Pol Droit judiciously poin- balance, one that is often difficult to reach. ted out to us, why should one be surprised How is the teaching of philosophy to be by the teaching of philosophical practices accorded the value it deserves without when one does not wonder about the tea- drowning it or diluting it in other discipli- ching of calculus, which is not the entirety nes, considered to be – wrongly or rightly – of mathematics? A non-traditional teaching more profitable and more practical, and for a non-traditional discipline. Its variety of therefore more relevant? How can one find forms, and especially the range of openings a modus operandi between educational they lead to, are in this respect very clear curricula, which are often determined at according to the countries they are found the governmental level, and the necessary in. One cannot but notice, and this is of academic freedom of teachers? This raises course something we are delighted to see, the question of textbooks and teaching that philosophy leaves few indifferent. Even manuals. How are we to give due recognition if at times some seek to minimize it, to to the contributions and the heritage of the mask it behind other disciplines (such as thinkers who preceded us without remai- literature), it can and must enjoy a special ning prisoners to this canon, and at the place in the intellectual and critical develop- same time support the contribution that ment of the child, the pupil, the student. It philosophy can make towards understanding is through their contact with this difficult contemporary problems? The discipline of but eminently formative discipline that philosophy must overflow its banks, so to these adults in the making earn the battle speak, so that it can be applied within all stripes of their autonomy. The debate over other disciplines and enable the keen whether to prioritize a historical approach analysis of the problems faced by the world to the teaching of philosophy or an today. Philosophical research must be approach based on themes or concepts understood to be a requirement for innova- continues. Here again, as philosophy tea- tion and a source of intellectual creativity ches us, it is the dialectics of the argument that cannot be constrained by prejudices or that must be sought. It is neither a question rigid norms. Here a new field of study sug- of dwelling exclusively on lists of authors, gests itself. Philosophy is not an idealistic, famous or less so, nor of concentrating on abstract concern, but a call to modify real concepts that are often difficult to unders- situations. Philosophy is anything but tand when removed from any contextual monolithic, fixed and immutable. base. The two approaches should, rather, Continually changing, like the phoenix that be able to nourish one another and to lead unceasingly arises from its own ashes, to a creditable stability. philosophy feeds itself and is forever being created anew. In this respect, perhaps it

240 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM would be advisable to repeat this UNESCO takes precedence over a desire to present survey, focusing this time on the state of one’s ideas and open them to debate? To philosophical research throughout the offer oneself up to the critique of others is world, as was done in the 1978 study revie- the very essence of philosophy and its tea- wed by Paul Ricoeur in Main Trends of ching; this must be repeated continually if Research in the Social and Human Sciences one hopes to escape the false peace of (edited by Jacques Havet)(1). clinging to ideas believed to be eternally true. Philosophy, particularly in its teaching, must welcome diversity and other world views. To all those concerned about finding new What indeed is the use of accumulating directions for the teaching of philosophy: university diplomas if one does not have let us dream and invent aloud. (1) Jacques Havet, (ed.), Main the capacity to listen and be enriched by Trends of Research in the Social philosophical dialogue, and thus by the and Human Sciences. Paris/La Haye/New York, Moutan views of others? What is the point of intel- Éditeur/UNESCO, 1978, Part 2, Vol. lectual expertise if it cannot be shared? 2, pp. 967–1645. See also Patrice The Reading Vermeren, La philosophie saisie What does the statute – sometimes self- par l’UNESCO. Paris, UNESCO, awarded – of ‘philosopher’ mean, if egoism committee 2003. www.unesco.org.

241 ANNEXES Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Annex 1 244 Committee of experts - Reading committee X

Annex 2 245 List of other contributors to the study X

Annex 3 247 Glossary

Annex 4 253 Some useful bibliographical references

Annex 5 271 List of used acronyms

Annex 6 275 Index of mentioned countries

243 Copyright : Jérémie Dobiecki ANNEXES

Annex 1: Committee of experts - Reading committee

Committee of experts Reading committee (UNESCO)

Michel TOZZI - Chapter I Moufida GOUCHA University Professor in Education Sciences. Chief of the Human Security, Democracy Director du CERFEE (Montpellier 3, France). and Philosophy Section, Social and Human Editor-in-chief of Diotime-L'Agorà, an Sciences Sector international review of didactics of philosophy. Sonia BAHRI Luca SCARANTINO - Chapters II and III Chief of the Section for International Deputy Secretary General of the Cooperation in Higher Education, International Council for Philosophy and Education Sector Humanistic Sciences (ICPHS) and member of the Steering Committee of the assisted by the programme specialists of International Federation of Philosophical the Human Security, Democracy and Societies (FISP). Philosophy Section, Social and Human Sciences Sector Oscar BRENIFIER - Chapter IV Doctor of Philosophy. Founder of the Feriel AIT-OUYAHIA Institut de Pratiques Philosophiques Arnaud DROUET (France). Managing editor of Diotime- Kristina BALALOVSKA L'Agorà, an international review of didactics of Phinith CHANTHALANGSY philosophy. as well as by the interns Pascal CRISTOFOLI - Chapter V Chiara SPONZILLI Engineer at the Laboratory of Historical Zita SCHERKAMP Demography, École des Hautes Études en Sophie ARIÉ Sciences Sociales (EHESS), Paris. and with the particular cooperation of René ZAPATA Chief a.i. of the Executive Office, Social and Human Sciences Sector and of Maya MAKHLOUF SARRAZIN Liaison Officer, Executive Office

244 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Annex 2: List of other contributors to the study

Pre-school and primary levels Philosophy for Children - IAPC (United (Chapter I) States of America); Ekkehard Martens, Professor of Didactics of Philosophy and Gérard Auguet, Professor at the Institut Ancient Languages at the University of Universitaire de Formation des Maîtres Hambourg (Germany); Eva Marsal, (IUFM) of Bordeaux (France); Petr Bauman, Professor at the Karlsruhe University of Professor at the University of South Education (Germany); Stephan Millett, Bohemia and coordinator of the Philosophy Director of the Centre for Applied Ethics for Children project (Czech Republic); Beate and Philosophy at Curtin University, Perth Boressen, Professor at the Oslo University (Australia); Félix García Moriyon, Professor College (Norway); Daniela Camhy, of Philosophy, Vice-president of the Professor at the Faculty of Philosophy, International Council of Philosophical University of Graz, and Director of Austrian Inquiry with Children - ICPIC (Spain); Freddy Center for Philosophy with Children and Mortier, Professor at Ghent University Youth – ACPC (Austria); Sylvain Connac, (Belgium); Øyvind Olsholt, founder of lecturer at Montpellier 3 University (France); Children and Youth Philsophers - CYP Antonio Cosentino, Professor and Director (Norway); Yvette Pilon, Doctor of Sciences of CRIF (Italy); Marie-France Daniel, of Education (France); Diego Antonio Professor at the University of Montréal Pineda, Associate Professor at the Faculty (Canada); Irène de Puig, Director of of Philosophy, Pontificia Universidad GrupIREF (Spain); Takara Dobashi, Professor Javeriana, Bogota (Colombia); Marina at Hiroshima University (Japan); Nicolas Go, Santi, Professor at the University of Padua Professor of Philosophy at the Institut (Italy); Michel Sasseville, Professor at the Universitaire de Formation des Maîtres Faculty of Philosophy, Laval University (IUFM) of Nice (France); Sylvie Guirlinguer- (Canada); Ariane Schjelderup, founder of Especier, National Education Inspector Children and Youth Philsophers - CYP (France); Valdemar Molina Grajeda, (Norway); Roger Sutcliffe, President of the Director for elementary education at the Society for Advancing Philosophical Enquiry State of Mexico, and his collaborators: and Reflection in Education - SAPERE and Agripin Garcia Estrada Zeida and Julieta the International Council for Philosophical Mariaud Vergara (Mexico); Marie-Pierre Inquiry with Children - ICPIC (United Grosjean-Doutrelepont, Professor of Kingdom); Michel Tozzi, University Philosophy at the Haute École Provinciale Professor in Education Sciences, Director of de Mons (Belgium); Rosnani Hashim, CERFEE, Montpellier 3 (France); Marcel Associate Professor in the Department of Voisin, Professor and President of the Education, International Islamic University PhARE (Belgium); Barbara Weber, Professor (Malaysia); Karlfriedrich Herb, Professor at at the University of Regensburg (Germany). the University of Regensburg (Germany); Walter Omar Kohan, Professor of Secondary education (Chapter II) Philosophy at the University of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Claudine Leleux, Professor Daniel Bourquin, teacher at the School of of Philosophy at the Haute École Philosophy, Gymnase de Bienne Pédagogique de Bruxelles (Belgium); Pierre (Switzerland); André Carrier, philosophy Lebuis, Professor at the University of teacher at the Collège Lévi-Lauson, Québec Québec in Montréal (Canada); Zosimo Lee, (Canada); Barbara Cassin, philosopher, phi- Professor at the University of the Philippines lologist and researcher at CNRS (France); (Philippines); Jacques Lévine, psychoanalyst Maria Irene Danna, Professor (Dominican for children, President of the Association Republic); Mario De Pasquale, coordinator des Groupes de Soutien au Soutien - of the Didactics Commission of the Società AGSAS (France); Gregory Maughn, Director Filosofica Italiana – SFI, Rome (Italy); Ramón of the Institute for the Advancement of Gil, Professor (Dominican Republic); Johnny

245 ANNEXES

Gonzalez, Professor (Dominican Republic); (United States of America); Pierre Sané, Walter Omar Kohan, Professor of Assistant Director-General for Social and Philosophy at the University of the State of Human Sciences (UNESCO); Luca Maria Rio de Janeiro (Brazil); Nimet Kuçuk, philo- Scarantino, philosopher and Deputy sophy teacher (Turkey); Aziz Lazrak, Secretary General of the International Secretary General of the the Moroccan Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Association of Philosophy Teachers Studies - ICPHS (Italy); Fathi Triki, philoso- (Morocco) ; Mireille Lévy, teacher at the pher and Chairholder of the UNESCO Chair School of Philosophy, Gymnase de Bienne in Philosophy at the University of Tunis I (Switzerland); Josef Niznik, Professor, (Tunisia); Patrice Vermeren, Professor of Institute of Philosophy and Sociology, Polish Philosophy at University of Paris VIII and Academy of Sciences (Poland); Pierre Paroz, Director of the Centro Franco-Argentino de teacher at the School of Philosophy, Altos Estudios of the University of Buenos Gymnase de Bienne (Switzerland); Alfredo Aires (France/Argentina). Reis, Professor of Philosophy, Coimbra (Portugal); Suk-won Song, Researcher in Other ways to discover philosophy Higher Education, Curriculum Policy (Chapter IV) Division, Ministry of Education (Republic of Korea); Michel Tozzi, University Professor in Patrick Azérad, librarian and Public Libraries Education Sciences, Director of CERFEE, Director in Villeneuve St Georges (France); Montpellier 3 (France); Fathi Triki, philoso- Oscar Brenifier, President of the Institut de pher and Chairholder of the UNESCO Chair Pratiques Philosophiques (France); Carolyn in Philosophy at the University of Tunis I Callahan, Professor at the University of (Tunisia); Miguel Vázquez, Professor of Virginia (United States of America); Jean- Philosophy (Spain); Christian Wicky, François Chazerans, high school philosophy Secretary of the Secondary Education teacher and philosophical debate facilitator Philosophy Teachers’ Society (Switzerland); (France); Morten Fastvold, philosophy Zouari Yassine, Doctor of Sciences of counsellor at the University of Oslo Education (Tunisia); Abderrahim Zryouil, (Norway); Christopher Gillman, Professor at Inspector and National Coordinator for the University of Virginia (United States of Philosophy (Morocco). America); Günter Gorhan, philosophical discussion facilitator (France); Rayda Higher education (Chapter III) Guzmán, philosophy counsellor (Spain); Hans Kennepohl, Philosophy Month Project Josiane Boulad-Ayoub, philosopher and Manager, Stichting Maand van de Filosofie Chairlolder of the UNESCO Chair in Studies (Netherlands); Mauricio Langon, Professor of Philosophic Foundations of Justice and of Philosophy (Uruguay); Jennifer Merritt, Democratic Society at the University of Professor at the University of Virginia Québec in Montréal (Canada); In-Suk Cha, (United States of America); Karen Mizell, philosopher, Chairholder of the UNESCO Associate Professor at the Department of Chair in Philosophy at Seoul National Philosophy and Humanities, Utah Valley University and President of the State College (United States of America); International Council for Philosophy and Daniel Ouedraogo, teacher at Bilbalogho Humanistic Studies - ICPHS (Republic of Primary School, Ouagadougou (Burkina Korea); Abdelmalek Hamrouche, Dean of Faso); Marianne Remacle, philosopher, the General Inspectors in Philosophy Professor in Ethics and Assistant in (Algeria); Ioanna Kuçuradi, philosopher and Pedagogy at Université Libre de Bruxelles Chairholder of the UNESCO Chair in (Belgium); Eugénie Végléris, consultant, Philosophy at Hacettepe University (Turkey); qualified teacher and Doctor of Philosophy William McBride, philosopher and (France). Secretary General of the International Federation of Philosophical Societies - FISP

246 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Annex 3: Glossary

The definitions in this glossary reflect the terminology used by the authors of this study.

constructive and rigorous manner. The expression ‘community of enquiry’ is drawn from the publications of Charles Peirce and A John Dewey. Activity of philosophical nature Concept Any activity that relates to philosophy and An abstract or general idea, a unit of its practice. knowledge constituted by abstraction on the basis of traits or properties common to a set of objects, relations or entities.

Critical thinking Critical thinking helps decompose a C situation, a concept, a theory or a system of Cognitive thought into its most simple expression, in Related to, or based upon, the function or order to reflect their multiple meanings, the mental process of the acquisition of underlying intentions and the primary sta- knowledge. Cognition is characterized by kes. It is not only about putting the pieces certain processes such as attention, of a problem together – in a language/symbols, judgement, reasoning, systematic manner – and comparing all of memory and problem-solving. its aspects, but also about envisaging the cause-and-effect relationships (if–then) that Cognitive sciences can help resolve the problem. This also A set of scientific disciplines aiming at the includes the use of rigorous logic and study and understanding of the mechanisms methodology that allow realistic solutions of human, animal or artificial thought, and to be reached. Critical thinking aims to more generally, of every cognitive system, detect the underlying reasons for taking a namely every complex system of the particular position, the effects of each processing of information capable of decision and the limits of all conceptual sys- acquiring, conserving and transmitting tems – notably by comparing them to other knowledge. Cognitive sciences are based ways of constructing reality. on the study and modelling of phenomena as different as perception, intelligence, Culture of peace language, calculation, reasoning or According to the United Nations resolutions consciousness. Being interdisciplinary, A/RES/52/13 and A/53/243, the culture of cognitive sciences use data originating peace is a set of values, attitudes, from numerous scientific and engineering behaviours and modes of life that reject branches and in particular from linguistics, violence and prevent conflicts by attacking anthropology, psychology, neuroscience, them at their source with dialogue and philosophy and artificial intelligence. negotiation among individuals, groups and states. Community of enquiry / inquiry A method of work promoted by the Curriculum philosopher Matthew Lipman from the A curriculum designates the conception, United States, by which a children’s class- organization and programming of teaching room group is put into a situation of cogni- and learning activities according to a tive interactions. After reading an excerpt particular educational level or course. It of a novel, the children select a question unites the expression of objectives, related to it and then discuss it in a rational, contents, activities and methods of 247 ANNEXES

learning, as well as the methods and means Didactics of learning to used to evaluate the knowledge acquired philosophize by students. The design of a curriculum An orientation in the didactics of philosophy echoes educational objectives that in turn that focuses on the way in which an reflect social objectives. Curricula lead to individual or a group (of children, adolescents behaviours and practices that are anchored or adults) can learn to philosophize at in a given educational reality. For this rea- school or outside of the classroom. The son, a curriculum is based on certain objec- term also refers to the steps that a teacher tives that are then concretized into practical or facilitator takes to accompany this form. The degree to which a curriculum is learning process – namely the situations, prescribed (that is, how much room is given devices, tools, support materials, etc., that to teachers to personalize their curricula) he or she uses. varies from one country to another, according to the training of teachers and to the Discussion à visée philosophique level of autonomy that this training envisages. (DVP) - Philosophically directed discussion A French term that indicates a democratically organized debate on a philosophical question among students in a classroom (in which participants are given specific roles, such as D chair or secretary of the session, and follow Dialectic particular rules of debate, such as allowing From the Greek dialegesthai – to converse, each participant a certain time to speak). and dialegein – to sort, to distinguish. This The teacher assures the DVP meets certain word has the same etymology as ‘dialogue’ intellectual requirements: such as problem- and means etymologically to pass from one solving, conceptualization and rational part – an object, a notion, a problem – to argumentation. This method is inspired another by the means of language and rea- from concepts of cooperative pedagogy son (logos, in Greek). A dialectic is a (Célestin Freinet, Fernand Oury), the thought process that deals with apparently community of enquiry (Matthew Lipman), contradictory prepositions, basing itself on and the definition of requirements in the such contradictions in order to arrive at model of philosophizing (Michel Tozzi). new prepositions, which in turn lead to the reduction, the resolution or the explanation Dogmatic teaching of the initial contradictions. ‘Hegel’s dialec- A type of teaching that delivers or transmits tic’ is a thought process that consists of knowledge deemed to be the absolute and confronting opinions, claims, ideas or the- definite truth, without developing a critical ses that are apparently contrary or contra- approach. Such knowledge is often dictory, and in showing how they are rela- conveyed in a peremptory, authoritative ted by links of complementarity, unity or and categorical manner to circumvent any identity. questioning.

Didactics The study of the process of teaching and learning a particular discipline. One example is the didactics of philosophy. To the E contrary of pedagogy, which is centred on the transversal methods used in different Education disciplines (such as group work), on the ethical The global teaching or training that an individual and affective dimension of the educational receives in various areas (religious, moral, relationship, and on the management of social, technical, scientific, medical, etc.). group dynamics, didactics focuses primarily on the students’ relationship with the Ethics content of the discipline and on the ways in Ethics can be understood in two ways. For which the teacher imparts this knowledge. some philosophers, ethics refers to a series

248 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM of moral and non-obligatory rules founded on universal values – such as the respect of the individual – and inspired by principles of human rights. In this sense, ethics is a L normative definition of human behavior, whose objectives are to impart the ‘right Learning knowledge’ that leads to ‘correct’ action. In A set of activities that aim at acquiring and a rather different sense, ethics is often deepening theoretical and practical knowledge, understood as the concrete application of or at developing competences, skills or principles that guide human life in its behaviours. different activities: the art of good conduct, both in private and professional life. M H Maieutics To the ancient Greeks, maieutics referred to Hard sciences the midwife’s art of assisting in giving birth. The prototype of a hard science is mathematics. In philosophy, Socrates defined his activity Hard sciences are based on the scientific or as being ‘the art of assisting in giving birth hypothetico-deductive method, involving to truth’. Although Plato often associates experimental, quantifiable data and with a maieutics, or the Socratic method, with focus on accuracy and objectivity. The recollection (according to which the mind is language is univocal: formulated with pre- already impregnated with knowledge at cision, excluding all incertitude and birth), a second interpretation is also possi- ambiguity, and aiming at accuracy – unlike ble: to bring ideas into the light, to bring the experimental sciences, which incorpo- out awareness, by directed questioning in rate approximation in their calculations. the form of dialogues through which participants Despite certain attempts in logic using syl- learn to think for themselves – to discard logistic reasoning (as in the work of fixed ideas and to re-evaluate their opinions. Aristotle) or ‘demonstration’ (as in Spinoza’s Ethics), philosophy is not a hard Moral teaching science, because one can only think with, A type of teaching motivated by religious or in and through language, which by its very secular objectives, established in certain nature has multiple meanings. countries in order to transmit to students principles of action relating to moral consciousness, civility or citizenship. The teaching of morality aims at enabling students to formulate and be aware of a hierarchy of K values. Morality Kairos Morality is, from an anthropological and Kairos is an ancient Greek word meaning sociological point of view, a set of principles ‘the right or opportune moment’. It qualifies of judgement, of rules of conduct relative to the favourable instant: ‘Now is the good the good and the bad, of obligations, of moment to act’. It differs from the linear values sometimes established as a doctrine, conception of time, or chronos, and creates that a society gives to itself and that impose depth in the instant. The philosopher-facilitator themselves both on the individual and the is very sensible to kairos, as a moment in collective consciousness. These principles vary which a conceptual distinction, a question, according to the culture, beliefs, living condi- or an effort to find a definition or a refutation tions and needs of a society. From a philoso- surfaces within a group, and which the faci- phical point of view, morality concerns either litator seizes in order to exploit it philosophically. an intimate conviction that draws on universal principles of judgment or, to the contrary, judgments relative to a given social group. 249 ANNEXES

Philosophical practice A general term used to group different ways of putting philosophizing into prac- O tice. These practices are defined and distinguish themselves from academic philoso- Ontology phical activities by the following characte- Derived from ontos - ‘being’ or ‘existence - ristics, which vary in intensity according to ontology is a branch of philosophy that the specific practices: philosophical practice studies conceptions of reality and the is above all the constitutive activity of a nature of being through categories, princi- thinking subject, be it individual or collec- ples and characteristics. Philosophy deals tive; in general, philosophical practice invol- with general ontology, which refers to all ves the dialogical dimension of the philoso- existence. There are also partial ontologies, phical activity; it is open to all, as it does not specific to a particular field (such as physics, require any prior knowledge, although its chemistry or history) and spiritual, religious, practice involves the collaboration of a subjectivist, existentialist, formal and syste- competent person; it makes far less refe- mic ontologies. Other examples include the rence to the history of the discipline and ontology of ideas, of information or of erudition than does academic philosophy; it social existence. General ontology (onto- develops a culture of questioning more logy of the material world) is structural and than a culture of response, and favours phenomenological. It refers to all stages exchange and discussion to facilitate the and zones of existence, including the development of the student-philosophers mental, psychological and social. understandings and opinions. The philosophical practices are distinguished among themselves by the public they target and their methodologies, as well as in their philosophical assumptions.

P Philosophy Pedagogy The definition of the term ‘philosophy’ Pedagogy can refer to the science of educa- used in this publication reflects the mea- tion, or to methods or strategies of educa- ning that the authors wished to employ for tion. The term derives from the Ancient their analyses. As an academic discipline, Greek words paidos, meaning ‘child’, and philosophy can be difficult to define – ago, ‘to lead’. In Antiquity, the pedagogue where it designates a taught subject or a was a slave that accompanied a boy to type of pedagogical activity. On one hand, school, carried his things and also helped one can find activities with a philosophical him memorize his lessons and do his home- dimension in courses where the word ‘phi- work. This is where the modern meaning losophy’ itself is absent, namely courses in of the term comes from, namely to accom- morality, ethics, citizenship, sometimes as pany children in their learning and, more part of theological courses or courses in generally, in their education. religion, when they refer to non-dogmatic teaching. On the other hand, one may Philosophical concept sometimes be perplexed as to what is ter- A construction of the mind through which med ‘philosophy’, as such teaching in some one understands the real, inserted in a educational systems would not necessarily conceptual framework from which it takes aim at developing the reflective capacities its meaning. of students. To avoid reducing the meaning of the word Philosophical educability ‘philosophy’ – whose definition itself is phi- A cognitive potentiality, the developmental losophical – the authors of this study have possibility of acquiring skills in critical and stressed the questioning aspect of philoso- creative thinking from as early as the early phy. Indeed, philosophy incessantly ques- childhood years, on the condition that an tions itself as to what it is not: morals, appropriate setting for learning is established. science, etc. It also questions itself as to what it really is: A certain type of knowledge? But which one? A practice? But what kind 250 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM of practice? And it receives various responses is a rapid and generally violent change. In from different philosophers: to think by the educational system there are reforms of oneself or to live with wisdom; to interpret the system’s structure, as well as programme the world or to transform it; to conform to reforms related to the content taught. the world’s order or to revolutionize it; to aim at pleasure or at virtue; to learn to live or to die; to think with concepts or with metaphors? The responses to such questions, and thus the conception or the practice of philosophy, vary significantly across S the different cultures of the world. Sapere aude In his famous essay, ‘Answering the question: Philosophy workshop what is Enlightenment?’, Immanuel Kant A method of group work, oral and/or written, gives the following definition: which consists in working on deepening, ‘Enlightenment is man’s emergence from analysing and questioning ideas, and self-imposed immaturity for which he developing concepts through the confron- himself was responsible. Immaturity and tation of ideas. This can be done through dependence are the inability to use one’s the interpretation of a text, specific exercises own intellect without the direction of or rigorously steered discussions. This form another. One is responsible for this immaturity of group work, promoted by many diffe- and dependence, because its cause is not a rent practitioners of philosophy, such as lack of intelligence, but a lack of determination Oscar Brenifier and Anne Lalanne in France and courage to think without the direction or Beate Børresen and Øyvind Olsholt in of another. Sapere aude! Dare to know! is Norway, claims to prioritize philosophical therefore the slogan of the Enlightenment.’ rigour and philosophical knowledge over a more ‘democratic’ focus or the emphasis Social and human sciences on a simpler exchange of ideas that is A set of sciences whose subject is the found in, for example, the community of human being and human groups, and all enquiry, the French café philosophique or their actions, organizations and relations. the philosophically directed discussion Examples of social and human sciences (discussion à visée philosophique - DVP), or include anthropology, philosophy, history, in other philosophical methods influenced geography, law, sociology, psychology and by psychology or by the education sciences. linguistics. Human sciences essentially examine the dynamic relations of human beings with their social, physical, cultural, economic, political and technological environments. In this complex world of R constant evolution, they can help students become active and responsible citizens in Reflective analysis their communities, at the local, national or Based on the work of Jules Lagneau, a dis- global level. ciple of Jules Lachelier, reflective analysis consists of contemplating on the subject of Socratic dialogue any thought in order to release the conditions Written almost immediately after the death of all thought and discover its essential of Socrates (399 BC), the dialogues were characteristics. Going from one condition Plato’s testimony of the numerous discussions to another, it finds what forms the unity of that his teacher habitually conducted with thought, its necessity, its universality, its his students. Plato’s primary objective was spontaneity and its auto-regulation. to perpetuate, in its most vivid form, the example of a man who had been a mentor Reform of philosophical thought. The dialogues are A reform is a slow and peaceful change of not statements of Truths, but rather a institutions whose objective is, according to progression of thinking that Socrates leads its advocate, to improve the situation of the his interlocutor through, a process of moment. It is contrary to revolution, which orientation or disorientation, by challenging

251 ANNEXES

the student’s ideas. This is why the first ‘signs’ (signes) and ‘teaching’ (enseignement) dialogues written by Plato are aporimes derive from the same Latin root. Used for (discussions that come to a stalemate). In the acquisition of knowledge, these this context, Plato is situated as the oppo- signs refer to spoken and written lan- site of Aristotle, who expresses his thought guage. Thus, teaching is a specific mode under the form of treatises, a latter-day of education that one finds in modern ‘canonic’ form of Western philosophy. In a schooling and by which the teacher more specific sense, the Socratic dialogue is transmits knowledge verbally and/or a method of group discussion established actively. Teaching is therefore educating, by the German philosopher Leonard but educating is not necessarily tea- Nelson. ching. One can also consider that the method of trial and error is a means of teaching. The role of the teacher is here to make sure that the students progress T in their learning. Teaching This term refers to a specific mode of education, that of developing the knowledge of students with the aid of signs. In French,

252 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Annex 4: Some useful bibliographical references

Introductory parts Electronic sources UNESCO, www.unesco.org Books and documents Pre-school and primary levels Droit, R.-P. 1995. Philosophy and (Chapter I) Democracy in the World: a UNESCO Survey. Paris, UNESCO. Books, articles and documents Hersch, J. (ed.). 1969. Birthright of Man, Accorinti, S. 2000.Trabajando en el aula. rev. 1984. Paris, UNESCO. La práctica de filosofía para niños http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/ [Working in the Classroom. The Practice of 0000/000000/000029eo.pdf Philosophy for Children]. Buenos Aires, Klibansky, R. and Pears, D. (eds). 1993. Manantial. (In Spanish.) La philosophie en Europe [Philosophy in ____. 1999. Introducción a filosofía para Europe]. Paris, UNESCO/Gallimard. (In niños [Introiduction to Philosophy for French.) Children]. Buenos Aires, Manantial. (In Spanish.) UNESCO. 2005a. Creation of a World A filosofia na educação das crianças Philosophy Day. Executive Board; 171st. [Philosophy in the education of the chil- Paris, 2005. (171 EX/48 Rev.) dren]. 1998. Caderno Linhas Críticas, 5-6. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- (In Portugese.) ges/0013/001388/138818e.pdf Aristotle. 1999. Nicomachean Ethics, 2nd ____. 2005b. Report by the Director- ed. Trans. T. Irwin. Indianapolis, Ind., General on an intersectoral strategy on Hackett Publishing. philosophy. Executive Board; 171st. Paris, Auguet, G. La Discussion à Visée 2005. (171 EX/12 + CORR.) Philosophique aux cycles 2 et 3 de l’école http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- primaire : un nouveau genre scolaire en ges/0014/001452/145270f.pdf voie d’institution [Philosophical discussion ____. 1978. Resolution 3/3.3/1. Records of in education cycles 2 and 3 : a new kind the General Conference, 20th session, 24 of teaching on the way to institutionaliza- October to 28 November 1978, Vol. 1. tion]. Ph.D. thesis, University of Paris, UNESCO. (20 C/Resolutions + CORR.) Montpellier 3, France. (In French.) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001140/114032e.pdf Boressen, B. Personal communication pre- ____. 1951. Resolution 4.41. Records of sented at the 6th international conference the General Conference, sixth session, on ‘New Philosophical Practices’, World Paris, 1951: Resolutions. Paris, UNESCO. (6 Philosophy Day. Paris, November 2006. C/Resolutions.) Brenifier, O. 2007. Le bonheur, c’est quoi ? http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- [What Is Happiness?]. Illus. C. Meurisse. ges/0011/001145/114588e.pdf Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) ____. 1950. Resolution 4.1212. Records of ____. 2006. Le beau et l’art, c’est quoi ? the General Conference of UNESCO, fifth [What is Beauty, What Is Art?]. Illus. R. session, Florence, 1950: Resolutions. Courgeon. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) Florence, UNESCO. (5 C/Resolutions.) (In French.) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- ____. 2005a. La liberté, c’est quoi? [What ges/0011/001145/114589e.pdf Is Freedom?]. Illus. F. Rébéna. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) Periodicals ____. 2005b. La vérité selon Ninon [Truth Diogenes : an international review of according to Ninon]. Illus. I. de Moüy. philosophy and humanistic studies. Paris, Autrement. (Les Petits albums de France, ICPHS/UNESCO. philosophie.) (In French.) www.unesco.org/cipsh/eng/diogene.htm ____. 2005c. Le bonheur selon Ninon 253 ANNEXES

[Happiness according to Ninon]. Illus. I. de September 2007.) Moüy. Paris, Autrement. (Les Petits albums Cosentino, A. (ed.). 2006. Filosofia e for- de philosophie.) (In French.) mazione 10 anni di Philosophy for children ____. 2005d. Vivre ensemble, c’est quoi ? in Italia (1991-2001) [Philosophy and [What Is Living Together?]. Illus. F. Formation, Ten Years of Philosophy for Bénaglia. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In Children in Italy (1991-2001)]. Naples, French.) Italy, Liguori. (In Italian.) ____. 2004a. La vie, c’est quoi ? [What Is ____. 1994. Kant and the pedagogy of Life?]. Illus. J. Ruillier. Paris, Nathan. teaching philosophy, Thinking, 12 (1). (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) Curtis B. 1985. Wittgenstein and philoso- ____. 2004b. Le bien et le mal, c’est quoi phy for children, Thinking, 5(4). ? [What Is Good and Bad?]. Illus. C. Devaux. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In Daniel M.-F. 2003. Dialoguer sur le corps French.) et la violence. Un pas vers la prévention : ____. 2004c. Les sentiments, c’est quoi ? guide philosophique [Discussing the Body [What Are Feelings?]. Illus. S. Bloch. Paris, and Violence. A Step towards Prevention : Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) A Philosophical Guide]. Qué, Canada, Le ____. 2004d. Moi, c’est quoi ? [What Is Loup de gouttière. (In French.) Me?]. Illus. A. Débat. Paris, Nathan. ____. 2002. Les Contes d’Audrey-Anne : (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) contes philosophiques [Audrey-Anne’s ____. 2004e. Savoir, c’est quoi ? [What Is Stories : Philosophical Stories]. Illus. M. to Know?]. Illus. P. Lemaitre. Paris, Nathan. Mongeau. Qué, Canada, Le Loup de gout- (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) tière. (In French.) ___. 2001. Enseigner par le débat [Teaching ____. 1996. La coopération dans la classe through Debate]. Rennes, France, CRDP [Cooperation in the Classroom]. Montreal, Académie de Rennes. (In French.) Canada, Éditions Logiques. (In French.) Burgh, G., Field, T. and Freakley, M. 2006. ____. 1992. La philosophie et les enfants Ethics and the Community of Inquiry: [Philosophy and Children]. Montreal, Education for Deliberative Democracy, 2nd Canada, Éditions Logiques. (In French.) ed. Melbourne, Australia, Thomson Social Derrida, J. 1997. Le droit à la philosophie Science Press. du point de vue cosmopolitique [The Right to Philosophy from a Cosmopolitical Calvo, A. J. M. 1994. Educación y filosofía Standpoint]. Paris, Verdier. (In French.) en el aula [Education and Philosophy in De La Garza, T. 2006. Education for jus- the Classroom]. Barcelona, Spain, Paidós. tice, Thinking, 18(2). (In Spanish.) De Puig, I. 2003. Persensar. Percibir, sentir Cam, P. 1995. Thinking Together: y pensar [Persensar. To Perceive, to Feel Philosophical Inquiry for the Classroom. and to Think]. Barcelona, Spain, Sydney, Australia, Hale & Iremonger/PETA. Octaedro/Eumo. (In Spanish.) ____. 1994. A philosophical approach to De Puig, I. and Satoro, Á.. 2000. Jugar a moral education. Critical and Creative pensar: Recursos para aprender a pensar Thinking, 2(2). en educación infantil [Playing to Think. Cam, P. et al (eds). 1999. Philosophy, Resources at Use in Childhood Education Culture and Education. Seoul, UNESCO. on Learning How to Think]. Barcelona, Casado, A. 1990. La escuela y la educa- Spain, Eumo/Octaedro. (In Spanish.) ción del pensar [The School and the De Saint Exupery, A. 1995. The Little Education of Thinking]. Madrid, E.U. Santa Prince, new ed. Ware, UK, Wordsworth María. (In Spanish.) Editions Ltd. Chiu, S.-C. 1991. Philosophy for children Dobashi, T. and Marsal, E. (eds). 2006. and mathematical thinking. Thinking, 9(4). Karlsruher pädagogische Beiträge, 62-63. Comte-Sponville A. 1998. Pourquoi y a t-il Dobashi, T., Marsal E., Weber B. and Lund quelque chose plutôt que rien ? [Why Is F. 2008, forthcoming. Children There Something rather than Nothing?]. Philosophize All around the World. Illus. Natali. Paris, T. Magnier. (Pourquoi ? International Theoretical and Practical Parce que !) (In French) Concepts. New York, NY. Convention on the Rights of the Child. www.unicef.org/crc (Accessed 5 Especier, S. La Discussion à Visée 254 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Philosophique à l’école primaire : quelle Understanding and Prospects of Harmony. formation ? [Philosophical discussion in Calcutta, India, Naya Prokash. primary school: what kind of formation ?]. ____. 2002. Constructivism, standards, Ph.D. thesis, University of Montpellier 3, and the classroom community of inquiry, France. (In French.) Educational Theory, 52(4).

Gaarder, J. 1995. Sophie’s World, new ed. Haynes, J. 2004. Los niños como filósofos London, Orion Publishing Group. (Phoenix.) [Children as Philosophers]. Barcelona, Galichet, F. 2007. La philosophie à l’école Spain, Paidos. (In Spanish.) [Philosophy at School]. Paris, Milan. (In French.) Kennedy, D. 2004. The role of a facilitator ____. 2004. Pratiquer la philosophie à in a community of philosophical inquiry, l’école [Practicing Philosophy at School]. Metaphilosophy, 35(5). Paris, Nathan. (In French.) ____. 1999. Philosophy for children and Garcia, E. G. (ed.). 1996. Teoría y práctica the reconstruction of philosophy, en el programa « Filosofía para niños » Metaphilosophy, 30(4). [Theory and Practice in the Philosophy for Kennedy, M. 2007. Pupils to get a philoso- Children Programme]. Madrid, Ediciones pher’s tone, The Guardian, 6 February. de la Torre. (In Spanish.) Kohan, W. O. (ed.). 2006. Teoría y práctica Garcia Moriyón, F. 2006. Pregunto, en filosofía con niños [Theory and Practice dialogo, aprendo. Como hacer filosofía en in Philosophy for Children]. Buenos Aires, el aula [I Ask, I Debate, I Learn. How to Novedades Educativas. (In Spansih.) Philosophize in the Classroom]. Madrid, Kohan W. O. and Waksman, V. (eds). Ediciones de la Torre. (In Spanish.) 1997. ¿Qué es filosofía para niños? Ideas y ____ (ed.). 1998. Crecimiento moral y filo- propuestas para pensar la educación. sofía para niños [Moral Growth and [What is Philosophy for Children? Ideas Philosophy for Children]. Bilbao, Spain, and Proposals for the Education]. Buenos Desclée de Brouwer. (In Spansih.) Aires, Universidad de Buenos Aires. (In Gazzard, A. 2000. What does philosophy Spanish.) for children have to do with emotional Kohan, W. O., Leal, B. and Teixeira, Á. intelligence?, Thinking, 15(1). (eds). 2000. Filosofia na escola pública ____. 1983. Philosophy for children and [Philosophy in the Public School]. the Piagetian framework, Thinking, 5(1). Petrópolis, RJ, Brazil, Vozes. (Filosofia e Geneviève G. 2006. La raison puérile. Escola, 5.) (In Portuguese.) Philosopher avec des enfants ? [Puerile Reason. Philosophize with Children?]. Lago Bornstein, J. C. 2006. Redescribiendo Loverval, France, Éditions Labor. la comunidad de investigación http://gillg14.free.fr/raispuer.htm [Redescribing Community of Investigation]. Glaser, J. 2007. Educating for citizenship Madrid, Ediciones de la Torre. (In Spanish.) and social justice. D. Camhy (ed.), Lalanne, A. 2002. Faire de la philosophie à Philosophical Foundations of Innovative l’école primaire [Doing Philosophy in Learning. Germany, Academia Verlag. Primary School]. Paris, ESF. (In French.) Go, N. Vers une anthropologie de la com- Laurendeau, P. 1996. Des enfants qui phi- plexité : la philosophie à l’école primaire losophent [Children Who Philosophize]. [Towards an anthropology of complexity : Montreal, Qué, Canada, Éditions Logiques. philosophy in priary school]. Ph.D. thesis, (Théories et pratiques de l'enseignement). University of Montpellier 3, France. (In (In French.) French.) Leleux, C. (ed.). 2005. La philosophie pour Golding, C. 2004. Philosophy for children enfants : le modèle de Matthew Lipman and multiple intelligences, Critical and en discussion [Philosophy for Children : Creative Thinking, 12(1). Discussing the Model of Matthew Gregory, M. 2007. A framework for facili- Lipman]. Brussels, de Boeck. (In French.) tating classroom dialogue, Teaching Lévine, J. 2004. Les ateliers philosophiques Philosophy, 30(1). de l’Agsas : spécificité, pratiques et fonde- ____. 2004. Conflict, inquiry and educa- ment [The Agsas philosophy workshops : tion for peace. S. N. Chattopadhyay (ed.), specificity, practice and bases], Pratiques World Peace: Problems of Global de la philosophie, 9. Ivry Sur Seine, France, 255 ANNEXES

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Santiago, G. 2006. Filosofía, niños, escuela à la philosophie [Thinking on One’s Own, [Philosophy, Children, School]. Buenos Initiation in Philosophy]. Lyon/Brussels, Aires, Paidós. (In Spanish.) Chronique sociale/ Édition EVO. (In Santos, N. 2000. Filosofia para crianças French.) [Philosophy for Children]. Sao Paulo, Tozzi, M. et al. 2001. L’éveil de la pensée Terceira Margem. (In Portuguese.) réflexive à l’école primaire [The Awakening Sardi, S. 1998. Para filosofar com crian- of Reflexive Thought at Primary School]. ças... [Philosophizing with children...], Montpellier/Paris, CRDP Linhas Críticas, 5-6. (In Portuguese.) Montpellier/CNDP/Hachette. Sasseville, M. 1999. La pratique de la philosophie avec les enfants [Philosophical UNESCO. 1999. Philosophy for Children. Practice with Children]. Quebec, Que, Meeting of Experts, 26-27 March 1998. Canada, Presses de l'Université Laval. (In Paris, UNESCO. French.) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- ____. 1994. Philosophie pour enfants et ges/0011/001161/116115mo.pdf développement intellectuel : logique, Usclat, P. Le rôle du Maître dans la discus- recherche et jugement [Philosophy for chil- sion à visée philosophique à l’école pri- dren and intellectual development: logic, maire. L’éclairage de Habermas [The role research and judgement], Bulletin de la of the teacher in philosophical discussion société philosophique du Québec, Fall. (In at primary school. Habermas’ enlighten- French.) ment]. Ph.D. thesis, University of Satiro, A. 2004. Jugar a pensar con niños Montpellier 3, France. de 3 a 4 años [Playing to Think with 3 to 4 Year-old Children]. Barcelona, Spain, Periodicals Octaedro. (In Spanish.) Aprender a pensar. Spain, Latin American Silveira, R. J. T. 2002. A filosofia vai à centers for philosophy for children. Escola? [Philosophy Goes to School?]. Campinas, SP, Brazil, Autores Associados, Childhood and Philosophy, Brazil. 2002. (In Portuguese.) International Council of Philosophical Schjelderup, A. 2001. Filosofi Sokrates, Inquiry with Children (ICPIC). Platon og Aristoteles [Philosophy – www.filoeduc.org/childphilo/ Socrates, Plato and Aristotle]. Oslo, Gyldendal. (In Norwegian.) Critical and Creative Thinking - Sharp, A. M. 2000. The Doll Hospital. Australasian Journal of Philosophy for Melbourne, Australia, ACER. Children. Australia, Federation of ____. 1989. Women, children and the Australasian Philosophy in Schools evolution of philosophy for children, Associations (FAPSA). Analytic Teaching: The Community of www.fapsa.org.au/journal.htm Inquiry Journal, 10(1). ____. 1987. What is a community of Diotime-L’Agorà, Revue internationale de inquiry, Journal of Moral Education, 16(1). didactique de la philosophie. France, CRDP académie de Montpellier. Tharraul, P. 2007. Pratiquer le « débat- www.crdp-montpellier.fr/ressources/agora/ philo » à l’école [Practicing the Philo- debate at School]. Paris, Retz. (In French.) Info-Kinderphilosophie. Austria, Austrian Tozzi, M. 2006. Débattre à partir des Centre for Philosophy with Children and mythes, à l’école et ailleurs [Debating on Youth (ACPC). the Basis on Myths, at School and Elsewhere]. Lyon, Chronique sociale. (In Journal 100: European Children Thinking French.) Together. The Netherlands, Centrum ____. 2005. L’émergence des pratiques à Kinderfilosofie Nederland. visée philosophique à l’école et au collège : comment et pourquoi ? [The Emergence Questions: Philosophy for Young People. of Philosophical Practices at Primary and USA, American Philosophical Association's High School: Why and How?], Spirale, 35. Committee on Pre-College Instruction in (In French.) Philosophy / Northwest Center for ____. 1994. Penser par soi même, initiation Philosophy for Children / Philosophy 257 ANNEXES

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S. and Sané, P. (eds), Inter-Regional Oregon State University, http://oregons- Philosophical Dialogues: Democracy and tate.edu/cla/philosophy/engage/index.php. Social Justice in Asia and the Arab World. Web site with online interviews with Paris/Seoul, UNESCO/Global Academy for researchers and professors in philosophy. Neo-Renaissance of Kyung Hee European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/ University/Korean National Commission for Web site containing information on the UNESCO. www.unesco.org/shs/fr/philosophy European Union’s programme in the field of higher education. Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Education. Subject Overview Report www.ff.uni-lj.si Q011/2001. Philosophy, 2001 to 2001. Fédération des CEGEPS [Federation of Gloucester, UK, Quality Assurance Agency CEGEPS], www.fedecegeps.qc.ca for Higher Education. http://qaa.ac.uk/reviews/ Indian Council of Philosophical Research UNESCO. 2007. Report by the Director- http://icpr.nic.in General on new strategic orientations for International Association of Universities, IAU the UNITWIN/UNESCO Chairs Programme. www.unesco.org/iau/ Executive Board; 176th. Paris, 2007. (176 International Council for Philosophy and EX/10.) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- Humanistic Studies – ICPHS ges/0014/001499/149919e.pdf www.unesco.org/cipsh/ Leiter Reports: A Philosophy Blog Periodicals http://leiterreports.typepad.com Luca Maria Scarantino, CIPSH Actualidades Investigativas en Educación. www.unesco.org/cipsh/scaranti/ Costa Rica, Instituto de Investigación en O Portal Brasileiro da Informaçã Científica Educación, University of Costa Rica. [The Brazilian Portal for Scientific http://revista.inie.ucr.ac.cr/ Information], www.periodicos.capes.gov.br Online database of periodicals. Afrique Renouveau (formerly Afrique Philosophiques, www.erudit.org/revue/philoso/ relance). New York, NY, United Nations Philosophy at UNESCO Department of Public Information. www.unesco.org/shs/philosophy www.un.org/french/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/ Web site of UNESCO’s philosophy programme. Philosophy Department, Chancellor Humanitas Asiatica: An International College, University of Malawi Journal of Philosophy. Republic of Korea, www.chanco.unima.mw/philosophy/ Philosophy and Praxis. Philosophy Department, Faculty of Arts, Makerere University Philosophiques. Canada, Société de philo- http://arts.mak.ac.ug/phil.html sophie du Québec. QAA, The Quality Assurance Agency for www.erudit.org/revue/philoso/ Higher Education, http://qaa.ac.uk/ Revista Electrónica Actualidades Revue tunisienne des études philosophi- Investigativas en Educación [Online ques. Tunisie. Periodical Latest Research Updates on Education], http://revista.inie.ucr.ac.cr/ Electronic sources Rientro dei Cervelli [Brain Gain] www.webalice.it/mvendruscolo/english.html Afrique Renouveau [Africa Revival] Web site hosting the academic profiles www.un.org/french/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/ and CVs of fellowship recipients in the American Philosophical Association program Rientro dei Cervelli. www.apa.udel.edu/apa/ School of Liberal Arts, Faculty of Education Arts on the Web, A Comprehensive Arts and Arts, University of Newcastle Portal, www.zeroland.co.nz www.newcastle.edu.au/school/liberal-arts/ Portal of resources on different arts, Subject Centre for Philosophical and including philosophy. Religious Studies, Higher Education Ciclo Básico Común [Common basic cycle], Academy, http://prs.heacademy.ac.uk/ www.cbc.uba.ar. Web site of the pro- The Higher Education Academy gramme at the University of Buenos Aires. www.heacademy.ac.uk Engage podcast achives, Philosophy, UNESCO, www.unesco.org 263 ANNEXES

Webcast/Courses, Berkeley ? [What Is Good and Bad?]. Illus. C. http://webcast.berkeley.edu/courses.php Devaux. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In Online courses available at the University French.) of Berkeley. ____. 2004c. Les sentiments, c’est quoi ? [What Are Feelings?]. Illus. S. Bloch. Paris, Other ways to discover philosophy Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) (Chapter IV) ____. 2004d. Moi, c’est quoi ? [What Is Me?]. Illus. A. Débat. Paris, Nathan. Books, articles and documents (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) ____. 2004e. Savoir, c’est quoi ? [What Is Barrientos Rastrojo, J. 2005. Introducción to Know?]. Illus. P. Lemaitre. Paris, Nathan. al asesoramiento y la orientación filosófica (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) [Introduction to Philosophical Orientation ____. 2001a. Enseigner par le débat and Counseling]. Tenerife, Spain, Idea. [Teaching through Debate]. Rennes, Brenifier, O. 2007. Le bonheur, c’est quoi France, CRDP Académie de Rennes. (In ? [What Is Happiness?]. Illus. C. Meurisse. French.) Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) ____. 2001b. La conscience, l’inconscient ____. 2007. Questions de philo entre ados et le sujet [Consciousness, the [Philosophical Questions between Teens]. Unconscious and the Subject]. Paris, Illus. D. Perret. Paris, Seuil jeunesse. (In Nathan. (L’apprenti philosophe.) (In French.) French.) ____. 2006a. Le beau et l’art, c’est quoi ? ____. 2001c. Liberté et déterminisme [What is Beauty, What Is Art?]. Illus. R. [Freedom and Determinism]. Paris, Nathan. Courgeon. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (L’apprenti philosophe.) (In French.) (In French.) ____. 2006b. Brenifier, O., Coclès, J. and Amiot, M. SuperPreguntas [Super-questions], coll. 2002. L’État et la société [State and Barcelona, Spain, Edebe. (In Spanish.) Society]. Paris, Nathan. (L’apprenti philoso- ____. 2005a. La liberté, c’est quoi? [What phe.) (In French.) Is Freedom?]. Illus. F. Rébéna. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) Brenifier, O., Coclès, J. and Millon, I. 2003. ____. 2005b. La vérité selon Ninon [Truth Le travail et la technique [Work and the according to Ninon]. Illus. I. de Moüy. Technique]. Paris, Nathan. (L’apprenti phi- Paris, Autrement. (Les Petits albums de losophe.) (In French.) philosophie.) (In French.) ____. 2002. Le temps, l’existence et la ____. 2005c. Le bonheur selon Ninon mort [Time, Existence and Death]. Paris, [Happiness according to Ninon]. Illus. I. de Nathan. (L’apprenti philosophe.) (In Moüy. Paris, Autrement. (Les Petits albums French.) de philosophie.) (In French.) ____. 2005d. ____. 2001a. L’art et le beau [Art and the ¿ Qué es el bien y el mal ? [What Is Good Beautiful]. Paris, Nathan. (L’apprenti philo- and Bad?]. Illus. C. Devaux. Tenerife, sophe.) (In French.) Spain, Ediciones Idea. (El diálogo en clase.) ____. 2001b. La raison et le sensible (In Spanish.) ____. 2005e. ¿ Qué es [Reason and the Sensible]. Paris, Nathan. la vida ? [What Is Life?]. Illus. J. Ruillier. (L’apprenti philosophe.) (In French.) Tenerife, Spain, Ediciones Idea. (El diálogo Brenifier, O., Clamens, G., Coclès, J. and en clase.) (In Spanish.) Millon, I. 2002. L’opinion, la connaissance ____. 2005f. ¿ Qué son los sentimientos ? et la vérité [Opinion, Knowledge and [What Are Feelings?]. Illus. S. Bloch. Truth]. Paris, Nathan. (L’apprenti philoso- Tenerife, Spain, Ediciones Idea. (El diálogo phe.) (In French.) en clase.) (In Spanish.) ____. 2005g. Vivre ensemble, c’est quoi ? Cavallé, M. C. 2005. El asesoramiento filo- [What Is Living Together?]. Illus. F. sófico: una alternativa a las psicoterapias Bénaglia. Paris, Nathan. (PhiloZenfants.) (In [Philosophical Counseling: an Alternative French.) to Psycotherapies]. Madrid, Paradigmas ____. 2004a. La vie, c’est quoi ? [What Is actuales y alternativos en la psicología Life?]. Illus. J. Ruillier. Paris, Nathan. contemporánea, Kairós. (Psicópolis.) (In (PhiloZenfants.) (In French.) Spanish.) ____. 2004b. Le bien et le mal, c’est quoi ____. 2004. La Filosofía maestra de vida 264 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

[Philosophy - Teacher of Life]. Madrid, Bokar, the Wiseman of Bandiagara]. Paris, Oberón. (In Spanish.) Seuil. (Points Sagesses.) (In French.) ____. 2001. La sabiduría recobrada. Haynes, J. 2004. Los niños como filósofos. Filosofía como terapia [Recovered El aprendizaje como indagación y el diá- Wisdom. Philosophy as Therapy]. Madrid, logo en la escuela primaria [Children as Oberón (Grupo Anaya). (In Spanish.) Philosophers. Learning as Research and Dialogue in Primary School]. Barcelona, Cavallé, M. C. and Machado, J. D. (eds). Spain, Paidós. (In Spanish.) 2007. Arte de vivir, arte de pensar. Herrestad, H., Holt, A. and Svare, H. 2002. Iniciación al asesoramiento filosófico [The Philosophy in Society. (Papers presented to Art of Living, the Art of Thinking. the Sixth International Conference on Introduction to Philosophical Counseling]. Philosophy in Practice, Oslo – 2001). Oslo, Bilbao, Spain, Desclée de Brouwer. (In Unipubforlag. Spanish.) Howard, A. 2002. Philosophy for Cencillo, L. 2005. Asesoramiento filosó- Counselling and Psychotherapy. New York, fico: qué técnicas, qué filosofías Palgrave Macmillan. [Philosophical Counseling: What Techniques, What Philosophies]. Tenerife, International Conference on Health Spain, Ediciones Idea. (In Spanish.) Promotion. 1986. Ottawa Charter for ____. 2002. Cómo Platón se vuelve tera- Health Promotion. Ottawa. peuta [How Plato Becomes a Therapist]. www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/ottawa_char- Madrid, Syntagma Ediciones. (In Spanish.) ter_hp.pdf Chafee J. 2000. El poder del pensamiento. Kessels J. 1997. Socrates on the Market. La clave intelectual del éxito personal [The Amsterdam, Boom Publishers. Power of Thought. The Intellectual Key to Kessels, J., Boers, E. and Mostert, P. 2004. Personal Success]. Madrid, Planeta. (In Free Space and Room to Reflect. Spanish.) Amsterdam, Boom Publishers. Cohen, E. D. 1992. Philosophers at Work: Kreimer, R. 2005. Filosofía para la vida Issues and Practice of Philosophy. Belmont, cotidiana [Philosophy for Everyday Life]. Calif., Wadworth Publishing. Tenerife Ediciones, Spain, Idea. (In Collective. 2004. Philo à tous les étages: Spanish.) 3e colloque sur les Nouvelles Pratiques ____. 2004. Falacias del amor. ¿Por qué Philosophiques, Nanterre – juin 2003 Occidente anudó amor y sufrimiento? [Philosophy on all Levels: 3rd Symposium [Deceits of Love. Why Has the West Tied on the New Philosophical Practices, Love with Suffering?]. Buenos Aires, Nanterre – June 2003]. Rennes, France, Anarrés. (In Spanish.) CRDP de Bretagne. (In French.) Commission internationale sur l’éducation Labbé, B., et al. Les goûters philo, coll. pour le vingt et unième siècle. 1999. Paris, Milan. L’éducation : un trésor est caché dedans, Lahav, R. and Da Venza Tillmanns, M. rapport à l'UNESCO de la Commission 1995. Essays on Philosophical Counseling. internationale sur l'éducation pour le vingt New York, University Press of America. et unième siècle. Paris, UNESCO. Le Bon, T. 2001. Wise Therapy: Philosophy Comte-Sponville A. 2006. L’esprit de for Counsellors. London, Continuum. l’athéisme [The Spirit of Atheism]. Paris, Marinoff, L. 2004. La philosophie, c’est la Albin Michel. (Essais.) (In French.) vie [Philosophy Is Life]. Paris, La Table Curno, T. 2001. Thinking Through Ronde . (In French.) Dialogue, Essays on Philosophy in Practice. ____. 2001. Philosophical Practice. New Surrey, UK, Practical Philosophy Press. York, Academic Press. Gaarder, J. 1995. Sophie’s World, new ed. ____. 1999. Plato, not Prozac!. New York, London, Orion Publishing Group. Harper Colins. (Phoenix.) Mole, Y., Delpeuch, R. and Brenifier, O. 2005. À nous le français ! CE1 [French for Hadot, P. 1995. Philosophy as a Way of Us ! CE1]. Toulouse, France, Sedrap. (Lire Life. Oxford, UK, Blackwell. et vivre ensemble.) (In French.) Hampâté Bâ, A. 2004. Vie et enseigne- Mole, Y., Boëche, S., Delpeuch, R. and ment de Tierno Bokar, le sage de Brenifier, O. 2007. A nous le français ! Bandiagara [Life and Teaching of Tierno 265 ANNEXES

CE2, cycle 3 1e année [French for Us! (In French.) CE2, cycle 3 1st year]. Toulouse, France, Tozzi, M. (ed.). 2003. Les activités à visée Sedrap. (Lire et vivre ensemble.) (In philosophique en classe : l’émergence French.) d’un genre ? [Philosophical Activities in Nelson, L. 1965. Socratic Method and the Classroom: the Emergence of a New Critical Philosophy: Selected Essays. New Kind?]. Rennes, France, CDRP de York, Dover Publications. Bretagne. (In French.) Nussbaum, M. C. 2003. La terapia del ____. Nouvelles pratiques philosophiques : deseo [The Therapy of Desire] Barcelona, enjeux et démarches [New Philosophical Spain, Paidós. (In French.) Practices: Stakes and Steps]. Rennes, France, CDRP de Bretagne. (In French.) Onfray, M. 2006. La Puissance d’exister. Manifeste hédoniste [The Power of Youlounas, Y. (ed.). 2002. Comprendre le Existing. A Hedonist Manifest]. Paris, Édi- phénomène café-philo [Understanding the tions Grasset. (In French.) Phenomenon of Cafés Philo]. 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http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001145/114588e.pdf ges/0014/001437/143738e.pdf ____. 1950. Resolution 4.1212. Records of ____. 1999. Philosophy for Children. the General Conference of UNESCO, fifth Meeting of Experts, 26-27 March 1998. session, Florence, 1950: Resolutions. Paris, UNESCO. Florence, UNESCO. (5 C/Resolutions.) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001161/116115mo.pdf ges/0011/001145/114589e.pdf Afro-Asian Philosophy Association. 1998. Conferences and meetings organized by Terrorism and Teaching Philosophy, 3rd UNESCO - reports and communications special international conference. Cairo. UNESCO. Repenser l’enseignement de la Philosophy Education for the new philosophie dans le contexte de la mon- Millennium, 2nd APPEND conference. dialisation pour le dialogue des cultures et 1998. Bangkok. une paix universelle durable [Rethinking UNESCO. Second Meeting of the UNESCO the teaching of philosophy in the context Universal Ethics Project. Naples, Italy, 1-4 of globalization, for a dialogue between December 1997. cultures and universal sustainable peace], Kuçuradi, I., Reflections on the condition International conference in philosophy, 27- of a universal ethics. Personal communica- 29 January 2006. Dakar. (In French.) tion. Naples, December 1997. Boccara, N. Philosophie et dialogue inter- Swidler, L., Universal declaration of a glo- culturel : voyage dans la mémoire entre bal ethics. Personal communication. philosophie et autobiographie [Philosophy Naples, December 1997. and universal dialogue: a voyage in memory between philosophy and autobio- Mayor, F. 1995. Address at the closure of graphy]. Personal communication. Dakar, the International Study Days on: January 2006. (In French.) Philosophy and Democracy in the World. Kaltchev, I. La philosophie en tant qu’un UNESCO, 16 February 1995. (DG/95/9.) facteur important de promotion de dialo- http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- gue des cultures [Philosophy as an impor- ges/0010/001001/100111e.pdf tant factor in the promotion of dialogue UNESCO. 1995. Paris Declaration for between cultures]. Personal communica- Philosophy. International Study Days on tion. Dakar, January 2006. (In French.) Philosophy and Democracy in the World. Kuçuradi, I. Teaching philosophy in the Paris, UNESCO, 15-16 February 1995. context of globalisation for preventing cul- http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- tural confrontations and for the worldwide ges/0013/001386/138673e.pdf protection of human rights. Personal communication. Dakar, January 2006. (In Badawi A., L'enseignement de la philoso- French.) phie dans l'université [Philosophy teaching Sané, P. La stratégie mondiale de at university level]. Personal communica- l’UNESCO pour le développement de l’en- tion at the Meeting of Experts to Take seignement de la philosophie [UNESCO’s Stock of the Situation in the Arab States world strategy for the development of the as Regards Teaching, Reflection and teaching of philosophy]. Personal commu- Research in Philosophy. Marrakech, nication. Dakar, January 2006. (In French.) Morocco, 1987. (In French.) Spire, A. Philosophie : que devient l’excep- UNESCO. 1980. L’enseignement et la recher- tion française dans la mondialisation che philosophique en Afrique, Rapport final [Philosophy : what is becoming of the [Philosophy Teaching and Research in Africa, French exception in globalization?]. Final Report], Expert consultation. Nairobi, Personal communication. Dakar, January 24-27 June 1980. (In French.) 2006. (In French.) Elung, P. La philosophie au Zaïre UNESCO. 2005. High-Level Experts’ [Philosophy in Zair]. Personal communica- Meeting on the UNESCO Teacher Training tion. Nairobi, 1980. (In French.) Initiative for sub-Saharan Africa. Paris, Hountoundji, P. Aspect et problème de la UNESCO. (ED/HED/TED/2005/ME/7/REV) philosophie en Afrique [Asopects and problems of philosophy in Africa]. Personal

268 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM communication. Nairobi, 1980. (In French.) Commission internationale sur l’éducation Dhingra, B. 1967. L'enseignement de la pour le vingt et unième siècle. 1999. philosophie orientale : Laos [The teaching L’éducation : un trésor est caché dedans, of oriental philosophy], Mission report, rapport à l'UNESCO de la Commission November 1965 - May 1966. Paris, internationale sur l'éducation pour le vingt UNESCO, 1967. (In French.) et unième siècle. Paris, UNESCO. UNESCO Preparatory Commission, Committee on Letters and Philosophy. Janicot, D. 1998. Opening up the horizons 1946. Memorandum on the Philosophy of reflections, Philosophy: Newsletter of Programme of UNESCO. London, the UNESCO Division of Philosophy, 7. UNESCO. Paris, UNESCO.

Studies and publications by UNESCO UNESCO. 1998. Introducing children to or supported by UNESCO philosophy: the meeting of 26-27 March 1998, Philosophy: Newsletter of the Gauthier, R.-F. 2006. The Content of UNESCO Division of Philosophy, 7. Paris, Secondary Education around the World: UNESCO. Present Position and Strategic Choices. Paris, UNESCO. (Secondary education in Khouri-Dagher, N. 1998. The right tools the twenty-first century.) for the age of reason, UNESCO sources, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- 101. Paris, UNESCO. ges/0014/001475/147570e.pdf http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001123/112347e.pdf#113094 Bernales, A. M. and Lobosco, M. 2005. Filosofía, educación y sociedad global Poulain, J. 1998. Recognizing the Right to [Philosophy, Education and Global a Philosophical Education. Paris, UNESCO. Sopciety]. Buenos Aires, Ediciones del (Taking action for human rights in the Signo. (In Spanish.) twenty-first century.)

Delors, J. 2004. Towards Lifelong Mayor, F. 1997. Philosophy education: a Education for All. Paris, UNESCO. (The key to the twenty-first century, Philosophy: future of values: 21st century talks.] Newsletter of the UNESCO Division of Philosophy, 5. Paris, UNESCO. Mori, E., Ciurana, E. R. and Motta, R. D. 2003. Éduquer pour l’ère planétaire: la Droit, R.-P. 1995. Philosophy and pensée complexe comme méthode d’ap- Democracy in the World: a UNESCO prentissage dans l’erreur et l’incertitude Survey. Paris, UNESCO. humaine [Educating for the Planetary Era: Complex Thought as a Method of Klibansky R. and Pears D. 1993. La philoso- Learning with Error and Human phie en Europe [Philosophy in Europe] Uncertainty]. Paris, Balland. (In French.) (eds.). Paris, UNESCO/Gallimard. (In French.)

Vermeren, P. 2003. La philosophie saisie Naufal, M. N. 1990. Réflexions sur la phi- par l’UNESCO [The Philosophical Roots of losophie de l'enseignement universitaire UNESCO]. Paris, UNESCO. (In French.) [Reflections on philosophy in university http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- teaching], L'Éducation nouvelle: revue trai- ges/0013/001327/132733f.pdf tant des problèmes de planification et d'innovation en éducation, 51. Amman, UNESCO. 2000. On a model curriculum UNEDBAS. (In French.) for teaching introductory philosophy with particular emphasis on Africa, Philosophy: Betancourt W. et al. 1990. La enseñanza, Newsletter of the UNESCO Division of la reflexión y la investigación filosóficas en Philosophy, 9. Paris, UNESCO. América Latina y el Caribe [Philosophical Teaching, Reflection and Research in Latin Cam Philip et al (eds). 1999. Philosophy, America and the Caribbean]. Paris/Madrid, Culture and Education. Seoul, UNESCO. UNESCO/Tecnos. (In Spanish.) 269 ANNEXES

Association des études internationales de Havet, J. (ed.). 1978. Main Trends of Tunis; Université de Tunis. Faculté des Research in the Social and Human sciences juridiques, politiques et sociales. Sciences, 2nd pt, 2nd vol. Paris/The Chaire Unesco des relations internationa- Hague/New York, UNESCO/Mouton les. 1989. Étude sur l'apport des autres Publishers. (In French.) disciplines telles que l'anthropologie, l'his- http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- toire, la sociologie, la philosophie, les ges/0000/000048/004896eo.pdf sciences politiques, l'économie et le droit international public au développement de Filliozat, J. 1956. Report on an Enquiry by l'étude et de l'enseignement des relations the International Council of Philosophy internationales [Study on the Contribution and Humanistic Studies on the Possibilities of Other Disciplines such as Anthropology, of Broadening the Teaching of the History, Sociology, Philosophy, Political Humanities. Paris, UNESCO. Sciences, Economics and Public http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- International Law in the Development of ges/0014/001428/142896eb.pdf the Study and Teaching of International Relations], International meeting of Conseil International de la Philosophie et experts in the tendencies, the evaluation des Sciences Humaines (CIPSH). 1955. and the future perspectives of the study Inquiry on the Possibilities of Broadening the and teaching of international relations. Teaching of the Humanities. Paris, UNESCO. Tunis. (SHS-89/CPNNF.614/5) (In French.) http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001428/142894fb.pdf UNESCO. 1984 and 1986. Studies on Teaching and Research in Philosophy throu- Canguilhem, G. et al. 1953. The Teaching ghout the World, 1 and 2. Paris, UNESCO. of Philosophy: an International Enquiry of UNESCO. Paris, UNESCO. Chattopadhyaya, D.P., 1986. Philosophy in Asia and the Pacific region: retrospective UNESCO. 1952a. Enquiry into the and prospect. D. Krishna (ed.), Teaching Teaching of Philosophy: General Report. and Research in Philosophy: Asia and the UNESCO, Paris. (UNESCO/CUA/45) Pacific. Paris, UNESCO. ____. 1952b. Enquiry into the Teaching of Philosophy: Questionnaire Addressed to Krishna, D. (ed.). 1986. Teaching and National Commissions of Countries which Research in Philosophy: Asia and the have Agreed to Take Part in the Enquiry. Pacific. Paris, UNESCO. (Studies on UNESCO, Paris. (UNESCO/CUA/11) Teaching and Research in Philosophy http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ima- throughout the World, 2.) ges/0012/001270/127077eb.pdf

UNESCO. 1984. Teaching and Research in Electronic sources Philosophy: Africa. Paris, UNESCO. (Studies Philosophy at UNESCO, on Teaching and Research in Philosophy www.unesco.org/shs/philosophy. Web site Throughout the World, 1.) of UNESCO’s philosophy programme. UNESCO. www.unesco.org Nasr, S. H. 1974. Free-willing philosopher; Education, http://portal.unesco.org/educa- Al-Biruni was a model of the thinker who tion/en/. Web site of the Education Sector could harmonize various forms of know- of UNESCO, including the Organization’s ledge without becoming the slave to a publications in this field. particular method or school, The Unesco Courier: a Window Open on the World, UNESCO Documents and Publications, XXVII(6). Paris, UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ulis/index.html Hersch, J. 1969. Birthright of Man (ed.), rev. 1984. Paris, UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0000/000000/000029eo.pdf

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Annex 5: List of used acronyms

Introductory parts

CIPh Collège International de Philosophie - International College of Philosophy (France) FISP Fédération Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie - International Federation of Philosophical Societies ICPHS International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies IIP Institut International de Philosophie - International Institute of Philosophy (France) NGO Non-governmental organization

Pre-school and primary levels (Chapter I)

ACER Australian Council for Education Research (Australia) ACPC Austrian Center for Philosophy with Children and Youth (Austria) APPEP Association des Professeurs de Philosophie de l’Enseignement Public - Association of P¨rofessors of Philosophy in the Schools (France) CAPS Center for the Advancement of Philosophy in the Schools (United States of America) CELAFIN Centro Latinoamericano de Filosofia para Niños - Latin American Center for Philosophy for Children CFP Centres de formation permanente - Centres of Continuous Education (France) CIREP Centro Interdisciplinare di Ricerca Educativa sul Pensiero - Interdisciplinary Centre for Educational Research on Thought (Italy) CPIE Centre for Philosophical Inquiry in Education (Malaysia) CRIF Centro di Ricerca per l'Insegnamento Filosofico - Centre for Research in Philosophy Education (Italy) CYP Children and Youth Philosophers Centre (Norway) DJFPK Deutsch-Japanische Forschungsinitiative zum Philosophieren mit Kindern - German-Japanese Research Initiative on Philosophizing with Children (Germany / Japan) DVP Discussion à visée philosophique - Philosophically directed discussion FAPCA Federation of Australasian Philosophy for Children Associations FAPSA Federation of Australasian Philosophy in Schools Associations GrupIREF Grup d’Innovació i Recerca per a l´Ensenyament de la Filosofia - Group for Innovation and Research in the Teaching of Philosophy (Spain) IAPC Institute for the Advancement of Philosophy for Children (United States of America) ICPIC International Council for Philosophical Inquiry with Children IRRE Istituto Regionale Ricerca Educativa - Regional Institute for Educational research (Italy)

271 ANNEXES

IUFM Instituts de formation des maîtres - Institutes of Teacher Education (France) NAACI North Atlantic Association for Communities of Inquiry OFSTED Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (United Kingdom) PhARE Analyse, Recherche et Education en Philosophie pour Enfants - Analysis, Research and Education in Philosophy for Children (Belgium) PhD Philosophiae Doctor - Doctor of Philosophy PwC Philosophy with Children P4C Philosophy for Children SAPERE Society for Advancing Philosophical Enquiry and Reflection in Education (United Kingdom) SEPFI Sociedad Española de Profesores de Filosofía de Instituto - Spanish Society of Philosophy Professors (Espagne) SOPHIA European Foundation for the Advancement of Doing Philosophy with Children UNSW University of New South Wales (Australia)

Secondary education (Chapter II)

ACIREPH Association pour la Création des Instituts de Recherche sur l’Enseignement de la Philosophie - Association for the Creation of Institutes of Research for the Teaching of Philosophy (France) AIPPh Association Internationale des Professeurs de Philosophie - International Association for Philosophy Teachers B.A. Bachelor of Arts CAES Certificat d'aptitude à l'enseignement secondaire - Certificate of Aptitude in Teaching at Secondary Level (Senegal) CAPEN Certificat d’aptitude pédagogique de l’École Normale - Certificate of Pedadogical Aptitude from the École Normale (Madagascar) CAPES Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement du second degré - Certificate of Aptitude in Teaching at Secondary Level (Central African Republic / Congo / France / Niger) CBC Ciclo Básico Común - Common Basic Cycle (Argentina) CEGEPS Collèges d'enseignement général et professionnel - General and Professional Teaching Colleges (Canada) CONCYTEC Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología - National Science and Technology Council (Peru) ECTS European Credit Transfer System EPS Espacio de Reflexión sobre los Saberes - Space of Reflection on Knowledge (Uruguay) FISP Fédération Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie - International Federation of Philosophical Societies FRG Federal Republic of Germany (formerly West Germany). Founded in 1949 and reunited with the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1990 (Germany) IFD Institutos de formación docente - Teacher Training Institutes (Uruguay) ILFKP Istanbul Liseleri Felsefe Kulupleri Platformu - Istanbul High Schools Philosophy

272 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Clubs Platform (Turkey) IPA Instituto de Profesores Artigas - Teacher Training Institute (Uruguay) IPO International Philosophy Olympiades LCE Ley de Calidad de la Educación - Law on the Quality of Education (Spain) LDB Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação - Law on the Directives and Bases of Education (Brazil) LOE Ley Orgánica de la Educación - Organic Law on Education (Spain) LOGSE Ley de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo - Law on the General Planning of the Education System (Spain) M.A. Master of Arts OC Option complémentaire - Supplementary option (Switzerland) OEI Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura - Organization of Ibero-American States for Education, Science and Culture OS Option spécifique - Specific option (Switzerland) PGDE Postgraduate Diploma in Education (Botswana) PNEF Plan national d'éducation et de formation - National Education and Training Plan (Haiti) RRM Règlement de reconnaissance des maturités - Regulation for Recognition of High School Diplomas (Switzerland) SFI Società filosofica italiana - Italian Philosophical Association (Italy) TM Travail de maturité - Diploma work (Switzerland) UI University of Indonesia (Indonesia)

Higher education (Chapter III)

B.A. Bachelor of Arts CAPES Certificat d’aptitude au professorat de l’enseignement du second degré - Certificate of Aptitude in Teaching at Secondary Level (France) CAPES Foundation Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Foundation for the Coordination of Staff Training in Higher Education (Brazil) CBC Ciclo básico común - Common Basic Cycle (Argentina) CEGEPS Collèges d'enseignement général et professionnel - General and Professional Teaching Colleges (Canada) CILEA Consorzio Interuniversitario Lombardo per l'Elaborazione Automatica - Interuniversity Consortium for Automatic Elaboration of Lombardy (Italy) CNSLP Canadian National Site Licensing Project (Canada) CPGE Classes préparatoires aux grandes écoles - Preparatory classes for grandes écoles (France) CRKN Canadian Resource Knowledge Network (Canada) DES Diplôme d’études supérieures - Higher Studies Degree (Lebanon) ECTS European Credits Transfer System ERASMUS European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students 273 ANNEXES

EU European Union FISP Fédération Internationale des Sociétés de Philosophie - International Federation of Philosophical Societies HEAL-Link Hellenic Academic Libraries Link (Greece) IAU International Association of Universities ICPHS International Council for Philosophy and Humanistic Sciences ICPR Indian Council of Philosophical Research (India) KERIS Korea Education and Research Information Service (Republic of Korea) KESLI Korean Electronic Site Licensing Initiative (Republic of Korea) LMD Reform Licence/Bachelor, Masters, Doctorate Reform (France) M.A. Master of Arts NESLI-2 National Electronic Site Licensing Initiative (United Kingdom) SAPFI Sociedad Argentina de Profesores de Filosofía - Argentinian Association of Philosophy Professors (Argentina) SASLI South African Site Licensing Initiative (South Africa) UBA University of Buenos Aires (Argentina) UI University of Indonesia (Indonesia) UNICAMP Universidade Estadual de Campinas - Campinas State University (Brazil) UQAM Université du Québec à Montréal - University of Quebec in Montreal (Canada)

Other ways to discover philosophy (Chapter IV)

CCPP Carroll-Cleveland Philosophers' Program (United States of America) CMSD Cleveland Municipal School District (United States of America) HR Human resources IPO International Philosophy Olympiades JCU John Carroll University (United States of America) NGO Non-governmental organization NSPP Norwegian Society of Philosophical Practice (Norway)

The teaching of philosophy as revealed by UNESCO’s online self-administered survey (Chapter V)

B.A. Bachelor of Arts IT Information technology HR Human resources M.A. Master of Arts PhD Philosophiae Doctor - Doctor of Philosophy

274 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Annex 6: Index of mentioned countries

Afghanistan Benin pages 204, 205, 210 pages 81, 204, 205, 210, 213 Albania Bhutan page 132 pages 107, 204, 205, 210, 213 Algeria Bolivia pages 52, 60, 85, 86, 136, 137, 163, 204, pages 61, 116, 205, 207, 210, 213 205, 210, 211, 213, 246, 261 Bosnia and Herzegovina Andorra page132 page 132, 207 Botswana Antigua and Barbuda pages 52, 55, 59, 124, 126, 204, 205, page 207 210, 213, 273 Argentina Brazil pages 33, 39, 52, 59, 60, 71; 104, 105, pages 33, 39, 51, 61, 74, 77, 78, 109, 107, 121, 122, 138, 183, 192, 204, 205, 139, 166, 204, 205, 210, 213, 217, 245, 210, 213, 246, 272, 273, 274 246, 255, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 262, 263, 273, 274 Armenia pages 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 British Virgin Islands page 207 Aruba page 207 Bulgaria pages 58, 89, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 Australia pages 25, 26, 27, 77, 117, 118, 129, 130, Burkina Faso 132, 133, 166, 202, 204, 205, 207, 210, pages 60, 71, 77, 105, 106, 166, 204, 213, 245, 254, 257, 271, 272 205, 210, 213, 246 Austria Burundi pages 30, 31, 58, 90, 204, 205, 210, 211, pages 60, 77, 105, 106, 124, 126, 204, 13, 245, 257, 258, 271 205, 210, 213 Azerbaijan Cambodia page 132 pages 51, 59, 107, 128, 204, 205, 210, 213, 217 Bahamas page 207 Cameroon pages 52, 75, 106, 125, 204, 205, 207, Bahrain 210, 213 pages 58, 204, 205, 210, 213 Canada Bangladesh pages 5, 29, 31, 32, 39, 57, 58, 85, 101, pages 52, 58, 204, 205, 210, 213 102, 104, 109, 122, 126, 139, 140, 166, Barbados 205, 210, 213, 245, 246, 254, 255, 257, pages 139, 204, 205, 207, 210, 213 263, 272, 273, 274 Belarus Cape Verde pages 76, 133, 204, 205, 210, 213 page 207 Belgium Cayman Islands pages 5, 31, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 71, 85, page 207 131, 132, 169, 204, 205, 210, 213, 245, Central African Republic 246, 260, 261, 272 pages 52, 58, 124, 125, 204, 205, 207, Belize 210, 213, 272 pages 204, 205, 210, 213 275 ANNEXES

Chad Estonia pages 58, 125, 265 pages 55, 132, 133, 205, 210, 213 Chile Ethiopia pages 39, 51, 53, 61, 122, 204, 205, 210, pages 55, 126, 204, 205, 210, 213 213, 217 Fiji China pages 204, 205, 210, 213 pages 58, 76, 77, 114, 129, 144, 165, Finland 202, 204, 205, 207, 210, 213, 214, 217 pages 55, 60, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213, Colombia 214, 217 pages 31, 39, 40, 60, 69, 76, 104, 107, France 116, 138, 204, 205, 207, 209, 210, 213, pages xii, 5, 9, 12, 16, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 245, 259 33, 34, 35, 50, 63, 67, 68, 82, 83, 85, Comoros 104, 105, 118, 121, 122, 126, 130, 132, pages 126, 207 158, 163, 165, 166, 168, 189, 190, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 214, 225, 244, 245, Congo 246, 251, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 261, pages 59, 125, 204, 205, 210, 213, 272 264, 265, 266, 271, 272, 273, 274 Cook Islands Gabon page 207 pages 124, 125, 204, 205, 210, 213 Costa Rica Georgia pages 39, 61, 138, 204, 205, 210, 213, pages 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 262, 263 Germany Côte d'Ivoire pages 29, 30, 40, 41, 57, 60, 71, 85, 109, pages 52, 58, 77, 125, 126, 204, 205, 131, 132, 161, 165, 204, 205, 209, 210, 210, 213 213, 224, 245, 255, 256, 271, 272 Croatia Ghana pages 58, 131, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 pages 204, 205, 210, 213, 217 Cuba Greece pages 58, 138 pages xix, 3, 60, 107, 109, 131, 132, 153, Cyprus 204, 205, 210, 213, 274 pages 60, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 Grenada Czech Republic pages 205, 207, 210, 213 pages 37, 38, 132, 205, 210, 213, 245 Guatemala Denmark pages 39, 58, 71, 138, 139 pages 29, 58, 132, 183, 204, 205, 207, Guyana 210, 213 page 105 Dominica Haiti pages 106, 107 pages 61, 79, 81, 139, 204, 205, 210, Dominican Republic 213, 273 pages 79, 245, 246, 259, 260 Holy See Ecuador page 84, 132 pages 40, 61, 204, 205, 210, 213 Honduras Egypt pages 58, 61, 204, 205, 210, 213 pages 87, 137 Hungary El Salvador pages 58, 132, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213 pages 39, 105, 106, 122, 138, 204, 205, Iceland 210, 213 pages 55, 58, 71, 132, 143, 204, 205, Equatorial Guinea 207, 210, 213, 217 page 125

276 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

India Liechtenstein pages 21, 52, 55, 83, 106, 109, 114, 128, page 143 129, 153, 202, 204, 205, 207, 210, 213, Lithuania 214, 255, 263, 274 pages 55, 107, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 Indonesia Luxembourg pages 83, 106, 204, 205, 210, 213, 273, pages 55, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 274 Macao, China Iran (Islamic Republic of) page 207 pages 58, 107, 126, 128, 204, 205, 210, 213 Madagascar pages 52, 59, 71, 125, 126, 204, 205, Iraq 209, 210, 213, 272 pages 204, 205, 210, 213, 217 Malawi Ireland pages 76, 125, 126, 205, 209, 210, 213, pages 51, 55, 105, 131, 132, 205, 207, 263 209, 210, 213 Malaysia Israel pages 41, 42, 56, 245, 261, 271 pages 60, 204, 205, 210, 213 Maldives Italy pages 106, 107 pages 35, 36, 59, 63, 69, 109, 130, 132, 143, 183, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 245, Mali 246, 254, 259, 260, 261, 268, 271, 273 pages 77, 80, 106, 124, 166, 204, 205, 207, 210, 213, 261 Jamaica pages 52, 204, 205, 210, 213 Malta pages 132, 204, 205, 208, 210, 213 Japan pages 30, 31, 40, 41, 58, 82, 127, 204, Marshall Islands 205, 210, 213, 245, 260, 261, 271 pages 106, 207 Jordan Mauritania pages 76, 87, 105, 106, 116, 118, 204, pages 118, 204, 205, 210, 213, 217 205, 210, 213 Mauritius Kazakhstan pages 53, 58, 106, 118, 204, 205, 207, page 208 213 Kenya Mexico pages xii, 42, 124, 125, 204, 205, 210, pages 29, 33, 39, 40, 58, 71, 79, 204, 213 205, 209, 210, 213, 214, 245 Kiribati Micronesia (Federated States of) page 207 page 207 Kuwait Monaco page 87 pages 105, 106, 204, 205, 207, 210, 213 Kyrgyzstan Mongolia pages 107, 128, 204, 205, 210, 213 pages 204, 205, 210, 213 Lao People’s Democratic Republic Montenegro pages 128, 204, 205, 210, 213, 217, 269 pages 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 Latvia Morocco pages 132, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213 pages xiii, 51, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 75, 76, 136, 142, 204, 205, 210, 213, 246, Lebanon 261, 268 pages 71, 106, 137, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 273 Myanmar page 207 Lesotho pages 58, 106, 124, 204, 205, 210, 213 277 ANNEXES

Namibia Qatar pages 126, 204, 205, 213 page 87 Nauru Republic of Korea page 207 pages 56, 110, 122, 127, 128, 141, 147, 204, 205, 210, 213, 246, 261, 262, 263, Nepal 274 pages 204, 205, 210, 213 Republic of Moldova Netherlands pages 51, 60, 132, 133, 204, 205, 210, pages 59, 131, 132, 166, 191, 204, 205, 213 207, 210, 213, 246, 257, 266 Romania Netherlands Antilles pages 58, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213, pages 204, 205, 207, 210, 213 Russian Federation New Zealand pages 51, 76, 106, 132, 133, 202, 204, pages 52, 83, 129, 130, 202, 204, 205, 205, 207, 208, 210, 213, 217 210, 213 Rwanda Nicaragua pages 60, 125, 126, 204, 205, 210, 213 pages 39, 78, 138, 204, 205, 210, 213 Saint Kitts and Nevis Niger page 207 pages 52, 59, 77, 118, 124, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 272 Saint Lucia pages 106, 107 Nigeria pages 42, 51, 124, 125, 204, 205, 207, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 210, 213, 217 pages 106, 107 Niue Samoa page 207 page 130 Norway San Marino pages 17, 25, 36, 37, 55, 59, 132, 143, page 207 162, 165, 204, 205, 210, 213, 217, 245, Sao Tome and Principe 246, 251, 271, 274 page 207 Oman Saudi Arabia page 106 page 106 Pakistan Senegal pages 83, 129 pages 58, 59, 81, 125, 204, 205, 210, Palau 213, 272 pages 129, 207 Serbia Panama pages 58, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 page 40 Seychelles Paraguay pages 106, 107 pages 39, 53, 61, 79, 204, 205, 210, 213 Singapore Peru pages 26, 256 pages xiii, 40, 53, 79, 80, 138, 204, 205, Slovakia 210, 213, 258, 261, 262, 272 pages 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 Philippines Slovenia pages 127, 204, 205, 210, 213, 245 pages 118, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 Poland Solomon Islands pages 58, 89, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213, page 207 246 South Africa Portugal pages 42, 76, 105, 106, 110, 124, 125, pages 58, 75, 118, 130, 132, 204, 205, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 214, 274 209, 210, 213, 246 278 PHILOSOPHY: A SCHOOL OF FREEDOM

Spain Tuvalu pages 30, 32, 33, 50, 53, 58, 61, 62, 63, page 207 65, 71, 84, 130, 132, 165, 183, 184, 204, Uganda 205, 209, 210, 213, 214, 245, 246, 254, pages 105, 106, 118, 123, 126, 204, 205, 255, 256, 257, 264, 265, 266, 271, 273 210, 213 Sri Lanka Ukraine pages 204, 205, 210, 213 pages 122, 132, 204, 205, 210, 213, 214 Sudan United Arab Emirates pages 87, 204,205, 210, 213, 214 pages 105, 106, 136, 204, 205, 210, 213 Swaziland United Kingdom of Great Britain and page 126 Northern Ireland Sweden pages 38, 51, 104, 110, 132, 134, 166, pages 130, 132, 204, 205, 207, 209, 210, 205, 210, 213, 217, 245, 272, 274 213 United States of America Switzerland pages 16, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 77, 84, 104, pages 72, 76, 77, 132, 204, 205, 207, 108, 129, 133, 134, 135, 139, 140, 141, 210, 213, 245, 246, 273 185, 186, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 214, 245, 246, 247, 271, 274 Syrian Arab Republic pages 58, 204, 205, 210, 213 Uruguay pages 40, 55, 56, 57, 60, 71, 75, 79, 106, Tajikistan 138, 192, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 246, page 208 260, 272, 273 Thailand Uzbekistan pages xiii, 52, 58, 82, 83, 128, 202, 204, pages 77, 83, 128, 204, 205, 210, 213 205, 210, 213, 217 Vanuatu The former Yugoslav Republic of pages 204, 205, 210, 213 Macedonia pages 132, 204, 205, 210, 213 Venezuela pages 40, 53, 61, 71, 79, 105, 122, 138, Timor-Leste 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 224 pages 106, 207 Viet Nam Togo pages 105, 106, 204, 205, 210, 213, 217 pages 204, 205, 207, 210, 213 Zambia Trinidad and Tobago pages 204, 205, 213 page 139 Zimbabwe Tunisia pages 60, 204, 205, 210, 213 pages 51, 84, 86, 87, 88, 118, 122, 136, 141, 142, 204, 205, 209, 210, 213, 224, 246, 261 Turkey pages 58, 76, 89, 90, 106, 122, 132, 143, 204, 205, 208, 209, 210, 213, 246, 260, 262, 273

The following countries have not been indexed as they have not responded to the questionnaire sent by the Secretariat of UNESCO and for which no additional information concerning the teaching of philosophy has been found: Angola, Brunei Darussalam, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Eritrea, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Mozambique, Palestine, Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone, Somalie, Suriname, Tokelau, Tonga, Turkmenistan, United Republic of Tanzania, Yemen. 279 Selected Excerpts... “The impact of philosophy on children may not always be immediately appreciated, yet its impact on the adults of tomorrow can be so considerable that it makes us wonder why philosophy has been marginalized or refused to children.“ (Chapter I. Philosophy at the Age of Wonder) “Philosophy should always be a critique of one’s own culture. When the critique is directed at the outside, when it is used to oppose one’s own culture and ethos to those of others - no matter who these others are – it ceases to be an instrument of critical awareness and becomes instead a means of cultural entrenchment and a prop for all sorts of authoritarianism and fanaticism.“ (Chapter II. Philosophy at the Age of Questioning) “A philosophical education is always a critique of cultures. When it places itself at the service of liberty, it does not purport to substitute ethical, cultural or political concepts with others of the same nature, but to steer us towards a well-constructed and firm critique of any closed set of beliefs, precepts and dogma. When philosophical education is reduced to an ethical indoctrination, it betrays its liberating function. This is why the teaching of philosophy remains a decisive battlefield between formal knowledge, accompanied by free and open ethical reflection, and dogmatic knowledge, often imbued with authoritarian moralizing.“ (Chapter III. Philosophy at University) “The death of philosophy - if such a death were to be contemplated - could only occur if it was deprived of both vitality and plurality. For its essence is based fundamentally on otherness and on an acceptance of the Other and of difference, accompanied by ceaseless questioning.“ (Chapter IV. Philosophy in the Polis) www.unesco.org/publishing

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