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Femenist Orientalism in the International

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Femenist Orientalism in the International Unveiling Scheherazade: Feminist Orientalism in the International Alliance of Women, 1911- 1950 Author(s): Charlotte Weber Source: Feminist Studies, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2001), pp. 125-157 Published by: Feminist Studies, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3178453 . Accessed: 15/12/2013 10:42 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Feminist Studies, Inc. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Feminist Studies. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 131.211.208.19 on Sun, 15 Dec 2013 10:42:42 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions UNVEILING SCHEHERAZADE:FEMINIST ORIENTALISMIN THE INTERNATIONAL ALLIANCEOF WOMEN, 1911-1950 CHARLOTTEWEBER In an article published in 1982, Leila Ahmed chastised Western feminists for their "docilitytoward the received ideas of their cul- ture"regarding Muslim women in the Middle East.1She pointed to their complicityin perpetuatingan image of Islam as monolith- ic and unchanging,a powerful forcethat not only preventsIslam- ic societies from emulatingthe "progress"of the Westbut that also keeps women in a state of abjectslavery. That image belongs to the generalconstellation of ideas labeled "orientalism"by Edward Said, who used the term to designate the West'srepresentations and domination of the East.2His 1979 work analyzed the histori- cal constructionof a Westerndiscourse that persistentlymisrepre- sents both Islam and its adherents, especially within the Arab world. As Said and other scholars since have documented, the West has long evinced an enduring fascination with the harem and the veil, recurringtropes in orientalistliterature that symbol- ize Muslim women's oppressionand eroticismsimultaneously. Said presentedorientalism as a male preserve,a discourseartic- ulated exclusivelyby men that "feminized"the Eastby attributing to it qualitiestypically associatedwith Womanherself-irrationali- ty, licentiousness, exoticism. Recently,feminist scholars such as Billie Melman and Reina Lewis have augmented his work by examining the extent to which Westernwomen participated in the construction of that discourse. Their attention to the ways in which gender and class mediated European representationsof the Middle East during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries has considerably enhanced our understanding of orientalism's complexity. Whereas Said described a unified, monolithic dis- course created by imperialist men, Melman and Lewis have Feminist Studies 27, no. 1 (spring 2001). ? 2001 by Feminist Studies, Inc. 125 This content downloaded from 131.211.208.19 on Sun, 15 Dec 2013 10:42:42 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 126 Charlotte Weber shown orientalismto be "multivocaland heterogeneous,"open to inconsistencyand rupture.4As the inferior "Otherwithin" West- ern societies,European women artistsand travelersto the Middle East offered visions of the "Otherwithout" that differed from hegemonic notions of the Orient but that still affirmedthe basic separationbetween West and East. During the Victorianera, for example,middle-class English women visitors "domesticated"the harem-thatarchetypal symbol of unrestrainedEastern sexuality- by comparingit with an idealized, bourgeois home, a kind of fe- male sanctuary."Such visions demonstrate,in Lewis'swords, that "thereis room within the discourse for a feminine, and perhaps less virulentlyxenophobic, version of Orientalismthat adapts and amends but does not remove the imperialimperative."6 My concern here is less with th "feminineversion" of oriental- ism than with an explicitlyfeministone. Whathappened when the Western founders of the internationalwomen's movement first turned their gaze to the Middle East? How did European and North Americanwomen who were criticalof their own societies contemplate the oriental "Other"?I focus specifically on the InternationalWoman Suffrage Alliance (later,the International Alliance of Women for Suffrageand Equal Citizenship and then the InternationalAlliance of Women,or IAW).Of the three major organizationsthat attempted to mobilize women internationally during the first half of the twentieth century (the others were the InternationalCouncil of Women and the Women'sInternational League for Peace and Freedom),the IAW was the most self-con- sciously feminist, regularlyusing that term to describe itself and its activities.' In contrast to the ICW and the WILPF,the IAW claimed women's rights as its primary goal, espousing a liberal feminism that sought legal and political equality with men. Founded and led by Europeanand North Americanwomen, the organizationnevertheless tried to unite women across the world aroundthe issues of suffrageand equal citizenship."Whatever the limits of their analysis of and proposed remedies for gender op- pression,its membersshared the fundamentalfeminist conviction that women worldwide were unfairly disadvantaged relative to men. Thatconviction contained the seeming potentialfor women's solidarity across boundaries of nationality,religion, and culture, making the IAWa useful case study of the junctureof feminism, imperialism,and orientalism.9 This content downloaded from 131.211.208.19 on Sun, 15 Dec 2013 10:42:42 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions CharlotteWeber 127 Given its origins in the tradition of the European Enlighten- ment, modem liberalfeminism (of which suffragismwas perhaps the paradigmatic expression) has hardly escaped orientalist in- fluence. Indeed, with few exceptions, First Wave feminists of all stripes readily accepted a key element of the West's orientalist legacy-namely, the unquestioned belief in the superiority of "Western"ways. Manifestedby representationsof the harem and the veil as inherentlymore oppressive than monogamy and West- ern dress (representationsthat ignore the historicalspecificity of those institutions as well as their contested political meaning), this belief lies at the heart of what Joyce Zonana calls "feminist orientalism."10Her analysis of JaneEyre suggests that the use of orientalistimagery by British feminist writers to describe wom- en's oppressionblunted the radicaledge of their feminism by im- plying that patriarchy was an "Eastern"element to be purged from the West. In Zonana'sformulation, feminist orientalismwas not merely a set of stereotypesabout Muslim women but a threat wielded against Westernmen: they risked appearing'backward" if they behaved in "Eastern"ways. The phenomenon of feminist orientalismand its ramifications for the internationalwomen's movement has thus far received lit- tle attention from historians."As AntoinetteBurton as observed, although feminist scholars across disciplines have increasingly acknowledged and sought to analyze ethnocentrismin Western feminism(s),their insights nevertheless lack historicalcorrobora- tion.12Burton's own study of Britishsuffragists' attitudes toward Indianwomen contributesmuch to our understandingof the his- torical relationship between early Western feminist movements and imperialism,yet furtherresearch is clearly needed. As Mus- lim feminists have repeatedly protested, their Westerncounter- parts continue to display an astounding (and willful) ignorance about Islam. In light of the mutual suspicion that characterizes geopolitical relations between the West and the Islamic Middle East, and especially given today's polarizing debates between Is- lamists and feminists in some countries,attention to the historical role and consequencesof feminist orientalismseems particularly significant.In contemporaryEgypt, for example, the controversy over women's proper "role"is framed as a fight for the survival of Islam itself. Because feminism has been so closely identified with Western imperialism, many Muslims erroneously perceive in- This content downloaded from 131.211.208.19 on Sun, 15 Dec 2013 10:42:42 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 128 CharlotteWeber digenous feministmovements to be inherentlyanti-Islam."3 A his- toricalanalysis of feminist orientalismmay offer insights into the ways in which Western feminists, however inadvertently,have helped to circumscribethe debate over women's "role"in Islam. In 1911-1912,International Woman SuffrageAlliance President CarrieChapman Catt and Dutch feministAletta Jacobs embarked on a world tour to recruitnew membershipfor the organization. This trip representedthe group'sfirst effortto expand its base out- side of Europeand North Americaand marksthe beginningof the internationalwomen's movement'sencounter with women in the Middle East.14In order to understand how that encounter was shaped by the geopoliticalrealignments that occurredafter World War I, my study extends until 1950. The course of these forty years saw the collapse of the OttomanEmpire, its replacementin much of the Middle Eastwith the Mandatesystem, and the emer- gence of Arab nationalism, profound transformations which formed the context in which the relationshipsbetween Western and Middle Easternwomen evolved. Between 1911 and 1950, approximatelythirty articlesconcern- ing the Middle East (all in English) appeared in the IAW news-
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