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Nouveau Dossier 139 1 1 Mémoire Libre Disponible Romain Goetz 2 Mémoire de fin de cursus sous la direction d’Anne Laforet DNSEP Communication Graphique Haute École des Arts du Rhin (HEAR) Strasbourg 2015 3 4 Sommaire 5 Partie 1. Mémoire Morte Press Del to entrer setup 15 Hello world 39 Partie 2. Mémoire de Masse Système d’exploitation 49 Interface graphique 55 Partie 3. Mémoire Vive Expérience 81 Environnement système 86 Environnement utilisateur 121 Partie 4. Mémoire Virtuelle Nouveau dossier 139 Dossiers partagés 154 Lexique 176 Annexes 189 Bibliographie 201 6 7 Annotations et codes graphiques 1 : Indique une note en bas de page. 1 : Indique un dossier présent dans mon ordinateur, le numéro marque son emplacement sur le poster à la fin du mémoire. : Icône indiquant que la référence est accessible sur internet, les liens sont regroupés en fin de partie. Wkp/en (ou) Wkp/fr : indiquent que la référence concernant un terme ou une notion se trouve sur Wikipédia (anglais ou français), sur la page concernant le mot annoté. (Fig. 1) : Réfèrent à une image d’illustration présentée en fin de partie. Sauf indications contraires, les images sont la propriété d’Apple. 8 9 « Quelle que soit la complexité organisationnelle d’un système, on peut en former une simulation aussi précise que l’on veut au moyen d’un ordinateur numérique pour peu que ses règles d’organisation soient connues. » B. G. Farley et W. Clark - Simulation of self-organizing systems by digital computer - IRE transactions on Information Theory, vol. 4 - 1954 « LES ORDINATEURS N’ONT NI NATURE NI CARAC- TÈRE Les ordinateurs, à la différence de tout autre équipement, sont parfaitement AVEUGLES. Et c’est la raison pour laquelle nous y avons projeté tant de visages différents. » Ted Nelson - Computer Lib - 1974 « Sometimes the player read lines of code on a screen. Decoded them into words; decoded words into meaning; decoded meaning into feelings, emotions, theories, ideas, and the player started to breathe faster and deeper and realised it was alive… » Julian Gough - Poème de l’ender - 2011. Apparaissant à la fin du jeu vidéo Minecraft. 10 11 Mon ordinateur est un MacBook Pro mi-2012 construit et vendu par la société Apple. Il utilise le système d’exploitation OSX 10.9.5 Mavericks. La quasi intégralité de son contenu, figé à la date du 09/12/2014, (en omettant les fichiers systèmes ou les rangements redondants) est déployé au sein d’un poster présent à la fin du mémoire. 12 Partie.1 13 Mémoire Morte 14 15 Press DEL to enter setup En 1936, Turing inventa une machine1, qui, unique- ment composée d’un ruban mobile capable de mani- puler deux symboles, révolutionna les réflexions sur les machines de calcul. En effet, avant lui, ces machines n’étaient conçues qu’en tant qu’organisations com- plexes capables d’automatisme(s). Elles étaient des systèmes finis, non ouverts à une évolution. Elles étaient construites pour réponde à une demande, pour effectuer un but. Leur matérialité ne leur permet- taient pas de changer de ce but initial. Un exemple serait l’Analyseur différentiel wkp/fr re-développé par H. W. Nieman et Vannevar Bush en 1927. C’était un calculateur analogique conçu pour résoudre des équations en utilisant des systèmes de roues et de volants. Ses matériaux, son agencement étaient alors des éléments inhérents à son but. La machine de Turing fut innovante car elle n’était pas faite pour effec- tuer une seule tâche automatique mais pour reproduire les comportements, les étapes successives d’autres machines automatiques. Sortant alors de la rigidité des critères précis qui valident un automatisme, elle représentait un système ouvert et malléable, capable d’adaptations. Son organisation ne reposait plus sur ses éléments physiques, mais sur sa logique. 1. Alan Turing - On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem - Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society - vol. 43 - 1937 16 Cette idée, (réfléchir la machine, non plus comme un objet correspondant à une logique —celle créant l’automatisme— mais comme étant elle même une logique) se développa de plus en plus jusque dans les années 70, créant un "boom" de recherches et d’expérimentations autour de l’ordinateur numérique et de l’intelligence artificielle. Les chercheurs travail- lant sur ces sujets souhaitaient doter ces «systèmes informatiques des capacités intellectuelles comparable à celle des êtres humains.» 2 et ce, en tenant de com- prendre le cerveau en le comparant à un ordinateur. Une learning machine « qui utilise automatiquement un ensemble d’algorithmes prédéterminés pour orga- niser en réseau la somme de ses expériences empi- riques » 3. Mais, si le propre de l’intelligence humaine est d’être malléable, de se construire par l’apprentis- sage, d’être en constante évolution… la dotant d’une plasticité inhérente, la machine se base sur une logique fermée et limitative : la machine de Turing possède un ensemble fini d’états. D’un autre côté, gardant en considération que l’intelli- gence se construit par des interactions avec des stimuli externes et que ce sont ces confrontations qui l’amène à acquérir un savoir, elle serait dans son essence artifi- cielle, puisque écrite, appliquée de l’extérieur sur un espace réceptif, "conçu pour cela". La machine était alors tout indiquée pour devenir un espace intelligent. 2. La Recherche - janv. 1979 - no 96, vol. 10 - p. 61 - cité par le dictionnaire du CNTRL. 3. David Bates - Penser l’automaticité au seuil du numérique - Digital Studies: Organologie des savoirs et technologies de la connaissance - FYP EDITIONS - Nouveau monde industriel - 2014 17 « Nous plaçons nos espoirs dans l’hypothèse que le cerveau du nourrisson repose sur si peu de mécanismes qu’on pourra facilement en programmer une réplique » 4 Néanmoins, même si les études furent nombreuses pour créer des intelligences artificielles, (le Logic Theorist wkp/en et le General Problem Solver wkp/en d’Allen Newell et Herbert Simon en 1955 et 1959, le Réseau de neurones wkp/fr de Hopefield en 1982, Deep Blue wkp/fr en 1997…) et les progrès dans ces domaines impres- sionnants, l’informatique s’est souvent limitée aux prin- cipes de base de la logique. L’idée étant que l’on pourrait décrire n’importe quelle action en dressant la liste de ses possibles au travers d’une grammaire de symboles et de connecteurs (ET, OU, NON…). L’intelligence numérique ne prend toujours pas en compte les perturbations liées à l’intelligence (empirisme, apprentissage, expérience…) au sein de ses processus algorithmiques. Notre ordinateur personnel ne repose que sur des principes logiques le rendant fonctionnel. Cependant, ces perturbations pourraient tout de même se créer avec l’utilisation que nous avons de celui-ci. En agissant sur notre ordinateur, nous créons des interférences inhérentes à nos usages, amenant l’ordinateur à devenir un espace qui soit plus proche de nous, intelligent face à nos pratiques. Le ran- gement basique d’un ordinateur est comparable à une machine inorganisée - ce serait, par la confrontation avec nous-même, notre utilisation de l’ordinateur, que celui-ci deviendraient un rangement "intelligent". 4. Alan Turing - Computing machinery and intelligence - Oxford University Press - vol. 59 - no 236 - 1950 18 En outre, au long des recherches autour de l’intelli- gence artificielle, les chercheurs étaient confrontés à un problème de taille. Si l’intelligence humaine est basée sur des expériences empiriques, un ensemble de faits connus et appris tout au long de la vie, ces connaissances seraient nécessaires à un ordina- teur pour pouvoir être intelligent. C’est le problème de culture générale. De plus, les capacités de stockage de l’époque étaient bien trop faibles pour permettre de stocker autant de données. En 1980, Douglas Lenat, s’attaqua frontalement à ce problème avec Cyc wkp/en, une base de données gigantesque conçue pour contenir tous les faits qu’une personne moyenne connait. Selon lui, la seule manière pour une machine de connaître la signification des concepts humains, était de lui apprendre, un à la fois, manuellement. Grâce à la description complète de ces concepts, leurs algorithmes seraient alors capables d’effectuer des décisions, des choix qui seraient similaires à ceux d’un être humain. Aujourd’hui nos base de données on considérablement grandies. Les actions des humains sont enregistrées, étudiées et stockées. À grande échelle via les banques de données de Google par exemple, mais aussi à plus petite échelle, où notre ordinateur retient nos usages, pour effectuer plus vite les tâches auxquelles nous procédons régulièrement, pour conserver l’emplacement de nos interfaces, pour s’adapter à nos paramètres et à nos envies. L’ordinateur, au lieu de devenir une machine autonome (et pas automatisée), tente de se transformer en une copie comportementale de ses utilisateurs. 19 Et ce, parce que l’ordinateur sert, d’une manière conti- nue et désintéressée. Comme l’indique Gérard Berry, informaticien, professeur au Collège de France et mé- daillé d’or du CNRS en 2014 : « Fondamentalement, l’ordinateur et l’homme sont les deux opposés les plus intégraux qui existent. L’homme est lent, peu rigoureux et très intuitif. L’ordinateur est super rapide, très rigoureux et complètement con. On essaie de faire des programmes qui font une mitiga- tion entre les deux. » 5. C’est le principe de l’interface homme-machine. L’histoire de l’informatique est parsemée de chercheurs tentant de trouver des solutions pour que l’homme et la machine arrivent à correspondre. « L’intelligence artificielle a énormément apporté à l’informatique. Des concepts fondamentaux comme les langages fonc- tionnels, les langages objets, le traitement de l’image, l’interface homme-machine sont nés de gens qui pen- saient faire de l’intelligence artificielle, et qui souvent s’en sont écartés.
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