The Positive Side of Emotional Labor: Its Effect on Work Engagement and Job
Performance
CHAN, How Weng Wynne
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Philosophy in
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
The Chinese University of Hong Kong
August 2009
Thesis/Assessment Committee
Professor Darius K wan-shing Chan (Chair) Professor Winton Wing-tung Au (Thesis Supervisor) Professor Wai Chan (Committee Member) Professor Tahira M Probst (External Examiner) Abstract of thesis entitled:
The Positive Side of Emotional Labor: Its effect on Work Engagement and Job
Performance
Submitted by Chan How Weng Wynne for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Industrial-Organizational Psychology at The Chinese University of Hong Kong in June 2009
Abstract
Emotionallabor, the management of emotions in the workplace, has captured huge attention from researchers as well as organizations. The study in emotional labor addresses the effect from display rule on emotional regulation strategies and its outcomes. Surface acting and deep acting were the two widely researched emotional labor strategies used by employees to manipulate their emotions in order to show the prescribed emotions by organizations. Besides surface acting and deep acting, this current study included the expression of naturally felt emotions, which is an automatic process, as a third strategy. Following the upcoming trend of positive psychology, this study extended the knowledge of emotionallabor to examining work engagement and job performance as the consequences. Another feature of this study is the inclusion of third person ratings on the outcome variables which helped to reduce common method variances. Customer service representatives in a hotel in
China participated in this study. Results showed that surface acting, deep acting, and the expression of naturally felt emotions were three distinct emotionallabor strategies that are available for employees. Moreover, deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions, which were predicted by empathy, were positively related 11 to work engagement which in turn led to better performance. Implications on employee selection and training, and future directions were also discussed. | | |
摘要
一直以來學術研究人員以及機構組織都看力研究情緒勞動(ernotional labor) 。 情緒勞動是在工作中需要到的情緒調節 。 情緒勞動研究著重於研究情
緒表現規例 (display rules) 對情緒勞動策略 (ernotionallabor strategies) 及其後果
的影響 。 過往研究著重於探討員工怎樣利用表面演繹 (surface acting) 和深層演
繹 (deep acting) 來幫助他們造出公司所要求的情緒 。 本研究除了表面演繹和深
層演繹之外還有調查員工自然感受的情緒表達 (the expression of naturally felt
ernotions) 。 跟據近年來正向心理學(p ositive psychology) 的熱潮， 本研究把情
緒勞動跟工作投入 (work engagernent) 和工作表現聯繫起來 。 另一特點是包括
其他人的評分來量度後果的變數以減低共同方法偏差的影響 。 本研究的參與者
由中國一所酒店的前線員工所組成 。 結果顯示表面演繹、深層演繹和自然感受
的情緒表達是三個獨立的情緒勞動策略 。 同理心 (ernpathy) 是可以帶動員工表
達自然感受的情緒而深層演繹及自然感受的情緒表達是可以提升員工的工作投
入，從而提升工作表現 。 最後，本文亦提及本研究對機構組織和員工培訓及選
拔的意義和未來研究方向 。 iv
Table of Content
Abstract ......
~~ ...... 111
Table of Content ...... IV
List of Tables ...... v1
List of Figures ...... VII
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Background...... 1
Display rule ...... 4
Emotional labor strategies ...... 5
Empathy...... 7
Work engagement...... 8
CHAPTER 2. METHOD...... 13
Participants and procedures ...... 13
Measures ...... 14
Data analysis ...... 16
CHAPTER 3. RESULTS...... 18 V
Descriptive Analyses ...... 18
Structural Equation Modeling ...... 21
CHAPTER 4. DISCUSSION ...... 23
Imp] ications ...... 25
Limitations ...... 28
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION ...... 29
References ...... 30
Appendix ...... 3 8 vi
List of Tables
Table 1. Departments of participants ...... 14
Table 2. The means, SDs, and bivariate correlations among the indicators .... 19
Table 3. The correlations among measured variables...... 21 vii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Conceptual model summarizing the relations among constructs...... 12
Figure 2. Proposed model ...... 22 Emotional labor and work engagement 1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Background
Researchers and practitioners in organizational behavior and human resources management has become interested in the management of emotions in the workplace
(Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Grandey, 2000; Wilk & Moynihan, 2005). Emotional labor is becoming one of the most important topics in the literature as people nowadays start to pay more attention to employees' physical and psychological well-being which in turn affects organizational efficacy and effectiveness (Spector, 2006). Emotional labor is the process in which employees display certain emotions, that might be different from what they are actually experiencing, in response to their job expectations of showing the appropriate emotions at work especially at customer encounters in order to provide better services (Hochschi Id, 1983). The quality of service delivery leads to customer loyalty and retention as well as positive impact on profit and organizational effectiveness (Rust & Zahorik, 1993; Storbacka, Strandvik, & Gronroos, 1994 ). These are the reasons organizations are concerned with their employees' emotion displays
when interacting with customers.
To have employees to show the appropriate emotions, organizations usually have
norms for the appropriate emotional displays; these are called display rules (Ekman &
Friesen, 1975). Most organizations have their employees display positive emotions
especially for customer service industries. Employees' reactions to display rules are
different from each other. Display rules were said to cause inauthenticity and burnout to
some employees but at the same time it is also related to self efficacy and job
satisfaction in other employees (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge & Lee, Emotional labor and work engagement 2
2002; Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003). These mix findings were due to the employment of different emotional regulation strategies (Grandey, 2000; Johnson & Spector, 2007).
In order to conform to display rules, employees will involve in regulating their emotions by employing various strategies. Surface acting, the action that one simply put a smile on the face without changing the emotion inside, and deep acting, the action that one tries to change the deeply felt emotion, are the two emotional regulation strategies that had captured most of the research attention in the past while the expression of naturally felt emotions as a third regulation strategy has been neglected (Ashforth & Humphrey,
1993; Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003).
Surface acting is always found to be positively related to stress (Grandey, 2000) and negatively associated with well-being while deep acting is found to be positively related to well-being (Gross & John, 2003). Other research had found that surface acting was positively related to burnout while deep acting was negatively related to burnout and positively related to service performance (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey,
2003; Tottedell & Holman, 2003). It is obvious that the different choices of emotional regulation strategies lead to different outcomes. However, these previous studies focused
only on surface acting and deep acting. The first purpose of this study is to confirm the
existence of a third strategy and to examine the relationship between display rule
perceptions and the emotional regulation strategies after including the expression of
naturally felt emotions as this third neglected strategy.
If this third strategy really exists, what is the precursor of the employment of this
strategy? Individual who are capable of expressing their naturally felt emotions are
expected to be able to understand and be sensitive to others' emotions. Empathy is Emotional labor and work engagement 3 defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990) as the "ability to comprehend another' s feelings and to re-experience them oneself'. Do empathetic individuals have a higher ability and inclination to express their naturally felt emotions when they are asked to express the appropriate emotions in front of their customers? Another purpose of this study is to understand the reasons of making a choice to expressing naturally felt emotions over surface acting and deep acting.
Previous research in the emotionallabor literature has focused more on negative outcomes such as emotional dissonance, emotional exhaustion and burnout (e.g.
Grandey, 2003; Wilk & Moynihan, 2005; Cheung & Tang, 2007). Following the recent trend of positive psychology which focuses on human strength and well-being, the burnout literature have started to shift its attention to its opposite side to examining work engagement (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Schaufeli, Martinez-Pinto, Salanova,
& Bakker, 2002). Despite a large number of studies addressing the relationship between emotionallabor and job satisfaction (e.g. Morris & Feldman, 1997; Grandey, Fisk, &
Steiner, 2005), how emotional labor is related to other positive outcomes such as work engagement and employee job performance is still largely unclear. This study extended the knowledge of emotionallabor literature to work engagement and job performance as the consequences. Consistent with recent research on emotional labor (e.g. Brotheridge
& Grandy, 2002; Diefendorff & Richard, 2003; Grandey, 2003), the present study also
had individuals in the "people work" industry as the participants (Hochschild, 1983). In
addition, while most of the previous emotional labor research was done in the United
States, this present study extended our knowledge in understanding emotionallabor in
the Chinese context by hiring a Chinese sample. Emotional labor could be manifested Emotional labor and work engagement 4 differently in the Chinese society due to cultural differences in the western and eastern countries (Bond, 1996)
Display Rule
Display rules are the rules set by the organization that employees have to comply with showing the kind of emotion expected and required to display when interacting with customers and at business encounters (Ekman, 1992; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). For most occupations, display rules involve expressing positive and suppressing negative emotions (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002). It is conceptualized as role requirements as well as interpersonal job demands which help to attain other work outcomes (Rafaeli &
Sutton, 1987; Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993; Diefendorff & Richard, 2003). Positive displays are usually considered as a part of the job duty especially in the service occupations (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002, Diefendorff, Richard, & Croyle, 2006). For a car salesperson, in order to sell a certain number of cars in a month, being friendly and cheerful might be considered part of the job. Important customer outcomes such as
intention to return, intention to advertise the company or a store to others and the
impression of overall service quality are positively correlated with positive affective
displays in service interactions (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1985; Pugh, 2001).
In order to comply to display rules, employees are often engaged in emotional
regulation strategies to produce the affective displays needed for the job (Hochschild,
1983). According to Diefendorff and Gosserand (2003), employees are involved in
comparing one's emotional display with display rules constantly throughout the work
day. When there is a discrepancy between the two, the employees engage in emotional Emotional labor and work engagement 5 regulation strategies to bring present or future emotional displays in line with the display rules set by the organizations. The more important the employees perceive the display rules to be, the higher level of acting and emotional regulation will take place (Grandey,
2003).
Emotional Labor Strategies
It is often the case that employees are not feeling as positive as that is required by the organizations (Parkinson, 1991 ). They would then engage in acting to produce the needed affective display (Hochschild, 1983). There are different ways that individuals could manage or act their emotions to match with the ones required by the organizations.
Surface acting and deep acting are the two most commonly discussed strategies for regulating emotions at work (e.g. Totterdell & Holman, 2003; Johnson & Spector,
2007). Both surface acting and deep acting attempt to manage the displayed emotions, but they have different motives and intentions (Grandey, 2003). In surface acting, individuals try to hide or fake their felt emotions in response to display rules to fulfill job requirement, whereas in deep acting, individuals cognitively change their feeling in order to seem authentic. Surface acting usually involve faking positive emotions and
suppressing negative emotions without changing their inner feelings while deep acting
involves modifying feelings to match the required displays (Gosserand & Diefendorff,
2005). Surface acting is called "faking in bad faith" and deep acting is called "faking in
good faith" as the former involves pretending the fake emotion and the latter involves
trying to experience the emotion authentically (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987). Emotional tabor and work engagement 6
Ash forth and Humphrey ( 1993) and Diefendorff and Gosserand (2003) suggested that there is yet another emotional regulation strategy that is overlooked in the emotional labor literature. There are individuals who can naturally feel and experience the emotion required at work thus positive displays follow automatically. At first it seems it is similar to deep acting while both involve genuinely experiencing the required emotions.
However, deep acting can be considered as minimizing negative emotions to bring one' s feeling in line with the display rules, whereas the expression of naturally felt emotions is to maximize positive emotions by automatically feeling the positive emotions at customer encounters. Employee who expresses their felt emotions naturally experiences the positive emotion that is required by the organizations without any conscious efforts.
Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand (2005) provided the first published research studying this third strategy. They confirmed a three-factor model structure indicating deep acting, surface acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions were three distinct constructs. The expression of naturally felt emotions was uniquely predicted by extraversion and agreeableness. They further suggested that expressing felt emotions was actually the most often used strategy by individuals in displaying emotions at work, thus this third strategy is worth paying attention to and it should not be overlooked.
However, Austin, Dore, and O'Donovan (2008) suggested that surface acting and the
expression of naturally felt emotions are only on the opposite side of the same
continuum rather than two different independent emotional labor strategies available to
employees. This study is going to clarify these contradictory findings by further testing
the existence of this third emotional tabor strategy and the relationships between display
rule perception and the three strategies. Emotional labor and work engagement 7
HI: Surface acting, deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions are
three distinct emotional regulation strategies.
H2: Display rule perception is positively related to (a) surface acting, (b) deep
acting as well as (c) the expression of naturally felt emotions.
Empathy
Empathy is broadly defined as the ability to understand and relate to the cognitive as well as the affective experiences of another person (Worthington & Wade,
1999). Berger and Thompson (2000) conceptualized it as an ability to examine another person' s perception, feelings, and experience, and to communicate one' s understanding precisely to the other person. Empathy is considered as one of the important factors contributing to the success of emotional management, interpersonal popularity, as well as prosocial behavior (Eisenberg, Miller, Shell, McNalley, & Shea, 1991). Goldman,
Boyatzis, and McKee (2002) further argued that empathy is "the sine qua non of all social effectiveness in working life". Empathy helps to create the "effective resonance" and the "empathetic bond" between the customer service representatives and the customers (Kohut, 1987). When a customer service representative is high in the empathy domain, he or she is expected to be able to identify with the customers' emotions and be able to feel and express the needed emotional display. For example, when a customer is
enquiring sightseeing information, a customer service representative with high empathy
is expected to be able to step in the shoe of the customer and understand what the
customer is going through cognitively and affectively. As a result, the service
representative should know what the customer needs and better services could then be Emotional labor and work engagement 8 provided. During the service encounter, the service agent's felt emotion is expected to be similar to the emotion that is needed to be displayed since both parties are expected to be experiencing the same emotions under the same context of enquiring sightseeing information. The ability to feel the customer's mood and express true emotions naturally may make it easier for the service agent to perform emotional labor.
Humphrey (2006) suggested that empathy may be a personal characteristic that influences the way individuals react to the performance of emotional labor. His review paper called for the need to research on the influences empathy has on performing emotional labor. He proposed that individual who are high on empathy may be less likely to need to employ surface acting, as oppose to deep acting, in response to their work duty. Moreover, because these individuals are good at expressing empathy and recognizing customers' moods, they are more likely to be able to create a positive service atmospheres and interactions with customers. As a result, these individuals are more likely to simply express their naturally felt emotions.
H3a: Empathy is negatively related to surface acting.
H3b: Empathy is positively related to deep acting.
H3c: Empathy is positively related to the expression of naturally felt emotions
and the relationship is expected to be stronger than that ofdeep acting.
Work engagement
Beginning the year of 2000, the concept of positive psychology; the study of positive emotion, positive character, and positive institutions, has captured a lot of
research attention (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Work engagement is Emotional labor and work engagement 9 considered a positive experience in itself. It facilitates employee benefits from stressful work and more importantly, it is found to be positively related to employee physical well-being and positive work affect (Britt, Adler & Bartone, 2001; Rothbard, 2001;
Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonzales-Roma & Bakker, 2002). It is expected that when employees are engaged, they are more likely to experience a positive perception about their work (Salanova, Agut, & Peir6, 2005). Work engagement, defined as a "persistent, positive affective motivational state of fulfillment", is considered as a relatively new area of research (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001 ). Although this concept emerged from the burnout 1iterature , and given the strong I ink between emotional labor and burnout, no one has examined the relationship between emotional tabor and work engagement. Work engagement is said to be characterized by three dimensions: vigor, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli, Salanova et al., 2002). Vigor is described as the high level of energy and mental resilience at work, the individual with high vigor will be willing to invest effort in work even when facing difficult situations. Dedication refers to a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride and challenge. Absorption is characterized by being fully concentrated, happy and deeply engrossed in one' s work, time passes quickly and there are difficulties when trying to detach from work.
According to the conservation of resources model, people strive to maintain and build resources while stress is experienced when there is potential threat to their current resources (Hobfoll & Freedy, 1993). The energy and effort used to regulate one's emotions, either by surface acting or deep acting, to achieve work goal is considered as valuable resources to employees (Hobfoll, 1989; Wilk & Moynihan, 2005). Both organizational resources and personal resources were found to be the predictors of work Emotional labor and work engagement 10 engagement (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli, 2001 ; Llorens, Schaufeli,
Bakker, & Salanova, 2007). In performing surface acting, high level of effort is needed to suppress the negative emotions, fake an unfelt emotion, and compare the expressed emotions with the true feelings constantly (Brotheridge & Lee, 2003). It is also effortful when one has to cope with the dissonance from the true emotions and the displayed emotions. The job demands-resources model also predicts that when there is a lack of resources, employees are less likely to meet job demands and as a result this leads to disengagement from work (Demerouti et al., 2001 ). Although deep acting itself is also an effortful process, because a huge amount of energy is needed to involve in deeply changing one' s felt emotions, it is expected to be less detrimental than surface acting.
Once the emotion is in line with the required emotion, no more energy or resources are needed in monitoring emotion or to cope with the emotional dissonance. Moreover, employees who engage in deep acting have the advantage of frequently experiencing good mood at work which in turn could enhance well-being, feelings of accomplishment and identification with work role (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1987; Brotheridge & Grandey,
2002). It was found that deep acting is related to positive experiences and feelings which then lead to high level of job satisfaction (Kruml & Geddes, 2000). Employees who perform deep acting are expected to have a higher level of work engagement then those who choose to use surface acting.
Employees who can naturally express their felt emotions have both the
advantages. They automatically regulate their emotions in alignment with the prescribed
emotions. This is considered an effortless process and at the same time they have the
benefit of truly experiencing the positive emotions at work. It is predicted that the Emotional labor and work engagement 11 expression of naturally felt emotions would lead to work engagement. The impact would be higher and stronger than that from deep acting.
Previous research had continuously shown that with a high level of work engagement, employees are more satisfied with their jobs, less likely to have absenteeism and turnover will be low, at the same time they will have higher organizational commitment and employee performance (Schaufeli, Martinez, et al., 2002;
Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). However, little is known about the consequences of work engagement in the customer service context (Salanova, Agut, & Peir6, 2005). In this study, employee job performance was also measured to test the relationship between work engagement and job performance in the customer service context. Moreover, because coworkers are believed to have high degree of contact with the focal employees and they always have the chance to make observations of the employees' typical behavior (Murphy & Cleveland, 1995), work engagement and employee performance were both rated by the employees themselves as well as by their coworkers in order to provide more objective measurements on top of self-report ratings.
H4a: Surface acting is negatively related to work engagement.
H4b : Deep acting is positively related to work engagement.
H4c: The expression of naturally felt emotions is positively related to work
engagement and the relationship is expected to be stronger than that of deep
acting and work engagement.
H5: Work engagement is positively related to employee job performance.
Figure 1 shows the conceptual model and the hypothesized relationships between
the constructs. Emotional labor and work engagement 12
Figure 1. Conceptual model summarizing the relations among constructs.
In sum, this present study extends the current knowledge in emotionallabor to including a third emotional labor strategy apart from the two widely researched strategies and examines the antecedent of this third strategy. In addition, this study also relates emotional labor, which was always linked with negative outcomes such as burnout and emotional exhaustion, to positive outcomes including work engagement and employee performance. .Emotional labor and work engagement 13
CHAPTER 2. METHOD
Participants and procedures
The sample consisted of 280 employees from one of the five star hotels located in the Guangdong Province in China. They are from 12 departments including restaurant waiters and waitresses, front desk service representatives, public relations etc. as summarized in Table 1. All of them have direct contact with customers every day when they are at work. Among the participants, 4 7 .5o/o were female and 52.5% were male.
Those who aged below 20 consisted 23.1 o/o of the sample, 64.9% aged between 21 and
30, 11.2% of them aged between 31 and 40 and 0.8% aged between 41 and 50. Most of them, 72.9%, had worked in the hotel for less than five years, 10.1% had worked for 5 to
10 years, 5 .9o/o of them had worked for 16-20 years, 2. 1% of them had worked over 16 years. Around 12% of the participants had finished middle school education, 46.3% had high school education, while 28.9% had a university degree. All participants participated in a half-day workshop on customer service and positive psychology. Participants completed the questionnaires before the workshop started. The trainers carefully explained the procedures and made sure participants understand and sign the consent form prior to filling out the questionnaires. Each employee filled out two sets of questionnaires; a 120~item self-report questionnaire and a 33-item questionnaire which needed them to rate on a peer colleague from the same department. All questionnaires were written in Simplified Chinese. The paring arrangement was randomly drawn and then checked by the human resources department to make sure the rater knows the ratee good enough to make fair ratings. Anonymity was achieved by using a pre-assigned research code instead of the name of the employees. Confidentiality was also ensured by Emotionallabor and work engagement 14 stressing that the questionnaires would be handled by the research team only and no personal identifiable information was collected. It was also emphasized that every employee who filled out a questionnaire would be eligible to enter a lucky draw as an incentive for filling out the questionnaires seriously. There were six winners receiving a cash prize ofRMB300 each. Excluding the 37 incomplete questionnaires there were in total 243 pairs of questionnaire in the final sample.
Table 1. Departments ofparticipants
Department %age
Public Relation and Sales 4.60
Front Desk 14.49
Room Service 12.73
Chinese Restaurant 10.95
Western Restaurant 13.07
Chef in Western Restaurant 12.02
Banquet Service 1.06
Medical Center 1.41
Entertainment and Spa 11.65
Security 12.72
Shuttle and Transportation Service 5.30
Total 100.00
Measures
Display rule perception. Positive display rules and negative display rules were
measured separately. Three items from Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) and one item Emotional tabor and work engagement 15 from Schaubroeck and Jones (2000) were used to measure positive display rules. A sample item is "Part of my job is to make the customer feel goocf'. One item from
Brotheridge and Grandey (2002) and two items from Schaubroeck and Jones (2000) were used to measure negative display rules. A sample item is "I am expected to suppress my bad moods or negative reactions to customers". Participants answered on a
6-point Likert scale ranging from I (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree). The internal consistency reliability for the seven items was a= .70.
Empathy. The 7-item Perspective-Taking (PT) sub-scale of the Interpersonal
Reactivity Index (IRI) developed by Davis (1980) was used. Participants answered on a
6-point Likert scale ranging from I (never) to 6 (always). A sample item is "J sometimes find it difficult to see things from the "other guy's" point ofview". The internal consistency reliability for the seven items was a= .70.
Emotional Labor. The 14-item scale used by Diefendorff, Croyle et al .. (2005) was employed. Participants answered on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to
6 (always). For surface acting, a sample item is "!just pretend to have the emotions I need to display for my job ". For deep acting, a sample item is "J try to actually experience the emotions that I must show to customers". For the expression of naturally felt emotions, a sample item is "The emotions I express to customers are genuine ". The
internal consistency reliability for the items were a= .82, a= .82, and a= .70 for surface
acting, deep acting and naturally felt emotions respectively.
Work engagement. The Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES) developed by
Schaufeli, Salanova et al. (2002) was used. This scale has three subscales. A sample
item of the 6-item Vigor subscale is "I feel strong and vigorous in my work". A sample Emotional labor and work engagement 16 item of the 5-item Dedication subscale is "Jam enthusiastic about my job ". A sample item of the 6-item Absorption subscale is "J get carried away by my work". Participants answered on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (always). The internal consistency reliability for both self-reported rating and others-reported rating of the 17 items were a = .92.
Job performance. The 6-item scale used by Salanova, Agut, and Peir6 (2005) was used. This scale has two subscales. A sample item of the 3-item empathy subscale based on the SERVQUAL Empathy Scale (Parasuraman, Zeithaml, & Berry, 1998) was
"Employees understand specific needs ofcu stomers". A sample item of the 3-item excellent job performance scale based on the Service Provider Performance Scale (Price,
Arnould, & Tiemey, 1995) was "Employees "surprise " customers with their excellent service ". Participants answered on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 6 (strongly agree ). The internal consistency reliability for the self-reported rating of the 17 items was a = .81 and a = .81 for others-reported rating.
All scales, except for the UWES which was already available in Chinese, were translated into Chinese. Back translation method was used to ensure the consistency of
the item meanings and it was done by a researcher who was not involved in this study.
Data Analyses
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted using EQS6.1 to test the
degree of fit of the measurement model and the existence of the three emotional
regulation strategies. The CFA consisted of seven latent constructs including display
rule perception, empathy, surface acting, deep acting, the expression of naturally felt Emotional labor and work engagement 17 emotions, work engagement, as well as employee performance. Item parceling technique was used to improve the sample size to variables ratio (Bandalos & Finney, 2001 ). This technique was used to form the latent structure for empathy, surface acting, deep acting, work engagement, and performance. For work engagement and performance, the indicators were created by averaging the corresponding self-report and other-reported scores. Exploratory factor analyses were conducted to assure the unidimensional ity of these scales. Item-level indicators were used to form the latent structure for the expression of naturally felt emotions because the scale has three items only. For display rule perceptions, the first four items were grouped under positive display rules and the other three items were grouped under negative display rules. Next, structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to examine the proposed model. Finally, Lagrange Multiplier test was used to test whether the positive relationship between empathy and the expression of naturally felt emotions is stronger than that of deep acting, and whether the positive relationship between the expression of naturally felt emotions and work engagement is stronger than that of deep acting. Emotionallabor and work engagement 18
CHAPTER 3. RESULTS
Descriptive Analyses
The means, standard deviations, and bivariate correlations of the indicators are presented in Table 2 and they ranged from .00 to .84. Emotional labor and work engagement 19
Table 2. The means, SDs, and bivariate correlations among the indicators
Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
1. SA 1 3.44 1.22 1.00
2. SA 2 2.78 1.36 .58** 1.00
3. SA 3 3.09 1.19 .59** .60** 1.00
4. DA 1 4.01 1.38 .25** .16* .11 1.00
5. DA 2 4.35 1.43 .23 ** .14* .21 ** .59** 1.00
6. DA 3 4.24 1.45 .22** .21 ** .28** .50** .59 ** 1.00
7. NFE 1 5.15 1.06 -.13* -.20** -.32** .21 ** .09 .01 1.00
8. NFE 2 4.96 1.17 -.06 -.10 -.24** .05 .06 -.05 .48** 1.00
9. NFE 3 4.31 1.25 -.09 -.16* -.32** .13* .00 -.05 .39** .46** 1.00
10. WE_AB 3.73 .62 .05 .09 -.02 .34** .15* .16* .25** .15* .15* 1.00
11 . WE_DE 3.88 .73 -.01 .02 -.18** .39** .16* .14* .36** .21 ** .18** .78** 1.00
12. WE_VI 3.68 .62 .04 .08 -.05 .36** .14* .16* .28** .15* .13* .84** .80** 1.00
13.DR_P 4.59 .75 .07 .02 .02 .21 ** .17** .15* .24 .13* .01 . 19 ** .20** .20** 1.00
14. DR_N 3.87 .94 .27** .20** .33** .09 .14* .13* -.15* -.03 -.08 .05 -.06 .05 .35** 1.00
15. EP 1 3.99 .54 . 11 .16* .02 .26** .24 ** .17** .16* .12 .04 .48** .52** .53** .34** .17** 1.00 16. EP 2 3.80 .55 .07 .13* -.02 .26** . 13* .15* .12 .09 .06 .53** .53** .52** .24** .02 .54** 1.00 17. EM 1 4.69 .95 .15* .14* .08 .27** .26** .22** .22** .20** .15* .26** .26** .25** .22** .15* .27** .21 ** 1.00 18. EM 2 4.33 .94 .11 .07 -.00 .18** .13* .07 .15* .16* .14* .25** .24** .22** .19** .14* .25** .20** .46** 1.00
Note.* p<.05; **p<.Ol. SA = surface acting; DA = deep acting; NFE = naturally felt emotions; WE_AB = work engagement, absorption; WE_DE = work engagement, dedication; WE_ VI = work engagement, vigor; DR_P = positive display rule; DR-N = negative display rule; EP = employee performance; EM = empathy Emotional labor and work engagement 20
CFA results indicated that model fits the data satisfactorily. The chi-square value for the model was 210.24 (df=II4, p<.OI). Other fit indexes including Bentler-Bonett
Normed Fit Index (NFI=.89), Bentler-Bonett Non-Normed Fit Index (NNFI=.93),
Comparative Fit Index (CFI=.95), and Root Mean-Square Error of Approximation
(RMSEA=.06) provided evidence for a good fit of the model (Hu & Bentler, 1999).
Factor correlations are presented in Table 3. Participants who perceived more display rules reported more surface acting and deep acting (r = .20, p<.O I and r = .34, p<.O I respectively). Participants who had higher empathy also reported more deep acting and naturally felt emotions (r = .39,p<.01 for both). Participants who experienced more deep acting were more engaged at work (r = .34, p<.O 1) and performed better (r = .22, p<.O I). Naturally felt emotions was significantly and positively correlated with work engagement (r = .34, p<.O I) and employee performance (r = .22, p<.O I). Engaged participants also performed better (r = .77,p<.01). Emotional labor and work engagement 21
Table 3. The correlations among measured variables
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 l. The expression of 1.00 naturally felt emotions
2. Surface acting -.38* 1.00
3. Deep acting .10* .35* 1.00
4. Empathy .39* .15* .39* 1.00
5. Work engagement .34* -.01 * .31 * .40* 1.00 (averaged self and other)
6. Display rule perceptions .04* .20* .34* .41* .24* 1.00
7. Employee performance .22* .13* .36* .48* .77* .49* 1.00
(averaged self and other)
Structural Equation Modeling
The proposed model was then tested by structural equation modeling (Figure 2).
The chi-square value for the model was 237.06 (d.f=l2l , p<.Ol). Fit indexes indicated the model fit was satisfactory with NFI=.87, NNFI=.91 , CFI=.93, and RMSEA=.06. In addition, the correlation coefficient among the three constructs ranged from -.38 to .35 which is considered as not very high (Table 3 ). The model fit as well as the correlation coefficients showed that the three emotional labor strategies were three distinct strategies and confirmed the existence of the three factor model which means that H 1
was supported. Hypotheses 2abc predicted that display rules enhanced surface acting,
deep acting and naturally felt emotions. However, it was found that display rules led to
more surface acting (/J=l.OO, p<.05) and deep acting (/J=.43 , p<.05), which supported
H2a and H2b, but less naturally felt emotions (/J=- .76, p<.05) which rejected H2c. It was Emotional labor and work engagement 22
also found that empathy undermined surface acting (/J=-.54, p<.05) but enhanced
naturally felt emotions (/J= .96, p<.05) which supported H3a and H3c. However,
empathy did not predict deep acting which rejected H3b. Surface acting was not related
. to work engagement thus H4a was rejected. Deep acting led to higher work engagement
thus supporting H4b (/J=.29, p<.05). Similarly, the expression of naturally felt emotions
had a significant effect on work engagement, thus H4c was partially supported (/J=.36,
p<.05). The likelihood ratio test, however, indicated that the effect of deep acting and
the expression of naturally felt emotions did not differ from each other significantly
(~x2 =1.18 , ~df=I , p>.05). Lastly, work engagement strongly and positively predicted
employee performance ({3=.74, p<.05).
LOO* .03
The Expression of ~ Naturally Felt
Figure 2. Proposed model. Note. * p<.05 Emotional labor and work engagement 23
CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION
This present study showed that the relationship between display rule perceptions and the three emotionallabor strategies could also be applied in the Chinese context.
Gosserand and Diefendorff (2005) showed that the more committed employees are to display rules and the higher the level of perceived display rules are, the more the employees are to use more of surface and deep acting. The present study confirmed this relationship between display rule perception and the two emotional regulation strategies.
In addition, this study linked display rule to a third, usually neglected strategy- the expression of naturally felt emotions. Specifically, the stronger display rule perceptions the employees have, the less they are able to express their naturally felt emotions. These findings further supported that surface acting, deep acting, and the expression of naturally felt emotions are three distinct independent emotional regulation strategies available to employees. This three factor structure of emotional labor strategies is consistent with what was found in Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand' s (2005) study in which they showed that dispositional variables such as extraversion and agreeableness
could uniquely and strongly predict employees' display of naturally felt emotions. This
current study added to the findings that empathy is yet another predictor of the
employees displaying naturally felt emotions at work. The higher level of empathy the
employees have, the more they are to express their naturally felt emotions at work and
more importantly, they are less 1ikely to employ surface acting.
Emotional labor had always been 1inked up with negative outcomes such as work
stress and emotional exhaustion in previous studies (e.g. Hochschild, 1983, Grandy,
2003; Cheung & Tang, 2007). The present study extended our knowledge in Emotional labor and work engagement 24 understanding the positive side of emotional labor and showed us that emotional labor could also relate to positive outcomes such as work engagement and higher employee performance. Employees performing deep acting and expressing their naturally felt emotions at work indeed were more engaged in work which in turn could lead to better performance. In line with previous finding that surface acting was always found to be related to emotional exhaustion (e.g. Grandey, 2003), this study found that, among the three strategies, only surface acting was not related to work engagement. Although the expression of naturally felt emotions was not proven to be a stronger predictor of work engagement when compared to deep acting, both strategies correlated significantly with work engagement. According to Totterdell and Holman (2003), deep acting was more positively related to service performance than surface acting. This present study was not able to replicate the result and indeed found that the three emotional strategies were not directly related to performance. Work engagement mediated the effect of deep acting
and the expression of naturally felt emotions to employee performance. The paths
between the three emotional strategies and employee performance were also tested but
none of them were found to predict performance directly. This further confirmed that the
positive effect of deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions on
performance were fully mediated by work engagement. More research effort is needed
to better understand this inconsistency on the relationship between emotional labor
strategies and service performance.
Another feature ofthis study is the inclusion of third person ratings on the
outcome variables (i.e., work engagement and performance) thus minimizing the
problem brought about by common method variance. Cheung and Tang (2007) found Emotional labor and work engagement 25 that after controlling for common method variance on examining the effect of emotional dissonance on burnout, the relationship became insignificant. Thus, this study had taken one step further to also measure ratings on the outcome variables from the focal employees' coworkers. By including a secondary source of information on the outcome variables, we are more confident in interpreting the results found in this study. That is the positive effect of deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions on employee work engagement which in turn led to better performance.
Given the closely link between emotional intelligence and emotionallabor, this study had originally included emotional intelligence as one of the variables in the model.
Austin et al. (2008) have shown that personalities and the level of emotional intelligence of an individual would affect his or her choice of emotional regulation strategies.
Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage or control emotions thus it is obvious that emotional labor and emotional intelligence is highly relevant. Despite the importance of such construct .in emotional labor, little research has examined its effect in the emotional labor context (Grandey, 2000). Emotionallabor was included in the model as a
moderator moderating the relationships among the antecedents, the consequences, as
well as the three emotional strategies. However, no moderation effect was found and this
is why emotional intelligence has been taken out from the above analysis and discussion.
Future research should find out where emotional labor stands or how it could be fitted
into the emotional labor context.
Implications
Organizations should be careful on implementing display rules on their
employees. Display rule perceptions were much closely related to surface acting than to
deep acting, and it was negatively related to the expression of naturally felt emotions. Emotional tabor and work engagement 26
Due to the positive relationship of deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions on work engagement, when display rules are needed, organizations should encourage their employees to perform deep acting. Training workshops on how to manipulate one's inner feelings more effectively could be used to help employees to better manage their emotions from the inside. Other techniques such as reframing and re-appraisal could also be introduced to employees. Through these various workshops, employees will be more able to experience the positive emotions needed for their job and as a result employees will be more able to employ deep acting or the expression of naturally felt emotions. In addition, organizations could also consider building a happy, cheerful and enjoyable environment for their employees so the employees are able to show their genuine emotions while working comfortably and happily. In this case, employees will be able to display the appropriate emotions at work even without the implementation of display rules. The advantage of employees expressing their naturally felt emotions calls for further research on finding out other antecedents of this third strategy so as to maximize the chance that employees could show true emotions at work instead of acting or faking an emotion.
Apart from display rule, organizations could also pay attention on employees'
level of empathy. Empathy is not only found to be a strong precursor of expressing naturally felt emotion, which could lead to higher level of work engagement, it also decreases the performance of surface acting, which is widely accepted to be detrimental
to the employees' well-being both emotionally and physically (e.g. Morris & Feldman,
1997; Abraham, 1998). According to Duan and Hill (1996) and Worthington & Wade
( 1999), empathy could be seen as a dispositional factor as well as an ability which could Emotional tabor and work engagement 27 be learned and trained. It is worth for organizations to invest in training their employees on how to be more empathetic. In addition, other personality variables such as extraversions were also found to predict the expression of naturally felt emotions
(Diefendorff, Croyle, and Gosserand, 2005). A personality test measuring these personalities or the potential to be empathetic could be added to the recruitment screening process in order to identify the suitable employees who are better at expressing their natural emotions at work. Given that empathy is strongly related to the expression of naturally felt emotions, which is considered to be the best emotional labor strategies among the three, future study could also look at what other direct consequences empathy could bring in the "people work" industry such as whether individuals with high level of empathy are better at handling customers.
The expression of naturally felt emotions and deep acting could lead to higher
level of work engagement and work engagement was found to be a mediator between the two strategies and employee performance. In order to have employees better perform
at work, increasing their work engagement level is essential. Work engagement is positively related to a wide range of positive consequences at both the individual and
organizational level. Previous studies have found that work engagement is positively
related to teachers' organizational commitment (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004; Hakanen,
Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006), employee performance (Kahn, 1990), and customer
satisfaction and loyalty, productivities, and profitability etc. (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes,
2002). Thus, it is very important to encourage employees to express their naturally felt
emotions. If not possible, deep acting is a better solution over surface acting. Emotional labor and work engagement 28
Limitations
This study, like most of the previous studies, has a number of limitations. First, although supervisors also filled out a part of the questionnaires, the emotional regulation strategies and some other variables were still measured by self-report. Self report measure might be subject to social desirability bias thus exaggerating some of the results. Although measures were taken to ensure anonymity, the questionnaires were still
filled out during a training workshop which was organized by the hotel and with the presence of other peer colleagues or supervisors, participants might have answered in a
way that they did not disappoint their supervisors. Future research could consider also
collecting other objective data such as absenteeism or sales volume as the measurements
of work engagement and performance. Second, with cross sectional design causality
could not be inferred. Interpretations should be made with caution and longitudinal
studies could be carried out to investigate the relationship between the variables over
time. Third, this study was done with people from one single organization;
generalization to other area can be achieved only if this study is replicated in some other
occupations. Emotional labor and work engagement 29
CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION
The present study examined the existence of the three factor structure of emotional labor strategies as well as relating positive outcomes with emotional labor in the Chinese service representative context. It was found that the three emotional labor strategies were three distinctive strategies that are available for employees to respond to display rules and job duties. Deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions
were found to be able to lead to work engagement, while work engagement was not
predicted by surface acting. Moreover, empathy was found to be a strong predictor of
expressing naturally felt emotions. Given the possible effect of this third strategy on
positive work outcomes, more research effort should be paid to examining the
antecedents as well as other consequences that are related to this third strategy. Emotionallabor and work engagement 30
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