Return to the Kingdom of Childhood 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 Return to the Kingdom of Childhood Re-envisioning the Legacy and Philosophical Relevance of Negritude Cheikh Thiam THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY PRESS COLUMBUS Copyright © 2014 by The Ohio State University. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Number 2013033449 ISBN-13: 978-0-8142-1250-9 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8142-1250-6 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-8142-9354-6 (cd-rom) ISBN-10: 0-8142-9354-9 (cd-rom) Cover design by Thao Thai Type set in Adobe Sabon Typesetting by Juliet Williams Printed by Thomson-Shore, Inc. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials. ANSI Z.39.48–1992. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 For Sidy and Codou For Monika and Jeffner For Papa Ndiaye, Edou, and Oussou For Fifi For all those who taught me to appreciate difference 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 CONTENTS Acknowledgments ix INtroDuctION Decolonialitude: The Brighter Side of Negritude 1 CHAPTER 1 The Limits of the Colonial Paradigm: Negritude and Its Critique 12 CHAPTER 2 Negritude, Epistemology, and African Vitalism 35 CHAPTER 3 Métissages 69 CHAPTER 4 Negritude Is not Dead! 91 CONCLUSION 111 Notes 123 Bibliography 135 Index 143 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This project would probably have never been accomplished without the help of many people. My deepest appreciation goes, thus, to all those that I will not be able to name in these short acknowledgements. I owe a special thanks to a number of people whose guid- ance were both a challenge and an inspiration: Monika Brodnicka whose shadow haunts every line of this journey. She breathed life in this book with all her being; Jeffner Allen an outstanding teacher, an amazing mentor, a caring friend, a meticulous advisor, and an inspiring guide whose reading of each part of this book was essential to the final product; Nkiru Nzegwu, who introduced me to the discipline of African Studies and instilled in her students the values of serious and rigorous scholarship; Souleymane Bachir Diagne whose reading of the first version of the book led to a more focused hermeneutics of Senghor’s philosophy; Olufemi Taiwo, whose close reading of the manuscript and ongoing mentorship has enabled me to grow as a scholar; Kwaku Korang for a criti- cal reading of the second chapter of the book that helped me write the introduction; Adeleke Adeeko, whose advice relieved me from the major writer’s block that was stopping me from finishing the ix x • AckNOWLEDGMENTS conclusion of the book; my reviewers for their challenging comments; the editors at The Ohio State University Press, namely, Sandy Crooms and Malcolm Litchfield, for their professionalism and their ongoing support in this journey. I thank the Clark Fellowship at Binghamton University for giving me the means to complete my graduate education; for this I am deeply grate- ful. I also thank West Africa Review for giving me the permission to pub- lish an earlier version of the first part of Chapter 2 and the Departments of French and Italian and African American and African Studies at The Ohio State University for giving me the opportunity to carry this proj- ect to this stage. Special thanks are due to my friends and colleagues in the department of Modern Languages at Linfield College. Linfield will always be my home away from home. Last but not least, my biggest thank you goes to my family, Mari- gnon, Papa Thiam Maam, Khayou, Mbetou; the gracious and late Ndeye Codou; the late Modou; Ndeye Marame, my first love; Papis; Lewinsky, the unbearable lightness of being; Sarr Ousmane, for always being here for me; Ndiouga, for your incommensurable love; Oumar, the wise man; Gouf, the real brother; Fifi, my only sister; Maty, Tico, Papi and Sidy, Iba and Codou, Sarah and Ama, Sidy, Sédar, and Mossane, who represent our future. 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777 INTRODuctION Decolonialitude The Brighter Side of Negritude The trium vira, Léopold Sédar Senghor, Aimé Césaire, and Léon-Gontran Damas, met in France during the turbulent times of the 1930s. It was a time when, in the name of the modern para- digm and its corollary, the universalization of “Western reason,” Europe subjugated the non-European world. This very subjuga- tion also led to the expansion of racism within European metrop- olises. The racist political, social, and intellectual environment of the 1930s corresponded, however, with a growing anti-rationalist philosophy and the development of what Bennetta Jules-Rosette calls “Black Paris.”1 On the one hand, major French scholars and artists such as Henri Bergson, Pablo Picasso, and Leo Frobenius questioned the supposed supremacy of rationality, one of the philo- sophical underpinnings of colonization, and prepared the ground for the refutation of the modern hierarchization of races. On the other, members of the New Negro movement such as Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, and Countee Cullen transformed Paris into the Mecca of black cultures, thereby giving Negritude schol- ars the means to reclaim, defend, and illustrate “the sum total of Negro cultural values.” 1 2 • INTRODUCTION Threatened by the racist colonial system, influenced by the emerging anti-intellectual paradigm, and encouraged by the positive reception of black cultural productions in Paris, Senghor and his fellow students of African descent could not help but ask, as Césaire recalls, “the torment- ing question, who am I? Who are we? What are we in this white world?”2 The answer to these questions pre-empted their subsequent critique of the philosophical foundations of colonization: the modern de-human- ization of the Negro self. Senghor clearly explicates this purpose as he asserts, in one of his first published articles: “to be black is to recover the human being crushed under the wheel of inhuman conventions.”3 In other words, to be black is, for the Senegalese scholar, to reclaim one’s humanity, unacknowledged by modern universalist definitions of the world, denied by inhuman colonial political systems, and derided by vicious social structures that presented certain members of society as sec- ond class citizens. Césaire adds, in the same volume, that the history of the relation between blacks and whites has been a history of the denial of blacks’ humanity, followed by a period of representation of blacks as children and, finally, the period of their emancipation from Western pris- ons of the mind. This diachronic understanding of history led the Martin- ican poet, along with Senghor and Damas, to call for a revolution against France, particularly its colonial politics of assimilation, through the phi- losophy of Negritude.4 For all the reasons outlined above, most of the major critics of Negri- tude have read the Afri-centered movement, Senghor’s theorization of its philosophical underpinnings in particular, as a reaction to colonization. Meanwhile, analyses that tackle the complexities of his entire oeuvre beyond its antithetical manifestations are rare. There are only a handful of works addressing the intricate philosophical definition of the human, the critique of Western modernity, and the development of a particular ontol- ogy and epistemology that constitute the crux of Senghor’s philosophy. This situation is due to the fact that the interpretation of Senghor’s oeuvre has been defined and determined by the history of its critique, which has traditionally focused on other aspects of Senghor’s texts, such as its anti- colonial manifestations, rather than its philosophical positions. Most of these critics, namely Jean-Paul Sartre, Gabriel d’Arboussier, and Marcien Towa, limit Negritude in space and time and read Senghor’s philosophy in relation to how well it represents the aspirations of colonized Negro subjects. Given the anticolonial condition of the birth of Negritude, these scholars present it as nothing short of a moment condemned to be buried in the same grave as that which led to its birth: the colonial system. This DECOLONIALITUDE • 3 critical tradition seemed all the more convincing that at the dawn of the post-colonial era, the vindication of the Negro race that Negritude was associated with had seemingly become superfluous. During the first decade after most African countries were liberated from the colonial grip, the intellectual and socio-political contexts that led to the birth of Negritude were fading away. In this intellectual con- text, postmodern philosophers such as Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, and Jacques Derrida, revealed the limits of modern metanarratives that led to the hierarchical representation of races. The supremacy of the uni- versalist philosophies developed by the so called “3H” Generation (Georg W. F. Hegel, Edmund Husserl, and Martin Heidegger) was, therefore, replaced by the philosophies of the “masters of suspicion (Karl Marx, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Sigmund Freud). As a result, the very basis of colonization, the universalization of Western modes of understanding the world was questioned from within. It had seemingly become a truism to say that knowledge is an invention and the universalization of Western reason was an effect of the problematic historicity of the idea of “man.” Why then bother with Negritude scholars’ anti-rationalist theory since the limits of modern metanarratives were already questioned within mainstream Western intelligentsia? For young African scholars such as Stanislas Adotevi, it was time to focus on more interesting and timely issues such as the conflict of class and the pervasive effects of capitalism. The political and economic contexts were just as alarming as the intel- lectual one. African countries, led by the same people who questioned the supremacy of Western humanity, namely Léopold Sédar Senghor, Jomo Kenyatta, and Kwame Nkrumah, etc., had a lower GDP than before the decolonial period. Most of these states were under the strong hold of dictators such as Idi Amin Dada, Sékou Touré, and Michel Micombero.