Japanese Orphans from China: History and Identity in a "Returning" Migrant Community
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East Asian History NUMBER 25/26 . JUNE/DECEMBER 2003 Institute of Advanced Studies Australian National University Ed itor Gere mi e R. Barme As soci ate Ed itor He lenLo Ed itori al Bo ard Mark Elvi n (Conve nor) B0rge Bakke n Jo hn Cl ar k Lo uise Ed wards Co li nJeffcott W. J. F. Je nner Li Tana Kam Lo uie Gavan Mc Corm ack David Marr Tess a Morris-Su zuki Ke nneth We lls Desig n and Productio n Hele n Lo , Oanh Co lli ns, Mario n Weeks, Trist an No rm an Busi ness Manager Mario n Weeks Pri nted by Go anna Pri nt, Fyshwick, ACT This is the combined twenty-fifth and twenty-sixth issue of East Asian History, printed in December 2004, in the series previously entitled Papers on Far Eastern History. An externally refereed jour nal, it is published twice a year Co nt ributio ns to The Ed itor, East Asian History Divisio n of Paci fic and As ian Histor y Rese ar ch School ofPa ci fic and As ian Studies Au str ali an Natio nal Universit y Canberr a ACT 0200, Au str ali a Phone +6 1 26 1 25 31 40 Fax +6 1 26 125 55 25 Email mario n. weeks @anu.edu. au Subscriptio n Enquiries to Subscriptio ns, East Asian History, at the ab ove ad dress, or to mario n. weeks @anu.edu. au Annu al Subscriptio n Au str ali a A$50 (i nc ludi ng GST ) Overse as US $4 5 (GST fr ee ) (for two issues ) IS SN 10 36 -6008 iii � CONTENTS 1 The Or ig ins of Han-D ynasty Cons or t Kin Power Brett Hinsch 25 Inve nting the Rom ant ic King dom : the Res urrect ion and Le git imization of the Sh u Han King dom before the Romance of the Three Kingdoms SimonShen 43 Illus ions of Grande ur : Pe rcept ions of St at us and We alth in Late -Ming Fem ale Cloth ing and Or name ntation Sarah Dauncey 69 The Leg al and Soc ial St at us of The atr ical Perf ormers in Beij ing during the Qing Ye Xiaoqing 85 Inthe Tang Mount ains We Have a Big House Michael Williams 113 The Eve of Park's Milit ar y Rule : the Inte llect ual Deb ate on National Rec onstr uct ion, 1960 -61 Kim Hyung-A 141 Japane se Or ph ans fr om Ch ina: Hist or y and Identity in a 'R et urning' Migr ant Comm unity Li Narangoa 161 Sun-F ac ing Cour t yar ds : Urb an Communal Culture in Mid-1970s' Sh angh ai Nicole Huang 183 Liu Dong and his Defe nc e of The ory and Conf uc ianism as Pr ac tice GloriaDavies 191 The Weber ian View and Conf uc ianism LiuDong -translated by Gloria Davies iv Cove r calligr aph y Yan Zh enqi ng ,ID'j1�gHn, Tang calligr apher and st atesm an Cove r illustr ati on A mem ori al from the chie f eunuch Bian Dek ui - "T he Leg al andSo ci al St at us ofThe atric al Per formers inBeiji ng Duri ng the Qi ng " byYe Xi aoqi ng, see p.81. JAPANESE ORPHANS FROM CHINA: HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN A "RETURNING" MIGRANT COMMUNITY � Ii Narangoa Migr ation is not alw ays fore ve r. So metimes ch anging po litic al an d economic Anearlier version ofthis paper was presented circumst ances le ad a sett led migr ant communit y to le ave its "n ew home land" at a seminar in the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National Uni an d "r eturn" to an older one. In recent times Germ ans have "r eturned" to versity, in May 2002 . I would like to thank Germ anyfrom the former So vi et Union an d other parts of Eastern Europe, Tamura Keiko and two anonymous EastAsian whi le Dutch In dies an d Chinese Indonesi an communities have "r eturned" Histo ryreaders for their helpful comments to the Ne ther lands an d Chin a from Indonesi a. In the nineteenth cent UlY, on an earlier draft of this paper. I am also indebted to Robert Cribb for his comments former slaves from the Americ as "r eturned" to Li beri a an d Si err a Leone. This and especially for his help in improving my process of "r eturn" is often wr apped in rom antic notions of nation al or ethnic English. re unific ation, but it se ldom happens smooth ly. Lo ng residence in a different land le ad s ine vit ably both to different historic al experiences an d to cu ltur al differences, which often le ad in turn to unexpected fee lings of being alien in a half -f ami liar "h ome land ." Even more import ant, howe ve r, the history of migr ant communities can se ldom be disent ang led from th at of the hom eland or from the history of th at home land's re lations with their former land of residence. The ar ri val of "returning" migr ants common ly reminds the home land of its own histor y, often in disquieting ways , ad ding to the comp lexit y of the re lationship between the two groups . "R eturn" also takes plac e in an economic context, often offering indi vidu als asense of economic opportunit y missing in the land of residence. The consequence is the emergence of a new minority identit y which both be lo ngs an d does not be long to the host communit y in ways ve ry different from immigr ants whose ar ri val cannot ever be const rued as a "r eturning." All these issues emerge sh arp ly in the case of the Japanese orph ans who were le ft behind in Chin a at the end of Wor ld War II an d who beg an to "return" to Japan in the 1970s. This "r eturn" was at first greeted with much 141 142 LI NARANGOA 1 The word zanrytl means 'remaining' but enthusi asm inJa pan, but as time passe d the pr oblems ans lng fr om the also has the implication of 'staying behind', sep arate hist OlY and identit y of the or ph ans bec ame ap pare nt. The or phans , hinting that these people might have made raise d inChi nese society , existe d betwee n three worlds -a wartime past , a an active choice to remain in China. This ex pression might have been suitable for those re voluti onary Chi nese prese nt and a pr ospecti ve Japane se future, and each adults who stayed in China for whatever of these worlds carrie d its ow n comp lex of me ani ng s. reason, even though they had the chance Acc or di ng tothe de finiti on of the Jap anese Mi ni stry of We lfare , war or ph ans to return during the repatriations of the late ,, (zanryukoji 7� � m1!Jt., li ter ally"st ayi ng-behi nd or ph ans )l as the y ar e called 1940s and 1950s. For the orphans, however, the suggestion that they decided to stay inJa pan today, ar e pe ople wh o were le ft behi nd inChi na as chi ldre n and was not appropriate, because they had no wh ofu lfilthe followi ng five conditi ons: first , th at both pare nts were Japanese ; choice and most of them were abandoned sec ond, th at the y were lost or sep arate d fr om their pare nts inthe turm oil or lost by their parents. af ter the Japanese surre nder inAugust 1945; thir d, th at the y were not older 2 K6seish6 Shakai Eng6kyoku Engo th anthirt ee n ye ar s at the end of the war; fourth , th at the y knew their pare nts ' 50 nenshi HenshCi I'inkai, Eng050nenshi 2 [The HistolY of 50-year Support] (Tokyo: address ; and fifth, th at the y had bee n li vi ng inChi na si nce the war Pe op le Gy6sei, 1998), p. 402. wh o di d not fitin tothese categ ories were calle d simp ly zanryu hojin 7� � n 3 Araragi Shinz6, "'Chugoku kikokusha' no )..., "s tayi ng -behi nd comp atri ots." Most of th ose wh o failedto be clas sifie d as seikalsusekaz" [The life of the returneesfrom or ph ans were older th an thi Itee n at the end of the war; many of them were China] (Kyoto: K6rosha, 2000), p.25. Even wome n wh ose pare nts had gi ven or sold them toChi nese farmers as wi ves after thiny years, they were often ashamed of their marriages and wanted to escape or ser vants af ter the war. As Ar ar ag i Shi nza liiffi':::' has pointe d ou t, these to Japan. Because they were not officially wome n ge ner ally fe lt th at the y had bee n force d tost ay inChi na and force d classified as orphans, however, they were (shikata ga nai l" IJ' t:.lJ� ij: l » toma rr y Chi nese wh om the y had pre vious ly at first not entitled to Japanese government ,,3 help.