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Competing Myths of Nationalist Identity: Ideological Perceptions of Conflict in Ambon, Indonesia

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Competing Myths of Nationalist Identity: Ideological Perceptions of Conflict in Ambon, Indonesia Competing Myths of Nationalist Identity: Ideological Perceptions of Conflict in Ambon, Indonesia. A dissertation presented to the Division of Arts of Murdoch University in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Kathleen Therese Turner B. Asian St. (Hons) ANU 2006 For mum and dad Table of Contents Page List of Illustrations iv Abstract v Publications vi Acknowledgments vii Glossary ix Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Sources and Methodology 7 1.1.1 Interviews 10 Chapter 2: Nationalism in Indonesia and Constructivism 20 2.1 Approaches to Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia 20 2.1.1 Primordialism 24 2.1.2 Instrumentalism 29 2.1.3 Constructivism 33 2.2 Social Disruption 40 2.3 Displaced Elites and Insecure Individuals 43 2.4 Myth-Making 50 2.5 The Emotional Appeal of Nationalism 61 Chapter 3: Social Disruption in Ambon and the RMS 71 3.1 Introduction 71 3.2 Factors Contributing to Disunity in Ambon 74 3.3 Factors Generating Disruptions 77 3.3.1 Colonial Changes to Traditional Structures 78 3.3.2 Christianisation 83 3.3.3 Colonial Changes to Structure 89 3.4 Constructions of Identity: Loyalist versus Nationalist 99 3.5 The Construction of an Ambonese Identity 106 3.6 A New Construction of Ambonese Identity 115 i 3.6.1 Common Ancestry and Territorial Homeland 118 3.6.2 Language 124 3.6.3 Religion 125 3.7 Conclusion 129 Chapter 4: Social Disruption in Ambon 1950-2000 132 4.1 Introduction 132 4.2 Disruption of Authority Structures in the Old Order 133 4.3 Disruptions of Authority Structures in the New Order 138 4.4 The Disruptive Impact of Migration and the Financial Crisis 144 4.5 The Disruptive Impact of the 1999 Decentralisation Measures 152 4.6 Conclusion 159 Chapter 5: The FKM and the Construction of an Ambonese Identity 161 5.1 Introduction 161 5.2 The Scapegoating of Migrants 166 5.3 A Non-Separatist Religious Construction 169 5.4 A Racial Construction 175 5.5 A Claim to Human Rights, Self-Determination and Democracy 182 5.6 Support for the FKM 185 5.7 Conclusion 187 Chapter 6: The Laskar Jihad and the Construction of Ethnonationalism 189 6.1 Introduction 189 6.2 Pre-Laskar Jihad Perceptions 192 6.2.1 Muslims in Ambon 193 6.2.2 Muslims outside Ambon 196 6.3 An Ethnoreligious Construction 198 6.4 An Ethnonationalist Construction 204 6.5 Support for the Laskar Jihad 217 6.6 Conclusion 219 ii Chapter 7: Conclusion 220 7.1 A Contribution to Ethnic Studies 220 7.2 The Process which Links Disruption to Ideologisation 226 7.3 A Case of Counterposed Nationalisms which Developed in Response to Each Other 229 7.4 A Contribution to Indonesian studies of Post-Soeharto Conflict and Violence 233 Appendices 1. Linguistic Map of Ambon-Lease 237 (Ambon, Haruku, Saparua, Nusa Laut) 2. Linguistic Map of West Seram 238 3. Linguistic Map of Central Seram 239 4. Linguistic Map of East Seram 240 5. Linguistic Map of Buru 241 6. 1950 RMS Declaration of Independence 242 from the Republic of Indonesia 7. Regional and Local Administration in Indonesia 243 8. 2000 FKM Declaration of Independence 244 from the Republic of Indonesia 9. 2002 Malino Peace Agreement 248 10. 2002 Declaration of War by Ja’far Umar Thalib 250 Bibliography 257 iii List of Illustrations Tables Page Table 1 Details of Interviewees 13 Table 2 The Total Number of KNIL Soldiers between 1927-1917 95 Table 3 Transmigration into Maluku between 1969-1999 146 Table 4 Changing Poverty Rates in Indonesia in 1996 and Changes 1996-99, February 1996 and February 1999 (%) 149 Table 5 Poverty Incidence and Contribution to Poor in Indonesia by Occupational Sector 150 Table 6 Regional Autonomy Laws of 1974 and 1999 155 Maps Map 1 Maluku Province xviii Map 2 Central Maluku xix iv ABSTRACT This thesis examines the 1999–2003 case of political conflict in Ambon, in Eastern Indonesia, in the context of political change in Indonesia from 1950-1998. It is argued that political transformation during this period was closely influenced by a much longer period of unprecedented social change preceding the politics of this period. It is suggested that the ideologisation of ethnic identities is likely to occur when structures of community are disrupted by changes in the contemporary world such as economic fluctuations or state policy interventions. One result is to disrupt traditional village communities so as to place individuals in stress situations making them susceptible to new nationalist ideologies. The other impact is to dislocate authority structures so that both incumbent and aspiring elites lose their power and authority and thus search for new ways in order to re-establish their moral and political legitimacy. It is argued that nationalism is able to offer a resolution to social disruption and thus to the community in search of social cohesion, while also functioning to rebuild elite authority. In ethnic nationalist ideology, insecurities and feelings of isolation are ameliorated by subsequent constructions of ‘us’ and ‘them’ where members of one distinct community are demarcated from other communities. It is suggested that myths of ancestry and homeland together with counterposed moral dichotomies appealed to the Ambonese who needed this form of ideological support. It is the insecurities and fear experienced by disrupted communities which promote this powerful ideological formula. It is asserted that conflict on the island has been characterised by this trend towards ideological absolutism where two conflicting ideological constructions have translated the conflict into a non-negotiable confrontation between opposing national rights. It is argued that these two ideological constructions have remained internalised on the island and embedded within the mindsets of both Ambonese Christians and Muslims, thereby rendering setbacks to conflict resolution. v Publications Kathleen Turner, ‘The Construction of Identities in Ambon, Indonesia’ in Vivienne Wee (ed), Political Fragmentation in Southeast Asia: alternative nations in the making”, RoutledgeCurzon: London, 2005. Kathleen Turner, ‘Myths and Moral Authority in Maluku: The Case of Ambon’, Asian Ethnicity, vol.4, no.2, June 2003, pp.241-264. Kathleen Turner, ‘Utopian Visions and Kinship Divisions: Ideological Perceptions of Ethnic Conflict in Ambon, Indonesia’, Harvard Asia Quarterly [online], vol.6, no.3, Summer 2002. Kathleen Turner, ‘Myths of Inviolability: Ethnic Themes in the Dynamics of Conflict in Ambon, Eastern Indonesia’, Asia View, vol.12, no.1, July 2002, p.7. vi Acknowledgments The work of completing this dissertation has been furthered and supported by many people. I owe a special debt of gratitude to the Ambonese who willingly shared their time and thoughts with me during what was clearly a period of immense social upheaval and trauma. I can only sincerely hope that their beautiful homeland finds stability and peace. I am grateful to David Hill for his help during the initial stages of the dissertation and to David Brown, my supervisor, who amongst his heavy engagements, managed to find some time to read, correct and give insightful suggestions. I also appreciate the friendship and support of colleagues and staff at the Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University, and outside academics. These included Greg Acciaioli, Sidney Adams, Ed Aspinall, Emita Astami, Del Blakeway, David Bourchier, Nils Bubandt, Toby Carroll, Fay Davidson, Tamara Dent, John McCarthy, Michael Jacobsen, Yvonne Haigh, Tauel Harper, Julia Hobson, Stuart Latter, Nigel Little, Jae Hyon Lee, Jim Meckelburg, Frank Murray, Karen Olkowski, Anne Randall, Garry Rodan, David Savat, Bernard Swan, Tsukasa Takamine, Miyume Tanji, Bev Thiele, Donna Turner, and Vivienne Wee. I would like to express my gratitude to Muhammadiyah University in Malang, Indonesia for sponsoring my research application to undertake fieldwork. Pak Habib from Muhammadiyah University gave valuable counsel and I am in debt for his assistance. The Asia Research Centre, Murdoch University and the Australian Federation of University Women (AFUW) all provided financial assistance, which allowed for the completion of my PhD and the opportunities to conduct fieldwork and attend an international conference in Hong Kong. The encouragement and kindness of my friends is gratefully remembered. I would especially like to thank Brian Pontifex, Jeannie Yeong, Danny Marr, Anne Ryan, Klaus Langer, Rob Richardson and Roberto Soria.. To my wonderful friend Adrian vii Luck who will never be forgotten even in passing, thank you for everything. A special mention also to Bernard Swan, Bernard Flood, Donna Thomas, Sue Taylor and Regina Gaujers for their support and understanding. To Sam Thomas who I met along the way. To have waited three long years has been certain anguish but to have given me such enduring love and support from so far away has truly been a special gift. Greatest of all, my debt of love and appreciation goes to my strongest supporters, my parents, in whom I could always find consolation in the desperate times and the inspiration to keep on working. I would not have made it this far without you. viii Glossary ABS Ambonsche Burgerschool A ‘European’ school set up in Ambon in the 1850s and 1860s for the children of Ambonese burgers Adat Customary law, custom, customary authority system Alifuru A generic term for the hill tribes in Maluku, traditionally having derogatory connotations of someone uncouth, uncultured and uncivilised Anak Negeri Village member BAKIN Badan Koordinasi Intelijen Negara Coordinating Body for State Intelligence Batalyon Gabungan Joint Battalion BBM Bugis, Buton, Makassar A reference to three of the major ethnic groups from South and Southeast Sulawesi known for their inter-island trading and settlement outside their homeland. It also denotes a certain antipathy towards these people as having their rights and privileges usurped from those whom they have traded and settled.
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