The Setting of Romans in the Ministry of Paul John Polhill

John Polhill is Senior Professor of Introduction the work in Corinth at the end of his Interpretation at The Perhaps the most discussed issue in second missionary journey, at that time Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. Romans scholarship is whether it should spending eighteen or more months there Dr. Polhill has also studied at Harvard be understood as an occasional (Acts 18:1-18). The relationship between Divinity School; the University of St. or as a theological treatise.1 Did Paul Paul and Corinth seems to have deterio- Andrews; Princeton Theological Semi- design his epistle as an introduction to rated during the course of his third mis- nary; and the University of California, his primary doctrinal convictions for this sion, which was mainly spent in Ephesus. Berkeley. In addition to contributing to church that he had never visited, or is his He seems to have made a brief second visit numerous journals, reference works, and letter treating specifi c issues within the to Corinth at this time, probably going by denominational publications, he has au- congregation that he knew needed to be sea to Corinth from Ephesus and back. thored Acts in the New American Com- addressed? One probably should not draw Acts does not mention this visit, but Paul mentary series (Broadman and Holman, the lines too sharply. Much of the epistle implied its existence in his second letter 1992) and Paul and His Letters (Broad- deals with theological concerns, although to Corinth, where he spoke of a “painful” man and Holman, 1999). A devoted it is scarcely a “systematic theology.” visit with them (2 Cor 2:1) and of his plans churchman, Dr. Polhill has served as One must turn to other of Paul’s to visit them a “third time” (2 Cor 13:1). pastor of congregations in Virginia, for more thorough treatment of some The third visit to Corinth would be this Kentucky, and Massachusetts. important doctrines such as Christology fi nal stay when he wrote Romans. That it and ecclesiology. On the other hand, some took place at all is indicative that Paul and portions of the epistle focus on matters of the church had overcome their differences a more occasional nature, especially the and the church had become reconciled to fi nal three chapters. By design this article Paul’s leadership. The fi rst seven chapters concerns primarily issues of the occasion of 2 Corinthians seem to indicate that this for the letter in an attempt to place it reconciliation had taken place (especially within the total context of Paul’s ministry. 7:2-16). This fi nal visit is mentioned briefl y In a sense it could be entitled “a tale of in Acts 20:1-3, where Paul referred to three cities,” as the epistle involves three Corinth as “Greece” (Hellas). The fact that distinct locales: Corinth, from which Paul it lasted three months probably indicates was writing; Jerusalem, to which Paul the winter months. Paul was planning to was preparing to travel soon; and Rome, travel to Palestine with a collection for the which was Paul’s ultimate destination. Jewish Christians of Jerusalem and was waiting for the favorable sailing condi- Place and Time of Writing tions the spring would bring. All the evidence indicates that Paul wrote the Roman epistle from Corinth The Collection2 toward the end of his third missionary Acts 20:1-4 does not mention Paul’s journey. The date would have been the collection for Jerusalem, but it is implicit winter of A.D. 56-57. Paul had established in the reference to the various leaders of 4 Paul’s Gentile churches who are men- church who would accompany the col- tioned in verses 3 and 4. They were the lection to Jerusalem but at that time was offi cial church representatives who had not sure whether he would accompany been chosen to accompany Paul to Pal- them (1 Cor 16:1-4). In 2 Corinthians, estine (in Roman “Syria”) with the offer- written only months later, Paul devoted ing for Jerusalem. Though Acts does not two whole chapters to the collection (2 explicitly refer to this collection, Paul did Cor 8-9). Evidently the Corinthians had so, mentioning it in every letter written not taken the collection to heart, and Paul during the course of his third mission. had to persuade them to carry through The collection seems to have been a on their pledge to support the venture.4 pet project of Paul. He may well have He sought to prompt them by informing conceived it as a result of the Jerusalem them of the generosity of other churches Conference (Acts 15), where the Jeru- (2 Cor 8:1-5) and then by reminding salem church formally recognized the them how he had boasted to these same legitimacy of Paul’s “Torah-free” Gentile churches of how eager Corinth had been mission. Galatians 2:10, which probably to participate in the collection (2 Cor 9:3). refers to that conference, says that the He had possibly been accused of having leaders of the mission to the Jews (James, selfi sh motives in making the collection, Peter, and John) asked Paul at that time so he took pains to insure the integrity of “to remember the poor.” Paul added that the offering by having it administered by he was eager to do so. The term “poor” offi cial representatives appointed by the was often used to refer to the Jewish churches (8:16-24). As we have seen, Paul Christians, and this is likely the meaning wrote Romans during his final three- here. It became the seed for Paul’s col- month stay in Corinth at the end of his lection for the Jewish Christians. Paul’s third mission. This visit was largely pre- “circumcision-free” Gentile mission had occupied with the fi nal arrangements for caused tension with the more conserva- the collection, and the collection played a tive elements among the Jewish Chris- major role in Paul’s plans to visit Rome. tians and had prompted the Jerusalem Conference (Acts 15:1-5). Paul probably The Occasion for the Letter saw the request to “remember the poor” (Rom 15:14-33) as an opportunity to express in a tangible Whatever position one takes in the manner the unity of his Gentile converts “Romans debate” one unmistakable with their Jewish brothers and sisters in “occasional” note is found in Rom 15:14-33, . As he put it himself, it was a means where Paul expressed his plans to visit by which through their material sharing the Roman Christians and his reason for they could in some way repay the Jewish temporarily delaying that venture. The Christians for sharing their own spiritual passage falls naturally into two parts: blessings (Rom 15:27). vv. 14-24 treat Paul’s view of his apostolic Paul mentioned the collection in both calling and his desire to minister to the Corinthian letters. At the conclusion of Roman Christians, while vv. 25-33 relate 1 Corinthians, he urged the Corinthians his reason for delaying his coming to to contribute to the collection.3 He men- Rome. tioned the offi cial representatives of the 5 Paul’s Plans (15:14-24) missionary journeys in Acts. In fact, it was As Paul approached the subject of his somewhat larger than the area mentioned plans to come to Rome, he was somewhat in Acts, since Illyricum was a Roman diplomatic and commended the Romans territory along the Adriatic Sea and was for their “goodness” and “knowledge” signifi cantly northwest of the Macedonian and ability to “instruct” one another. He cities where Acts shows Paul ministering. did not want to leave any impression that This is a reminder that Acts is selective his motive in coming was to “set them rather than totally comprehensive in treat- straight.” He had already expressed his ing Paul’s ministry. It is not impossible desire to come to Rome at the beginning that Paul himself ministered in Illyricum, of the letter (Rom 1:9-15). There he spoke but more likely that co-workers or repre- of wanting to share a “spiritual gift” (cha- sentatives of the Macedonian churches risma) with the Romans (1:11). Realizing had done so. Paul would have considered how that could be construed as presump- this an extension of his own ministry. In tion, Paul quickly adjusted his remark by any event, the Jerusalem-Illyricum arc stating that what he sought was mutual covered an enormous land mass, an area encouragement—he toward the Romans estimated as covering some three hun- and they toward him (1:12). Still, Paul dred thousand square miles.5 desired to carry on his ministry in Rome. In verse 20 Paul reached the fi nal con- He was the apostle to the Gentiles (ethnē, clusion to which he had been driving since 1:5), and as such wished to harvest some verse 14: he was a pioneer missionary; it fruit among the Gentiles in Rome, just as was his aim to preach the where it he had elsewhere (1:13). had never before been taken. This concept As Paul continued his conclusion he seems to have been at the heart of Paul’s sought to justify the “boldness” with understanding of apostleship: an apostle which he had set forth his convictions is one called by Christ to do pioneer mis- in the Roman letter. He was an apostle, sionary work in a sphere where the gospel called to minister to the Gentiles, offer- has not yet reached. Paul’s own sphere ing them up like a priest making an was that of the Gentiles. As true pioneers, offering to God, sanctifi ed by the Spirit apostles do not “build on someone else’s (15:15-16). He felt justifi ed in boasting of foundation” (v. 20). Paul expressed this his work accomplished among the Gen- conviction in more detail in 2 Cor 10:13-17. tiles, for it was not his own work but that There he was seeking to justify his claim of Christ working through him, a work to being a true apostle to the Corinthians, that brought the Gentiles to obedience since he was the fi rst to bring them the in Christ, not just in word but in deed as gospel (2 Cor 10:14). Others had come well (15:17-18). The divine origin of his to Corinth claiming to be apostles. Paul ministry had been verifi ed by the accom- pointed to the illegitimacy of their claim. paniment of miraculous activity through They were false apostles, since they were the presence of the Spirit (15:19a). Indeed, working in another’s (Paul’s) sphere of to this point, Paul’s ministry had covered infl uence. a large portion of the east, all the way from Paul did not want to come under the Jerusalem to Illyricum (15:19b). This was same charge at Rome as he had himself roughly the area covered by Paul’s three brought against the false apostles at 6 Corinth. No apostle had preceded Paul in Paul’s Delay (15:25-33) Rome.6 He could legitimately establish a In verse 25 Paul explained that his ministry in the city. trip to Rome would be further delayed In this particular case, Paul was not so for a while in order that he might take an much seeking to establish his own mis- offering to Jerusalem to aid the Christians sion in Rome but rather to use the Roman there. He noted how the Greek cities had churches as his base for a new pioneer been pleased to collect such an offer- work, a ministry in Spain and the Roman ing. He mentioned Macedonia (which west (15:22-24). Verse 22 explains why Paul would include Philippi, Thessalonica, had not yet been able to come to Rome: and Berea) and Achaia (Corinth). Paul’s the work in the east had demanded all his other churches seem to have participated time and effort. Now, however, Paul had as well. First Corinthians 16:1 mentions completed his ministry in the east and Galatians in connection with the collec- was free to break new ground in the west. tion, and the list of church representatives Obviously there was still much room for who accompanied Paul to Jerusalem with witness in the eastern provinces of the the offering includes both Galatians and Roman Empire, but Paul had established a Asians (Acts 20:4). Verse 27 establishes foundation. The churches he had founded the principle of mutuality expressed in were now equipped for ministry in their the collection, a point Paul also made in area and the surrounding territory. Ever relation to the collection in 2 Cor 8:13-15. In the pioneer missionary, Paul was now Romans Paul pointed out that the Gentile ready to move to regions where no Chris- Christians had been spiritually blessed by tian witness yet existed. Spain and points receiving the gospel, a blessing which ulti- west provided fertile ground. mately came from the Jewish Christians. Paul does not seem to have planned Now that the Jerusalem churches were in a long stay in Rome, but only to see the physical need it was only fi tting that their Roman Christians “in passing” (“while Gentile fellow Christians provide them going through”) on his way to Spain. with material blessings.7 In verse 28 Paul He also hoped that the Romans would restated his plan to go to Spain by way of “send him forth” on that journey. Paul Rome. Verse 29 is an implicit appeal for used a technical term for “sending forth” the Roman approval of his planned visit (propempō) that was often used for fur- and mission. nishing someone with the necessary pro- Verses 30-33 complete the section with visions for their journey. In all likelihood an appeal for prayer. In verse 30 Paul used Paul was not just hoping that the Roman “prayer warrior” language as he asked churches would provide for him on his the Roman Christians to strive/fight trip to Spain, but that they would continue together with him in prayer. He used a to support him materially throughout word which means to struggle together his mission there. Just as Antioch had as in an athletic meet or a military battle. been his supporting congregation in his His requested prayer had three petitions: missions in the east, now he was hoping (1) that he might be delivered from the that the Roman Christians would support unbelieving Jews in Jerusalem, (2) that his ministry in the west, that they would the collection might be acceptable to the become his “western Antioch.” Jerusalem Christians, and (3) that the 7 fulfi llment of these requests would lead Paul a heretic and were after his neck. Paul to his coming to Rome and joyfully shar- was asked by the Christians to participate ing the company of the Christians there in a ceremony at the temple to prove his (vv. 31-32). It should be noted how Paul fi delity to Judaism (Acts 21:20-26). The had some question about his treatment effort backfi red, and Paul was besieged on at the hands of the non-Christian Jews the temple grounds by a Jewish mob that of Jerusalem as well as his reception by had been stirred up by charges from some the Christians. His trepidation had some Diaspora Jews that Paul sought to lead the basis in fact. Jews “everywhere” to renounce the law and had just now violated the sanctity of The Fulfi llment of Paul’s Plans the temple. Paul would have been torn to Paul’s desire to visit the Roman shreds had not a Roman cohort arrived, churches was ultimately fulfilled, but broken up the riot, and taken Paul into not in the manner he likely envisioned custody (Acts 21:27-36). Paul’s requested nor as quickly as he might have wished. prayer that he be delivered from the unbe- Acts relates how he finally reached lieving Jerusalem Jews (Rom 15:31) was Rome—not as a free man but as a pris- answered, but only by his ending up as a oner in chains. It is questionable how prisoner of Rome. Paul remained under much Paul’s prayer was answered that Roman custody for three years or so, fi rst the collection would be acceptable to the in Jerusalem (Acts 21:37-23:30) and then in Jerusalem Christians. Acts is strangely the Roman headquarters at Caesarea (Acts silent about the collection, which is all the 23:31-24:27). Finally, in order to remove the more remarkable when one considers that possibility that the Romans might give the collection was Paul’s main reason for in to Jewish pressure and deliver him to going to Jerusalem at the end of his third almost certain death at the hands of the mission and the sole reason for the delay Jews, Paul exercised his right as a Roman of his visit to Rome and his Spanish mis- citizen to appeal for a trial before Caesar sion, as Rom 15:25-29 makes clear. When (Acts 25:1-26:32). The appeal was accepted, Paul arrived in Jerusalem, Acts 21:17 says Paul was transferred to Rome by sea, and that the brothers “received (him) gladly,” Acts ends up with Paul under house arrest which may be an indirect reference to in Rome awaiting his hearing before Cae- the welcome gift. On the other hand, the sar (Acts 27:1-28:31). Jerusalem Christian leaders seemed more It is interesting to note how much concerned with Paul’s proving that he Paul’s desire to go to Rome and the Acts was a faithful Jew than in accepting the narrative coincide. While in prison in generous gift from the Gentile Christians. Jerusalem, the Lord assured him in a Was the Gentile gift an embarrassment to vision that he would witness in Rome the Christians that might hamper their (Acts 23:11). Likewise, in the midst of witness to the Jews? Is that why Acts is so the shipwreck narrative, an of the silent on the subject—it wasn’t all that well Lord assured Paul that he and all his fel- received? We cannot be sure. Any answer low voyagers would survive the disaster would be somewhat speculative. because God was delivering Paul to testify Acts is, however, crystal clear on one in Rome before Caesar (Acts 27:24). God point—the non-Christian Jews considered shared Paul’s desire for him to witness 8 in Rome. The means of his doing so was Suetonius’s reference is most likely his probably quite different from what Paul misunderstanding of that name. If so, the imagined when he expressed that desire expulsion of the Jews would have been to the Romans. due to a somewhat tumultuous debate in the synagogues resulting from the arrival The Roman Christians there of a Christian witness. Given the Corinth was the city where Paul violent reaction to Paul’s witness in the penned his letter to the Romans and the Diaspora synagogues recorded in Acts place from which he departed with his (e.g., Acts 17:1-7, 13; 18:12-17), a similar collection. Jerusalem was the destination result from the coming of the Christian for his collection, which constituted the message is not hard to picture for Rome. reason for Paul’s delay in going to Rome. The uproar in the synagogues was seen What of Rome itself? How much did as suffi cient threat to the peace of the Paul know about the Roman Christians? city for the emperor to expel the Jews. How much of the situation in the Roman One Jewish couple who had to leave the churches is refl ected in Paul’s letter to city at this time were Aquila and Priscilla Rome? (Acts 18:2). The presence of a Christian community Christianity in Rome in the capital city before Paul’s arrival How did Christianity reach Rome? The there is certain. But, how did Christian- very fact that Paul wrote a letter to the ity fi rst come there? It does not seem to Roman Christians is evidence of a Chris- have been taken there by an apostle. The tian community there. Other evidence tradition of Peter’s ministry in Rome exists as well. When Paul was taken under and his martyrdom there is in all likeli- Roman custody to Rome, the fi nal leg of hood accurate,9 but he does not seem to his voyage took him to Puteoli, an Italian have preceded Paul there. Paul’s remarks port several days’ journey south of Rome. to the Romans about not building on Christianity had already reached there, another’s foundation (Rom 15:20) seem for Paul is said to have stayed a week to preclude Peter’s having established a with the Christians there (Acts 28:14). witness in Rome prior to Paul. The most After that, as he traveled by foot from likely manner in which the gospel came to Puteoli to Rome he was joined by Roman Rome was through the witness of Chris- Christians who had traveled south on the tian laity, military people like Cornelius Appian Way to meet him (Acts 28:15). Less the Centurion and business people like direct evidence for a pre-Pauline Chris- Lydia, Priscilla, and Aquila who took the tian community in Rome is found in the gospel with them wherever they traveled. Roman historian Suetonius, who related It is unclear whether the latter two were an incident that occurred during the reign Christians when they met Paul in Corinth, of Claudius that prompted the emperor to and unlikely that they had taken the gos- expel the Jews from Rome.8 According to pel to Rome, but they are prime examples Suetonius, disturbances arose within the of business people who shared the gospel Jewish community which were provoked wherever they went—in Ephesus (Acts by a certain person name “Chrestus.” The 18:26) and later in Rome (Rom 16:3) Latin word for Christ is “Christus,” and It is altogether likely that the Christian 9 community in Rome began with con- 31). On the other hand, the letter is replete verts from the synagogues. Throughout with Jewish concerns—the discussion Acts Paul is shown to have begun his of whether Jews had any real advantage witness in each city by preaching in the over Gentiles with respect to salvation in synagogues and drawing the nucleus of chapters 2 and 3, the extensive treatment the Christian community from them. of issues involving the torah in chapters He even continued that strategy when 4 and 7, and the long discussion of the he arrived in Rome (Acts 28:17-27). An Jewish place in God’s election throughout extensive Jewish community was pres- chapters 9-11. Such issues would seem to ent in Rome, which has been estimated have been irrelevant to a purely Gentile to have been as large as 50,000 people, readership, but of extreme importance to with synagogues scattered throughout a community comprised of both Jewish the city.10 The Christian community may and Gentile converts. Of course, it could have followed this same pattern. It is not be argued that Paul’s mind was more on likely that only one Christian community Jerusalem and the debate he might face existed. Unlike the Corinthian and Thes- there in defending his torah-free gospel salonian letters, where Paul addressed his before the Jewish community and the letter to “the church” (1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1; more conservative Jewish Christians, 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1), Paul addressed but one wonders why Paul would have Romans to “all those in Rome called to introduced such discussions in a letter to be saints” (Rom 1:7). In a large city like a strictly Gentile community unless there Rome, one meeting place would have were Jewish concerns that involved the been improbable. More likely, multiple larger community. It is more likely the house churches existed. This may in part community was comprised of both Jews explain the long list of greeting in Romans and Gentiles and the differences between 16, with many of the names there possibly the two groups were a source of confl ict. designating the householders in whose homes the churches met. This would not The Controversy (14:1-15:13) rule out gatherings on occasion of the In Rom 14:1-15:13 Paul addressed two larger community. groups, which he designated as “the strong” and “the weak.” The “weak” are Confl ict in the Community portrayed as holding three views that The Roman churches seem to have put them at odds with the strong. First, had a mixed composition of both Jews they were vegetarian, eating no meat at and Gentiles. The Roman epistle seems all (14:2). Second, they held some days to reflect this. Many references in the in special veneration, while the “strong” epistle point to Gentiles, such as Paul’s considered all days alike (14:5). Third, reminding his readers of his own role they seem to have abstained from drink- as the apostle to the Gentiles (Rom 1:5, ing wine (14:21). Some scholars see this 13; 15:16). In chapter 11, Paul directly whole section of Romans as general ethi- addressed his Gentile readers, rebuking cal teaching rather than as a refl ection of them for any feelings of superiority that the actual situation within the Roman they might have over the Jews with regard Christian community. Most, however, to their salvation in Christ (Rom 11:13, 28, would see it as being so specific and 10 pointed that it must reflect an actual answer is the Gentiles and the Jews. The controversy within the Roman churches. three characteristics of the weak seem to This question, of course, is who the two point in the general direction of the Jews. groups represented. The veneration of special days would The contrast between the strong and point to Jewish scruples about the Sab- weak reminds one of 1 Corinthians 8-10, bath. The other two characteristics are not where Paul dealt with the problem of idol as easily applicable to the Jews, but point meat. In Corinthians Paul urged the strong to a rather extreme form of asceticism to yield to the scruples of the weak and sometimes found in Jewish sectarianism. not eat the idol meat in situations where Some Jews would not drink wine or any it might cause the weak to stumble. Like- alcoholic beverage. This was certainly true wise in Romans Paul directed the strong of those who took Nazarite vows and was to yield in cases where they might cause characteristic of some ascetic Jewish sects others to stumble (14:20f., 15:1). There are like the Theraputae in Egypt. Vegetarian major differences between the treatments Jews are harder to locate. We have no in 1 Corinthians and Romans, however. In direct evidence for vegetarian groups 1 Corinthians, the main problem is idol among the Jews, but there may well have meat and the “stumbling” of the weak is been some “super-ascetics” who sought to their turning back to their former pagan follow the ideal exemplifi ed in the story of ways by acknowledging the real existence the Hebrew youths in Nebuchadnezzar’s of the idol to whom the meat had been court (Dan 1:8-16). In any event, in the offered (1 Cor 8:10-11), which is more likely conclusion to his treatment of the strong for a Gentile than a Jew. In Romans, the and weak, Paul spoke of two groups—the issue does not seem to be idol meat but circumcised (Jews) and the Gentiles (Rom meat in general as an offense to those who 15:8-9). The disdainful attitudes may not are strict vegetarians. The “stumbling” is have been characteristic of all the Gentiles not so much returning to paganism as that in the Roman churches, and the extreme of considering meat as “unclean” (14:14) ascetics may not have comprised all the and meat-eating as something evil (14:16). Christian Jews in Rome, but the problem Despite his direction for the strong to was pervasive enough for Paul to devote yield, in Romans Paul shows no patience a signifi cant portion of his letter to it. We with either group’s attitudes toward the cannot be sure what role the Roman house other. The strong are guilty of despising, churches played in the controversy. Some disdaining, and treating the weak with of them may have been entirely Jewish contempt, while the weak are equally or entirely Gentile in membership. Some culpable for their censorious judgment of or all may have had a mixed Jew/Gentile the meat-eaters (14:3). Both groups have composition. The confl ict may thus have forgotten that God is the ultimate judge of been between separate communities or each individual (14:4, 10-12). Both groups within individual congregations. should learn to accept the differences of The question remains as to how Paul others in the example of Christ and not would have obtained his information on insist on their own way (15:1-7). a problem within a community he did not Who were the strong and weak among establish nor had ever visited. The same the Roman Christians? The most likely question could be raised about the long 11 list of greetings in chapter 16. How did the context is not suffi cient to determine Paul know all these Roman Christians? whether she held a formal offi ce or was The truth of the matter is that there was simply one who had rendered some probably more contact between com- ministry to the church. In any event, munities in the Roman world than we she had provided service to the church often realize. The Romans had an excel- at Cenchrea, the Corinthian port on the lent road system, and travelers from one Aegean Sea. Paul further described her community to another were often laden as a “patron” (prostatis) who had helped with extensive correspondence for other him and many others. A patron was one people’s friends and relatives. Rome who supported others, generally in a was not that far removed from Corinth, material sense. It is possible that being only a few days’ journey away by provided her home for the church meet- ship across the Adriatic and up the main ings at Cenchrea, much as Lydia seems Italian highways from Brundisium to to have done for Philippi (Acts 16:40). In Rome. any event she was traveling to Rome, and Paul wanted the church there to welcome The Greetings in her. Such letters of introduction were Paul characteristically concluded his common in Paul’s day. Those who hold epistles with an exchange of greetings. the Ephesian hypothesis argue that Paul’s Romans is no exception. In fact, the long recommendation would have carried list of greetings in Romans is longer than more weight at Ephesus, where Paul was any other Pauline epistle. This, along well known. Such is not necessarily the with some other considerations, has led case. In the ancient world, the status of the a number of scholars to postulate that recommender was what carried weight. the chapter was originally a portion of Paul was an apostle and of high status in a letter sent to Ephesus, a congregation Christian circles. His recommendation where Paul had ministered for three would have been well received at Rome. years and thus had many acquaintances.11 Paul’s fi rst greeting was to Priscilla and Those who hold this view note how Rom Aquila (Rom. 16:3-5a).13 They had been 15:33 is a benediction. Since Paul often Paul’s co-workers from the time he fi rst concluded his letters with a benediction, met them in Corinth (Acts 18:2). When it is argued that the Roman epistle ended he left Corinth, the pair accompanied at 15:33 and the fragment to Ephesus has him to Ephesus, where they remained been appended at this point.12 As we now in ministry when Paul returned to Anti- proceed through the list of greetings, we och (Acts 16:18-26). Those who hold the will test this theory further as we go. Ephesian hypothesis note that the last Paul fi rst included a brief recommenda- mention of the couple in Acts is this very tion of Phoebe, whom he identifi ed as a passage—in Ephesus, not Rome. It must servant or deacon (diakonos) of the church be remembered, however, that the two at Cenchrea (16:1-3). The word diakonos is had come to Corinth from Rome because a general term for servant and eventu- of Claudius’ expulsion of the Jews (Acts ally became a term for an offi cer in the 18:2). Upon Claudius’s death in A.D. 54, church. In the Pastoral Epistles it has the the edict of expulsion was lifted, and the latter meaning, but with regard to Phoebe Jews were allowed to return to the city. 12 It is quite likely that among the apostles.” This could be con- had taken advantage of that situation. strued either as including them among Exactly when they had risked their lives the ranks of the apostles or recognizing for Paul is not known (16:4). It could have the high regard in which they were held been in connection with the Jewish mob in apostolic circles. In either case, Paul in Corinth (Acts 18:12-17) or at the time was recognizing their service. One should of the Ephesian riot (Acts 19:21-41), but not miss how many of these women we have no evidence to support either. In were recognized for their contribution to any event, they were now back in Rome, the church—Phoebe for her ministry at and a congregation met in their home. Cenchrea (v. 1), Priscilla for risking her Since they were Jews, it may have been a life for Paul and his ministry (v. 4), Mary predominantly Jewish Christian group. for working so diligently for the Roman Romans 16:5b speaks of Epaenetus as Christians (v. 6), Junia for her service in “the fi rst convert in Asia.” Asia is Paul’s apostolic circles (v. 7), Tryphaena and Try- usual designation for Ephesus, which was phosa for serving as the Lord’s workers (v. the major city in which he ministered in 12), and Persis, who also “worked hard” the Roman Province of Asia. The fi rst con- for the Lord (v. 12). Not only the sheer vert in Asia would most likely be located number of women greeted but Paul’s con- in Ephesus, to be sure. But, it would not be stant reference to their Christian service impossible that he had moved to Rome. In bears eloquent testimony to the role that fact, the Ephesian Christians were prob- women fi lled in the ministry of the early ably aware of his status as the fi rst convert churches. in the area. The Roman Christians might One should also note the balance not have known this. Now that he was a between Jewish and Gentile (both Greek member of the Roman community, his and Latin) names in Paul’s long list of acquaintance with Paul would have been greetings. Priscilla and Aquila were Jew- a means of furthering Paul’s introduction ish (Acts 18:2). Paul described Andronicus to Rome. and Junia as his “kin,” that is, fellow Jews In verse six Paul sent greetings to Mary, (v. 7). The same designation is applied to whom he described as having “worked Herodion as well (v. 11). Names like Mary hard/toiled” (kopiaō) for the Romans. It is (v. 6) were likely Jewish, while others striking how many women are included were common Gentile names—Hermes, in Paul’s list of greetings. In addition to Hermas, Julia, Olympas, and the like. Phoebe, Priscilla, and Mary should be The variety of names points to the mixed added Tryphaena and Tryphosa (v. 12), nature of the Roman church. It is quite Persis (v. 12), Rufus’s mother (v. 13), Julia possible that they point to individual (v. 15), and Nereus’s sister (v. 15). The name house churches. This is certainly true for Junia (v. 7) should probably also be added the church that met in the home of Pris- to the list. A variant in the manuscript tra- cilla and Aquila (v. 5). The mention of “all dition has the masculine form of the name the saints” who were “with” the various (Junias), but the feminine form (Junia) is persons mentioned in verse 15 also likely better attested.14 She was probably the points to an individual congregation. wife of Andronicus. Paul describes the Verses 17 to 20 serve to separate Paul’s pair as “outstanding/prominent (episēmoi) personal greetings from the greetings he 13 sends from others in verses 21 to 23. This Cyrenian mentioned in Acts 13:1.16 Jason is has led some to see this section as support possibly the same as the one with whom for chapter 16 being addressed to Ephesus Paul stayed in Thessalonica (Acts 17:5-9), and the false teaching that later plagued but that also is rather unlikely, as that too that church.15 No real reason exists for see- was a common name. As for , we ing this section as an intrusion in Paul’s know nothing of him except for this brief letter to the Romans. He was well aware greeting in Romans. of divisions in the congregation and had Tertius sent his greeting in verse 22 and already addressed that problem in 14:1- called himself the “writer” of the letter. 15:13. Christians who were divided over This identifi es him as Paul’s amanuensis such non-essential matters as food and or secretary to whom the apostle dictated drink would certainly be subject to being the letter. Paul seems to have often used led astray on more signifi cant issues. Verse an amanuensis and sometimes wrote his 17 bids the Roman Christians to “look out concluding remarks in his own hand as for” those who would create divisions a sort of seal of authenticity (1 Cor 16:21; and lead them astray from the sound Gal 6:11; Col 4:18; 2 Thess 3:17). It is also doctrine they had been taught. Paul had possible that when Paul mentioned a already had to fi ght the intrusion of such co-sender in the address of a letter that false teachings—the Judaizers at Galatia, person served as his amanuensis. the “super-apostles” at Corinth. Before Paul concluded with three fi nal greet- concluding his , he ings (v. 23), all probably from Corinthian sought to warn the Christians there lest Christians. Two are of special signifi cance. such false teachers should descend on First is , the person with whom Paul them and lead them astray as well. was lodging when he wrote the letter. He Verses 21 to 23 send various greetings is probably the same Gaius whom Paul from Paul’s companions in Corinth. Timo- spoke of as one of two Corinthians he thy is the fi rst mentioned (v. 21). Of all had baptized (1 Cor 1:14). Next is Erastus, Paul’s co-workers, Timothy seems to have who Paul identified as the steward or been the closest to the apostle. Joining treasurer of the city. In the excavations of Paul on his second mission (Acts 16:1-5), he Corinth, an inscription dating from the worked with him throughout both his sec- fi rst century was discovered on a theater ond and third missions (Acts 17:14-15, 18:5, plaza which identifi ed a person named 19:22, 20:4). Paul addressed two letters to Erastus as the treasurer of the city who Timothy. He listed him as co-sender in the authorized the construction of the plaza.17 addresses of six other letters (2 Cor, Phil, It is quite likely that the Erastus of the Col, 1 and 2 Thess, and Phlm). In Philip- inscription is the same city treasurer as pians Paul called him his “son” and said the Erastus who was sending greetings that he had no other co-worker so self- to his Christian brothers and sisters in lessly devoted to the work of Christ (Phil Rome.18 The ultimate purpose of :19-21). If Timothy is so well-known to was to serve as an introduction to Paul us, we can be much less certain about the and to pave the way for his coming. The other three mentioned in verse 21. Lucius extensive list of greetings surely helped was an extremely common Latin name, to further his introduction. and it is unlikely that this is the Lucius the Romans concludes with a doxology, 14 actually two if one includes verse 24. The doctrinal differences. What did bother “grace benediction” of verse 24 parallels Paul was how these minor differences the closing words of verse 20 and is rather were dividing the church. Paul’s whole poorly attested, being omitted by the ministry in a real sense had been devoted earliest witnesses. On the other hand, the to the unity of the body of Christ, to Jew benediction of verses 25-27 is very well- and Gentile united around their common attested and in most witnesses comes at bond in Christ. That was what the the end of chapter 16. In other witnesses, collection was all about. He wanted to see however, it is found at the end of chapter the same unity among the diverse Roman 14 or at the end of chapter 15 or even at the house churches—the unity of a shared end of both chapters 14 and 16 in the same faith in Christ among all people, both Jew manuscript. The textual confusion seems and Gentile (Rom 16:26). to be attributable to the heretic Marcion, who omitted chapters 15 and 16 from the ENDNOTES text of Romans, leading to the subsequent 1This discussion is treated at length in K. placing of the fi nal benediction at the end P. Donfried, ed., The Romans Debate (exp. of the truncated text. The content of the ed.; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991). benediction focuses on a theme dear to 2For a fuller treatment of Paul’s collec- Paul—the “mystery” of the inclusion of tion, see J. B. Polhill, Paul and His Letters the Gentiles in God’s saving plan through (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, Jesus Christ (compare Col 1:26-27). 1999), 306-12. 3First Corinthians was written toward Conclusion the end of Paul’s three-year ministry in This article has focused on the “less Ephesus, around A.D. 55-56 and thus theological” portion of Romans, chapters within a year or so of Paul’s winter in 14-16, and their refl ection of Paul’s pur- Corinth. pose in writing the epistle. If there is one 4Corinth’s reluctance to participate in the thing that ties these chapters together, it collection was probably related to their is the theme of the unity of all believers strained relationship with Paul at this in Christ. Paul’s reason for delaying his time. See Polhill, Paul and His Letters, visit to the Romans was his concern for 258-59. the unity of the church as expressed in 5J. Knox, Chapters in a Life of Paul (Nash- the Jerusalem collection. It was so real a ville: Abingdon, 1950), 106-07. concern for Paul that he was willing to 6Romans 15:20 is one of the clearest evi- delay his mission to the west and to risk dences that Peter did not establish the the very real danger that he knew faced Roman church. Paul did not see his wit- him in Jerusalem. Paul’s treatment of nessing in Rome as building on another the division between the strong and the apostle’s foundation. weak in chapters 14 and 15 is likewise 7The Jerusalem Christians seem to have consumed with the desire for a unifi ed suffered from poverty more than once. church. Paul could care less about the An earlier collection for them was differences between the groups. They provided by the Antioch church (Acts were indifferent matters for him, disputes 11:27-30). Some scholars attribute the over non-essential matters, not signifi cant Jerusalem poverty to a failure of their 15 practice of sharing as recorded in to have been a Jew who took on a Acts 4-5. It is more likely to have Gentile second name, a common been due to drought and crop fail- practice among Diaspora Jews. Paul ure to which Palestine was particu- describes all those in verse 21 as his larly vulnerable. (Jewish) “kin.” 8Suetonius, Life of Claudius 25:4. 17See H. J. Cadbury, “Erastus of 9For Peter in Rome, see O. Cullmann, Corinth,” Journal of Biblical Literature Peter: , Apostle, Martyr (Phila- 50 (1931): 42-58; D. W. J. Gill, “Eras- delphia: Westminster, 1962). tus the Aedile,” Tyndale Bulletin 40 10See H. J. Leon, The Jews of Ancient (1989): 293-301. Rome (updated ed.; Peabody, MA: 18It is possible but less certain that the Hendrickson, 1995), 229-38. Corinthian treasurer is the same 11For a fuller treatment of the Ephe- as the Erastus mentioned as a co- sian hypothesis and its relation to worker of Paul in Acts 19:22 or the the textual problem of the benedic- Erastus of 2 Tim 4:20. tions in -16, see Polhill, Paul and His Letters, 281-82. 12Some scholars have seen more than one edition of Romans—one to Rome, ending at chapter 15, and one to Ephesus, including chapters 1-13 and 16. See T. W. Manson, “St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans—and Others,” The Romans Debate, 2-15. 13Paul calls her by her formal name Prisca. The form Priscilla is a dimin- utive and more of a nick-name (“little Prisca”). 14See R. S. Cervin, “A Note Regarding the Name ‘Junia(s)’ in Romans 16:7,” New Testament Studies 40 (1994): 464-70. 15In his Miletus address to the Ephe- sian elders Paul warned that false teachers would come after him and prey on their fl ock (Acts 20:29-30). 16It would be attractive to see this as a reference to Luke, since Luke was with Paul at the end of his third mission, as indicated by the presence of “we” throughout Acts 20:5-21:18. Luke, however, is a Greek name and not to be confused with the Latin Lucius. Lucius seems 16