Introduction

n this reading, you will learn about the Age of Why did explorers brave such dangers? In IExploration. This period of discovery lasted this reading, you will discover some of the rea- from about 1418 to 1620. During this time, sons for the Age of Exploration. Then you will European explorers made many daring voyages learn about the voyages of explorers from that changed world history. Portugal, Spain, and other European countries. A major reason for these voyages was the You will also learn about the impact of their desire to find sea routes to east Asia, which discoveries on Europe and on the lands they Europeans called the Indies. When Christopher explored. Columbus sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean, he was looking for such a route. Instead, he landed in the Americas. Columbus thought he had reached the Indies. In time, Europeans would realize that he had found what they called the ”New World.” European nations soon rushed to claim lands in the Americas for themselves. Early explorers often suffered terrible hard- ships. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan set out with three ships to cross the Pacific Ocean from South America. He had guessed, correctly, that the Indies lay on the other side of the Pacific. But Magellan had no idea how vast the ocean really was. He thought his crew would be sailing for a few weeks at most. Instead, the crossing took three months. While the ships were still at sea, the crew ran out of food. One sailor wrote about this terrible time. “We ate biscuit… swarming with worms…. We drank yellow water that had been putrid [rotten] for days... and often we ate sawdust from boards.” Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©

Reasons for the Age of Exploration

hy did European exploration begin to to spread Christianity. Both Protestant and Wflourish in the 1400s? Two main reasons Catholic nations were eager to make new con- stand out. First, Europeans of this time had sever- verts. Missionaries followed the path blazed by al motives for exploring the world. Second, explorers, sometimes using force to bring native advances in knowledge and technology helped peoples into their faiths. make voyages of discovery possible. Advances in Knowledge and Technology The Motives for Exploration For early explorers, one Age of Exploration began in the midst of the of the main motives for exploration was the Renaissance, a time of new learning. A number desire to find new trade routes to Asia. By the of advances made it easier for explorers to ven- 1400s, merchants and crusaders had brought ture into the unknown. many goods to Europe from Africa, the Middle One key advance was in cartography, the art East, and Asia. Demand for these goods and science of mapmaking. In the early 1400s, an increased the desire for trade. Italian scholar translated an ancient book called Europeans were especially interested in spices Guide to Geography from Greek into Latin. The from Asia. They had learned to use spices to help book had been written by Ptolemy in the second preserve food during winter and to cover up the century C.E. Printed copies of the book inspired taste of food that was no longer fresh. new interest in cartography. European mapmak- Trade with the East, however, was expensive ers used Ptolemy’s work to draw more accurate and difficult. Muslims and Italians controlled the maps. flow of trade. Muslim traders carried goods to Discoveries by explorers gave mapmakers the east coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Italian new information to work with. The result was a merchants then brought the goods to Europe. dramatic change in Europeans’ view of the world. Problems arose when Muslim rulers sometimes By the 1500s, globes showed Earth as a sphere, closed the trade routes from Asia to Europe. or ball. In 1507, a German cartographer made the Also, the goods went through many hands, and first map that clearly showed North and South each trading party raised their price. America separated from Asia. European monarchs and merchants wanted to In turn, better maps helped explorers by break the hold that Muslims and Italians had on making navigation easier. The most important trade. One way to do so was to find a sea route to Renaissance geographer, Gerardus Mercator, cre- Asia. Portuguese sailors looked for a route that ated maps using improved lines of longitude and went around Africa. Christopher Columbus tried latitude. Mercator’s mapmaking technique was a to reach Asia by sailing west across the Atlantic. great help to navigators. Other motives also came into play. Many An improved ship design also helped explor- people were excited by the opportunity for new ers. By the 1400s, Portuguese and Spanish ship- knowledge. Explorers saw the chance to earn builders were making caravels. These ships were fame and glory as well as wealth. Some craved small, fast, and easy to maneuver. Their shallow adventure. And as new lands were discovered, bottoms made it easier for explorers to travel nations wanted to claim the lands’ riches for along coastlines where the water was not deep. themselves. Caravels also used lateen (triangular) sails, an Curriculum Institute A final motive for exploration was the desire idea borrowed from Muslim ships. These sails eachers’ T ©

Reasons for the Age of Exploration could be positioned to take advantage of the wind Questions no matter which way it blew. 1. What were some key motives for Europeans Along with better ships, new navigational tools during the Age of Exploration? helped sailors to travel more safely on the open 2. Which motive do you think was the strongest seas. By the end of the 15th century, the compass for encouraging European exploration? Why? was much improved. Sailors used compasses to 3. What key advances in knowledge and technol- find their bearing, or direction of travel. The astro- ogy allowed Europeans to explore these new labe helped sailors figure out their distance north areas? or south from the equator. 4. Which advance do you think was the most Finally, improved weapons gave Europeans a important? Why? huge advantage over the people they met in their explorations. Sailors could fire their cannons at targets near the shore without leaving their ships. On land, the weapons of native peoples often were no match for European guns, armor, and horses. Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©

European Exploration and Land Claims, 1488–1610

Goa !

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Questions 6. Which country had explorers who led expedi- 1. Which explorer was the first to establish a sea tions into the lands of the Aztecs and Incas in route to Asia? For which European country did North and South America? Who were these he sail? explorers? 2. Which explorer was the first to sail to the east 7. By 1600, on which continents did Spain claim coast of South America? For which European territory? country did he sail? 8. Which European countries during this period 3. By 1600, on which continents did Portugal sent explorers to North America’s east coast? claim or control territory or cities? Name three of these explorers. 4. Which explorer was the first to sail to what are today the Caribbean Islands, between North and South America? For which European country did he sail? 5. Which explorer was the first to lead a voyage that eventually went around the world? For which European country did he sail? Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©

Portugal Begins the Age of Exploration

he Age of Exploration began in Portugal. This In 1500, Pedro Cabral set sail for India with a T small country is located on the southwestern fleet of 13 ships. Cabral first sailed southwest to tip of Europe. Its rulers sent explorers first to avoid calms (areas where there are no winds to fill nearby Africa and then around the world. sails). But he sailed so far west that he reached the east coast of present-day Brazil. After claiming Key Explorers The key figure in early Portuguese this land for Portugal, he sailed east and rounded exploration was Prince Henry, the son of King Africa. Arriving in Calicut, he established a trad- John I. Nicknamed “the Navigator,” Henry was ing post and signed trading treaties. He returned not an explorer himself. Instead, he encouraged to Portugal in June 1501 after battling several exploration and directed many important Muslim ships. expeditions. Beginning in about 1418, Henry sent explorers The Impact of Portuguese Exploration Portugal’s to sea almost every year. He also started a school explorers changed Europeans’ understanding of of navigation where sailors and mapmakers could the world in several ways. They explored the learn their trades. His cartographers made new maps coasts of Africa and brought back gold and slaves. based on the information captains brought back. They also found a sea route to India. From India, Henry’s early expeditions focused on the west explorers brought back spices like cinnamon and coast of Africa. He wanted to continue the cru- pepper and goods such as porcelain, incense, sades against the Muslims, find gold, and take jewels, and silk. part in trade. After Cabral’s voyage, the Portuguese took Gradually, Portuguese explorers made their way control of the eastern sea routes to Asia. They farther and farther south. In 1488, Bartolomeu seized the seaport of Goa in India and built forts Dias became the first European to go around the there. They attacked towns on the east coast of southern tip of Africa. Later, Dias died in a storm Africa. They also set their sights on the Moluccas, at sea. or Spice Islands, in what is now Indonesia. In In July 1497, Vasco da Gama set sail with four 1511, they attacked the main port of the islands ships to chart a sea route to India. Da Gama’s and killed the Muslim defenders. The captain of ships rounded Africa’s southern tip and then sailed this expedition explained what was at stake. If up the east coast of the continent. With the help of Portugal could take the spice trade away from a sailor who knew the route to India, they crossed Muslim traders, he wrote, then Cairo and Makkah the Indian Ocean. “will be ruined.” As for Italian merchants, “Venice Da Gama arrived in the port of Calicut, India, will receive no spices unless her merchants go to in May 1498. There he obtained a load of cinna- buy them in Portugal.” mon and pepper. On the return trip to Portugal, Portugal’s control of the Indian Ocean broke da Gama lost half of his ships. Many of his crew- the hold of Muslims and Italians on Asian trade. members died of hunger or disease. Still, the valu- The prices of Asian goods like spices and fabrics able cargo he brought back paid for the voyage dropped, and more people in Europe could afford many times over. His trip made the Portuguese to buy them. even more eager to trade directly with Indian During the 1500s, Portugal also began to Curriculum Institute merchants. establish colonies in Brazil. The native people of eachers’ T ©

Portugal Begins the Age of Exploration

Brazil suffered greatly as a result. The Portuguese Questions tried to get the native people to give up their reli- 1. What contributions did each of these individu- gion and convert to Christianity. They also forced als make to Portuguese exploration? them to work on sugar plantations. Missionaries • Prince Henry “the Navigator” sometimes tried to protect them from abuse, but • Bartolomeu Dias countless numbers died from overwork and • Vasco da Gama European diseases. Others fled into the interior • Pedro Cabral of Brazil. 2. What impact did Portuguese exploration have The colonization of Brazil also had an impact on the people of these continents? on Africa. As the native population of Brazil • Africa decreased, the Portuguese needed more laborers. • Asia Starting in the mid 1500s, they turned to Africa. • the Americas Over the next 300 years, ships brought millions of enslaved West Africans to Brazil. Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©

Spain’s Early Explorations

n the late 1400s, King Ferdinand and Queen between Europe and Asia. One of these people IIsabella of Spain were determined to make their was Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer. country a powerful force in Europe. One way to Magellan believed he could sail west to the do this was to sponsor explorations and claim new Indies if he found a strait, or channel, through lands for Spain. South America. The strait would connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, allowing ships to Key Explorers It was Ferdinand and Isabella who continue on to Asia. sponsored the voyages of Christopher Columbus. Magellan won Spain’s backing for a voyage to The Italian-born Columbus thought that the Indies, find the strait. In August 1519, he set sail with five or eastern Asia, lay on the other side of the ships and about 250 men. Atlantic Ocean. He believed sailing west would Magellan looked for the strait all along South be the easiest route to the Indies. America’s east coast. He finally found it at the When Columbus failed to win Portuguese sup- southern tip of the continent. Today it is called the port for his idea, he turned to Spain. Ferdinand Strait of Magellan. and Isabella agreed to pay for the risky voyage. After passing through the strait, Magellan They wanted to beat Portugal in the race to control reached the Pacific Ocean in November 1520. It the wealth of Asia. They also wanted to spread took another three months to cross the Pacific. Christianity. During the crossing, Magellan’s men ran out of In August 1492, three ships left Spain under food and were plagued by disease and thirst. They Columbus’s command. For the crew, venturing reached an island in the western Pacific just in into the open ocean was frightening. As the weeks time. went by, some of the men began to fear they Continuing west, Magellan visited the would never see Spain again. Philippines. There he became involved in a battle Then, on October 12, a lookout cried “Land!” between two local chiefs. In April 1521, Magellan Columbus went ashore on an island in the was killed in the fighting. Caribbean Sea. Thinking he had reached the Magellan’s crew sailed on to the Spice Islands. Indies, Columbus claimed the island for Spain. Three years after the expedition began, the only For three months, Columbus and his men ship to survive the expedition returned to Spain, explored nearby islands with the help of native loaded with cloves. The 18 sailors on board were islanders, whom the Spanish called Taino. the first people to circumnavigate the globe. Thinking they were in the Indies, the Spanish soon called all the local people “Indians.” The Impact of Early Spanish Exploration Early In March 1493, Columbus arrived back in Spanish exploration changed Europeans’ view of Spain. He proudly reported that he had reached the world. The voyages of Columbus revealed the Asia. Over the next 10 years, he made three more existence of the Americas. Magellan’s expedition voyages to what he called the West Indies. He opened up a westward route to the Indies. It died in Spain in 1506, still insisting that he had showed that it was possible to sail completely sailed to Asia. around the world. And it proved that Columbus Many Europeans, however, believed that had indeed found a “New World”—one they Curriculum Institute Columbus had actually found a land mass that lay hadn’t realized was there. eachers’ T ©

Spain’s Early Explorations

Columbus’s voyages were the beginning of Questions Spanish settlement in the West Indies. Spain 1. What contributions did each of these individu- earned great wealth from its settlements. Settlers als make to early Spanish exploration? mined for precious minerals and started sugar • Christopher Columbus plantations. The Spanish also sent Europe new • Ferdinand Magellan crops, such as sweet potatoes and pineapples. 2. What impact did early Spanish exploration For the native people of the West Indies, have on the people of these continents? Spanish settlement was devastating. Priests forced • Europe many of them to become Christians. Native people • the Americas were forced to work as slaves in the mines and on the plantations. When the Spanish arrived, perhaps 1 or 2 million Taino lived on the islands. Within 50 years, fewer than 500 were left. The rest had died of starvation, overwork, or European diseases. Like Portugal, Spain looked to West Africa for new sources of laborers. From 1518 through the mid 1800s, the Spanish brought millions of enslaved Africans to work in their American colonies. Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©

Later Spanish Exploration and Conquest

fter Columbus’s voyages, Spain was eager to Aztecs’ native enemies. Third, their horses, armor, Aclaim lands in the New World. To explore and and superior weapons gave the Spanish an advan- conquer “New Spain,” the Spanish turned to tage in battle. The Aztecs had never seen any of adventurers called conquistadors (conquerors). these things before. Fourth, the Spanish carried The conquistadors were allowed to establish set- diseases that caused deadly epidemics among the tlements and seize the wealth of natives. In return, Aztecs. the Spanish government claimed one fifth of the Aztec riches inspired Spanish conquistadors to treasures they found. continue their search for gold. In the 1520s, Francisco Pizarro received permission from Spain Key Explorers In 1519, Spanish explorer Hernan to conquer the Inca Empire in South America. The Cortes and a band of conquistadors set out to Incas ruled an empire that ran along most of the explore present-day Mexico. From native people, Andes Mountains. By the time Pizarro arrived, Cortes learned about the Aztecs. The Aztecs had however, a civil war had weakened the empire. built a large and wealthy empire in Mexico. In April 1532, the Inca emperor, Atahualpa, With the help of a native woman named greeted the Spanish as guests. Following Cortes’s Malinche, Cortes and his men reached the Aztec example, Pizarro launched a surprise attack and capital, Tenochtitlan. The Aztec ruler, Montezuma, kidnapped the emperor. Although the Incas paid a welcomed the Spanish with great honors. Deter- roomful of gold and silver for Atahualpa’s ransom, mined to break the power of the Aztecs, Cortes the Spanish killed him the following year. Without took Montezuma hostage. their leader, the Incas’ empire quickly fell apart. Cortes now controlled the Aztec capital. In 1520, he left Tenochtitlan to battle a rival Spanish The Impact of Later Spanish Exploration and force. While he was gone, a group of conquista- Conquest The explorations and conquests of the dors attacked the Aztecs in the midst of a religious conquistadors transformed Spain. The Spanish celebration. In response, the Aztecs rose up rapidly expanded foreign trade and overseas colo- against the Spanish. The soldiers had to fight their nization. For a time, wealth from the Americas way out of the city. Many of them were killed dur- made Spain one of the world’s richest and most ing the escape. powerful countries. The following year, Cortes mounted a siege of Besides gold and silver, ships brought corn and the city, aided by thousands of native allies who potatoes from the New World to Spain. These resented Aztec rule. The Aztecs ran out of food crops grew well in Europe. By increasing the food and water, yet they fought desperately. After sev- supply, they helped spur a population boom. eral months, the Spanish captured their leader, and Conquistadors also introduced Europeans to new Aztec resistance collapsed. The city was in ruins. luxury items, such as chocolate and tobacco. The mighty Aztec Empire was no more. In the long run, gold and silver from the Four factors contributed to the defeat of the Americas hurt Spain’s economy. Inflation, or an Aztec Empire. First, Aztec legend had told of the increase in the supply of money compared to coming of a white-skinned god. When Cortes goods, led to higher prices. Monarchs and the appeared, the Aztecs welcomed him because they wealthy spent their riches wastefully instead of Curriculum Institute thought he might be their god Quetzalcoatl. building up Spain’s industries. Second, Cortes was able to make allies of the The Spanish conquests had a major impact on eachers’ T ©

Later Spanish Exploration and Conquest the New World. The Spanish introduced new ani- Questions mals to the Americas, such as horses, cattle, sheep, 1. What contributions did each of these individu- and pigs. But they also destroyed two advanced als make to later Spanish exploration and civilizations. The Aztecs and Incas lost much of conquest? their culture along with their wealth. Many • Hernan Cortes became laborers for the Spanish. Millions died • Francisco Pizarro from disease. In Mexico, for example, there were 2. What impact did later Spanish exploration about 25 million native people in 1519. By 1605, and conquest have on the people of these this number had dwindled to 1 million. continents? • Europe • the Americas Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©

European Exploration of North America

pain and Portugal dominated the early years of that is now called Hudson Bay. He spent three Sexploration. Rulers in rival nations wanted months looking for an outlet to the Pacific, but their own share of trade and new lands in the there was none. Americas. Soon England, France, and the After a hard winter in the icy bay, some of Netherlands all sent expeditions to North America. Hudson’s crew rebelled. They set him, his son, and seven loyal followers adrift in a small boat. Key Explorers Explorers often sailed for any Hudson and the other castaways were never seen country that would pay for their voyages. The again. Hudson’s voyage, however, laid the basis Italian sailor John Cabot made England’s first for later English claims in Canada. voyage of discovery. Cabot believed he could reach the Indies by sailing northwest across the The Impact of European Exploration of North Atlantic. In 1497, he landed in what is now America Unlike the conquistadors in the south, Canada. Believing he had reached the northeast northern explorers did not find gold and other coast of Asia, he claimed the region for England. treasure. As a result, there was less interest at first The next year, Cabot set out on another voyage in starting colonies. with five ships. The fate of this expedition is Canada’s shores did offer rich resources of cod uncertain. Cabot may have returned to England, and other fish. Within a few years of Cabot’s trip, or he may have been lost at sea. fishing boats regularly visited the region. Another Italian, Giovanni da Verrazano, sailed Europeans were also interested in trading with under the French flag. In 1524, da Verrazano Native Americans for otter skins, whale oil, and explored the Atlantic coast from present-day North beaver and fox furs. By the 1600s, Europeans Carolina to Canada. His voyage gave France its had set up a number of trading posts in North first claims in the Americas. Like many explorers, America. however, he met an unhappy end. On a later trip English exploration also contributed to a war to the West Indies, he was killed and eaten by between England and Spain. As English ships native people. roamed the seas, some captains, nicknamed “sea Sailing for the Netherlands, English explorer dogs,” began raiding Spanish ports and ships to Henry Hudson journeyed to North America in take their gold. Between 1577 and 1580, Francis 1609. Hudson wanted to find a northwest passage Drake sailed around the world. He also claimed through North America to the Pacific Ocean. Such part of what is now California for England, ignor- a water route would allow ships to sail from ing Spain’s claims to the area. Europe to Asia without entering waters controlled The English raids added to other tensions by Spain. between England and Spain. In 1588, King Philip Hudson did not find a northwest passage, but II of Spain sent an armada, or fleet, to invade he did explore what is now called the Hudson England. With 130 heavily armed vessels and River. Twenty years later, Dutch settlers (people about 31,000 men, the Spanish Armada seemed an from the Netherlands) began arriving in the unbeatable force. But the smaller English fleet Hudson River valley. was fast and well armed. Their guns had a longer The next year Hudson tried again, this time range, so they could attack from a safe distance. Curriculum Institute under the flag of his native England. Searching After several battles, a number of the armada’s farther north, he sailed into a large bay in Canada ships had been sunk or driven ashore. The rest eachers’ T ©

European Exploration of North America turned around but faced terrible storms on the way Questions home. Fewer than half of the ships made it back to 1. What contributions did each of these individu- Spain. als make to the European exploration of North The defeat of the Spanish Armada marked the America? start of a shift in power in Europe. By 1630, Spain • John Cabot no longer dominated the continent. With Spain’s • Giovanni de Verrazano decline, other countries—particularly England and • Henry Hudson the Netherlands—took an active role in trade and 2. What impact did the European exploration of colonization around the world. North America have on the people of Europe? Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©

The Impact of Exploration on European Commerce and Economies

Major European Trade Routes, About 1750

ENGLAND NETHERLANDS EUROPE NORTH FRANCE PORTUGAL ASIA PACIFIC AMERICA SPAIN OCEAN ATLANTIC PACIFIC OCEAN OCEAN AFRICA

Spain SOUTH Portugal AMERICA England N France

Netherlands INDIAN W E 0 1,500 3,000 miles OCEAN Trade routes 0 3,000 kilometers S

he voyages of explorers had a dramatic impact Another aspect of the capitalist economy con- T on European commerce and economies. As a cerned the way people exchanged goods and serv- result of exploration, more goods, raw materials, ices. Money became more important as precious and precious metals entered Europe. Mapmakers metals flowed into Europe. Instead of having a carefully charted trade routes and the locations of fixed price, items were sold for prices that were newly discovered lands. By the 1700s, European set by the open market. This meant that the price ships traveled trade routes that spanned the globe. of an item depended on how much of the item was New centers of commerce developed in the port available and how many people wanted to buy it. cities of the Netherlands and England, which had Sellers could charge high prices for scarce items colonies and trading posts in faraway lands. that many people wanted. If the supply of an item Exploration and trade contributed to the was large and few people wanted it, sellers low- growth of capitalism. This economic system is ered the price. This kind of system is called a based on investing money for profit. Merchants market economy. gained great wealth by trading and selling goods Labor, too, was given a money value. Increas- from around the world. Many of them used their ingly, people began working for hire instead of profits to finance still more voyages and to start directly providing for their own needs. Merchants trading companies. Other people began investing hired people to work in their own cottages, turning money in these companies and shared in the raw materials from overseas into finished prod- Curriculum Institute profits. Soon this type of shared ownership was ucts. This growing cottage industry was especially

The Impact of Exploration on European Commerce and Economies families worked at home, spinning wool into Questions thread or weaving thread into cloth. Cottage 1. Define the following terms associated with the industry was a step toward the system of factories commercial revolution in Europe: operated by capitalists in later centuries. • capitalism A final result of exploration was a new eco- • market economy nomic policy called mercantilism. European rulers • cottage industry believed that piling up wealth was the best way to • mercantilism build their countries’ power. For this reason, they 2. In what ways did the Age of Exploration help tried to reduce the things they bought from other spur the commercial revolution in Europe? countries and increase the items they sold. Having colonies was a key part of this policy. Nations looked to their colonies to supply raw materials for their industries. They profited by turning the materials into finished goods that they could sell to other countries and to their own colonies. To protect the valuable trade with their colonies, rulers often forbade colonists from trading with other nations. Curriculum Institute eachers’ T ©