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Centralization and Localism : Some Aspects of Ottoman Policy In CENTRALIZATION AND LOCALISPI ASPECTS OF OTTOMAN POLICY IN EASTERN AN ATOLIA 1878-1908 Stephen Ralph Duguid B.A. University of Illinois, 1966 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PMTIAL FULFILLRENT OF ThE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF NASTER OF A8TS in the Department @ STEPHEN RALPH DUGUID 1970 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY APRIL, 1970 Allan Cunninghas - Senior Supervisor ~dilliamC tovoland f xamining Committee A.H. SO@&@ Examining Committern . am.: Stephen Ralph Duquid . eqree~ maater of Arts I It'~kitld of Thesist CmtraliZation and L @Bar Aspects of Ottoman e; a Policy in Eastern A ia 1078-1908 *. iii ABSTRACT The primary rationale behind this thesis is that the greatest need in the study of the Ottoman Empire is for detailed analyses of specific areas and aspects of that Empire, The trend of latm in Ottoman historiography is a general testing of generalizations made in the past about the Empire in the light of more thorough research and, indeed, a calling into question of whether any generalization about such a multi-national, multi-religious, and complicated state is practicable or possible, Both the area and the period of this study were chosen bacause of the lack of interest shown in them by most other historians and because they contain examples of many of the crucial problems faced by the Ottomans in the nineteenth century, One must avoid the conclusion, hewever, that eastern Anatolia is meant to be a model for Ottoman policy in other parts of the Empire where the problems, the local forces, and the policy were in many cases quite different. The thesis is primarily concerned with examining the political and social groups, both traditional and 'modernf, within eastern I Anatolia; the relationships between these groups (such as nomads ;I I I - -- - - .- -- -- -- I I and villagers, Muslims and Armenians, notables and Kurds, and so --- .-- - -.---- -. on) and their reaction to the policies of the central government. The complex nature of society in the region, how it was affected 11 I j by the growing influence of the government in Constantinople and by European interest in the area, and hou~it reacted to these outside pressures are all emphasized, The second major aspact of the thesis is the policy and character of the central government during the tiamidian period. The introductory chapter traces certain strains of reform in the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century, demonstrating the 'radical*, for the Ottomans, nature of many of the changes and the imbalance they created between the government and the mass of the Muslim population. The ~amidianperiod is portrayed as a 'breathing spell' for the Ottomans; a time to relax from the overt ptessure of mass adoption of western type reforms. The label 'period af reaction*, which is commonly given the Hamidian regime is dismissed as most probably inaccurate since in fact most of the reforms did continua and the government was actually more representative of the wishes and feelings of the population than those more 'liberal' governments of earlier decades. The Hamidian government's policy of basing the state more firmly on the Muslim elements of the population had a crucial impact on eastern Anatolia since it led to a favoring of the Kurds at the expense of the Armenians and many other Muslims. This policy also blunted the governments attempts at centralization, since it could not afford to alienate the very elements of the popula- tion it was relying on through too much central control. The Armenian question and to a lesser extent the role of the British in the ragion are important sub-topics of the thesis. The latter is implicit throughout the study due to the, reliance on the British consuls for most of tho information about the region. The Armenians are dealt with both as an aspect of the local struggles in the region and as victims of the Hamidian governments Islamic policy, Concerning the whole Armenian question, about which so much has been written, an attempt is made to provide a more realistic analysis of the problem than is found in most studies. While no attempt is made to diagnose the factors leading to the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, and in fact very little evidence OF Young Turk activity or influence in the region is found, there is a definite shift in the governments attitude toward the region after about 1903, Dissatisfaction with the Hamidian regime originated primarily with the more conservative elements of the society, such as the urban notables and several Kurdish leaders and the influence of the central government is shown to decline rapidly relative to local forces after 1906. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ....................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE 2 The Historical Background ............. 12 CHAPTER TWO! An Introduction to Eastern Anatolia ... 63 CHAPTER THREE . Government and the Notables ......... 95 CHAPTER FOUR: The Aftermath of War ................ 132 CHAPTER FIVE: Hamidian Reform. the First Attempts . 165 CHAPTER SIXt The Central Government and Eastern Anatolia .............................205 CHAPTEA SEVEN: The Dsvelopmcnt of the Armenian Revolutionary Movement. 1880-1893 .. 229 CHAPTER EIGHT : Stability. Tranquility. and Disaster 1884-1694 .......................... 259 Cti APTEii NINE 8 Eeaction and Reform. 1895-97 ........ 284 CHAPTER TEN: The Army and the Kurds ............... 324 GCOSSAAY ......o................................... 368 BIOLIOGRAPHY ........................o.....o....... 374 INTRODUCTI ON The study of the Ottoman Empiro has for long suffered from excessive generalization on the part of western historians. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the primary reason for this failure to produce basic research was lack of sufficient source materials and the concomitant problem, the lack of training in oriental languages among European and American historians. This lack of basic research was also the result of a feeling among western historians, especially in the nineteenth century, that the study of a decadent and still declining culture would be of little value. This generalized approach to Ottoman history included the study of the nineteenth Century, when sources were more available, as well as the earlier period. The lack of a firm foundation of monographic, biographic, and statistical works concerning the Empire became critical after 1945, when western interest in areas such as the middle East increased dramatically. As more universities began to include the Middle East in their curriculums, a demand for reading material was created which had to be satisfied within a short period of time. The works which were written during this period, while generally of high quality, were forced to depend to a large degree on the insufficiently researched and generalized accounts of the previous era of historical writing. This situation has led to several theories or concepts being accepted by contemporary scholars without sufficient analysis, perhaps the most well known being the Lybyer-Gibb and Bowen thesis of the Ottoman 'Ruling Institution and ~uslimInstitu- tion'.' The works of Bernard Lewis, Niyazi Berkes, and others are examples of the excellent general studies of Ottoman history which cover extensive chronological periods and themes, but which 2 have had a limited number of detailed studies upon which to draw. In addition to these there are several works on specific topics or periods in nineteenth century Ottoman history, which while not general, can by no means be a complete examination of the subject.3 Besides these, there are works by political scientists and sociologists that deal with the problems of traditional societies and modernization which claim to be applicable to the Ottoman ~rn~ire.~These too suffer from a lack of prepara- tory research and their theories must therefore remain scholarly speculation until tested. The trend in Ottoman history I~lbertK. Lybyer, The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Maqnificent (Cambridge, rrlass., 1913), and H.A.R, Gibb and Harold 8owen, Islamic Society and the West, Val. I o on dona Oxford Univ. Press, 1950). For an explanation of the thesis and a criticism of it, see Nr Itzkowitz,"Lighteenth Century Ottoman Realities", Studia Islamica, Vol. 16, 1962. a L~ernardLewis, The Emergence of rrlodern Turkey (New Yorkt Oxford Univ. Press, ?m], Niyazi Berkes, The Development of Turk1-sh Secularism (~ontrealt McGill Univ. Press, 1964) 'R. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire; 1856-1876 (princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1963), heri if iflardin, --The Genesis of YOU~~Ottoman Thought (princetons Princeton Univ. Press, 1962). and Charles Issawi, The Economic i is tory of the Middle Enst (chicagog Univ. of Chicago Press, 1968). 4~.Ward and D. Rustow, Political Modernization in Japan and Turkey (princetons Princeton Univ, Prass, 1902), as well as . - virtually any other work on modernization and social change. and in all of Middle Eastern studiss, now seems to be to begin the testing of these original theories and generalizations through detailed studies of particular areas, themes, and time periodsO5 This thesis will attempt to contribute to this process. The subject of this thesis is the thirty year period in Ottoman history from 1878 to 1908, usually labelled a period of reaction by historians. In this study it shall be called the Hamidian period after its chief personality, Sultan Abdulhamid 11, even though this opens the door to speculation (unnecessary in this case) on the author's bias toward the 'Great Man' interpre- tation of history. The Hamidian period in its entirety is much too broad for a study of this nature and therefore will be approached through a detailed examination of one area of the Ottoman Empire, eastern Anatolia or ~urdistan.~Through this Study of one part of the Empire some aspects of Ottoman policy toward the provinces and government policy and thinking about the Empire as a whole should become more clear. No attempt will be made, however, to apply conclusions reached for eastern Anatolia to the Balkans, the Arab lands, or western Anatolia.
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