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Satellite Communications Contents Guest editorial Terminals for mobile satellite communications Odd Gutteberg 3 Jens Andenæs 49 Elements of satellite technology Future systems for mobile satellite and communication communications Odd Gutteberg 4 Per Hovstad and Odd Gutteberg 54 Satellite communications Effects of atmosphere on earth-space radio standardisation in Europe propagation Gunnar Stette 22 Odd Gutteberg 63 A review of Norwegian space activities The use of millimetre waves in Georg Rosenberg 26 satellite communications Tord Fredriksen 71 TSAT - a low-cost satellite communication network The effect of interference for an OBP system Terje Pettersen and Petter Chr Amundsen 31 utilising the geostationary orbit Per Hovstad 75 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) systems - basic principles and design Earth station antenna technology Liv Oddrun Voll and Gunn Kristin Klungsøyr 39 Arnfinn Nyseth and Svein A Skyttemyr 85 Fleet management using INMARSAT-C and GPS - a Norwegian pilot project Arvid Bertheau Johannessen 46 Guest editorial BY ODD GUTTEBERG Developing the Norwegian The Norwegian telecommunica- telecommunication network has tions industry has been very always been a challenging effort. active since satellite transmis- This is due to this country’s spe- sion was introduced in Norway. cial topography and its scattered Among other things they are population. Furthermore, it has manufacturing the earth stations been difficult to establish reliable in NORSAT-B, and coastal communications with the mer- earth stations and mobile termi- chant fleet, oil rigs, and an nals for the different important Norwegian outpost - INMARSAT standards. Norwe- the Arctic islands of Svalbard gian industry has also developed (Spitzbergen). a new data collection satellite system, called TSAT (Teleme- In the early sixties, it became try via SATellite). evident that communications via satellites opened up new oppor- The last addition to the “family tunities for surmounting these tree” is satellite broadcasting. difficulties. Norwegian Telecom This application is especially understood the possibilities, and attractive for a sparsely popu- as the first country in Europe, lated country like Norway. A Norway established in 1976 a major step was taken when the domestic satellite communica- Norwegian Telecom bought the tion system. This system, called powerful TV satellite “Marco NORSAT-A, utilised leased Polo 2” from Britain in 1992. transponder capacity on the geo- The satellite was renamed stationary INTELSAT-IV satel- “Thor” and moved to the posi- lite for communication between the Norwegian mainland and tion 1 degree west in the geostationary orbit. The purchase of the oil rigs in the North Sea. In 1979 Svalbard was connected to this satellite represents a significant change in Norwegian space this system. The earth station at Svalbard was the first commer- activity. The Norwegian Telecom has now moved from being a cial earth station world-wide, operating with an elevation angle satellite user to a satellite owner and operator - with all the chal- less than 3 degrees. lenging tasks this implies. The success with the NORSAT-A system has been followed up As the satellite technology improves, the earth terminal by a meshed network, the NORSAT-B system. This system becomes smaller and cheaper, as we have seen in the VSAT utilises Very Small Aperture Terminals (VSAT) for business systems. However, the major challenge for the satellite commu- communications. nity is now to provide a global mobile telephone system with hand-held terminals. This will necessitate studies of new con- As a large shipping nation, Norway caught an early interest in cepts such as satellites in low-earth orbits, inter-satellite links, using satellites for maritime communications. In the seventies multibeam antennas, on-board processing and possibly use of Norwegian Telecom was one of the driving forces behind the higher frequency bands. establishement of the International Maritime Satellite Organisa- tion (INMARSAT), and Norway is at present the third largest shareholder. The first European coastal earth station in the INMARSAT system was built in southern Norway, and put into service in 1982. 3 Elements of satellite technology and communication BY ODD GUTTEBERG 621.396.946 1 Introduction and The satellite control station (TT&C sta- sists of a large antenna and a high power tion) maintains the satellite in orbit. It amplifier. Since it is expensive and com- overview keeps control of the satellite status plicated to generate an equally high More than 35 years ago, on 4 October (Telemetry), orbital information (Track- power in the satellite, the output power 1957, the world’s first artificial satellite ing), and performs orbital attitude from the satellite is generally much was launched by the Soviet Union. The manoeuvres and configures the commu- smaller. Due to this, the receiving earth satellite, which became known as Sput- nication system (Command). stations have to use larger receiving nik-I, opened up a new era of practical antennas; up to 30 metres in diameter, in The communication part of the satellite use of the outer space. The satellite’s the early days of satellite communica- system is simply a radio system with weight was 84 kg and it circled 1400 tions. only one relay station, the satellite. The times around the earth before burning up signals are transmitted on a carrier fre- However, due to larger satellites, i.e. in the atmosphere after 93 days. The quency, f , from an earth station (traffic higher output power, and to better receiv- launch of Sputnik-I was followed by the A station), received in the satellite, ampli- ing technology, the earth stations can use United States’ Explorer-I in January fied, shifted in frequency to f' and trans- smaller and cheaper antennas, e.g. satel- 1958. Even though these satellites were A mitted back to the receiving traffic sta- lite TV broadcasting. primarily not intended for communica- tion. The satellite transmits and receives tions, they demonstrated that this was on radio frequencies mainly in the technically and economically feasible. microwave band, i.e. 3 - 30 GHz. On 2 A brief historical review The use of artificial satellites in earth these frequencies it is feasible to use The first person to suggest the use of the orbits is now a well established and inte- parabolic reflector antennas. Such anten- geostationary orbit for communication grated part of the world’s telecommuni- nas concentrate the radio signals in a satellites, was the English physicist cations network. The evolution of the small cone; thus it is possible to “illumi- Arthur C Clark (born 1917). He pub- satellite technology together with more nate” the whole earth or part of the earth, lished his article “Extra-Terrestrial powerful launchers have made the satel- see figure 2. The illuminated part is Relays” in the Wireless World Magazine lites suitable, not only for long distance called the coverage area, and most of the in October 1945. In this article a satellite communications, but also for national transmitted power from the satellite is system for broadcasting of television, communications, television broadcasting concentrated in this area. The larger the was described. At that time there was a and mobile services. transmitting satellite antenna is, the discussion going on about how to dis- smaller the coverage area becomes. A satellite communication system is tribute television. The present technology divided into two major parts, the earth The up-link signals have only one desti- was not mature for the construction of segment and the space segment. The nation, the orbiting satellite, which reliable and unmanned satellites. In 1945 satellite and its control station form the means that it is required to transmit no-one could predict the rapid develop- space segment, while the earth segment energy only to the satellite. The transmit- ment within electronics, e.g. the inven- comprises the traffic and traffic control ting earth station therefore normally con- tion of the transistor in 1947. stations, see figure 1. Satellite down-link up-link fA f´B fB f´A Traffic Satellite control Traffic station A station (TT & C) station B Figure 1 The main building blocks in a two-way satellite com- Figure 2 A geostationary satellite “illuminating” the coverage munication system area on earth 4 Launch data Date: 10 July 1962 Vehicle: Thor-Delta The Space Age started with the laun- They were all put into low earth orbits, ching of the first artificial satellite, the height varying between 1,000 and Orbital data Sputnik-I, in 1957. It is worth while 8,000 km. Telstar-I was the most Orbit: Elliptical noticing that the first trans-Atlantic important of these satellites, figure 3. Inclination: 44.8 degrees telephone cable was stretched the This satellite transmitted television same year. In the following years seve- directly from USA to England and Apogee: 5653 km ral satellites were launched, both for France for the first time. The Nordic Perigee: 936 km scientific purposes and for other speci- countries started early to make use of Period: 157.8 min fic applications. Communication expe- satellite communication. In 1964 the riments with passive reflecting satel- Nordic countries built a common lites, Echo-I and -II (1960), were also receive earth station at Råö, outside Satellite data carried out. Gothenburg. It was an experimental earth station which participated in Weight: 77 kg An operational system with passive NASA’s experiments with the Relay satellites was never realised, but the Diameter: 0,9 meter (spherical) satellites. project made essential contributions to No of transponders: 1 the development of the earth station The first satellite in the geostationary Bandwidth: 50 MHz technology. orbit was Syncom-II in 1963. The Output power: 3 Watts The first active telecommunication launch of Syncom-I the same year was satellites were launched in the early a failure. This was an important break- 1960s, Courier (1960), Telstar-I and -II through for commercial satellite com- Figure 3 The Telstar satellite, main data.
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