This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Citizens of Everywhere. Indian Nationalist Women and the Global Public Sphere, 1900 – 1952 Rosalind Parr Doctor of Philosophy (History) University of Edinburgh January 2018 ii Declaration of Own Work I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. Rosalind Parr iii iv Contents Abstract vii Lay Summary viii Acknowledgements ix List of Abbreviations x List of Images xii Dramatis Personae xiii Note on Names xvii 1 Introduction 1 Indian Nationalist Women: The Historiographical Context 5 South Asia and ‘The Nation’ 8 The ‘Global Turn’ and South Asia 10 Global Civil Society, Internationalism and Cosmopolitan Thought 15 Nationalism and Feminism in South Asia 18 Histories of Liberalism and Citizenship 22 The Global Public Sphere 26 Gender 31 The Cohort 33 Periodisation and Sources 37 Organisation of Thesis 40 39 2 Becoming Global Citizens: Context, Influences, and Early Beginnings, 1890s-1930s 43 Being Citizens of the World: Mobility and Global Interconnectedness 45 Thinking Globally: Reform and Cosmopolitan Nationalism 51 Service as Citizenship 58 Citizenship Beyond Empire 65 Citizenship: Individual Rights and Collective Organisation 73 Conclusion 77 3 Engagement: Amrit Kaur in London and Geneva, 1933 79 Political and Ideological Context 79 Citizenship and the Constitution: The Women’s Franchise Campaign, 1927-1933 83 The Franchise Campaign and the British Committee for the Indian Women’s Franchise 87 The ‘Five Friendly Societies’ 91 Geneva and Global Civil Society 96 The Indian Women’s Campaign for Representation in Geneva 102 Conclusion 109 4 Consolidation: The All India Women’s Conference, 1933-1945 113 The AIWC and the Liaison Group of British Women’s Societies 115 Eleanor Rathbone, MP 118 Visitors ‘of influence’ 122 The AIWC and Geneva, 1933-1939 125 The Rise of Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit as a Global Figure 132 War and Solidarity, 1939-1945 136 Conclusion 141 v 5 Breaking America: Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit’s Propaganda Tour, 1944-45 143 The ‘India Question’, the United States, and Public Opinion 144 The Propaganda Value of Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit 149 Civil Society Connections 152 New Beginnings: A Global Message 155 The Campaign: January – March 1945 158 Reception 165 The San Francisco Conference on International Organisation, April – June 1945 167 Conclusion 178 6 Arrival: Women’s Rights and the New World Order, 1946 181 Amrit Kaur and the UNESCO Conference, London, November 1945 183 The AIWC Annual Conference, 1945-46 185 Gender Equality and the Birth of the United Nations 190 The Sub-Commission on the Status of Women and the Women’s Charter 193 The Sub-Commission on the Status of Women and Global Civil Society 198 Conclusion 203 7 After Independence: Hansa Mehta and the United Nations Commission for Human Rights, 1947 – 1952 205 (Soon-to-be) Independent India and the United Nations 206 The Commission for Human Rights 210 The Question of Implementation 215 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and After 219 Commission on Human Rights and Global Civil Society 220 Hansa Mehta, Gender Equality and the UDHR 223 Conclusion 225 8 Conclusion 227 Wider Implications 235 A Global History for a Global Age? 239 Bibliography 243 Appendix: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights 261 vi Abstract The first half of the twentieth century saw the evolution of the global public sphere as a site for political expression and social activism. In the past, this history has been marginalised by a discipline-wide preference for national and other container- based frames of analysis. However, in the wake of ‘the global turn,’ historians have increasingly turned their attention to the ways historical actors thought, acted, and organised globally. Transnational histories of South Asia feed into our understanding of these processes, yet, so far, little attention has been paid to the role of Indian nationalist women, despite there being significant ‘global’ aspects to their lives and careers. Citizens of Everywhere addresses this lacuna through an examination of the transnational activities of a handful of prominent nationalist women between 1900 and 1950. These include alliances and interactions with women’s organisations, anti-imperial supporters and the League of Nations, as well as official contributions to the business of the fledgling United Nations Organisation after 1946. This predominantly below-state-level activity built on and contributed to public and private networks that traversed the early twentieth century world, cutting across national, state and imperial boundaries to create transnational solidarities to transformative effect. Set against a backdrop of rising imperialist-nationalist tension and global geopolitical conflict, these relationships enable a counter-narrative of global citizenship - a concept that at once connotes a sense of belonging, a modus operandi, and an assertive political claim. However, they were also highly gendered, sometimes tenuous, and frequently complex interactions that constantly evolved according to local and global conditions. In advancing our understanding of nationalist women’s careers, Citizens of Everywhere contributes to the recovery of Indian women’s historical subjectivity, which, in turn, sheds light on gender and nationalism in South Asia. Further, Indian women’s transnational activities draw attention to a range of interventions and processes that illuminate the global history of liberal ideas and political practices, the legacies of which appear embattled in the present era. vii Lay Summary When independent India emerged on the world stage in 1946-47, a number of women were appointed to represent the fledgling nation-state in the international arena. As well as signaling India’s purported commitment to gender equality, this reflected a long history of Indian women’s participation in the global public sphere. Citizens of Everywhere charts this history by examining the ideological development and transnational interactions of prominent Indian women in the first half of the twentieth century. These included alliances with international women’s organisations and anti-imperial supporters as well as involvement with the work of the League of Nations and, eventually, the United Nations. This history of Indian nationalist women contributes a narrative of transnational solidarity and global citizenship to an era more usually defined by nationalist- imperialist conflict and geopolitical tension. Citizens of Everywhere helps us understand this complex history. In doing so, it sheds light on gender, nationalism, and the development of liberal ideas and political practices in both South Asian and global historical contexts, the legacies of which appear embattled in the present day. viii Acknowledgements I would firstly like to thank my supervisor, Crispin Bates, for his support and encouragement during and prior to the life of this project. I have greatly benefitted from his knowledge and expertise at all stages and on many levels. Chris Harding has provided extensive comment on various aspects of the draft and helped me think through some challenging questions. My PhD was generously funded by the Jenny Balston Memorial Fund, for which I am very grateful. Research trips to Delhi, Geneva, and London were funded by the Simon Fennel Research Award and the Agnes Parry History Fund. It has been my privilege to access a number of archives over the course of my research and I would like to thank the numerous staff who have assisted me. Special thanks must go to Jyoti at the NMML and Jacques at the ILO archives. Ankur Kakkar’s kind welcome in Delhi and his help with translation, as well as with some more mundane tasks, have been invaluable. My time at the University of Edinburgh has been greatly enriched by interactions with the wider research community. I would like to thank members of the Histories of Gender and Sexualities Research Group (previously the Gender History Network), the Centre for South Asian Studies, and the Global and Transnational Research Forum for their comments on work in progress. Enda Delaney has offered valuable advice and inspiration from an Irish historical perspective. I am particularly grateful to Esther Breitenbach and Talat Ahmed for their wise observations and helpful guidance. I have received generous assistance from people I have not yet met. I would like to thank Mary Kinnear for kindly sending me her richly detailed book from Canada, to Ritu Menon for sharing her knowledge of the Pandit family and associated research materials, and to Sumita Mukherjee for her advice on the Geneva archives and for her comments on sections of the draft. I am extremely grateful to friends for their ongoing support and good wishes. Fran, Chris and Harry have all accommodated me in London. Pam, Elaine, Cat, and Annie have helped me balance work, motherhood, and sanity in a number of ways. My family are a constant source of strength and I am particularly grateful to Duncan, Ana and Allison just for being them. Dad never knew about this project, but I hear his calm devil’s advocacy all the time and know I will always benefit from our ‘discussions,’ amongst countless other things.