Seven Ages of The

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Seven ages of the PhD Scientists share memories of doing doctorates in different decades, disciplines and locations, from the hunt for the structure of DNA to deciphering the human genome.

studies of the sodium salt of DNA. One of Randall was exceptional because he found RAYMOND GOSLING the highlights of my PhD was the now iconic financial backing for all the members of his photo 51, a diffraction photograph I took, lab. The only other comparable example that 1950s: The age which clearly showed the helical structure I have experienced is the work at Cold Spring of the molecule (see image). I will always Harbour Laboratory in New York directed of formality remember the moment I first saw that beau- by James Watson. These days, students are tiful double diamond pattern. not always so fortunate and have to spend Emeritus professor, University of Of my two mentors, Maurice was friendly time and energy seeking funding. London and determined but very shy. Rosalind had a My advice to would-be doctoral students more combative style and taught me the value is to seek out a dynamic, flourishing research PhD in structural analysis of DNA (King’s of being a devil’s advocate, so challenging and group. Do not start until you have agreed College London, 1954). defending our developing ideas. However, I with your supervisor on a beginning, mid- Looking back on my PhD at King’s College was unable to ease the tensions that devel- dle and an end to your project. A good PhD London, I realize that I was fortunate to oped between Maurice and Rosalind. often raises more questions than it solves, experience the feudal process of research in Randall’s biophysics unit was a wonder- so you should not be surprised if your work a large department dominated by an enthu- fully energetic place to work. However, in changes direction. siastic professor, John Randall. Although I, those days relationships between staff and The University of London’s advice to like every other student, had to register for a students were rather formal. All the men examiners states that PhD students should PhD with Randall, I was free to collaborate wore ties with their white lab coats, and the identify a distinct and new contribution to with other senior scientists in the lab. senior common room at King’s was for men science, not just a review of the literature. I worked closely with Maurice Wilkins only. However, all the women scientists, Since those rather heady days of the 1950s, and later Rosalind Franklin, under whose including Rosalind, were an integral part of I have sometimes wondered whether this direction I pursued X-ray diffraction the lab’s efforts. always happens. Some will say I was lucky

Curtis took me on not knowing much my PhD research seems highly esoteric. The about me, suggested the project and then work built fundamental understanding of left it to me to work out the details. This leaf-scale physiology but had no policy meant that my progress was slow and relevance. The only practical value was in sometimes painful, but also that I learned understanding why your Christmas tree for myself how to set about things and turns brown. I think how innocent we all master new techniques. Fortunately other were then, doing weird science and looking students and staff in the department were for cheap beer. encouraging and supportive. One of my After my PhD I got a tenure-track pro- most important practical lessons I learned fessorship at the University of Montana the hard way: you can never record too in Missoula, teaching tree biology. I never much detail about your experiments. I imagined being interviewed by national ARCHIVES LONDON R. GOSLING/KING’S COLLEGE was perplexed because I was suddenly get- journalists, or getting hate mail from the ting different results. I later realized that public. As a lead author for the Intergovern- Gosling’s PhD photo revealing structure of DNA. I had switched to using a different shaker mental Panel on Climate Change’s Fourth to bring cells together. This changed the Assessment Report, I have now experienced to be in the right place at the right time, results completely and I hadn’t initially both. What happened? The policy relevance and I would agree, but it is also important been recording which shaker I had used. of my work is to be found at larger scales to have high standards, something I learned Nowadays, PhDs are much more struc- than my 13 trees. For example, it can apply to from Randall. tured. Students are not given as free a rein the hydrology management of a river basin. The less formal relationships between as I was, nor are they allowed to make as So what began as curiosity-driven research students and professors today probably many mistakes. There is a greater empha- into water stress on trees evolved into global improve communications. I have since sis on acquiring data. Students also often analyses of terrestrial carbon sources and directed the research of many PhD students, work with others rather than alone. These sinks. And questions in forest ecology are and have come to know them all personally, differences reflect the changes over the past now motivated by policy and economics, something that was just not possible with 40 years in the way in which research is car- including carbon credits, carbon offsetting Randall. He told me that he didn’t want to ried out, and its growing pressures. and biofuels. see my PhD until it was submitted — I can’t The modern PhD student needs to be imagine that happening nowadays. much more policy aware, because society has STEVE W. RUNNING many environmental problems to solve, and not much time. There is a huge need for bet- CHERYLL TICKLE 1970s: The age ter quantification of ecosystem services, and connecting sustainable ecosystem principles 1960s: The age of of innocence with slow-growth economics. Public outreach has become essential. independence University of Montana, Missoula Young faculty members are often devoting time to blog discussions, work that needs to Emeritus professor, University of PhD in forest ecology (Colorado State be valued better by academia. During my Bath, UK University, 1979). PhD, I had no training in public speaking, I finished my PhD in 1979, just before yet it may now be the most important thing PhD in cell biology (University of Glasgow, personal computers arrived. So it was writ- I do. Above all, I think that this next genera- 1970). ten on a typewriter, with 53 hand-drawn tion of scientists will have no choice but to As an undergraduate, I became fascinated figures. The subject of this labour of love pursue research aimed at saving the planet by the arrangement of cells and how it is was inducing water stress on 13 pine trees from catastrophe. I remind my public audi- key to understanding embryology and by cutting their leaves off and measuring ences that Earth doesn’t need us — the cock- tissue biology. So I applied to do a PhD with desiccation responses. Looking back now, roaches will gladly take over if we flame out. Adam Curtis at the University of Glasgow in Scotland. He had recognized that cell adhe- sion was central to ‘sorting out’, the process by which a mix of different cells stratifies S. RUNNING into regions of cells of the same type. The highlight of my PhD was managing, at the end, to publish a paper in the Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology, with a statistician. The biggest pressure I felt during my PhD was the responsibility for the data I produced. I realized for the first time that others might base their own work on what I had found and that there was nowhere I could go and look up the ‘correct’ answers. Part of my anxiety stemmed from the fact that although I had done a lot of practical work, I had not carried out a research project during my undergraduate degree. The person who influenced me most during my doctorate was my supervisor. A far cry from hate mail: Steve Running induces water stress in pine trees in 1972.

ANDRAS DINNYES 1990s: The age TAO IMAGES/ALAMY TAO of revolution Professor of biotechnology, Szent Istvan University, Gödöllő, Hungary

Candidate of sciences in veterinary science (1995) The year 1989 was a remarkable one for me and for Hungary. I obtained my veterinary diploma in Budapest, and my country saw the official end to four decades of Commu- nism. Free multiparty elections produced a new political system and in principle a new era in Hungarian science. I was eager to start a doctoral programme, because I had already done three years of scientific research during my veterinary studies and had become a Yao Tandong spent a month during his PhD on Glacier No. 1 in the Tianshan mountains of northwest China. recipient of the Pro Scientia Gold Medal of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in the the right decision for me because I spent a first year it was awarded. YAO TANDONG whole month with him at the Glacier No. 1 In later years this award would have been a research station in the Tianshan mountains ticket for automatic admission to a doctoral 1980s: The age of in northwest China. This glacier is famous programme, but in 1989 I still had to take worldwide with scientists and tourists, and it an entry exam. I was admitted to the Acad- internationalism is shrinking at an accelerating rate. It supplies emy of Sciences for a three-year fellowship waters to the city of Urumqi and is the world’s programme towards a ‘candidate of sciences’ Head of the Institute of Tibetan closest glacier to a metropolis. degree. This was the old Soviet-style degree Plateau Research, Beijing Shi Yafeng was already in his sixties, but — usually obtained by scientists in their for- very dedicated to his work — a dedication that ties, and an entry into the closed Hungarian PhD in glaciology (Institute of Geography, inspired me for the rest of my career. During scientific community. By the mid-1990s, it Beijing, 1986). the month we spent on the glacier he worked was replaced by a Western-style PhD, aimed I graduated from Lanzhou University in for every possible hour on the water-resource at younger students and opening up the China’s Gansu Province in 1978. At that problem that was the subject of my PhD. entire system. But along the way the acad- time, the postgraduate system in China was While I was on the glacier I also got to know emy’s fellowship programme was new and immature. During the Cultural Revolution the famous glaciologist Lonnie Thompson brave, breaking with the old gerontocracy, (1966–76), the whole education system was from Ohio State University in Columbus. He and offering a ‘fast-track’ doctorate for a few broken, and it was only after 1978 that the was just starting his ice-core work in China young scientists. degree system was restored. There were and that meeting shaped the rest of my career. To my surprise, I found my activities tightly probably only a few hundred PhD students After I graduated in 1986, I spent three years controlled by my supervisor. I had to spend in China. I was one of the first to study for abroad working with ice-core scientists in one year doing veterinary obstetrics work a master’s degree in physical geography at Grenoble, France, and in the United States. for the university, unrelated to my fellowship Lanzhou, and because no institution in my I returned to China in 1989 and initiated research in embryo cryopreservation. So dur- province could grant a PhD I had to travel to ice-core studies on the Tibetan plateau. ing the second year, I applied for and won a Beijing to study at the Institute of Geography. I have now supervised more than 25 PhD Fulbright Fellowship to the Smithsonian The prestigious institute was part of the students in the same field, although the Institution in Washington DC. There, I spent Chinese Academy of Sciences. In the 1980s, country’s great passion for science has been 16 months with William Rall, the ‘godfather’ science was held in the highest esteem in replaced by a national passion for business. of embryo vitrification technology (which China, and you had to get the highest marks I was lucky enough to have a good adviser uses high dose chemicals to aid embryo cryo- in very strict exams to get into a PhD pro- and excellent collaborators, but I had to find preservation without the ice causing damage). gramme. However, there were still few senior collaborators outside China because there The fellowship changed my life. At first it was scientists who were qualified by the Chinese were so few scientists to work with at home. a culture shock to work for a strict American government to supervise PhD students. I I always encourage my students to spend boss — David Wildt, the head of department was lucky in that my PhD adviser was the some time abroad. I learned important new — who demanded six days a week, ten hours famous Chinese glaciologist Shi Yafeng. fieldwork and lab techniques in the two a day. Rall provided me with training, advice It was also popular at that time to study months I spent in Alaska during my PhD. and friendship and allowed me to work fairly abroad. I passed all my exams to teach Eng- Scientifically, we still have a gap in China. independently. I gained self-confidence and lish as a foreign language and planned to go Happily, almost all became a workaholic. Soon I found inter- to the United States, but my adviser asked me NATURE.COM the students from my national friends and enjoyed free museums to stay in China. He said I could go abroad for Comment on the institute have returned and classical music concerts. The methods I short courses, but he wanted me to do most future of the PhD at: to China from overseas, learned determined the next ten years of my of my research in China. It turned out to be nature.com/phdfuture so everyone benefits. career as a scientist and inventor in embryo,

gamete and stem-cell cryobiology. In Washington, I produced sufficient ERIKA CULE data for my first publication and my thesis. Naively, I turned down an offer to do a PhD 2010s: The age of at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, D. SPEARS LTD/SPL because I was so close to proudly completing communication my degree in Hungary. I returned to Hungary in 1992 and Imperial College London submitted my completed thesis to the academy. My Hungarian supervisor thought it PhD in statistical genetics (Imperial College was premature, but I was stubborn and self- London, due for completion in 2012). confident. Frustratingly, the scientific degree The first draft of the human genome committee of the academy took more than was published when I was still at school. two years to process my submission. So in I was excited by the opportunities this the interim I did a one-year European Union milestone would offer, and back then I postdoctoral fellowship in Belgium, for imagined that I would become a labora- which the submitted thesis made me eligi- tory scientist. During my undergraduate ble. Finally, in 1995, at the age of 29, I was degree, however, I found that I preferred allowed to defend my thesis and became one Andras Dinnyes worked on embryo preservation analytical questions to cell and molecular of the youngest veterinarians to obtain the during his PhD in Hungary and the United States. biology. Today I am privileged to be work- ‘candidate of sciences’ degree in Hungary. ing in a high-profile and rapidly evolving After several positions abroad I am now Even with the right tools, the work field — statistical genetics. back in a much-changed Hungary, working was challenging. I did not isolate a single The biggest challenge of my PhD so far on genetic reprogramming, cloning and stem- complex in the first year. has been mastering the skills I need to do cell research as a professor and chief executive I also had three BSc students working computational genetics, and building the of my own stem-cell company. I supervise six with me, who needed to finish their disser- confidence to use them effectively. The PhD students from Hungary and Thailand, tations within six months. The students were transition from undergraduate studies in who enjoy the reforms that came just a little intended to facilitate my research, but they all biochemistry has been a steep learning too late for me. I always encourage my stu- needed close supervision. I spent about 35% curve. A master’s in bioinformatics and dents to pursue international experience — of my time teaching and 65% on research. I theoretical systems biology enabled me to which I can provide through the European was under enormous pressure: I worked vir- tackle programming and statistics and gave Marie Curie projects I coordinate. tually every day, about six hours on the bench me some tools to get started. as well as teaching and practical classes. By Fortunately, I have had support. My late the end of 1998–99 year (the 1995–96 and grandfather, himself an academic, helped A. A. OSOWOLE 1996–97 sessions were cancelled due to me decide to study for a PhD and gave me industrial crises) I had managed to isolate practical advice. My elder sister is a recent 2000s: The age of about 100 metal complexes — a good result. PhD graduate, and she understands the ups My next challenge was interpreting and and downs of the process. I also have an perseverance writing up my results. In 1999, the University excellent relationship with my supervisor, of Ibadan library had limited access to jour- who is actively interested in my work — Department of Chemistry, University nals, the most recent ones dating to 1996. To I know that this is not always the case. A of Ibadan, Nigeria get more up-to-date chemical papers I had to PhD can be an isolating experience, but rely on colleagues abroad. Back then, things it helps to work in a friendly and sociable PhD in inorganic chemistry (University of weren’t as computerized. Furthermore, department. Invaluable support also comes Ibadan, 2002). analysing my samples required equipment from my partner and friends who provide I started my PhD on the kinetics of novel we did not have, necessitating sending my me with a perspective from outside aca- organometallic compounds at the Uni- samples abroad for analyses. But I could not demia. versity of Ibadan, Nigeria, in 1994, and afford the fees. Working in a computational discipline, completed it eight years later. After a year, a I realized I would not be able to complete and having an interest in writing, it seemed piece of kit that was crucial to my kinetics my PhD at Ibadan with these limitations. natural to start a blog. Blogging about my studies broke down and could not be repaired Again, help came from Kolawole, who PhD (go.nature.com/zkcy5l) has helped — the machine was ten years old and the suggested that I apply to the Third World me to connect with scientific bloggers from manufacturer had stopped making it. Such Organization for Women in Science — now around the world who share their experi- technical difficulties are common in Nigeria the Organization for Women in Science for ences and suggestions. I also hope that my because equipment is rarely well maintained. the Developing World. blog writing will help me when it comes to I had to change my research topic to I was awarded a fellowship and used it writing the thesis. something I could do with the equipment in 2000 at the Indian Institute of Science in As a new PhD graduate I will face a diffi- available. So I began to investigate mole- Bangalore. There I was able to complete the cult climate in which research funding from cules containing both organic and inorganic outstanding analysis, and learn porphyrin the government is being squeezed and the components. This required the synthesis of chemistry and various chromatographic academic job market is increasingly com- novel metal complexes. The other research- techniques. I defended my thesis in 2002 and petitive. I hope that my PhD will equip me ers in the team encouraged me, gave me tips got about ten publications from it. with specific and transferable skills — such and taught me to use the equipment. A fac- The lessons I learned from my doctorate as networking and presenting — that will ulty member, Gabriel Kolawole, provided which I try to pass on to my students are: be give me options after I graduate, whether the expertise and a chemical to solve the focused, persevere, work hard and be honest. in academia or elsewhere. ■ SEE NEWS FEATURES hydrolysis problems I was facing. Where there is a will, there is a way. P.276 & P.280