GENDER AND ICTS IN BHUTAN: A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY OF TANGMACHU AND THIMPHU by CHAITALI SINHA, B.Comm. A thesis submitted to The Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts The Norman Paterson School of International Affairs Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario August 15, 2007 © 2007, Chaitali Sinha Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 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ABSTRACT The introduction of Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) in developing countries is commonly linked with improved livelihoods and increased social inclusion. In Bhutan, a country isolated by its natural geography and deliberate national policy, ICTs have been introduced in a relatively cautious and controlled manner. This thesis uses a comparative case study model to examine how fixed telephones, mobile telephones, and the Internet are perceived and used by women and men in the urban community of Thimphu, and those in the remote rural community of Tangmachu. Based on library research and original fieldwork, it explores ICTs and gender relations as mutually shaped, significant at both material and symbolic levels, and situated within existing social and technological continua. Additional findings reveal access as a physical and social phenomenon, differences in text- versus voice-intensive ICTs, and a nuanced understanding of ICT users and non-users. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to those who helped me complete this thesis. My supervisor, Dr. Jared Keil, never ceased to amaze me with his unlimited source of enthusiasm, support and friendship - I greatly appreciate his generosity and kindness. I would also like to thank Dr. David Long for his kind support and guidance as my thesis advisor. I am indebted to my colleagues at IDRC who allowed me the time and space to undertake this endeavour. Specifically, Maria Ng, who connected me with individuals at the Department of Information Technology (DIT) in Thimphu and helped me realize my dream of conducting field research in Bhutan. Others at IDRC, such as Kathleen Flynn- Dapaah, Laurent Elder and Rich Fuchs, were extremely supportive and helpful over the course of writing this work. I would also like to thank the management at IDRC for allowing me to take a leave of absence to collect primary data in the Thimphu and Tangmachu. I was fortunate to have met several individuals at DIT in Bhutan who helped me immensely during my field visit. Director Chhoeda, Sangay Wangchuck, Sangay Wangmo, Namgay Wangchuk and Lektsho Dorji are among the many individuals who facilitated my learning process. I would also like to thank my interpreters in Thimphu and Tangmachu - Dolkar Lham and Pema Lhazin respectively. Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends without whose love and support I would not have been able to write this thesis. My parents and brothers provided a great deal of strength and support along the way. I would particularly like to thank Mark Uygur, whose kindness, love and care were often the sole source of my energy and motivation to persevere. To all of these individuals, I dedicate this thesis. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................................iv LIST OF ACRONYMS........................................................................................................ vi GLOSSARY...........................................................................................................................vii MAP 1: BHUTAN............................................................................................................... viii MAP 2: THIMPHU & TANGMACHU.............................................................................ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................1 CHAPTER 2: GENDER AND TECHNOLOGY.............................................................. 8 2.1 Situating Key Terms: Context and Definitions.......................................................8 2.2 Literature Review: Gender and Technology......................................................... 12 2.2.1 Mutual Shaping of Gender and Technology....................................................... 13 2.2.2 Gender and Technology: Material & Symbolic Significance............................18 2.2.3 ICTs as part of Social and Technological Continua.......................................... 23 2.3 Gender and ICTs in the Third World.................................................................... 27 2.3.1 Gender and ICTs in Bhutan.................................................................................30 2.4 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 33 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................35 3.1 Defining the Boundaries and Scope........................................................................35 3.1.1 Searching for a Suitable Methodology............................................................... 37 3.2 Actual Research Process........................................................................................... 39 3.2.1 Site Selection........................................................................................................41 3.2.2 Situating Myself in the Research Process...........................................................43 3.2.3 Research Methods and Instruments.................................................................... 44 3.2.4 Recording Data.....................................................................................................51 3.3 Reflecting on the Research Process.........................................................................52 3.3.1 Paramount Importance of Social Networks........................................................53 3.3.2 Overcoming Faulty Assumptions........................................................................54 3.3.3 Balancing Flexibility and Integrity within the Research Design...................... 56 3.4 Conclusion.................................................................................................................. 57 CHAPTER 4: GENDER IN BHUTAN: THIMPHU AND TANGMACHU..............58 4.1 Rural and Urban Communities in Bhutan..........................................................58 4.1.1 Gendered Division of Labour..............................................................................59 4.1.2 Rural-Urban Migration........................................................................................ 62 4.1.3 Legal and Customary Norms: Inheritance and Residence.................................64 4.1.4 Formal and Non-Formal Education.....................................................................66 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. 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