March 17, 1998 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE S2099 talk about that a little bit. Again, re- of Americans in seeing to it that all when you put it all together, you have lating to some of the innovations going children, whether they live in Chicago not served transportation from one end on in Illinois, there is a consortium of or California or Detroit or in Florida or of this country to the other. You have some 20 school districts in the Chicago in Georgia or in Alabama—that all left the issue of transportation up to area. It is called the First in the World children in this country receive the the resources of the specific and dis- Consortium. They lived up to their best possible education that we can crete communities and, more to the name because in the international give them. It is particularly important point, the property tax base that that math and science tests of which I spoke in this information age, given the tech- community can resort to. That is how earlier, this group of schools scored nological revolution, because the com- we fund education in this country. By first in the world. They were all public mand of and the ability to manipulate relying on the local property tax base, school students and they scored first in and use information will be more im- we depend entirely on the accident of math and science—the public school portant in the workforce of the future geography and demographics whether system, and they received the best re- than it is today. If we do not educate or not a child’s school will be adequate sults in the world in these areas. our children, we will, as a country, see to provide a quality education. The results of these tests prove that a lessening in the ability of our na- So I say to my colleagues that, as we America’s public schools can produce tional workforce to be productive in look at this issue, let’s find common the best and the brightest students in these global markets. ground, let’s stop pointing fingers, and, the world if only they have the sup- So, to use an analogy, when it comes as much the point, let’s not continue port, the resources and the tools with to talking about what is our interest, to allow the kind of savage inequalities which to do the job. What does the why should the Senator from Illinois that exist among communities based First in the World Consortium have care about education for a child from on wealth to determine the future of that too many of our schools lack? It is North Dakota or why should the Sen- our country in this 21st century global not the kids. It is not the makeup of ator from Illinois care about the edu- economy. If a community does not the students. Our children are as capa- cation of a child in Alabama, the rea- have the property tax resources to pro- ble of performance as children any- son I care is I love my country and I vide for educational opportunity, then where else in the world, whether they care about the ability of my country to that community ought to be supported come from rich families or from poor have a workforce that can function in in its efforts to educate its children by families. We have some of the brightest this global economy. Just as in the the State and by the National Govern- students in the world, who only need 1950s it was seen as in our national in- ment. We all have a role to play. We all the opportunity to learn. The dif- terest to bring our country together, have a contribution to make. ference, however, is what support we as this debate holds the same promise. Again, finger pointing only hurts the a community provide for those chil- This debate will either turn on a vision children. I am going to, at this point, dren. The schools that comprise the of America that says we are all con- thank the Chair and yield the floor. I First in the World Consortium have nected to each other, we all have a re- just say I look forward very much to some of the best facilities in this coun- sponsibility to each other, or it will continuing this debate in the upcoming try. They have small classes. They turn on a vision of America that says, days. I think it is one of the most im- have modern technology. They have ‘‘I’ve got mine; you get yours. In your portant debates that we can take up as supportive communities. And they State, in your city, education is your a Senate. I think the future of our have engaged and involved parents and problem.’’ country, indeed our national security, teachers. I suggest the time for the finger- hangs on our ability to address in a We all, I think, have a responsibility pointing on education has to stop. We sensible and workable and comprehen- to ensure that every American child have to form a partnership that will sive way, the challenge of public edu- will have access to the same kind of provide our schools with the resources cation for the 21st Century. quality education that is made avail- that we will need to educate our chil- I yield the floor. able in the public schools at the First dren—all of them. Again, to use the The PRESIDING OFFICER. The Sen- in the World Consortium. The tax analogy from the 1950s, President Ei- ator from Kansas is recognized. Mr. ROBERTS. Mr. President, the changes envisioned in this legislation senhower saw the value in providing parliamentary situation is such that will not accomplish that goal. The bill our country with an interstate high- we are in morning business and Sen- will not result, again, in the improve- way system. He brought America to- ators are permitted to speak for up to ment of a single public school. The gether by providing a system whereby 10 minutes; is that correct? the National Government would con- amendment which I hope to talk about The PRESIDING OFFICER. The Sen- tribute to the construction and the de- suggests that we have to undertake a ator is correct. velopment of roads all across this partnership between the State and f local and National Governments to country. That interstate highway sys- provide the kind of resources for public tem brought us together as a nation NATO EXPANSION education that made our country the and served our national interests in Mr. ROBERTS. Mr. President, the strongest in the world and will keep it transportation. letter got lost in the mail. It never the strongest in the world for the 21st The way that we are funding edu- made it to President Yeltsin. It never Century. cation currently would be the equiva- made it to the radar crews in Russia. This conversation is going to go on lent of saying to each and every com- As a result, within minutes, Russian for a couple of days. I would like to munity in America—which, of course, President Boris Yeltsin was brought a leave you with an analogy which I we are saying to each and every com- black nuclear command suitcase and think is absolutely appropriate when munity in America—you go find the for several minutes, wild confusion we talk about how we are going to ad- money from your local property tax reigned in Russia, as Russia’s com- dress the challenge of education for the base to provide for your schools. And if mand and control system was operat- 21st Century. you don’t have the money in your local ing in a combat mode. There have been some arguments property taxes for your schools, it will The letter was from the Norwegian that it is not the Federal Government’s just be too bad. To use the road anal- Foreign Ministry, and it was routine. job; that, indeed, it should be left to ogy again, it’s like saying in those It informed the Russians and other sur- the locals to address education, and it communities that have a limited prop- rounding countries that a joint United is their job, it is their responsibility to erty tax base and in poor communities, States and Norwegian research rocket see to it that the schools in a local they will have shoddy roads if any would be launched to study the north- community function well and provide roads at all. The middle-class commu- ern lights. As I say, it was a foulup, a quality education. I would point out to nities with moderate means will have bureaucratic foulup, and it prompted a the Presiding Officer and to anyone kind of a hodgepodge and a mix of de- hair-trigger war scare, a nuclear war else listening that that analogy fails cent roads and kind-of-decent roads; scare, only 3 years ago. altogether to recognize our national in- and the wealthy communities will have Mr. President, I rise today to focus terest and our interest as a community the greatest roads in the world. But on this incident, because I believe it is S2100 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE March 17, 1998 the kind of discussion that we should My bottom-line concern and fear is The reason is that Russia’s system of early carefully consider as we move to the that this administration has no long- warning of a possible attack, and command debate on NATO and NATO expansion range, overarching strategy in our re- and control of nuclear forces, is suffering many of the same problems plaguing the en- and the kind of debate that has not re- lations with Russia. Unfortunately, I tire military. Russia inherited from the So- ceived much, if any, public attention. believe this is a hallmark in the Presi- viet Union a system of radars and satellites, I encourage my colleagues to read dent’s foreign policy, just as we have but after the Soviet break-up, many are no two articles that appeared in the Wash- seen in his policy in Bosnia and just as longer on Russian soil. Russia’s six-year eco- ington Post, Sunday the 15th of March we have seen in his policy in Iraq. nomic depression has led to hardship for and Monday the 16th. Those two arti- Where is the end game? many officers, including many who work in cles focus on areas that I feel the Russia is a huge country that does nuclear command installations, who receive low pay and lack permanent housing. The United States should be most con- exist and does still have tens of thou- radar-and-satellite system is vulnerable be- cerned about: United States-Russia re- sands of nuclear warheads. They will cause there are gaps in the network, which lations and the status and the direc- play a major role in the future of Eu- will grow more serious this year as yet an- tion of the Russian nuclear forces and rope. Our choice, Mr. President, is to other Russian radar station is closed in Lat- their command and control. The two continue to treat them as a defeated via. articles, entitled ‘‘Cold War Doctrines foe—and too many in the Congress cer- The prospect of a mistake ‘‘has become particularly dangerous since the end of the Refuse To Die’’ and ‘‘Downsizing a tainly have that view—or to work with Cold War,’’ Vladimir Belous, a retired gen- Mighty Arsenal,’’ are a two-part series them to continue to develop their form eral and leading Russian strategist, wrote re- by David Hoffman and paint a very dis- of government and their military con- cently. He added that ‘‘a fateful accident couraging picture. sistent with our common values. could plunge the world into the chaos of a The first article describes the Janu- Mr. President, I ask unanimous con- thermonuclear catastrophe, contrary to po- ary 25, 1995, launch, as I have indicated, sent that these two articles be printed litical leaders’ wishes. of a joint Norwegian-United States re- The degradation of Russia’s early-warning in the RECORD. I understand the Gov- system comes as its strategic forces are also search rocket off of Norway’s north- ernment Printing Office estimates it shrinking. The forces made up of nuclear- west coast. For a brief period of time, will cost $1,616 to have these two arti- armed submarines, long-range bombers and the Russians actually mistook this cles printed in the RECORD. intercontinental ballistic missiles built by launch as one from a U.S. submarine There being no objection, the articles the Soviets during the Cold War are declin- and a possible threat to Russia. Some were ordered to be printed in the ing dramatically in both numbers and qual- ity. Within a decade, experts predict, Russia analysts say that day we came as close RECORD, as follows: as we ever have come to a will have a nuclear arsenal just one-tenth [From the Washington Post, Mar. 15, 1998] the size of the Soviet Union’s at the peak of counterlaunch by the Russians. The ar- COLD-WAR DOCTRINES REFUSE TO DIE—FALSE the superpower rivalry, because of arms con- ticle further discusses the deteriorat- ALERT AFTER ’95 ROCKET LAUNCH SHOWS trol treaties, looming obsolescence and Rus- ing state of the Russian command and FRAGILITY OF AGING SAFEGUARDS sia’s economic depression. control systems and early warning sys- (By David Hoffman) The process is posing painful questions for Russia’s political and military elite. They tems. MOSCOW.—At dawn on the morning of Jan. want to preserve Russia’s place as a global The second article discusses the im- 25, 1995, a four-stage Norwegian-U.S. joint re- power but cannot support the colossal forces pact of the economic problems on the search rocket, Black Brant XII, lifted off and intricate systems that made up the So- from an island off Norway’s northwest coast. Russian strategic weapons system. The viet nuclear deterrent. author outlines the sad material and Ninety-three seconds after launch, the What makes the radar and satellite gaps operational shape of the nuclear ar- fourth stage burned out, hurling the rocket worrisome is that Russia still adheres to nu- mored submarine and rocket forces. He and its payload nearly straight up. clear doctrines of the Soviet era. The overall The rocket was designed to study the states that the economic weaknesses of deterrence concept is known as Mutual As- Northern Lights, but when it rose above the sured Destruction, under which each side is Russia will, outside of any bilateral horizon, it turned into another kind of exper- agreements, drive the number of oper- held in check by the threat of annihilation iment—a test of the hair-trigger posture by the other. One part of this cocked-pistols ational warheads to below START II that still dominates the control of Russian approach is ‘‘launch-on-warning,’’ in which levels. and United States nuclear weapons. both sides threaten that if attacked they I suppose many could be saying, ‘‘So, The rocket was spotted by Russian early- will unleash massive retaliation, even before what’s the problem? That’s what we warning radars. The radar operators sent an the enemy warheads arrive. The idea is that want, fewer weapons systems and nu- alert to Moscow. Within minutes, President such a hair-trigger stance will discourage ei- clear warheads, right?’’ Well, it’s not Boris Yeltsin was brought his black nuclear- ther from attempting to strike first. command suitcase. For several tense min- that easy. Certainly, the wanted Russia also inherited from the Soviet utes, while Yeltsin spoke with his defense Union a second, related approach, which is to downsizing should be a controlled, sys- minister by telephone, confusion reigned. preserve the ability to launch a retaliatory tematic, consistent process and not one Little is known about what Yeltsin said, strike even after the enemy’s warheads have that is as chaotic as the article cer- but these may have been some of the most hit. This is called ‘‘launch-on-attack.’’ In tainly portrays. dangerous moments of the nuclear age. They Moscow, massive underground bunkers and a My purpose today is to highlight this offer a glimpse of how the high-alert nu- secret subway were built to protect the So- problem and to urge that the adminis- clear-launch mechanism of the Cold War re- viet leadership so they could launch a retal- tration be more concerned and that the mains in place, and how it could go disas- iatory strike. trously wrong, even though the great super- Congress be more concerned about LOST IN THE BUREAUCRACY power rivalry has ended. The message from the Norwegian Foreign United States-Russia relations. Oppo- Russia and the United States still rely on nents of NATO enlargement say our ac- Ministry was routine. On Dec. 21, 1994, it sent a doctrine that calls for making rapid-fire out a letter to neighboring countries, includ- tions have resulted in a delay in the decisions about a possible nuclear attack. If ing Russia, about the impending launch of Duma’s ratification of START II. They a Russian president wants to retaliate before the Black Brant XII, a four-stage research further state that because of the in- enemy missiles reach his soil, he has about rocket, between Jan. 15 and Feb. 10, depend- creased military capability of an en- eight minutes to decide what to do. ing on weather conditions. larged NATO, Russia must depend on Yet, in the Norway episode, the informa- But the letter got lost in the Russian bu- tion needed for such a momentous decision reaucracy and never made it to the radar nuclear weapons as a first-use capabil- was unclear. Although eventually the Nor- ity since their conventional forces are crews, as had past notifications. Norway had wegian rocket fell into the ocean, it trig- launched 607 scientific rockets since 1962. so weakened. Proponents of enlarge- gered a heightened level of alert throughout But the Black Brant XII was bigger than any ment pretty much scoff at these asser- the Russian strategic forces, according to of those. The rocket was a cooperative effort tions and state that although Russia testimony to the U.S. Congress, and other with the U.S. National Aeronautics and does not like NATO enlargement, they sources, and market the first time a Russian Space Administration, and was built with need to ‘‘get over it.’’ My concern is leader had to use his nuclear briefcase in a surplus U.S. rocket engines. not to guess which camp is right but to real alert. According to Peter Pry, a former CIA offi- Now that the superpower tensions have cial who chronicles the episode in a coming say in our relations with Russia, we eased, so have the chances of a misunder- book, ‘‘War Scare,’’ the rocket ‘‘resembled a need to go slow, we need to ensure we standing leading to nuclear war. But some U.S. submarine-launched, multiple-stage bal- fully understand the long-term impli- Western experts say the Norway rocket epi- listic missile.’’ Theodore A. Postol, a profes- cations of our actions. sode may not be the last. sor at MIT, said that the Norwegian rocket March 17, 1998 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE S2101 may well have looked to the radar operators alert, officials said. The first serious alert Meanwhile, other radars used by Russia like a multistage missile launched from a came only after the end of the Cold War, on have been left in Ukraine, at Mykolayiv and Trident submarine. The launch occurred in a Yeltsin’s watch. Mukacheve; in Azerbaijan, at Mingacevir; region considered, during the Cold War, to be Devyanin said that at the time he was dis- and Kazakhstan, at Balqash. Some are func- a likely corridor for an incoming ballistic turbed by the way a misplaced document led tioning, but there have been disputes over fi- missile attack. to such high-level confusion. ‘‘The safety of nances and personnel. Russian authorities Anatoly Sokolov, the commander of the mankind should not depend on anyone’s hope to complete an unfinished radar in Russian radar forces, recalled shortly after- carelessness,’’ he said. Belarus to compensate for the loss in Latvia, ward that ‘‘what happened was an unsched- The day after the incident, Yeltsin an- but the prospects are uncertain. uled training exercise. . . . We all found our- nounced that he had used the nuclear brief- Overall, only about half the original radars selves under stress.’’ He said, ‘‘An officer on case for the first time. Many in Russia dis- remain inside Russia. In addition, the sys- duty reported detecting a ballistic missile missed his comment as a bit of bravado in- tem of satellites used for detecting missile which started from the Norwegian territory. tended to divert attention from the debacle launches is also depleted. There are two What kind of missile is it? What is its tar- of the Chechen war, then just beginning to groups of satellites. One group in a high el- get? We were not informed. . . . If it had unfold. liptical orbit monitors U.S. land-based mis- been launched on an optimal trajectory, its Even today, Russian officials brush aside sile fields, but cannot see missiles launched range would have been extended to 3,500 kilo- questions about the incident, saying it has from the ocean. Russia has two other geo- meters [2,175 miles], which, in fact, is the been overblown in the West. Vladimir stationary satellites but they do not provide distance to Moscow.’’ Dvorkin, director of the 4th Central Re- complete coverage of the oceans, where U.S. ‘‘The thing is,’’ he added, ‘‘the start of a ci- search Institute, a leading military think Trident submarines patrol. vilian missile and a nuclear missile, espe- tank, said he saw no danger from the Nor- Postl has calculated that Russia has seri- cially at the initial stage of the flight trajec- wegian alert, ‘‘none at all.’’ ous vulnerabilities in its early-warning net- tory, look practically the same.’’ He added, ‘‘It’s very difficult to make a de- work, especially given the highly accurate The Black Brant XII triggered a tense cision’’ to launch, ‘‘maybe even impossible Trident II sea-launched ballistic missile sys- chain reaction in Russia. According to for civilized leaders. Even when a warning tem. For example, Russia could entirely miss Nikolai Devyanin, chief designer of the Rus- system gives you a signal about a massive a missile launched toward Moscow from the sian nuclear ‘‘suitcase,’’ the radar operators attack, no one is ever going to make a deci- Pacific Ocean near Alaska because of radar were under crushing pressure. They remem- sion, even an irrational leader alarmed that gaps, he said. bered how Mathias Rust, a German youth, one missile has been fired. I think this is an ‘‘Russia is partially blind—that’s abso- flew a small plane through Soviet air de- empty alarm.’’ lutely correct,’’ said a former air defense of- fenses in 1987 and landed it in Red Square, But the incident did set off alarms. Former ficer. shaking the Soviet hierarchy to its founda- CIA director R. James Woolsey told Congress ADMONISHED BY YELTSIN tions. Moreover, in five or six minutes, the in 1996 that the Russians went on ‘‘some sort In January 1997, a group of workers at a Norwegian missile could hit the Kola Penin- of’’ alert, ‘‘not a full strategic alert, but, at small state-owned institute near St. Peters- sula, where Russia’s nuclear-armed sub- least, a greater degree of strategic inquisi- burg went on strike. The workers at the Sci- marines are based. tiveness.’’ entific Production Corp. Impuls said they Bruce Blair, a senior fellow at the Brook- Devyanin has said the radar operators had not been paid for eight months. could be reprimanded for sending out a false, ings Institution in Washington who has writ- The strike touched a nerve among those panicky signal. But they also feared it was a ten extensively on the Soviet and Russian who knew about Impuls. Its founder, Taras real threat. So they decided to issue an alert command-and-control systems, said a signal Sokolov, pioneered the Russian nuclear com- that it was an unidentified missile, with an was sent to the Russian strategic forces to mand system, known as Signal. The workers unknown destination. increase their combat readiness, but the cri- at Impuls said they were fed up and would The alert went to a general on duty. He, sis then ended. Blair said the significance of not go back to work until paid. too, decided that it was better to send on the the episode was the confusion that marked Within days, Defense Minister Igor alert to the highest levels, than to be blamed the period during which Yeltsin would have Rodionov took an extraordinary step. He too for a disaster. One factor, Western officials had to make a real ‘‘launch-on-warning’’ de- was frustrated. He had devoted his career to said later, might have been fear that the cision. Blair pointed out that the Soviet the conventional army, but it was disinte- lone missile would release a huge, debilitat- Union and Russia have been through coup, grating before his eyes. Yeltsin was ill, and ing electromagnetic pulse explosion to dis- rebellion and collapse over the last decade, Rodionov could not reach him on the phone. arm Russia’s command-and-control system, and a leader may well be called on to make Finally, he wrote an alarming letter to as a prelude to a broader onslaught. crucial decisions at a time of enormous up- Yeltsin. He said the command-and-control At that point, the Russian electronic com- heaval. systems for Russia’s nuclear forces—includ- mand-and-control network known as Kazbek, Postol said, ‘‘The Norwegian rocket launch ing the deep underground bunkers and the had come to life. is an important indicator of a serious under- early-warning system—were falling apart. The duty general received his information lying problem. It tells us something very im- ‘‘No one today can guarantee the reliabil- from the radar operator on a special notifica- portant: People are on a high state of alert, ity of our control systems,’’ Rodionov said. tion terminal, Krokus. He then passed it to when there is not a crisis. You can imagine ‘‘Russia might soon reach the threshold be- the Kavkaz, a complex network of cables, what it would be like in a high state of ten- yond which its rockets and nuclear systems radio signals, satellites and relays that is at sion.’’ cannot be controlled.’’ the heart of the Russian command and con- Pry said that there have been other false A retired colonel, Robert Bykov, who had trol. From there, it caused an alert to go off alarms in the nuclear age, but none went as worked in some of the military’s electronic on each of the three nuclear ‘‘footballs’’ in far as Jan. 25, 1995, which he described as command systems until 1991, echoed the Russian system: one with Yeltsin, one ‘‘the single most dangerous moment of the Rodionov’s comments in an article he wrote with then-Defense Minister Pavel Grachev nuclear missile age.’’ for a mass-circulation newspaper, and a third with the chief of the General ‘‘PARTIALLY BLIND’’ RUSSIA Komsomolskaya Pravda. Bykov said Staff, then Mikhail Kolesnikov. The black The first radar-blip warning of the Nor- Rodionov was ‘‘absolutely correct.’’ He suitcases were nicknamed Cheget. wegian rocket came from the early-warning added, ‘‘Even in my period of service, the The command-and-control system ‘‘was system built around the periphery of the So- equipment ceased functioning properly on now operating in combat mode,’’ Devyanin viet Union. The concept of ‘‘launch-on-warn- more than one occasion, or certain parts of said. Yeltsin immediately got on the tele- ing’’—a quick-draw response to nuclear at- it spontaneously went into combat mode. phone with the others holding the black suit- tack—depends on swift, reliable warning. You can imagine what is happening now.’’ cases, and they monitored the rocket’s flight ‘‘Get it right, it makes no difference to us In a lengthy interview, Bykov said he was on their terminals. (The actual launch orders what kind of missile it is, meteorological, the subject of an investigation by the Fed- are not given from the suitcase, only the per- testing or combat,’’ Sokolov, the Russian eral Security Service after the article ap- mission to fire. The launching process, in- radar forces commander, said after the Nor- peared. Recalling his experiences, he said cluding ciphers, is controlled by the mili- wegian episode. He said the radars are the that periodically the central command sys- tary’s General Staff, which, in some cir- ‘‘eyes and ears of the president.’’ tem went into a ‘‘loss of regime’’ mode, cumstances, is authorized to act on its own.) But the Soviet collapse has muffled those which he described as a neutral position, Devyanin noted a strange irony. The sensors. The Soviet radar system was being where it could not send out commands. He Cheget suitcase was a product of the final modernized when the country fell apart. One said there were also a few incidents in which phrase of the Cold War, during the tense of the new replacement radars, in Latvia, individual missile silos or regiments would early 1980s, when Soviet leaders feared a sud- was torn down in May 1995. Russia won a report to the center that they were in ‘‘com- den attack launched from Europe or nearby temporary reprieve against closing two older bat mode,’’ but he said the main system oceans. They needed a remote command sys- radars in Latvia, but that agreement expires could prevent any accidental launch. tem to cut down reaction time. in August. Latvia recently announced it will Bykov’s article had an impact outside Rus- The suitcases were put into service just as not let Russia renew. The radar is one of sia. It was picked up in a CIA report outlin- Mikhail Gorbachev took office. Gorbachev, those covering the critical northwestern di- ing Rodionov’s concerns about nuclear com- however, never used them in a real-time rection. mand and control. The Washington Times S2102 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE March 17, 1998 disclosed the report on the day Rodionov ar- days, I think we should reject it. On odd ance, ‘‘locking in’’ the lower Russian levels rived in Washington in May 1997 for a visit. days, I think we should keep it.’’ with formal treaties. Also, some experts say Rodionov recalled in an interview that he ‘‘Why?’’ he asked. ‘‘Because how is launch- both sides should remove the still-tense nu- eventually had a meeting with Yeltsin. ‘‘You on-warning dangerous? It’s dangerous with a clear-alert posture of the Cold War. shouldn’t have said that,’’ Yeltsin admon- possible mistake in making the decision to But there is also resistance from those who ished him, he said. launch.’’ But, he added, ‘‘making this mis- urge caution. For example, in the 1994 nu- Rodionov said he drew up a plan for army take in peacetime, a time like now, the like- clear posture review, the Clinton administra- reform that included drastic cuts in nuclear lihood is practically zero. Because the situa- tion decided to create a ‘‘hedge’’ of warheads weapons, but never got a chance to take it tion is quiet. Only if there is some increase against the prospects of future uncertainty out of his briefcase. He was dismissed and re- in tension between countries, then the likeli- in Russia and to preserve the existing U.S. placed by Igor Sergeyev, the head of the hood of a mistake increases.’’ structure of land-sea-air forces. Some argue strategic rocket forces—a move crystallizing Just the fact of having launch-on-warning, that, as the only global superpower, the the new emphasis on nuclear deterrence. he said, would discourage both countries United States does not need to match the Russian officials have repeatedly denied from returning to Cold War tensions. ‘‘We steep Russian decline. And Russia’s woes that the strategic forces command system is must sit quietly,’’ he added, ‘‘like mice in may embolden backers of building a ballistic weakening. They say it has rigid controls our nook.’’ missile defense system. against an accidental launch or theft. The Only a decade ago, when the Soviet arsenal U.S. strategic forces commander, Gen. Eu- [From the Washington Post, Mar. 16, 1998] hit its peak, the Pentagon warned that a pa- gene Habiger, visited Russian command cen- DOWNSIZING A MIGHTY ARSENAL—MOSCOW rade of new weapons systems was being de- ters last fall and said they were ‘‘very much RETHINKS ROLE AS ITS WEAPONS RUST ployed, including the SS–18 Satan missile, geared to a fail-safe mode’’ in which any (By David Hoffman) the supersonic Blackjack bomber, and the command level ‘‘can inhibit a launch’’ of a giant Typhoon ballistic-missile submarine. MOSCOW.—Russia’s strategic forces, the missile. The Pentagon’s annual ‘‘Soviet Military vast phalanx of nuclear-armed submarines, But Sergeyev has acknowledged the sys- Power’’ tract declared that ‘‘the most strik- bombers and intercontinental ballistic mis- tem is growing old; most of the command ing feature of Soviet military power today is siles built during the Cold War by the Soviet posts were built more than 30 years ago. The the extraordinary momentum of its offensive Union, are suffering a dramatic decline be- rocket forces are also suffering shortages of strategic nuclear force modernization.’’ trained personnel and severe social problems cause of arms control treaties, the Soviet Today, that momentum has stopped. The such as a lack of housing for 17,000 officers. breakup, looming obsolescence and Russia’s Typhoons, Satans and Blackjacks are A well-informed Russian expert on the com- economic depression. doomed. Russia, the sole heir of the Soviet Regardless of whether the United States mand system said, ‘‘Today it’s not dangerous nuclear forces, still has thousands of war- and Russia move ahead on bilateral arms- but tomorrow it might be. It is going down. heads. But the mechanical leviathans needed control treaties, a decade from now Russia’s It has not reached the critical point. But the to carry them are deteriorating. trends are down—days when designers are forces will be less than one-tenth the size The Russian landscape is littered with not paid, when money is not allocated for up- they were at the peak of Soviet power, ac- stark evidence of this decline. At Russia’s keep.’’ cording to estimates prepared in Russia and Northern and Far Eastern ports, nuclear- In the coming decade, Russia is to move in the West. Ten years from now, if current powered submarines are piling up in watery toward a drastically curtailed nuclear force, economic trends continue, Russia may have junkyards. The largest group of Blackjack one that will be just larger than those of a strategic nuclear force just larger than bombers is rusting away in Ukraine. Even China or of France and Britain combined. that of China, and somewhat larger than the core of the Russian strategic deterrent, Some Russian strategists are already re- Britain’s and France’s combined. the missile force, is expected to shrink dra- This slide has enormous implications for thinking the Cold War doctrines that called matically in the years ahead, although Rus- Russia and the West that are only now begin- for Moscow to deploy vast weapons systems sia is trying to deploy a new class of land- ning to emerge. For Russia, the decline has carrying thousands of warheads for attack based intercontinental ballistic missiles. But raised painful dilemmas about its place in on the United States. With fewer weapons, so far, only two rockets have been put on the world, underscoring yet again the ero- limited finances, gaps in early warning, and duty, three years behind schedule. sion of its superpower status. the dissipation of Cold War rivalry, some an- At the same time, while the nuclear shield SILENT FACTORIES AND SHIPYARDS alysts have urged Russia and the United is shrinking, Russian leaders have decided to Moreover, most of the huge factories and States to take nuclear weapons off hair-trig- rely on the deterrent power of the nuclear shipyards that rolled out the giant Soviet ger alert. weapons more than ever—to compensate for arms buildup in the 1980s have fallen silent. LOWERING THE RISK their even weaker and more chaotic conven- In many cases the experts who built them Blair, the Brookings analyst, has been the tional forces. President Boris Yeltsin re- have simply disappeared. chief proponent of ‘‘de-alerting,’’ which he cently signed a new national security doc- Like the United States, Russia has a three- said ‘‘means we increase the time needed to trine that enshrines this idea. Russia also legged structure of nuclear forces: a triad of launch forces from the current minutes to has dropped its pledge not to be the first to land, sea and air weapons. But Russia’s triad hours, days, weeks or longer, through a vari- use nuclear weapons. may cease to exist over the next decade. ety of measures like taking the warheads off ‘‘All we have is the nuclear stick,’’ said Most likely, experts say, the long-range the missiles.’’ He added, ‘‘It would take them Lev Tolkov, a prominent Russian military bombers, which have always been the least out of play, so there is a much lower risk of strategist. ‘‘Of course, we should all together significant leg of the Russian triad, will be- their mistaken use.’’ decrease this nuclear danger. But right now, come obsolescent, leaving a diminished sub- But in Russia, there is no clear sense of di- we have nothing else. We’re naked. Can you marine fleet and land-based rocket forces to rection. If anything, analysts here said they imagine that?’’ carry the nuclear deterrent. think Russia may drift away from launch- Some Russian strategists are beginning to How far and how fast the Russian forces on-warning. This is driven by necessity: The look for an exit from the arms-race mental- decline depends on whether the now-mori- warning system is deteriorating. ‘‘Basically, ity of the Cold War, a way that would pre- bund economy can recover. But independent the shift is being made already,’’ said the serve Russia’s membership in the nuclear estimates by authoritative Russian and Kremlin defense strategist. club, perhaps even its Great Power status, Western experts show the same outcome in However, others said the change is not cer- but without the enormous drag on its re- the next 10 to 15 years—movement toward a tain. The Russian military elite was trained sources. One recent proposal is for Russia drastically reduced nuclear force. The result to think in global terms but now faces the simply to abandon the bilateral arms-control is being decided today; weapons take decades reality of becoming a second-class power at a process with the United States and go its to design and build but almost none are in time of overwhelming American superiority. way with a small, independent nuclear force. the works, and existing programs are starved Russia may be reluctant to give up the In Moscow, leading politicians and mili- for money. threat of a launch-on-warning, at least for- tary experts are also looking, nervously, not According to the estimates, Russia’s nu- mally. at the West, but at Russia’s long, sparsely clear forces are shrinking even faster than ‘‘I think there will be some kind of transi- populated southern and eastern borders, to- the START II treaty will require. The trea- tion period, 10 to 15 years,’’ said Anatoly ward China and the Islamic world, where ty, which called for both sides to have be- Diakov, director of the Center for Arms Con- they see the real future threats to Russian tween 3,500 and 3,000 warheads, was signed trol, Energy and Environmental Studies interests. five years ago but has yet to be ratified by here. ‘‘Russia will save the opportunity to In the West, too, the decline of Russia’s the lower house of the Russian parliament, return to launch-on-warning, just in case. strategic forces could have serious repercus- the State Duma. This is some kind of hedge against adverse sions, raising questions about sizes and pos- Even more striking, Russian and Western developments. But the main priority will be ture of U.S. forces. Some see it as a chance specialists now estimate that, if the econ- a transition from launch-on-warning to a re- for the United States to pursue still-deeper omy remains flat, Russia probably cannot taliatory’’ posture. cuts in nuclear weapons, including a new even sustain the level of nuclear weapons en- Asked whether Russia should give up strategic arms agreement, that would keep visioned just a year ago for a follow-on trea- launch-on-warning, Dvorkin said, ‘‘On even Washington and Moscow at approximate bal- ty, START III. In a meeting at Helsinki last March 17, 1998 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE S2103 March, Clinton and Yeltsin set the target for Russia has only six Blackjacks, built in be ‘‘senseless from the military point of view this treaty as 2,000 to 2,500 warheads on each 1991, currently deployed at the Engels air and impossible from the economic point of side. Both treaties would be implemented by base in the Volga region, but a Russian mili- view,’’ Said Vladimir Dvorkin, director of 2007 but warheads would be deactivated by tary source said only four of them are com- the 4th Central Research Institute, the once- 2003. bat-ready. There are a few more Blackjacks secret think tank for the Russian rocket More likely, Russian and Western special- partially finished or being used as trainers. forces. ists said, Russia will wind up with an arsenal Russia also has a fleet of older Tu–95 Bear A BRICK WALL OF OBSOLESCENCE of 1,000 to 1,500 warheads a decade from now. bombers. If START II is not ratified, the Russian However, it could fall to half that if the Russia’s submarine fleet is the least vul- missile forces will nonetheless hit a brick economy does not recover. That would put nerable leg of the strategic triad—while the Russia in a league with China, which is esti- wall of obsolescence in the next decade. Gen. submarines are hidden under the ocean. But Vladimir Yakovlev, chief of the strategic mated to have 400 warheads today—or rough- the navy is also in trouble. A.D. Baker III, ly equivalent to the total by Britain, with rocket forces, said recently that 62 percent editor of Combat Fleets of the World, said of Russia’s missiles are already beyond their 260, and France, with 440. that at the present rate of decline, Russia’s Volkov, the Russian military analyst, re- guaranteed service life. For the Russian strategic-missile submarine fleet ‘‘will be military, this is often flexible. But there are cently estimated that even with robust eco- virtually extinct within a decade.’’ At the nomic growth, Russia will have only 700 war- serious problems: As the factories that made end of 1997, he said, for the first time since the missiles grind to a halt, and the workers heads a decade from now. Sergei Kortunov, a the 1930s, the Russian navy had fewer oper- top Kremlin defense aide, has written that and designers leave for other jobs, the prob- ational submarines of all types than did the lem of maintenance becomes acute. Scav- ‘‘with a lot of effort’’ Russia might reach U.S. Navy. 1,000 warheads by 2015. enging for spare parts is common. Of 62 strategic submarines deployed by the ‘‘They have to decide,’’ said a Western dip- By contrast, according to the Natural Re- Soviet Union in 1990, the Russian navy cur- sources Defense Council in Washington, the lomat, ‘‘what is the risk? And, what choice rently has only 28, and by some recent re- do they have?’’ Soviet Union in 1990 had 10,779 strategic nu- ports, as few as 23 are operational. Most of clear warheads. (This does not include the The Russian military has repeatedly test- the rest have been junked or are waiting to fired old rockets to see if they still work. estimated 6,000 to 13,000 nonstrategic, small- be. er nuclear charges Russia also still pos- They usually hit their targets. But last At a peak of the Cold War tensions, 20 to 22 spring, according to one source, when a Ty- sesses, which have never been covered by submarines were at sea. Today, there are arms control treaties.) phoon attempted to fire 20 older rockets as usually two, and they do not go far. part of a destruction routine, only 19 mis- The U.S. strategic forces are relatively One of the fearsome symbols of Soviet siles came out. One failed to launch. modern. The land-based Minuteman missiles, power was the Typhoon, the largest sub- Trident submarines and B–52 bombers are ex- Volkov said: ‘‘Everything ends. In 22 or 23 marine ever built—each accommodating 20 years, a moment comes when everything pected to remain in service for a long-time. missiles with 10 warheads apiece. The six Ty- Gen. Eugene Habiger, commander of the U.S. starts to collapse or fall apart. Each piece of phoons completed between 1980 and 1989 equipment has a moment when the construc- strategic forces, said recently, ‘‘I do not see could, in the event of a nuclear attack, send the United States even thinking about hav- tion simply get old. You can change the 1,200 nuclear warheads aloft. equipment, you can change small things. But ing to modernize any of our forces until the But today only half the Typhoons are when the silo, the container, the body of the year 2020.’’ working. Three of the huge boats have been missile, when they are corroded, fungus eats NUCLEAR-AGE ‘‘GRAVEYARDS’’ taken out of service. A new missile planned through the metal, things start to grow on Boris Yeltsin has always been unpredict- for them has yet to materialize, and it is un- it—God knows what.’’ able while abroad, and last Dec. 2 he popped clear whether they will ever sail again. Dvorkin said there is an expensive, labor- Russia started construction in November another surprise. On a visit to Stockholm, he intensive drive to stretch out missile-service 1996 on a new generation of strategic sub- declared: ‘‘I am here making public for the life. ‘‘But of course, we can’t hope that we marine, the Borey class, at the Severodvinsk first time that we, in a unilateral manner, can do it endlessly,’’ he said. ‘‘Not a single shipyard in the north. But according to are reducing by another third the number of builder or scientist can tell you right now Baker, only 1 percent of the first submarine nuclear warheads.’’ how long we can extend it. ‘‘He added that Yeltsin’s press secretary, Sergei has been completed in 15 months of work, eventually it becomes more costly to fix the Yastrzhembsky, said he was referring to a and the new missile planned for it has failed rockets than to buy new ones. future START III arms control treaty with four times. The Strategic Rocket Forces are already In addition to preserving its strategic sub- the United States. But later back in Moscow, struggling to deploy a new missile, the marine fleet, the navy is facing other press- a senior Russian defense strategist shook his three-stage Topol-M, to be the core of Rus- ing financial obligations. One of the most head at Yastrzhembsky’s explanation. sia’s future deterrent. That missile, both ‘‘To tell you the truth, I was bewildered,’’ persistent headaches is that submarines have road-mobile and silo-based, is built entirely he said. Yeltsin’s comment captured per- a service life of 25 to 30 years, but most un- within Russia and designers have said its fectly what is happening to Russian strate- dergo an interim overhaul every seven or payload contains still-secret means for slip- gic forces, he added. eight years. For lack of financing for these The decline was set in motion by the ping through antimissile defenses. repairs, many vessels are being retired early. The main question about the Topol-M is START I treaty, now being implemented. So far, 152 submarines have been retired of- not so much technology as money and time. Russia has made cuts mostly by eliminating ficially and more are unofficially in line to In December, the first two rockets were in- missiles it inherited from Belarus, Ukraine be retired. A huge backlog of nuclear-pow- stalled in an old SS–19 silo near Saratov, on and Kazakhstan. Looming are deeper cuts in ered vessels awaiting dismantling is building the Volga River. Yakovlev said Russia hopes the forces now inside Russia, mandated by up in the Northern and Far Eastern ports, to deploy 10 missiles this year, but needs an- START II. But even more important than which environmentalists and others have other $600 million before production can the treaties, the ebb of Russia’s strategic warned has the potential for a naval disaster start. In the Soviet era, the Votkinsk fac- forces is being driven by a simple fact: They similar to that at the Chernobyl nuclear tory, which builds the missiles in the central are running out of steam, out of money, and power plant in 1986. Urals mountains, made about 80 rockets a out of time. ‘‘We have whole graveyards of nuclear year. But now there are doubts about wheth- For example, in its 1989 report on Soviet weapons and we don’t know what to do with er Russia can afford just 10 a year. military power, the Pentagon warned about them,’’ Said Georgi Arbatov, a prominent the deployment of the Blackjack bomber, strategist and adviser to Soviet leaders. LOOKING FOR AN EXIT the Russian supersonic Tu–160. With low- The core of Russian strategic forces is the For Russian strategic planners, the choices mounted, swept-back wings and a long point- land-based, continent-spanning missiles. But are painful. The Cold War is over but its im- ed nose, the plane was the most powerful the clock is ticking for them, too. mense and destructive hardware remains in combat aircraft in the Soviet air force, and Most of the missiles built in the 1970s and place. Russia hungers for global prestige; was deployed with nuclear-armed AS–15 ’80s are due to be retired or decommissioned many see the nuclear arsenal as its last re- cruise missiles. Although the Soviet Union if the START II treaty is ratified. This in- maining calling card as a great power. But had planned to build 100 Blackjacks, only 25 cludes the 10-warhead ‘‘heavy’’ missile, the Russia can’t afford to sustain it any longer. were deployed. They had many malfunctions, SS–18, which embodied the destabilizing Some prominent military and political an- but the biggest problem came on the day the threat of multiple-warhead missiles. Russia’s alysts have begun to talk about finding a Soviet Union fell apart: Most of the force of SS–19 six-warhead missiles would way out of the cocked-trigger nuclear em- Blackjacks were not in Russia. also be reduced, and fixed with only one war- brace with the United States, if only because Nineteen Blackjack bombers were parked head each. The abolition of multiple war- Russia’s dwindling forces demand it. in Ukraine, where they remain. Years of ne- heads was the chief accomplishment of the ‘‘The model of nuclear deterrence that ex- gotiation between Russia and Ukraine for re- START II treaty. isted during the Cold War must of course be purchase of the bombers by Russia have gone Some Russian politicians have threatened radically changed,’’ Dvorkin said, ‘‘since it is nowhere. According to Jane’s Intelligence that Moscow could return to multiple-war- senseless right now to deter the United Review, the planes have practically lost head missiles if it had to, but military ex- States from an attack, nuclear or conven- their combat value. perts pour cold water on the idea. It would tional, on Russia.’’ S2104 CONGRESSIONAL RECORD — SENATE March 17, 1998 Sergei Rogov, director of the USA-Canada RUSSIAN OPERATIONAL STRATEGIC NUCLEAR FORCES, families exposed to devastating finan- Institute and a leading strategic analyst, 1998—Continued cial risks because of exclusions for said Russia and the United States have set- such conditions. Other families faced tled their long ideological struggle, but not NATO No. Range Total the same problems if their employers even begun to wind down the nuclear threat. Type designation de- Year (miles) war- The 1994 agreement by Clinton and Yeltsin ployed heads changed insurance plans. Still others were unable to buy individual coverage that missiles will not be targeted at each Tu–95M ...... Bear H16 ...... 35 1984 7,953 560 other was ‘‘a step back from this trigger- Tu–160 ...... Blackjack ...... 6 1987 6,835 72 because of health problems if they left happy situation,’’ he said, but it was ‘‘a gim- Intercontinental bal- their job or lost their job and did not listic missiles: mick, because it’s reversible in one or two SS–18 ...... Satan ...... 180 1979 6,835 1,800 have access to employer-based cov- minutes.’’ In fact, according to a Russian SS–19 ...... Stiletto ...... 165 1980 6,214 990 erage. specialist, the Russian missiles can be re-tar- SS–24 ...... M1/M2 Scalpel 36/10 1987 6,214 460 SS–25 ...... Sickle ...... 360 1985 6,524 360 The legislation addressed each of geted in 10 to 15 seconds. Sea-launched ballis- Rogov said both countries still preserve in- tic missiles: these problems. It banned exclusions tact the doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruc- SS–N–18 ...... M1 Stingray ... 192 1978 4,039 576 for pre-existing conditions for people tion, a Cold War legacy under which both SS–N–20 ...... Sturgeon ...... 80 1983 5,157 800 SS–N–23 ...... Skiff ...... 112 1986 5,592 448 who maintained coverage, even if they sides threaten to respond to an attack by Total ...... 1,205 ...... 6,240 wreaking massive damage on the other. changed jobs or changed insurers. It re- ‘‘You don’t threaten your ‘strategic partner’ Source: ‘‘Taking Stock, Worldwide Nuclear Deployments, 1998,’’ by William quired insurance companies to sell in- Arkin, Robert S. Norris and Joshua Handler, Natural Resources Defense surance policies to small businesses with assured destruction 24 hours a day,’’ Council, 1998. Rogov said, ‘‘We need to abandon the Mutual and individuals losing group coverage, Assured Destruction conditions with the RUSSIAN SUBMARINE PATROLS PER YEAR, 1991–96 regardless of their health status. It United States.’’ banned higher charges for those in poor But the traditional arms control process is 1991 ...... 55 health in employment-based groups. at an impasse. The Duma has refused to rat- 1992 ...... 37 ify the START II agreement. Without it, the 1993 ...... 32 A GAO study in 1995 had found that United States has refused to begin formal ne- 1994 ...... 33 25 million Americans faced one or more gotiations on deeper cuts in a START III 1995 ...... 27 of these problems and would be helped treaty. Many of Russia’s top military strate- 1996 ...... 26 by the Kassebaum-Kennedy proposal. gists are eager to move ahead with deeper, Source: U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence, released under FOIA to Princeton For the vast majority of these Ameri- joint reductions that would match the loom- Center for Energy and Environmental Studies. ing obsolescence of their forces. cans, the legislation is working well. At the same time, there is a new line of Mr. ROBERTS. I yield the floor. They can change jobs without fear of thinking that Russia should abandon bilat- Mr. KENNEDY addressed the Chair. new exclusions for pre-existing condi- eral negotiations with the United States and The PRESIDING OFFICER. The Sen- tions, denial of coverage, or insurance instead create a small and ‘‘sufficient’’ nu- ator from Massachusetts is recognized. company gouging. clear force, not unlike France’s independent Mr. KENNEDY. I thank the Chair. nuclear posture. (The remarks of Mr. KENNEDY per- But as the GAO study makes clear, In an article just published in a Russian taining to the introduction of S. 1789 many of the two million people a year academic journal, Kremlin defense aide are located in today’s RECORD under who lose employer-based group cov- Kortunov and Vladimir Bogomolov, of the erage are vulnerable to flagrant indus- rocket forces, suggested Russia keep an inde- ‘‘Statements on Introduced Bills and pendent force of 1,000 warheads. They argued Joint Resolutions.’’) try price-gouging if they try to pur- that this would ‘‘allow Russia to choose and f chase individual coverage. adopt her own nuclear strategy.’’ They said IMPLEMENTATION OF KASSE- When the 1996 act was moving Russia could do this unilaterally and ‘‘there through Congress, Democrats sought to will be no need for new talks’’ with the BAUM-KENNEDY HEALTH INSUR- ANCE REFORM LEGISLATION place clear federal limits on these pre- United States. miums for individual coverage. The Re- Among Russia’s military and political Mr. KENNEDY. Mr. President, a re- publican majority in Congress and the elite there is also a strong consensus that cent GAO report makes clear that sig- insurance companies refused to com- the West is no longer Russia’s strategic ad- nificant insurance company abuses are versary—and that the nuclear face-off is bur- promise on this issue—and restrictions undercutting the effectiveness of one of densome, diverting resources from other real on price-gouging were largely left to the key parts of the Kassebaum-Ken- problems. Many have concluded that Russia, state law. Many States have put limits nedy health insurance reforms enacted with a long, sparsely populated southern bor- on such premiums, or enacted special der, needs to deter potential threats from in 1996. group coverage for high-risk persons. the south and east—from the Islamic world President Clinton announced today and China—over the coming decade. that he has called for vigorous enforce- But too many states have failed to ‘‘I don’t think Russia will have to worry ment against companies that are vio- act effectively to prevent abuse. In ad- about its western borders,’’ said a top Krem- dition to price-gouging, some compa- lin security specialist. ‘‘This will give us lating the law. But it is abundantly more time to pay attention to the southern clear that additional action by Con- nies have encouraged insurance agents borders.’’ gress is needed to end the worst to refuse to sell policies to individuals RUSSIA’S DWINDLING ARSENAL—RUSSIAN abuse—price-gouging by the insurance and imposed long waiting periods for STRATEGIC WEAPONS, 1990-2012 industry. I intend to introduce legisla- coverage of particular illnesses and The level of Russia’s forces could change tion this week to block that irrespon- other unacceptable practices. depending on the country’s economy and sible practice. The verdict of experience is in. The how Russia decides to structure its forces. Individuals who lose their group cov- GAO report makes clear that insurance These estimates for future years are based erage and attempt to obtain individual on interviews by The Washington Post with companies are guilty of abuse beyond a Russian and Western experts. Levels will be coverage are being charged exorbitant reasonable doubt, and Congress has to even lower if the Russian economy does not premiums by insurance companies. We act. recover. recognized that potential problem in 1996, but Republican opposition blocked f TOTAL WARHEADS any Federal role in preventing such abuse, on the ground that state regula- COVERDELL TAX BILL 1990 ...... 10,779 tion would be an adequate remedy. As 1997 ...... 6,260 Mr. KENNEDY. Mr. President, on the 2007 ...... 1,200 the GAO report makes clear, state reg- 2012 ...... 700 ulation is no match for insurance in- issue that is before us, which is basi- Start-2 level ...... 3,500 dustry price-gouging. cally the Coverdell education proposal, Start-3 level ...... 2,000–2,500 The 1996 legislation was enacted in I will take a few moments of the Sen- response to several serious problems. ate’s time to express my strong res- RUSSIAN OPERATIONAL STRATEGIC NUCLEAR FORCES, Large numbers of Americans felt ervations in opposition to the proposal, 1998 locked into their jobs because of pre- and I will outline the reasons why. existing health conditions which would Public schools need help—and this No. Total Type NATO de- Year Range war- have subjected them to exclusions cov- ‘‘do-nothing’’ bill doesn’t even get us designation ployed (miles) heads erage if they changed jobs. to the front door. In fact, it goes in the Bombers: Many more who did change jobs opposite direction, by earmarking most Tu–95M ...... Bear–H6 ...... 29 1984 7,953 174 found themselves and members of their of its aid to go to private schools.