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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Anthropocene
jo urnal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ancene
Changing human–landscape interactions after development of
tourism in the northern Vietnamese Highlands
a,b,d, a b
Huong Thi Thu Hoang *, Veerle Vanacker , Anton Van Rompaey ,
c d
Kim Chi Vu , An Thinh Nguyen
a
Earth and Life Institute, Georges Lemaıˆtre Center for Earth and Climate Research, Universite´ Catholique de Louvain, Place L. Pasteur 3, Bte L4.03.08,
Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
b
Division of Geography, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, K.U. Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200 E, bus 2409, B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium
c
Institute of Vietnamese studies and Development sciences, VNU, 336 Nguyen Trai street, Thanh Xuan district, Hanoi, Viet Nam
d
Faculty of Geography, Hanoi University of Sciences, VNU, 334 Nguyen Trai street, Thanh Xuan district, Hanoi, Viet Nam
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: In developing countries in tropical regions, the poorest segments of the rural population often rely on
Received 16 January 2014
forests for survival. The creation of off-farm jobs in the tourism sector, construction or manufacturing
Received in revised form 7 August 2014
has been suggested as a potential way to alleviate pressure on tropical forests. Using Sa Pa district as a
Accepted 27 August 2014
case study, we evaluated the coupling of human and forest dynamics. The district was opened for
Available online xxx
international tourism in 1993, which had a large impact on daily life in Sa Pa town and its surrounding
communities. Analysis of land cover change for the period 1993–2014, using high-resolution satellite
Keywords:
images from three timeperiods and an analysis of covariance, detected possible associations between
Coupled human–environmental changes
forest cover change and socio-economic, cultural and biophysical variables at the village level. Between
Tourism development
Ethnicity 1993 and 2006, Sa Pa district experienced a net decrease of forest in favour of arable land, while this
Land use pressure trend was reversed in the period 2006–2014. However, trends at district level mask substantial
Forest transition heterogeneity at village level. Results show that deforestation is considerably lower in villages that are
Northern Vietnam strongly involved in tourism activities. Marginal agricultural fields with low productivity are also
preferentially abandoned. Because of diversification in alternative economic activities, rural households
may become less dependent on natural resources and agricultural products for their survival. These
results suggest that the creation of off-farm income sources activities can be a driver of shifts in human–
environment interactions, as new livelihood strategies can offset the pressure on forested land.
ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction dynamics are diverse. In some countries, such as the Philippines or
Cambodia, the deforestation rate is much higher than the
Many tropical areas worldwide are characterized by high rates Southeast Asian average; while in other countries, such as
of deforestation. According to Lambin and Geist (2003), one-third Vietnam, the start of a forest transition is reported (FAO, 2006;
of the humid forest in Southeast Asia was cleared between the Meyfroidt and Lambin, 2008b). Forest transition is defined by a
beginning of the twentieth century and World War II. The decline reversal of the trend of deforestation so that net reforestation
in forest cover continued after the 1950s. Presently, forests cover occurs (Meyfroidt and Lambin, 2008b). Causes of tropical
46–48% of the land surface in Southeast Asia, but less than 10% of deforestation and forest transition are still poorly understood,
the primary tropical rainforest is preserved (FAO, 2010; Dong et al., and are the scope of ongoing research programmes. Deforestation
2012). Recent deforestation rates for this region are assessed at and reforestation patterns are linked to multiple biophysical and
1.5% per year (FAO, 2006; Grainger, 2008). Nevertheless, forest socio-economic variables such as ethnicity (Castella et al., 2005; Vu
et al., 2013), land tenure (Mottet et al., 2006), increasing demand
for food production (Zhang, 2000; Geist and Lambin, 2001; Casse
et al., 2004; Meyfroidt and Lambin, 2008a), poverty (Hobbs, 2001;
* Corresponding author at: Earth and Life Institute, Georges Lemaıˆtre Center for
Adams et al., 2004; Dasgupta et al., 2005; Robinson, 2006; Zwane,
Earth and Climate Research, Universite´ Catholique de Louvain, Place L. Pasteur 3, Bte
2007), soil fertility (Szillassi et al., 2010; Vanacker et al., 2014), and
L4.03.08, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium. Tel.: +32 494694385; fax: +32 16322980.
accessibility (Koning, 2000; Castella et al., 2005; Etter et al., 2006;
E-mail addresses: [email protected],
[email protected] (H.T.T. Hoang). Van Dessel et al., 2008).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
2213-3054/ß 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Hoang, H.T.T., et al., Changing human–landscape interactions after development of tourism in the
northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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2 H.T.T. Hoang et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
In rural areas in developing countries, the poorest segments of Study area
the population often rely on forests for survival (Tugault-Lafleur,
2007; Coulibaly-Lingani et al., 2009). The use of forest products Sa Pa district is located in Northern Vietnam (Fig. 1) and covers
2
allows livelihood diversification, but may lead to forest degrada- an area of ca. 680 km . It has a total of 55,900 inhabitants (GSO,
tion and/or net deforestation when it is not controlled (Jadin et al., 2010) living in 17 communes and its administrative centre, Sa Pa
2013). The Vietnamese mountain areas are dominantly populated town. The district is considered as a gateway to the northern
by ethnic minorities that speak local languages and still adopt a Vietnamese Highlands. The topography is rough, with an elevation
traditional livelihood based on self-subsistence farming (Fox et al., of 180 m in the Muong Hoa valley and up to 3143 m at the Fansipan
2000; Tugault-Lafleur, 2007). These minorities often live in peak (highest elevation in Vietnam, located within Hoang Lien
relatively isolated conditions and do not fully participate in the National Park). The major rivers are the Muong Hoa and Ta Trung
major economic transformation of Vietnam that is taking place in Ho River that flow in the Red River nearby Lao Cai. The region is
the lowlands. The livelihood of these local people strongly depends characterized by a sub-tropical and temperate climate with an
on the available natural resources because of a lack of infrastruc- annual rainfall of 2763 mm (Frontier Vietnam, 1999).
ture and education that would allow them to participated in Sa Pa district is home to 6 major ethnic groups: the Hmong, the
market-oriented activities (Frontier Vietnam, 1997). During past Yao, the Ta`y, the Gia´y, the Xa Pho and the Kinh. The Ta`y occupied
decades, the scarcity of arable land coupled with population the fertile valleys and middle altitudes. The other ethnic groups
growth has led to increasing pressure on forests (Burgess and such as the Hmong and Yao entered Northern Vietnam only in the
Barbier, 2001). Exploitation of forest resources by ethnic minori- 19th century (Michaud and Turner, 2006), and settled on steep
ties, responding to socio-economic pressures, is generally thought forested slopes generally above 800 m. Before 1960s, there were
to be the cause of rapid forest degradation and/or deforestation in only a few Kinh lowlanders living in Sa Pa town as the surveillance
Southeast Asia (Fox et al., 2000; Geist and Lambin, 2001). Studies and maintenance staffs of French military (Michaud and Turner,
by Jodha (1998), Ravnborg (2003), Scherr (2000) and Jadin et al. 2006). From 1960s onwards, Kinh migrated to Sa Pa district as this
(2013), however, showed that deforestation is not necessarily was stimulated by the New Economic Zone Policy of the national
associated with poverty. government (Michaud and Turner, 2000, 2006). The Kinh were
The creation of off-farm jobs has been suggested as a potential mainly involved in administration, tourism, and education and
way to alleviate pressures on tropical forests (Mather, 1992; Rudel settled in the district’s capital, while most of the other ethnic
et al., 2005; Getahun et al., 2013; Teka-Belay et al., 2013). Off-farm groups practiced different types of subsistence agriculture mostly
jobs are often created by economic development of urban areas in the form of shifting cultivation (Tugault-Lafleur, 2007). Apart
resulting in rural–urban migrations (Vanegas and Henry, 2012; from the shifting cultivation, ethnic minorities also used to
Vermeiren et al., 2012). Development of tourism activities in rural cultivate opium and collect forest products for their survival
areas has also been suggested as a viable means to offset pressures (Michaud and Turner, 2000; Sowerwine, 2004b; Turner, 2012),
on forests (Garcı´a-Martı´nez et al., 2011; Nyaupane and Poudel, which could have contributed to past forest clearance. Today, the
2011). When rural households can generate additional income ethnic groups cultivate water rice on permanent terraced paddy
from tourism activities, abandonment of low-productive farmland fields; maize and other crops on upland fields (Leisz et al., 2004;
and spontaneous establishment of secondary forest on former Turner, 2011). Terraced paddy fields were first introduced by the
agricultural plots may result. Dong et al. (2008) supported this Hmong and Yao who migrated from southern China to northern
hypothesis based on a case-study in Lugu lake (China). Job and Vietnam during the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Michaud,
Paesler (2013) also described how the intensification of tourism in 1997). Additionally, many households cultivate cardamom
Wasini (Kenya) has led to less intensive land use for agricultural (Amomum aromaticum) under forest cover as a substitute cash
purposes, eventually resulting in a decrease of farmland and an crop, after the ban on opium in 1992 (Tugault-Lafleur and Turner,
increase of the forest area. Nevertheless, this hypothesis has been 2009; Turner, 2011).
challenged by other studies suggesting that tourism activities Because of its scenic landscape and presence of five ethnic
stimulate deforestation and forest degradation. Research by groups with their traditional way of living, Sa Pa is considered as
Forsyth (1995) in northern Thailand showed that the growth of one of the most attractive tourism areas in Vietnam. The Hoang
the tourism sector did not decrease agricultural pressure on forests Lien Mountains comprise probably the last remnants of native
and soil resources because households invested their income from forest of the northern Vietnamese highlands. It became one of the
tourism in the expansion of arable fields and increasing frequency first areas recognized as a ‘special use forest’ in Vietnam, and it was
of cultivation by hiring external labour. Additionally, Gaughan converted into the Hoang Lien National Park (HLNP) in July 2002
et al. (2009) showed that the increased number of visitors to the following the Prime Minister’s Decision 90/2002/QD-TTg to protect
archaeological sites of Angkor Kwat in Cambodia accelerated biodiversity by preserving the subtropical and temperate forest
deforestation in the Angkor basin. The deforestation occurred due ecosystems (Le, 2004; Jadin et al., 2013). Already under the French
to increased charcoal production for new restaurants and hotels, Regime (1887–1940), Sa Pa district was a well-known holiday and
which required wood products from forests. In the coastal areas of relaxation resort (Michaud and Turner, 2006). Northern Vietnam
Hainan Island (Southern China) and the Mediterranean (Turkey), suffered a lot under the first Indochina war (1945–1954). The town
Wang and Liu (2013) and Atik et al. (2010) respectively indicated sunk into oblivion, as a large part of the population of Sa Pa town
that tourism development led to a rapid increase of the built-up area. fled away from the hostilities. In the early 1960s, in the framework
These activities resulted in a decrease of agricultural land and coastal of the New Economic Zones Policy, migration schemes were
forest, causing landscape fragmentation and coastal erosion. designed by the new socialist regime that stimulated the
In this study, we evaluate possible changes in the human– Vietnamese Kinh from the lowlands to populate the northern
environment interactions after the development of tourism Vietnamese Highlands (Hardy, 2005). The decision of the national
activities. Using Sa Pa district in the northern Vietnamese government to open Sa Pa district for international tourism in 1993
Highlands as a test case, we addressed the following questions: had a large impact on daily life in Sa Pa town and its surrounding
First, how has forest cover changed in the period between 1993 and communities. The number of domestic and international visitors
2014? Second, how does forest cover change relate to tourism increased exponentially from 16,100 in 1995 to 405,000 in 2009
development? Third, what are the likely impacts of the changing (GSO, 1995, 2010) (Fig. 1). Tourism is now the most important
human–landscape relationships on local livelihoods? economic activity in the area, and it generated 58% of Sa Pa
Please cite this article in press as: Hoang, H.T.T., et al., Changing human–landscape interactions after development of tourism in the
northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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Fig. 1. Location of Sa Pa district, with graph on the evolution and distribution of tourist visits.
district’s GDP in 2010 (GSO, 2010). The poverty rate in Sa Pa district and the semi-empirical topographic correction implemented
decreased gradually from 36% in 2000 to 21% in 2009 (GSO, 2000, in ATCOR2/3 (Richter, 2011; Balthazar et al., 2012). Then, a
2010). Local inhabitants that potentially benefit from tourism supervised maximum likelihood classification was carried out to
activities are hotel and restaurant owners and shopkeepers in Sa Pa map the following 5 land cover categories (Fig. 2): forest, shrub,
town; tour guides, traditional craft sellers from the rural villages arable land, water body and urban area. Spectral signatures for the
and farming households that offer rooms for homestays. The different land cover types were identified by delineating training
tourism infrastructure is dominantly controlled by the Kinh areas on the basis of field work carried out in 2010 (Fig. 5).
majority, while the other minorities mainly deliver labour force The accuracy of the land cover maps was assessed by comparing
to run the tourism industry. the classified land cover with visual interpretations of very high
resolution remote sensing data. For 1993, the comparison was
Materials and methods done with aerial photographs (MONRE, 1993); for 2006 with a
VHR-SPOT4 image (MONRE, 2006) and for 2014 with a VHR-SPOT5
Mapping land cover and land cover changes image (MONRE, 2012). Random sampling of validation points was
done with n = 219 for the 1993 map, n = 315 for the 2006 map, and
In order to evaluate the potential impact of tourism activities on n = 306 for the 2014 map. The number of sample points per land
forest cover in Sa Pa, three land cover maps were compiled based cover class varied from 3 to 111, depending on the areal cover of
on LANDSAT images available from the U.S. Geological Survey the classes. For all randomly selected points, the land cover was
archives (http://glovis.usgs.gov). One LANDSAT-patch (path/row compared with the classified land cover. This comparison allowed
128/45) covers the whole Sa Pa district with a resolution of 30 m by to assess the overall accuracy, quantity disagreement and
30 m. The Landsat images date from Feb 1, 1993 (just after the allocation disagreement (in %) following the procedures described
opening for international tourism), Nov 4, 2006 (midst of the by Pontius and Millones (2011).
evaluation period) and Jan 02, 2014 (current state). All images In order to analyze land cover change trajectories over 3
were taken in the post-harvest period when the arable fields are timeperiods, the change trajectories were grouped in 6 classes: (1)
bare. All Landsat images in the freely available USGS archive are deforestation (change from any class of forest to non-forest), (2)
orthorectified with precision terrain correction level L1T reforestation (change from non-forest to forest), (3) land aban-
(Vanonckelen et al., 2013). All images were then corrected for donment (change from agricultural land to shrub or forest), (4)
atmospheric and topographic effects using the MODTRAN-4 code expansion of arable land (conversion from shrub to arable land), (5)
Please cite this article in press as: Hoang, H.T.T., et al., Changing human–landscape interactions after development of tourism in the
northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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Fig. 2. Land cover maps derived from Landsat images for(A) 1993, (B) 2006, (C) 2014 and (D) proportions of the main land cover classes in 1993, 2006, 2014.
other changes, and (6) no change (Table 1). The original classes
‘water body’ and ‘urban area’ that only occupy a minor fraction of
Table 1
the land were not taken into consideration. A major challenge in Land cover change trajectories and their descriptions for period 1993–2014.
mapping land cover change is the detection of permanent land
Order Land cover change Category Change trajectory
abandonment in shifting cultivation systems in which fields are
1993 2006 2014
regularly taken out of production for a short time span only.
Therefore in this study we defined land abandonment as a 1 Deforestation F-F-A Forest Forest Arable land
transition from agricultural land (observed in 1993) to natural F-F-S Forest Forest Shrubs
F-A-A Forest Arable land Arable land
regrowth of shrub (observed in 2006) on condition that the parcel
F-A-S Forest Arable land Shrubs
was not taken again in production in 2014. Pixels with observed
F-S-A Forest Shrubs Arable land
transitions such as A-A-S and A-A-F (Table 1) of which it is not sure F-S-S Forest Shrubs Shrubs
that they are permanently abandoned were classified into the
2 Reforestation A-F-F Arable land Forest Forest
group ‘Other change’
S-F-F Shrubs Forest Forest
S-S-F Shrubs Shrubs Forest
Analysis of the controls on land cover change patterns
3 Land abandonment A-S-S Arable land Shrubs Shrubs
A-S-F Arable land Shrubs Forest
In order to understand the observed land cover change patterns,
4 Arable land expansion S-S-A Shrubs Shrubs Arable land
socio-economic and biophysical data were collected at the level of
S-A-A Shrubs Arable land Arable land
villages. In Sa Pa district, the majority of the ethnic groups lives in
S-F-A Shrubs Forest Arable land
ethnically homogeneous villages (ban:or thoˆn in Vietnamese). Only
5 Other change A-A-S, A-F-S, A-F-A, S-A-S, A-S-A, S-F-S, F-A-F,
4 of the 85 villages are inhabited by multiple ethnic groups, and
F-S-F, S-A-F, A-A-F
they are typically located in the commune (xa˜) centres. Therefore,
6 No change F-F-F, A-A-A, S-S-S
the village level is considered as the most detailed and relevant
scale level for the analysis of human–environment interactions F is forest, S is shrubs and A is arable land.
Please cite this article in press as: Hoang, H.T.T., et al., Changing human–landscape interactions after development of tourism in the
northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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Table 2
Dependent variables used for the ANCOVA analysis. All variables were averaged at the village level.
Variable Acronym Description Type Unit Source
Deforestation DEFOREST Total area of deforestation of each village divided Numerical % Landsat images 1993,
by the surface area of the village and multiply by 100 2006, 2014
Reforestation REFOREST Total area of reforestation of each village divided
by the surface area of the village and multiply by 100
Land abandonment ABANLAND Total area of land abandonment of each village divided
by the surface area of the village and multiply by 100
Expansion of arable land EXPLAND Total area of arable land expansion of each village divided
by the surface area of the village and multiply by 100
Table 3
Independent variables used for the ANCOVA analysis. All variables were collected or averaged at the village level.
Variable Acronym Description Type Unit Source
Engagement in tourism TOUR The percentage of households engaged in tourism in 2006 Numerical % Vietnam Rural, Agricultural,
Ethnic group H Hmong Categorical and Fishery Census
Y Yao conducted in 2006 with the
T Ta`y support of the World Bank
G Gia´y (GSO, 2006b)
XP Xa Pho
MIX Mixed ethnic groups
Poverty Rate PR The percentage of households under the poverty level Numerical %
of Vietnam in 2006
Cardamom cultivation CC Surface area of cardamom cultivation per household Numerical ha/hh
Population growth POPGR Population growth rate in the period 1989–2006 Numerical %/year Yearbook in 1989 and 2006
(GSO, 1989, 2006a)
Effect of preservation policy InsideNP The villages are located inside the National park Categorical Topographic maps of 2009
Outside NP The villages are located outside the National park published by Ministry of
Elevation EL Average elevation calculated at pixel-level Numerical m Natural Resources and
Slope SL Average slope calculated at pixel-level Numerical Degree Environment at the scale
Distance to roads DROAD Average of the distance to main roads calculated at pixel-level Numerical m 1:50,000. (MONRE, 2009)
Distance to rivers DRIVER Average of the distance to rivers calculated at pixel-level Numerical m
Distance to Sa Pa town DTOWN Average of the distance to Sa Pa town calculated at pixel level Numerical m
Distance to market DMARKET Average of the distance to markets calculated at pixel level Numerical m
(Castella et al., 2002). In Vietnam, however, village boundaries are Multiple regression analysis using ANCOVA (analysis of
not officially delineated because the commune is the lowest covariance) was performed to detect possible associations
administrative unit (Castella et al., 2005). Therefore, the village between land cover change, and socio-economic and biophysical
boundaries (n = 85) in Sa Pa district were delineated by means of variables at the level of individual villages which can considered as
participatory mapping following the procedure described by homogeneous units in terms of ethnicity, livelihood and biophysi-
Castella et al. (2005) and Meyfroidt (2009). Cadastral officers cal setting. ANCOVA is a widely applied technique as it allows
were offered a 1/10.000 scale colour print of the 2006 VHR-SPOT 4 evaluating the combined effect of a range of both categorical and
image (printed in true colours, 5 m resolution) and were asked to numerical predictors (Maneesha and Bajpai, 2013). ANCOVA was
draw the village borders on a transparent sheet on top. performed for each one of the four land cover change types
Tables 2 and 3 show all the variables that were collected at (deforestation, reforestation, land abandonment, and expansion
the village level. Socio-economic variables were derived from of arable land) as the dependent variable. A multicollinearity
the yearbook of 1989 and 2006, and from the Vietnam Rural, test was carried out to detect correlation between explanatory
Agricultural, and Fishery Census conducted in 2006 under the variables. Multicollinearity diagnostics were performed by
leadership of the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery calculating the Variation Inflation Factors (VIF) and the Tolerance
Statistics and the General Statistics Office with support from the (TOL). In this study, variables with VIF greater than 2 and TOL
World Bank. The original census data available at household level less than 0.6 are excluded from the analyses as proposed by
were aggregated to village level, and the following variables were Allison (1999). The final models included ethnicity and effect of
calculated: the percentage of households involved in tourism (%), preservation as categorical variables; engagement in tourism,
the ethnic group (categorical), the population growth rate (%/year), cardamom cultivation, poverty rate, population growth, slope,
the poverty rate expressed as percentage of households under the distance to rivers, distance to main road and distance to Sa Pa
national poverty threshold of 2400,000 VND/person/year and the town as numerical variables (Table 3). ANCOVA model parameters
involvement in cardamom cultivation (ha/household) (Table 3). In were estimated using XLSTAT software, and the explanatory
order to evaluate the potential effect of the land use policy inside power of the ANCOVA models was assessed by the Goodness of fit
2
and outside the National park, one more categorical variable statistics, R .
(inside/outside the park) was taken into account to examine the
effect of public policy. Six biophysical variables were firstly Results
collected at pixel level (30 Â 30 m): the elevation (m above sea
level), the slope gradient (degree), the distance to main road (m), Land cover change patterns
the distance to rivers (m), the distance to Sa Pa town (m), the
distance to nearest market (m) and were then aggregated to Fig. 2 shows the land cover maps for the years 1993, 2006 and
village level to match with the scale of socio-economic variables 2014. The overall accuracy of the land cover classification was
(Table 3). assessed at 80.0%, 86.4% and 84.6% (quantity disagreement of 5.0%,
Please cite this article in press as: Hoang, H.T.T., et al., Changing human–landscape interactions after development of tourism in the
northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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6 H.T.T. Hoang et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
2.8%, 4.4% and allocation disagreement of 15.0%, 10.8%, 11.0%) for elevations, and Ta`y are generally settled nearby the rivers in the
the land cover maps of 1993, 2006 and 2014, respectively. valleys. The villages of the Yao are situated in the peripheral areas
The land cover pattern in Sa Pa district is strongly determined in the north and south of Sa Pa district. Fig. 4A shows that the
by the topography. Valleys are generally cultivated. Steep slopes household involvement in tourism is highest in Sa Pa town (>50%).
and mountain peaks are predominantly covered by forests or Involvement in tourism in the peripheral areas is restricted to a few
shrubs. Patches of forest are concentrated on the Hoang Lien isolated villages. The poverty rate map shows that the town of Sa
mountain range in the southern part of Sa Pa district, and are also Pa and its surrounding villages are richer than the more peripheral
found on remote steep slopes. Shrubs are widely distributed, and areas. The southern part of the district is also richer because many
can be found in valleys, mountain peaks or on steep slopes. local households receive an additional income from cardamom
Between 1993 and 2014, the overall area covered by forest and cultivation under forest. Cardamom is mainly grown under trees of
arable land increased slightly (with respectively +3% and +2%) the Hoang Lien National Park in the southern part of the district.
while shrubs decreased with À5% (Fig. 2D). However, land cover The population growth is positive in the whole district and highest
changes are not linear in SaPa district, and there exist substantial in Sa Pa town and its immediate surroundings.
temporal differences. During the first period (1993–2006), the Table 4 shows the results of the ANCOVA analysis for four land
study area experienced a general trend of deforestation for cover trajectories: deforestation, reforestation, land abandonment
expansion of arable land. Between 1993 and 2006 the area covered and expansion of arable land. The explanatory power of the
2
by forest decreased by À1% while arable land increased by +4%, ANCOVA models is assessed by the R values (Table 4). Between 55
respectively. The deforestation tendency seems to be reversed and 72% of the variance in land cover change is explained by the
after 2006 in Sa Pa district. The area covered by forests increased by selected predictors. Land cover change is controlled by a
+4% while arable land decreased by À2% between 2006 and 2014. combination of biophysical and socio-economical factors. Forests
The area covered by shrubs decreased continuously between 1993 are typically better preserved in villages with poor accessibility
and 2014. A forest transition could be observed in the study area as (steep slopes, far from main roads, and poor market access), and a
a shift from a net deforestation to a net reforestation, and it low or negative population growth. The influence of environmental
occurred at the mid of the 2000s. and demographic drivers on forest cover change has previously
Fig. 3 shows the spatial pattern of land cover change between been described for other areas of frontier colonization (Castella
1993 and 2014. Most of the deforestation took place in the et al., 2005; Hietel et al., 2005; Getahun et al., 2013; Vu et al., 2013).
northern and southeastern part of the district which can be Table 4 shows that household involvement in tourism is
explained by the fact that forests in the southwestern part are negatively associated with deforestation and positively with land
mainly situated within the Hoang Lien National Park. According to abandonment. When the involvement of households in tourism
the national law, farmland expansion is forbidden within national activities increased with 10%, deforestation is predicted to have
parks. Nevertheless, some forest loss can be observed which is decreased with resp. 0.61% and land abandonment to have
probably due to forest fires and illegal logging. increased with 0.45%. Deforestation is higher in villages in the
north and southeast of Sa Pa district, that are located at greater
Description of the predictors of land cover change distance from the tourism centre. Land abandonment is mostly
observed in Sa Pa town and in the communes of Ta Phin, San Sa Ho,
Fig. 4 shows the spatial pattern of the independent variables Lao Chai, Ta Van and Ban Ho (Figs. 1 and 3). In some villages (Sa Pa
that were evaluated in this study. It is clear that Kinh people are town; Ta Chai village, belonging to Ta Phin commune; Ly Lao Chai
living in Sa Pa town, while Hmong and Ta`y ethnic groups occupy village, belonging to Lao Chai commune and Hoang Lien village,
the rural area. Hmong ethnic groups are settled on higher belonging to Ban Ho commune), more than 8% of the surface area
was abandoned between 1993 and 2014. Over the period 1995–
2009, the number of tourists in Sa Pa district has increased by 25
times (Fig. 1). Given the current economic policy, it is expected that
Table 4
The results of ANCOVA at village level (85 villages). Only the controlling factors that
are retained at a 10% significance level are listed.
LCC categories Controlling Value Standard Pr > |t| Goodness
factors deviation of fit of 2
model (R )
Deforestation SL À0.494 0.148 0.001 0.59
TOUR À0.061 0.065 0.034
POPGR 1.543 0.723 0.036
CC À0.975 1.141 0.100
a
Inside NP À4.985 1.802 0.007
Reforestation SL 0.356 0.191 0.067 0.55
a
Inside NP À6.183 2.304 0.009
Land abandonment DRIVER 0.003 0.001 0.039 0.63
TOUR 0.045 0.029 0.093
a
Inside NP À1.567 0.688 0.026
b
Ethnic-MIX 2.443 0.998 0.017
Expansion of DROAD À0.001 0.000 0.087 0.72
arable land SL À0.599 0.174 0.001
CC À3.444 1.330 0.012
a
Inside NP À3.464 2.007 0.089
b
Ethnic-H 3.693 1.737 0.037
a
Reference category is Outside NP.
b
Fig. 3. Land cover change map for the period 1993–2014. Reference category is ethnic-Y.
Please cite this article in press as: Hoang, H.T.T., et al., Changing human–landscape interactions after development of tourism in the
northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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Fig. 4. Spatial pattern of the independent variables: (A) percentage of households engaged in tourism, (B) surface area of cardamom cultivation per household, (C) ethnic
distribution in 2006, (D) poverty rate in 2006, (E) population growth rate in the period 1989–2006, (F) distance to Sa Pa town at pixel-level, (G) slope gradient, (H) distance to
the nearest road at pixel-level and (I) distance to the rivers at pixel-level.
the development of tourism activities will further increase in the Because of the requirement of a dense forest canopy for optimal
future (Michaud and Turner, 2006). production, the villagers not only protect the remaining old forest
The statistical results indicate that the cultivation of cardamom but also allow regeneration of some of the swidden lands in order
is negatively associated with deforestation and expansion of arable to create the necessary ecological conditions to plant and harvest
land. This means that the involvement in cardamom cultivation cardamom (Sowerwine, 2004b). Its impact on forest conservation
(under forest) slows down deforestation and expansion of is similar to the system of shade coffee cultivation in forest that
cultivated land, as cardamom plantations are not classified here also contributed to a preservation of the afromontane forests in,
as agricultural land. Cardamom production provides higher e.g., the south of Ethiopia (Getahun et al., 2013).
incomes than traditional crop farming (Sowerwine, 2004a). The role of ethnicity is complex. After controlling for biophysi-
Recently, cardamom is emerging as an important cash crop in cal and socio-economic settings, Hmong villages are characterized
northern Vietnam that requires little investment and labour but by higher expansion rates of arable land compared to Yao villages.
may offer higher income levels (Tugault-Lafleur and Turner, 2009). This can be explained by the fact that Hmong villages are more
Please cite this article in press as: Hoang, H.T.T., et al., Changing human–landscape interactions after development of tourism in the
northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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8 H.T.T. Hoang et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
densely populated than Yao villages (Jadin et al., 2013) so they Symonds, 2004). This traditional labour division was challenged by
need to expand their arable land more to supply the food demand. the rapid growth of the tourism industry in Sa Pa town (Duong,
In villages with mixed ethnicities, the land abandonment rate is 2008b). As the demand for traditional handicrafts increased
higher than in Yao villages, which can be explained by the fact that strongly and trade opportunities appeared, women from ethnic
mixed ethnicities only occur in the accessible commune centres minorities engaged in these activities (Michaud and Turner, 2000).
that are more involved in off-farm activities. Today, many young female from rural villages act as trekking
The effect of preservation policy is certainly reflected in the guides, and young and old women from ethnic minorities alike sell
difference in land cover changes inside and outside the National textile commodities to tourists (Turner, 2011). Some of them have
park. The estimated coefficients for the explanatory variable become professional tour guides and are hired by hotels and travel
‘Inside NP’ are negative for all land cover change categories agencies in town, and can gain higher incomes (Duong, 2008a).
whereby the ‘Outside NP’ is taken as a reference value. This means With this extra income, they can live independently, make their
that land units with the same physical and socio-economic own money and are able to provide financial support to their
properties have lower dynamics when they are located inside the families (Duong, 2008a).
Hoang Lien National park. The development of tourism activities mainly offered new off-
farm opportunities for women from ethnic minorities, having as a
Discussion direct consequence that women are now less involved in
agricultural activities while men are more involved into household
In Vietnam, the rapid increase in forest area since the early management. As there is less labour available for agricultural
1990s resulted in a reversal of the national deforestation trend activities, cutting or clearing of trees, marginal agricultural fields
(Meyfroidt and Lambin, 2008b). The national-scale assessment with low productivity are preferentially abandoned (Fig. 5D) and
masks a wide range of other land use dynamics that exist at the deforestation is reduced. Our results suggest that the additional
local scale, and that are not necessarily conform to the trends in income from tourism is sufficiently high to exceed the added value
forest cover change at national scale. In the Sa Pa district, that can be gained from steep land agriculture or from forest
reforestation was observed at the mid of the 2000s, some years extraction. The fallowed fields will regenerate into shrubs and
later than was observed at national scale. This time point roughly secondary forests that can develop the optimal ecological
corresponds to the strong increase in number of tourists to Sa Pa conditions for cardamom cultivation. Despite the fact that it
(Fig. 1). There is a wide variety of human-induced change in forest may take up to a decade or longer before the households will
cover. Forest cover changes are different in villages that are achieve economic returns on their investment, many families
strongly involved in tourism activities. They are characterized by expect an income from cardamom for their children (Sowerwine,
significantly higher rates of land abandonment and lower rates of 2004a). Moreover, many villagers are abandoning swidden rice
deforestation. This can be explained by recent changes in labour cultivation because of increasing land constraints, lower yields,
division and income in rural households. In the traditional ethnic loss of soil fertility and lack of labour availability (Sowerwine,
society, labour was mainly divided by gender (Duong, 2008b). 2004a). Since 1991, much of this land has been declared
Traditionally, women were primarily responsible for housework, ‘‘watershed protection land’’, and swidden rice varieties are
agricultural labour and firewood collection while men were in rapidly abandoned as more time is devoted to wet rice production
charge of the heavy works such as logging, plowing, building (Sowerwine, 2004a). Because of diversification in alternative
houses and processing tools (Cooper, 1984; Sowerwine, 2004a; economic activities, rural households are becoming less depen-
Fig. 5. Major land cover types that were identified in Sa Pa district: (A) Forest, (B) Shrubs, (C) Arable land and (D) Abandoned steep farmland.
First author in 2010
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northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003
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and the Vietnamese Ministry of Science & Technology (MOST)
Analysis of Proximate and Underlying Causes of Deforestation Based on Sub-
(Grant 42/2009/HÐ-NÐT). Patrick Meyfroidt, Isaline Jadin, Francois
national Case Study Evidence. CIACO, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium LUCC Report
Clapuyt have provided valuable suggestions for this research Series No. 4.
project. We are thankful to all ministries and institutions in Getahun, K., Van Rompaey, A., Van Turnhout, P., Poesen, J., 2013. Factors controlling
patterns of deforestation in moist evergreen Afromontane forests of Southwest
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northern Vietnamese Highlands. Anthropocene (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2014.08.003