2 . in This Essay Published Posthumously, Degregori Reflects on His Thoughts and Conclusions When Serving As a Member of Peru’S Truth and Reconciliation Commission

Home , Chanchamayo Province, Jauja Province, Tarma, Tarma District

Notes

1 Introduction 1 . Comisió n de la Verdad y la Reconciliació n (2003). 2 . In this essay published posthumously, Degregori reflects on his thoughts and conclusions when serving as a member of Peru’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 3 . As Rasnake (1988: 201) notes in relation to Bolivia, the central square of Andean towns presented in miniature a kind of conceptual map of the organization of the central district. 4 . Raimondi (1895) provides an estimate of the barrio population of the time. Some 12,000 people lived in the Tarma barrios: Collana was the largest with 2,400 people, followed by Urahuchoc with 2,200; Chancha with nearly 2,000; Huancoy with 1,500; Andamarca with 1,300; Cayao with 1,700; and Congas with 1,000. 5 . P erú , Direcció n de Estadí stica (1878). This census under-reported the Andean population. 6 . U ntil 1908, the office of the prefect was to be found in Tarma and not in the departmental capital of Cerro de Pasco. 7 . Tarma Municipal Archive: Letters (TMA:L), Pedro Cá rdenas to Deputy of Tarma province, Lima, October 13, 1868. Pongoo was the name given to indentured servants at the beck and call of the authorities. Unless otherwise stated, translations from the Spanish are my own. 8 . The Sociedad Amiga was set up by Juan Bustamante, a writer and poli- tician from Puno, who became the spokesman of the indigenous peas- antry. In Huancané, Bustamante was killed after being captured by the military (Jacobsen 1997 ; Jacobsen and Domí nguez 2011) . In a mani- festo written in 1867, Bustamante (1981 : 22) wrote of how “the indios of Peru have not been and are still not free men or citizens of their pueblos”; they remained “los parias del Perú ” (the pariahs of Peru). 9 . An important exception is Chiaramonti (2007) who analyses elections in Peru in the mid-nineteenth century, prior to the period covered in this book. 10. See also Larson (2005a) and Larson (2005b) on Bolivia. 11. Quotations come from a local study of Vienrich’s contribution to education by Ferrer Broncano (1959). 196 NOTES

12. La Integridad, Lima, A ño 14, January 10, 1903. 13. TMA: L, Aurelio Leó n to Direcció n de Primera Ense ñ anza, Lima, July 22, 1904. 14. Interview, Tarma, September, 1973. 15. See Petras and Zeitlin (1968). 16. C omisió n de la Verdad y la Reconciliación. 2003 , Segunda parte: Los factores que hicieron posible la violencia, Capí tulo 1, Explicando el conflicto armado interno, 1.4 Los Factores Institucionales, p. 25.

2 The Provincial Council in Action: 1870–1914 1 . The terms indioo and indígenaa are sometimes used interchangeably in the correspondence. More often they are given different shades of meaning, with indí gena suggesting greater respect and indio greater disdain. I have given the term used by the author. 2 . TMA:L, Federico Vá ldez Figueroa to Subprefect, Tarma, May 1, 1885. 3 . TMA:L, Florent í n Beraú n to Inspector of Hygiene, Tarma, March 17, 1877. With respect to Bolivia, Zulawaski ( 2000: 108) shows how public health became a central element in the debate about the roles Indians should play in the new society, reflecting both the elite’s fear of contagion and recognition that an economically productive work- force needed minimal levels of physical well-being. 4 . A more detailed account can be found in Wilson (2003). 5 . Nugent (1 997: 165–8) writing on Chachapoyas points to the ruling elite’s construction of a mythical, egalitarian order and appeal to patri- otism to legitimate continued demands for labor service. 6 . Also known as ponguaje; I follow the spelling used in Tarma. 7 . Report by the Prefect of Juní n, El Peruano, October 23, 1874. 8 . TMA:M (Tarma Municipal Archive: Minutes), September 28, 1868. 9 . TMA:L, Manuel Exhelme to Prefect, Tarma, November 7, 1878. 10 . TMA:L, Jos é Manuel Alvariñ o to Subprefect, Tarma, March 16, 1881. 11. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Gobierno, Lima, September 5, 1889. 12. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to district mayors, August 20, 1889. 13. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Prefect, Tarma, August 20, 1889. 14. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Gobierno, Lima, September 5, 1889. 15. Caravallo (1889); see also Mallon (1995: 216–217). 16. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Adolfo Vienrich, March 31, 1897. 17. TMA:L, José Marí a Beraú n to Subprefect, Tarma, October 16, 1880. 18. TMA:L, José Marí a Beraú n to Subprefect, Tarma, August 14, 1880. 19. TMA:L, Arturo Cantella to Director General de Gobierno, Lima, August 11, 1896. 20 . Enganche was a term to which different meanings were given. Vienrich used it here in the pejorative sense, as the equivalent of debt peonage. But when used by official bodies, it simply meant recruitment. NOTES 197

21. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, February 24, 1897; his letter was also published in La Integridad, Lima, March 27, 1897. 22. TMA:L, Lizandro de la Puente to Subprefect, Tarma, January 17; February 12; September 18, 1901. 23. El Imparciall, Tarma, January 16, 1910. 24. TMA:L, José M. y Muñ oz to Director de Gobierno, Lima, December 27, 1874. 25. TMA:L, José M. y Muñ oz to Deputy for Tarma province, Lima, April 23, 1875. 26. TMA:M, Memoria l del Alcalde Santiago Zapatero, Tarma, August 12, 1876. 27. TMA:M, March 1, 1879. 28. TMA:M, December 14, 1877. This reflects how schools were consid- ered an extension of ayllu organization, as described by Salomon and Niñ o-Murcia (2011: 128). 29. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Francisco Flores Chinarro, Tarma, January 23, 1879. 30. TMA:L, José M. y Muñ oz to mayors of the districts, January 23, 1876. 31. TMA:L, Baldomero Lurquí n to Prefect, Tarma, October 31, 1884. 32. TMA:L, Eduardo Santa Marí a to municipal teachers, September 12, 1885. 33. TMA:M, October 29, 1886. 34. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Educación, Lima, April 13, 1892. The name of the body in charge of education changed frequently, as did the ministry under which education was placed. 35. TMA:M, December 21, 1891. 36. TMA:L, Juan Demarini to President of the C oncejo Escolar, Tarma, July 9, 1902. 37. La Educación Nacionall, journal published by the Direcció n de la Enseñ anza Primaria, Lima, No. 17, September, 1902. 38. C oncejos escolares were established in March 1901 and comprised the mayor, sindico de rentass, priest, and two citizens. 39. El Tarmeño, April 28, 1902. 40. El Imparciall, Tarma, July 14, 1912. 41. La Voz de Tarma, July 28, 1937. 42. R odr í guez y Ramí rez (1888). 43. La Aurora de Tarma, November 10, 1907. 44. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to municipal teachers, Tarma, April 1, 1891. 45. TMA:M, August 11, 1906. 46. TMA:A, Memorial del Alcalde Marttín Ottero, 1893. 47. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Albino Carranza, December 23, 1892. 48. In 1885, for example, urban primary school teachers were earning 20 soles per month while teachers in the barrios earned 10 soles; in 1892, a small salary rise was granted to teachers in Tarma town, but not to the barrio teachers (TMA:M, December 31, 1892). 198 NOTES

49. La Integridad, Lima, No. 204, June 17, 1893. 50. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, Memorial sobre la provincia de Tarma, La Educación Nacionall, Lima, vol. 3, no. 29/30, pp. 449–461. 51. La Aurora de Tarma, September 18, 1903. 52. TMA:M, Planilla de sueldoss, March, 1914. 53. T MA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Instrucció n, Lima, April 13, 1892. 54. T MA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, July 21, 1903. 55 . T MA:L Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, May 25, 1903. 56. T MA:L, Aurelio Leó n to district mayors, April 30, 1904. 57. T MA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Dirección de Enseñ anza Primaria, Lima, June 22, 1904. 58. T MA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, July 9, 1906. 59. T MA:L, Segundo Briceñ o to district mayors, July 9, 1906.

3 Local Democracy and the Radical Challenge: 1870–1914 1. I draw on the insightful analysis of the 1860 Congressional debate in Chiaramonti (2007). 2 . According to Contreras (2004: 283), state revenues originating in the sale of guano had accounted for between 60 percent and 80 percent of total fiscal revenues going to the state Treasury in the 1860s. Other forms of taxation had diminished greatly in importance or fallen into abeyance. 3. In the first period, six members belonging to the Santa Mar í a family held office, and in the second period, there were seven. To a lesser extent, the Mendizabal, Aza, and Cárdenas families ensured represen- tation through the presence of family members. 4 . TMA:L, Baldomero Lurquí n to Prefect, Tarma, December 9, 1896; Germán Velez to Director de Gobierno, Lima, January 22, 1897. 5 . The registers of the 1920s were compiled during Legu ía ’s Oncenio in preparation for elections to the Regional Congress. 6 . TMA:M, February 1, 1893. 7 . Some 20 years later, according to the Electoral Register of 1920, the occupational breakdown was the following: agriculture (30 percent), artisan trades (23 percent), trade (16 percent), professions (13 percent), and employees (11 percent). 8 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Provincial Council members, Tarma, August 12, 1876. 9 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Subprefect, Tarma, February 20, 1874. 10. TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Provincial Council members, Tarma, August 12, 1876. For many years, Tarma was represented by a miner, Antenor Rizo Patró n, resident in Cerro. NOTES 199

11 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Direcció n de Gobierno. Lima, December 27, 1874. 12. TMA:L, Baldomero Lurquí n to President of Departmental Council, Cerro de Pasco, October 23, 1875. 13 . TMA:L, Baldomero Lurquí n to Prefect, Tarma, November 24, 1877. 14. This version of events was recorded later by Cá rdenas (1941). 15. La Integridad, Lima, No. 3, August 10, 1889. 16. La Integridad, Lima, No. 150, May 14, 1892. 17. La Integridad, Lima, No. 130, January 16, 1892. 18. Pedro A. Cá rdenas was the son of Pedro Cárdenas who had led the civilistas before the war. 19. TMA:L, Manuel Santa Marí a to Ministro de Estado en el Despacho de Gobierno, Policí a y Obras Publicas, Lima, May 11, 1893. 20. La Integridad, Lima, No. 229, December 9, 1893. 21. La Integridad, Lima, No. 150, May 14, 1892. 22. The clauses of the 1892 law of municipalities were repeatedly explained by Tarma’s mayors to the districts: as in TMA:L, Segundo Briceñ o to district mayors, October 6, 1906. 23. District voters were registered in five separate books according to their occupation: property owners, professionals, agriculturalists and workers, traders, and artisans. These groups then nominated a candi- date to sit on the Provincial Council. 24. Germ ín, 1899. 25. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, La palabra de un buen Alcalde, La Integridad, No. 703, January 10. In local accounts of Vienrich’s inaugural speech, the passage on “casta” is omitted. 26. The term obras s can mean both deeds and public works; over time it would tend to take the latter meaning. 27. La Aurora de Tarma, November 8, 1903. 28. This version of events was reported by La Aurora de Tarma, January 24, 1904. 29. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Aurelio León, Tarma, October 7, 1903. 30. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Adolfo Vienrich, Tarma, October 8, 1903. 31. La Aurora de Tarma, November 8, 1903. 32. La Aurora de Tarma, January 24, 1904. 33. La Aurora de Tarma, December 3, 1904. 34. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, December 1, 1904. 35. T MA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, December 26, 1904. 36. TMA:L, Manuel Reyes Santa Marí a to Mayor of Chanchamayo, La Merced, December 26, 1906. 37. TMA:L, José Marí a Alvariñ o to Subprefect, Tarma, January 2, 1907. 38. Rum bos, Tarma, March 23, 1946. 39. Oficialista was a term used polemically to describe those in favor of state expansion at the expense of provincial autonomy. 40. T MA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, May 25, 1903. 200 NOTES

4 Adolfo Vienrich, Tarma’s Radical Intellectual: 1867–1908 1 . See essays on “The intellectuals” and “On education” in Gramsci (1973). 2 . In piecing together Vienrich’s biography, I draw on the following local sources: Corona Fúnebre (1908); Puccinelli (1945); Guijada Jara (1950); Ferrer Broncano ( 1959); Puccinelli (1961); and Diaz Ortiz (1999). 3 . This was published in La Gaceta Científica, Lima, A ño IV, No. 9, June 30, 1888, p. 235. 4. La Integridad, Lima, No. 95, May 16, 1891; see also Kristal (19 87) . 5. La Integridad, Lima, No. 146, May 7, 1892. Sub-offices of the Radical Party were reported to be in formation in Chancay, Parinacochas, Tacna, Moquegua, Paruro, Cusco, Cajatambo, Aymaraes, Andahuaylas, Castrovirreyna, Azá ngaro, Contumaza, La Convenció n, Jauja, Lampa, Paita, Puno, Supe, and Sartimbamba. 6. La Integridad, Lima, No. 98, June 6, 1891. 7. See Drinot (2011). 8. La Aurora de Tarma, July 28, 1905. 9 . As Ló pez (2008) notes, at that time workers’ organizations were aban- doning their mutualist agenda and taking a more combatative position. 10. La Aurora de Tarma, February 29, 1904. 11. La Aurora de Tarma, December 23, 1905; April 8, 1907. 12. La Aurora de Tarma, January 6, 1906; March 12, 1906. 13. La Aurora de Tarma, June 21, 1904. 14. Minutes of the Centro de Artesanos Confederados de Tarma, May 15, 1904; June 21, 1904; July 25, 1904, Archive of the Centro de Artesanos, Tarma 15. La Aurora de Tarma, December 30, 1905. 16. La Aurora de Tarma, June 10, 1905. 17. La Aurora de Tarma, November 8, 1903. 18. Aurora – Pacha-Huarai, January 1, 1904. 19. La Voz de Tarma, Tarma, July 28, 1928 20. Nelson Manrique (1988: 44–45) reports that in the 1880s when guilds in Huancayo applied for a license to perform el baile de los capitaness (the dance of the captains) according to custom, the Provincial Council turned down the application with the remark that such rites were “retrograde and ridiculous.” 21. La Aurora de Tarma, May 6, 1905. 22. Ibid. 23. La Aurora de Tarma, May 1, 1906. 24. La Aurora de Tarma, May 7, 1906. 25. El Imparciall, December 26, 1909. 26. This section builds on Ferrer Broncano (1959). 27. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, La palabra de un buen Alcalde, L a Integridad, Lima, No 703, January 10. NOTES 201

28. Q uoted in Corona Fúnebree (1908). 29. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, Memorial sobre la provincia de Tarma, La Educación Nacional, Lima, vol 3, no. 29/30, pp. 449–461. 30. Carranza ( 1887). 31. La Crónica Medica, Lima, A ñ o IX, No. 102, 1892. 32. La Integridad, Lima, August 10, 1889. 33. Las Parias, Lima, No. 19, November, 1905. 34. La Aurora de Tarma, February 22, 1904. 35. TMA:L, Baldomero Lurquí n to Subprefect, Tarma, December 22, 1884. 36. The history of the cemetery during the colonial period is recounted by Arellano (1984). 37. Set up in 1846, the Beneficencia Pública inherited responsibilities from the Church for charitable works in the town. 38. The story is told in a booklet published in 1946 in Tarma on the occasion of the institution’s centenary: El Centenario de la Sociedad de Beneficencia Pública de Tarma, 1846–1946, private collection. 39. Carranza (1887). 40. TM A:L, Tomá s Mendizabal Pareja to Direcció n de Gobierno, Lima, January 30, 1887; Tom ás Mendizabal Pareja to Junta de Sanidad, Tarma, February 18, 1887. 41. TMA:L, Fortunato Bermudez to J unta de Sanidad, Tarma, March 23, 1887. 42. El Tarmeño, July 14, 1897. 43. La Aurora de Tarma, September 18, 1907. 44. TMA:L, Juan Demarini to doctor, Tarma, May 10, 1902. 45. TMA:L, Juan Demarini to Prefect, Tarma, May 19, 1902. 46. TMA:L, Adolfo V ienrich to Mayor of La Oroya, May 11, 1903. 47. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Tarma’s Deputy in Lima, April 8, 1904; Aurelio Leó n to Federico Philipps, Tarma, April 23, 1904. 48. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Inspector de Hygiene, Tarma, July 2, 1904. 49. La Aurora de Tarma, September 30, 1905. 50. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to the Inspector Concejal de Instrucció n P ública, Higiene y Asuntos Contenciosos, September 2, 1904. 51. TMA:L, Segundo Briceñ o to Adolfo Vienrich, Tarma, September 14, 1906. 52. TMA:L, Benjamí n Mendizabal to Prefect, Tarma, February 14, 1905; Aurelio León to Prefect, Tarma, September 13, 1905.

5 The Politics of Folklore: 1900–1930 1. A new generation of intellectuals would abandon this approach all together and lay claim to Peru’s Hispanic heritage. 2 . Quoted in an article by Abelardo Gamarra, La Integridad, No. 752, December 19, 1903. 202 NOTES

3 . The booklet was first printed by the editorial, La Aurora de Tarma, in 1905 and reprinted in 1959 and 1999 with different introductions. 4 . This booklet was also first published by the editorial, La Aurora de Tarma, in 1906 and reprinted in 1961 and 1999. 5 . This discussion builds on Wachtel (1977), Flores Galindo (1986), Burga (1988), Millones (1992), and Stobart and Howard (2002). 6. My thanks to Rosaleen Howard for pointing out the discrepancy between Quechua and Spanish versions. 7 . F or example, in Chiquián, Ancash, in a reworking of the danza, the Spaniard assumed the central position; this reaffirmed the town’s dominance over the surrounding indigenous villages (Flores Galindo 1986 : 53–57; Burga 1988: 99). 8 . Hidalgo (1938). 9 . G arcí a Pantoja (1973: 22–24). 10. Writing about Cusco in the 1930s, de la Cadena (2000) explores how the working classes of the town gave the concept of mestizo meanings very different from the colonial past. “Indigenous mestizo” was an identity claimed by people who were literate and economically suc- cessful in the town and who shared traditional-indigenous cultural practices.

6 Indigenismo and the Second Radical Wave: 1910–1930 1 . Quipus s are knotted cords, a pre-Hispanic way of keeping records. 2 . However, leaders of the Asociació n were well aware that their efforts at publicity were often sabotaged. Material published had the habit of disappearing from bookshops and the public domain, according to Mayer (1984) many years later. 3 . Minutes of the Sociedad de Obreros de Auxilios Mutuos, Tarma, October, 1910. 4 . El Imparciall, Tarma, August 14, 1912. 5 . Castillo had become a schoolteacher in the district of Juní n following Vienrich’s death. 6. El Imparciall, Tarma, January 16, 1910. 7 . Ibid. 8 . El Imparciall, Tarma, December 3, 1911. 9. La Aurora de Tarma, June 15, 1905. 10. La Aurora de Tarma, May 1, 1906. Through the action, workers won a nine hour day but only 1.50 soles in pay. 11. El Peruano, Lima, August 25, 1906. 12. See the discussion in Chatterjee (1993). 13. Juan Hipó lito P évez, a peasant leader from Ica, was initially inspired by the speeches he had read by Joaquí n Capelo. Many years later, Pévez recalled the foundation of the Tahuantinsuyu movement in his memoirs (1983) and in an interview with Wilfredo Kapsoli (1984). NOTES 203

14. Also in Puno, Ré nique (2004: 91) underlines the importance of exchanges between communities and unions and the convergence of their political ideas. Similar kinds of alliances were being fostered at the same time in Ecuador; see Becker (2004). 15. Among the founders were Samuel Nuñ ez Calderon, Hipó lito Salazar, Juan Hipó lito Pévez, Carlos Condorena, and Ezequiel Urviola. 16. Insight into Mariátegui’s role is brought out by Pévez (1983). 17. Thanks to Pévez (1983: 359–361), there is a record of the discussions that took place especially at the first Congress of 1921. 18. Quoted by Kapsoli (1984: 243–244). 19. Ibid. 20. Mayer (no date) in a pamphlet on the Oncenio reported that the government had first concluded that the damage had been inevitable and refused to accept liability. In 1924, Congress insisted the government take action against the mining company, but this was watered down with assurances that the technical means had now been found to protect against further damage. 21. La Voz de Tarma, February 24, 1922. 22. La Voz de Tarma, August 23, 1923. 23. This section draws on the minutes of the Junta de Conscripció n Vial and correspondence of its presidents, in the Tarma Municipal Archive. 24. The breakdown according to district for 1921 was as follows: Tarma, 3,758 men; Acobamba, 891 men; Carhuamayo, 790 men; Palcamayo, 751 men; Juní n, 501 men; and Huasahuasi, 320 men. 25. La Voz de Tarma, December 2, 1922. 26. See Sulmont (1975: 56); Laite (1980: 326). 27. The first Adventist mission schools had opened in the 1910s around Lake Titicaca and Puno in southern Peru and offered indigenous children a much superior, all-round, education. Indigenous teachers coming through the schools shared not only religious conviction but also had transformed themselves into “indios nuevos” (new Indians); adopting a sober lifestyle that seemed to be far removed from that of the old “oppressed race” (Hazen 1978; Arroyo 2004). The story of the Adventists in the Perené is told by Barclay (1989: 124). 28. In his book, In the land of the Incass, Stahl (2006) set out his ideas and experiences in southern Peru. 29. La Voz de Tarma, January 2, 1926. 30. Kept by his family after his death in 1951, Amarrillo’s memorial was given to David Bayer, a North American social scientist in the 1970s. Recognizing the great value of this testimony, with the family’s permission, Bayer published the memorial as a Working Paper at the Departamento de Ciéncias Humanas of the Universidad Nacional Agraria in Lima in the mid-1970s. This document is without date. 31. Huasahuasi was formally recognized as an indigenous community on June 12, 1935. 204 NOTES

7 The Promise of APRA: 1930–1950 1 . The federation protested against Leguía’s plan to consecrate the Peruvian nation to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and used this as a plat- form to oppose his authoritarian rule. 2 . El Inca was a chain of chemist shops supplied with credit and products from Lima. 3 . Workers in Cerro de Pasco took action for higher wages that led to serious confrontations in September 1930. The Communist Party organized a congress of mine workers in La Oroya to press home the demands, and this led to a series of strikes during which two US func- tionaries were taken hostage. Workers from the mining camp of Mal Paso travelling to La Oroya clashed with the police in a confrontation that left 23 dead and many wounded (Klaren 2000: 271). 4 . La Voz de Tarma, March 23, 1931. The editor of this newspaper was now a supporter of APRA. 5 . In 1931, the National Federation brought together 107 teachers’ associations across the country. The interest in unionization increased among teachers after 1929 when the government, in the face of economic crisis, cut education budgets and reduced teachers’ salaries (Pezo, Ballon, and Peirano 1981). 6 . Rima Rima, Tarma, August 13, 1933. 7 . In the early 1930s, the population of Tarma province numbered around 70,500 who lived in some 540 settlements. Tarma district was by far the most populous with some 19,000 people and 70 settlements: La Voz de Tarma, Tarma, June 12, 1939. 8 . La Voz de Tarma, July 24, 1931. 9 . Rima Rima, Tarma, January 1, 1931. 10. Rima Rima, Tarma, December 16, 1933. 11. Rima Rima, Tarma, January 16, 1934. 12. Rima Rima, Tarma, October 8, 1933. 13. Rima Rima, Tarma, October 22, 1933. 14. Demarini had fought alongside Oscar Benavides when storming the presidential palace in the military coup of 1914, according to Ecos de Tarma, September 20, 1936. 15. TMA:L, Carlos Demarini to Subprefect, Tarma, October 6, 1938. 16. TMA:L, Carlos Demarini to Subprefect, Tarma, September 20, 1938. 17. TMA:M, Petition from the people of Tarma to President Manual Prado, April 6, 1940. 18. Founded in 1941, Rumbos s supported the political party, Frente Democratico Nacional. 19. Rumbos, Tarma, April 21, 1941. 20. TMA:L, Arturo Cantella to Fernando Vienrich, April 30, 1942. 21. TMA:L, Pedro Arrieta to Secretary General, Student Center, Tarma, October 29, 1945. NOTES 205

22. Mercurio Peruano: Revista Mensual de Ciencias Sociales y Letrass, Lima, Añ o XX, Vol. XXVI, No. 216, March 1945, pp. 130–135. 23. La Voz de Tarma, May 7, 1945. 24. Rumbos, Tarma, September 10, 1945. 25. Municipal Archive of La Merced: Letters, Luis Peralta to Mayor of La Merced, March 24, 1947. 26. La Patria, Tarma, May 1, 1927. 27. TMA:L, Report on the Asamblea Nacional Aprista Municipal by the delegate from Tarma, Pedro Macassi, April 7, 1946. 28. Rose Ugarte (1945). 29. La Voz de Tarma, October 29, 1945. 30. Rumbos, Tarma, September 22, 1945. 31. Rumbos, Tarma, December 29, 1945. 32. Rumbos, Tarma, January 5, 1946. 33. TMA:L, Pedro Macassi to district mayors, January 26, 1946. 34. Rumbos, Tarma, January 5, 1946. 35. La Voz de Tarma, July 28, 1937. 36. Tarma, organo del Centro de Colaboración Provinciall, vol. 1, no, 1, July, 1954; the number of teachers employed in the highland districts were as follows: Acobamba, 34; San Pedro de Cajas, 23; Palcamayo, 20; Huasahuasi, 15; La Unió n, 14; and Tapo and Palca, 12 each. 37. Rumbos, Tarma, January 26, 1946. 38. Rumbos s, Tarma, June 8, 1946. 39. Ibid. 40. Rumbos, Tarma, July 1, 1946. 41. La Voz de Tarma, July 17 and July 18, 1945.

8 Teachers Defy the State: 1950–1980 1. José Antonio Encinas, Nueva Escuela Peruana, Lima, A ñ o I, No. 1, 1936. 2 . APRA had made an ill-advised tactical alliance with Odrí a in an attempt to block Bela ú nde’s candidature for presidential office, and Soviet-line communist parties had given some support to the military government of the 1970s. 3. During fieldwork in the mid-1990s, I talked to some 60 schoolteachers in the province from rural and urban localities. 4. Yovera Ballona (1991). 5. SUTEP was composed of 5 levels, starting with the school, then with elected bodies at district, province, regional, and national levels. 6 . Material comes from Thorndike (1997) who wrote a “documentary novel” on SUTEP. 7 . The names of teachers I talked to in the 1990s have been changed. 8 . Seligmann (1995: 185) describes a similar situation in the department of Cusco. 9 . This section draws on material in Wilson (2007). 206 NOTES

10. At the time of the expropriation, 37 of the socios, most of them women, had been illiterate, leaving a thumbprint by way of signature on official documents. 11. See the fuller discussion by Portocarrero (1990: 234).

9 Citizenship in Retrospect 1 . Interview, Palcamayo, February, 1997. Bibliography

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Page numbers in italicss refer to maps and figures. Abancay, 79 Alvariño, José María, 71–72 Abercrombie, T., 86 Amarrillo, Hermógenes Leonardo, Acobamba, 42, 62, 68 137–42, 150, 203 n30 administrative hierarchy, three- anarchism, 54, 56, 76, 80, 87, 147 tiered, 13, 56, 62, 155 anarcho-sindicalista unions, 128 Aesop, 104 Ancash, 145 agrarian cooperatives, 179 Andrade, Alfredo, 86–87 agrarian reform, 11–12, 22, 121, Angela Moreno school, 177, 186 171, 173, 176–77, 179–83, 188 Angell, A., 167, 170 Agrarian Reform Office, 183 Apaicancha strike of 1922, 132–34 Agricultural Bank, 158 APRA-Rebelde, 163 agricultural workers, 60–61, Apurimac department, 128 129–30, 155 Arellano, C., 6 alcaldes varas (indigeous Arequipa, 14, 128 mayors), 42 Argentine music, 100–101, 111–12 Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Arguedas, José María, 160, 184 Americana (Popular American armed forces, 3, 157, 169, 171 Revolutionary Alliance, artisans, 15, 45, 60–61, 65–66, 68, APRA), 24, 140, 143–69, 177, 83–84, 88, 93, 113, 122, 148 183, 193, 205 n2 Asamblea Nacional Aprista clandestine period, 150–52, 163 Municipal (APRA National founded, 143, 146–48 Municipal Assembly), 155 government by, 21, 153–62 Asociación de Agricultores y plan de acción immediata, Ganaderos (Association 148–49 of Farmers and Stock Tarma and, 144–46, 148–50 Breeders), 158 Aljovín de Losada, C., 13 Asociación Pro Derecho Indígena Allende Llavería, Gustavo, 100, (Association for Indigenous 111–13, 117 Rights), 20, 119–20, Alvariño, José Manuel, 34 123–26, 128 218 INDEX

Aurora de Tarma, Laa (newspaper), Bustamante y Rivero, José Luis, 70–71, 84–87, 89, 91–92, 143, 152–53, 157, 159 124, 126 Aurora — Pacha Huarai Cabildo de Españolas (Council of (newspaper), 85 Spaniards), 7 authoritarianism, 10, 95–97, 99, Cabildo de Indios (Council of 115–17, 148, 163–65, 167–68 Indians), 7 Aves sin Nidoo (Mato de Turner), 101 Cáceres, Andrés, 35, 56–57, 62, 65 Ayacucho, 14, 23, 148, 171, 187–88 Cajamarca, 103, 105, 148 Ayas hacienda, 182 Calixto, don (Lord of Misrule), Aymara language, 129 113–15 Aza, José Manuel, 55 Callao port, 8, 95 Azángaro, 53, 128 Canessa, A., 181 Azucenas Quechuass (Vienrich), 100, Cantella, Arturo, 37 106 Capelo, Joaquín, 120–21, 125, 202 n13 baile del Inca, el, 100, 103–10, 113, capital, “informational,” 17 117, 200 n20 capitalism, 147, 150 Bakhtin, Mikhail, 116 Cárdenas, Pedro, 12–13, 33, 38, 63 Baldwin, P., 97 Carhuamayo, 42, 62, 134–35, 137 barrios, 6–7, 30–31, 34–36, 38–40, Carmen, El, boys’ school, 44 42–44, 46, 61, 93, 113–14, carnavales, 99–100, 110–17, 188 124, 195 n4 Carnavalón (Lord of Misrule), 101, Basadre, Jorge, 73 114, 115–16 Batallón Tarma de Guardia Carpio, Erasmo, 85–86 Nacional, 64–65 Carranza, Albino, 35, 42, 48 Baud, M., 81 Carvallo, Emiliano, 35 Bayer, David, 203 n30 Casca hacienda, 137 Bedoya, Augusto, 88 caseríos (hamlets), 40, 47, 135, 160, Bedoya, Eusebio, 85 167, 174, 180 Belaúnde, Fernando, 167, 170, 177, Castillo Atencio, José, 85, 122–23, 179, 205 n3 202 n5 Benavides, Oscar, 140, 150–51, Castro, Aristides, 132 204 n14 Castro Pozo, Hildebrando, Beraún, José María, 36–37 127–28 Bernal, Dionicio Rodolfo, 112–13 Catholic Church, 7, 16, 66, 82, 86, Bigenho, Michelle, 112 91, 108, 115, 122–23, 132, biological metaphor, 30, 50, 136–39, 150, 177 90–92, 97 Cayán hacienda, 137, 140–41 Bolivia, 86, 112, 181 census of education (1902), 48 Bourdieu, Pierre, 17 Central de Asuntos Municipales Briceño, Segundo, 96 (Central Office of Municipal bubonic plague, 92–96 Affairs), 156 Bueno, Bruno, 97 Central Railway Company, 145 Burga, Manuel, 105 central square, 6–7, 29–31, 69–70, Bustamante, Juan, 63, 195 n8 105, 107 INDEX 219

Centro de Artesanos Confederados Colegio de Electores (College of de Tarma (Center of Electors), 59, 63, 64 Confederated Artisans of Colegio Nuestra Señora de Tarma), 45, 84, 87–88, Guadalupe, 77 122, 135 Colegio San Ramón, 29, 45–46, Centro Socialista Primero de 59, 63–64, 77, 82, 85, 100, Mayo (Socialist Center First 145, 171 of May), 87 Collana barrio, 6, 42, 59–61 Cerro, Sanchez, 140, 150 collective bargaining, 169 Cerro de Pasco, 4, 7, 9, 14, 53, 55, Comercio, Ell (newspaper), 66 65, 112, 113, 120 Comité Pro Derecho Indígena “revolution of,” 145, 204 n3 Tahuantinsuyu, 24, 110, 119, Cerro de Pasco Mining Company, 126–37, 148 43, 121, 124–25, 145 Tarma Sub Comité, 131–37, 141 pollution deaths and, 131 Comités Femininos (APRA), 148 Chachapoyas, 148 communal land, 6, 11–12, 32–36, Chamber of Deputies, 9, 73, 162 55, 121, 128–29, 138–41, Chancha barrio, 61, 155, 176 144–45 Chanchamayo, 7–8, 37–38, 42, 58, communist conspiracy, 130, 62, 120, 136, 149–50 133–34, 137, 140–41 Chiaramonti, Gabriella, 27, 55, 56, Communist Party, 147–50, 195 n9 153–54, 158, 168, 170, Chiclayo, 79 204 n3 Chilean occupation, 29, 34, 37, 48, concejos escolares (school councils), 57, 64–65, 77, 92 43, 49 Chinese immigrants, 91 Concepción, 4, 53, 55, 65 cholera, 94 Confederación de Artesanos Unión Cinta Verde caserio, 162 Universal (Confederation of citizenship, 2–4, 10–13, 15–18, Artisans Universal Union), 83 22, 24, 27, 35, 47, 53, 55, 82, Congress, 35, 49, 53, 56, 120–21 191–94 Education Committee, 160 Civilista Party (civilistas), 56, Congress of Indigenous 63–66, 70–71, 77 Communities, 129–30, civilization, 30, 122–23, 161, 180, 133, 160 181, 185, 192 Declaration of Principles, clandestine political activity, 4, 129, 142 20–21, 23, 73, 102, 150–54, conscripción vial, 39, 129, 131, 165, 193 134–36 clase letrada, 46, 59, 76, 110, 175 conservatives, 54, 63–67 class structure, 161, 174–75, 188 Constitution, 10, 12, 15–16, 43, 191 see also specific classes Cadiz, of 1812, 27 Club 2 de Mayo, El, 88 of 1860, 53–54 coffee estates, 7, 8, 120 of 1920, 39, 127, 139 cofradías (lay religious Contreras, C., 13, 56, 161, 198 n2 brotherhoods), 7, 105–6, 147 contribución personal (head tax), Cold War, 164 12, 41 220 INDEX cooperatives, 143, 147, 149–50, dirt, 30 155, 159, 163 disease, 90–97 Corona Fúnebree (Funeral Wreath dissent-dissidence debate, 3–4, for Vienrich), 97 19–25, 117–18, 164–65 Corontacay hacienda, 137 District Councils, 9, 41, 44–45, Crónica Medica, Laa (journal), 77, 48–49, 56, 62 90–91 districts, 13, 45, 135 Cuba, 22, 172 dominio (dominion), 31–36, 39, 55, Cueto, Marcos, 97 83, 192 Cusco, 4, 34, 104–5, 119, 128, Douglas, Mary, 30 159, 177, 181–82, 202 n10 SUTEP teachers’ Congress of economic inequality, 22 1972, 173 economic problems, 144–46, 154, 156–59 danzas, 100, 103–10, 202 n7 education, 15–16, 18–19, 22, Das, Veena, 18, 19 24–25, 34–35, 40–51, 55, 61, data collection, 17–19, 28, 35, 43, 63, 66 48–49 agrarian reform and, 179–84 Deber Pro Indígena, Ell (newspaper), APRA and, 144, 152, 154, 120 159–62 debt servitude (enganche), 38, central district and, 41–44 125–26, 150 citizenship through, 15–16, 34, decentralization, 4, 24, 55–56, 68, 121, 123, 192 80, 149, 154–56 indigenous, rural, 35, 44–47, 61, fiscal, 56, 65 121, 123, 128–29, 136–37, Degregori, Carlos Iván, 3, 185–86, 139, 142, 159–61, 171–72, 195 n2 176–77, 179–86, 192 de la Cadena, Marisol, 15, 105, 119, reforms, 22, 25, 170–74, 188 202 n10 state take-over of, 19, 43–44, de la Canal, Concepción, 76 48–51 Demarini, Carlos, 151, 204 n14 Vienrich and, 69, 71, 76, 79, 82, Demarini, Juan, 43 88–90 Departmental Councils, 41, 56, see alsoo teachers 62, 67 electoral democracy, 4, 13–16, 53, Departmental Juntas, 9, 56, 65, 70 56–57, 66–70, 73, 149, 155 depression, 145–46 see alsoo presidential elections; Diario Judicial, Ell (journal), 77 Tarma municipal government; Diaz, Enrique, 85 voting Dirección de Gobierno (Directorate Encinas, José Antonio, 159–60, 167 of Government), 35, 37, 62 enganchadores (labor recruiters), Dirección de la Enseñanza Primaria 123, 125, 135 (Directorate of Primary enganche, as term, 196 n20 Teaching), 19, 43, 48, 49, 90 see alsoo debt servitude Dirección de Obras Publicas Escobar, José, 67 (Directorate of Public Escuela de Policía Municipal (School Works), 134 for Municipal Police), 156 INDEX 221

Esparza Zañatu, Alejandro, 165 García Pantoja, Juan, 114–15 European political ideas, 22, 54, Giraldo, Santiago, 87 75, 76, 83, 102, 146–47, 168 gobernadores (district governors), Exhelme, Manuel, 34 32, 62, 125, 135 Goillorisquilla coal mines, 126 fascism, 147 González Prada, Manuel, 66, Federación Nacional de Educadores 77–82, 90–91, 96, 102, 147 del Perú (National Federation Gootenberg, Paul, 65 of Peru’s Teachers, FENEP), Gramsci, Antonio, 76 169, 173, 204 n5 Gruzinski, Serge, 113 Federación Nacional de Maestros guano trade, 18, 55, 198 n2 (National Federation of Guardia Civil, 151 Schoolteachers), 149 Guardia Urbana, 76 Federación Nacional de Preceptores Guardino, P., 14 (National Federation of Guerrero, Andres, 10–11, 13 Instructors), 47 Guevara, Che, 187 Federación Obrera Regional Guzman, Abimael, 117, 186, 194 Indígena (Regional Federation of Indigenous Workers), 136 hacendados (hacienda owners), 61, federalism, 4, 79, 154 83, 104, 130, 139–40, 182 Felipillo (traitor figure), 107, 140 haciendas, 4, 7–8, 11, 13, 31, 35, feudalism, 22, 83, 122, 147, 182 38, 45, 48, 67, 104, 108, 129, Flor de Retamaa (Flower of 135–38, 140, 149–50, 155 Broom), 171 agrarian reform and, 22, 173, Flores Chinarro, Francisco, 85 182–85 Flores Galindo, A., 125 Seventh Day Adventists and, 136, folklore, 1, 75, 78, 99–117, 180 138, 142, 160, 203 n27 fondo de escuela (school fund), strike of 1922, 132–33 41–42 Hale, C., 77 food shortages, 144, 154, 156–59 Haya de la Torre, Víctor Raúl, 21, forced labor, 32, 36, 39, 44, 51, 68, 143–48, 150 109, 124, 129, 136, 149 Heilman, J., 141, 148 see alsoo enganchadores; labor Herr, Enrique, 68, 71–72, 87 service Hidalgo, J., 112 foreign investment, 147–48 Historia de Mayta, Laa (Vargas Freire, Paulo, 172 Llosa), 98 Frente Democratico Nacional, Howard, R., 109 152–53 Howard-Malverde, R., 181 Fujimori, Alberto, 168 Huacuas hacienda, 137 Huancané Gamarra, Abelardo, 78, 104 uprising of 1866–68, 12, 195 n8 gamonales, 20, 45, 122–23, uprising of 1923, 130 128–29, 131, 138–41, 145, Huancavelica, 35, 128 148, 154, 182 Huancayo, 4, 38, 53, 55, 65, 174, García, Roberto, 144, 145, 146, 158 182, 200 n20 García-Bryce, Iñigo, 83 Huanta, 171 222 INDEX

Huánuco province, 79 land and, 35–36, 55, 121, 123, Huánuco town, 14, 53, 79 128–29, 131–34 Huaráz, 14 laws on, 127 Huasahuasi, 8, 42, 134, 137–41, literacy and, 56, 60 150, 158, 203 n31 modernity and, 29–31 Huasahuasi District Council, 139 protests and, 137–41 huayno (music of indigenous radical union and, 128–31 origin), 100, 112–14 teachers and, 161, 167–68, hydro-electric power, 155 183–85 hygiene and health, 24, 28–30, 47, Vienrich and, 75–79, 85, 90, 50, 69, 71, 90–97, 180–81, 101–5, 109–10 192, 196 n3 wage work and, 124 workers movements and, Idea, La (newspaper), 85 87, 136 Imparcial, Ell (newspaper), 123, 124 see alsoo barrios; communal imperialism, 147 land; indigenista discourse; Inca indigenista movements; and folklore, 100–109 specific organizations and law, 102 locales Inca rule (Tahuantinsuyu), 6, 128 indio, as term, 30, 38–39, 44, 172, Independence, 16–17, 31, 33, 83 196 n1 indígena, 21, 39, 45, 128, 196 n1 inflation, 157, 170 indigenista discourse, 92, 95, Instituto Científico (Scientific 124–25, 176, 180–81, 186 Institute), 77 indigenista movements, 20, 22, 24, Instituto Pedagógico Gustavo 117, 119–42, 150 Allende Llavería, 1, 186 conservative, 123–26, 142 Integridad, Laa (newspaper), 69, radical, 126–41 78, 104 indigenous community, 4, 7, 32, 39 intellectual, “organic,” vs. APRA and, 146, 149–50, 154–56, “traditional,” 76, 185 159–61 internal war, 1, 193 central state under Leguía and, irrigation, 155 127, 129–31 Chilean occupation and,, 65 Jacahuasi caserio, 162 citizenship and, 10–13, 24, Jacobsen, N., 12, 13, 128 27–29, 56, 192, 192–93 Jauja province, 8, 38, 53, 55, 65, culture of, 100–117, 123 124, 183 education and, 34, 43, 124, 129, Jauja town, 4 136–37, 142, 159–61, 167 Junín, 7, 12, 35, 42, 48, 53, equality and, 33–34 62, 65, 87, 123, 128, hygiene and, 91, 92, 95 144, 148 indirect vs. direct suffrage and, junta económica, 84 59–60 Juntas de Conscripción Vial labor service and, 31–32, 36–40, (Committees for the road 127, 129, 134–36 building service), 134–35 INDEX 223 juntas de mayores contribuyentes road conscription (conscripción (committees of wealthy men), vial), 39, 129, 134–36 67, 73, 132 Supreme Resolution outlawing Juntas Municipales Transitorias Comité Tahuantinsuyu (Transitional Municipal (1927), 130 Juntas), 153–55 Leguía, Augusto, 20, 24, 39, 114, Juventud Aprista Peruana (JAP), 163 119, 127, 129–32, 134, 136, 139–40, 145, 154, 169, 204 n1 Kapsoli, Wilfredo, 130 Leibner, G., 87 Keynsianism, 156 León, Aurelio, 19, 49, 68–71, Klaren, P., 130 96, 151 Knight, A., 18 Liberal Party, 19, 56–57, 67–69, 151 Korean War, 164 radical alliance of 1902–4, 61, Kruijt, D., 23 68–73 kuarakas (indigenous chiefs), 6–7 Liceo Tarma, 84 literacy, 14, 55, 60, 83, 92, 139, 160 labor service (mita de plaza), 31–32, Literary Circle, 77–78, 99, 101 36–40, 127, 129, 134–36 Loja, Julian, 108, 110 labor strikes and unrest, 126, López, Casimiro, 84, 132–34, 150, 158 Lurquín, Baldomero, 64 see alsoo teachers’ strikes La Fontaine, Jean de, 104 Macassi, Pedro, 144–46, 153, Lagos, Edith, 187–88 155, 164 La Madrid, José, 123 Macassi, Ramón, 65 land-for-labor, 32, 127, 136 Maco hacienda, 61, 183–85 see alsoo labor service malaria, 94 land reform, 35–36, 51 Mallon, F., 10 see alsoo agrarian reform Manco Capac, Inca ruler, 102, 123 La Oroya, 43, 61, 94–95, 131, 135, Manrique, Nelson, 16, 200 n20 178, 204 n3 Mantaro river, 131 Larson, B., 10, 11 Mantaro valley, 4, 65 laws Maoists, 1–3, 21, 23, 116–17, 168, Decree Law 19326 (education 170–71, 173, 175, 179, 183, reform, 1972), 172 185–89, 193–94 education funding (1902), 43 Marcapomacocha, 62 equality of indigenous people María del Valle, Manuel, 63 (1878), 33–34 Mariátegui, José Carlos, 23, 103, fiscal decentralization (1886), 128, 146, 154, 156 65, 70 Márquez, Luis A., 77 internal security (1949), 164 Martinez Alier, J., 183 municipalities (1861), 54 Marxism, 21–23, 117, 146, 156, 163 municipalities (1873), 28, 41, Marxism-Leninism, 187 55–56, 57, 62 Marxism-Maoism, 169 municipalities (1892), 56, Mato de Turner, Clorinda, 101 199 n22 May Day, 86–88 224 INDEX

Mayer, Dora, 120–21, 125–26, Muñoz, José M. y, 41 203 n10 mutual aid associations, 14, 65, McEvoy, Carmen, 55 83–84, 159 Méjar, Gerardo, 85 “Memorias del personero de la National Assembly of 1919, 127 comunidad campesina de National Students Federation, 145 Huasahuasi” (Amarrillo), 137 nation-builders, 4, 10–11, 13, 18, Mendizabal, Francisco Borja, 40, 53 63, 64 Niño-Murcia, F.M, 45 Mercurio Peruano (journal), 152 North, Liza, 147 mestizaje (cultural-racial mixing), Nueva Simiente (newspaper), 87 15, 111, 113, 117, 175, 193 Nugent, D., 148, 196 n5 Mexico, 160 middle classes, 21, 143, 147, 159, Odría, Manuel, 164–65, 180, 205 n3 163, 164, 173, 177 Oncenio, 39, 114, 116, 127, military coups 131, 169 of 1914, 204 n14 Orlove, B., 137 of 1948, 164–65 Otero, Martín, 46 of 1968, 23, 115–17, 167, 171, Otuzo, 79 173–74 mine workers strike of 1930, 145 Pachacutec, Inca ruler, 102 mine workers union, 145, 178 Palca, 42 mining, 7, 8, 13, 31, 38, 40, 58, 63, Palcamayo district, 42, 68, 158, 120, 123–26, 129, 131, 135, 162, 175, 178, 193 145–46, 148, 155 Palomino, Francisco, 144–46 Ministerio de Fomento (Ministry of Panama Canal, 88 the Economy), 95 papel sellado (stamp duty), 41 Ministerio de Fomento y Obras Pardo, José, 70 Publicas (Ministry of Economy Pardo, Manuel, 49–50, 55, 57, 63, 65 and Public Works), 127, 134 Parias, Las (newspaper), 91 Ministerio de Gobierno (Ministry Partido Civil, 55, 70–71 of Government), 35, 68, 164 Partido Communista del Perú: Ministry of Agriculture, 157, 158 Sendero Luminoso, seee Shining Ministry of Education, 19, 162, Path 169, 176, 177, 180 Partido del Pueblo (APRA), 153 modernity, 3, 24, 29–31, 40, 50, Partido Vanguardia Socialista del 54, 69, 82, 91, 147, 150, 152, Perú (Socialist Vanguard Party 160–61, 182, 186 of Peru), 153 mojonazgo (alcohol and luxury “Parties and the National Union, taxes), 41–44 The” (González Prada), 80 Moreno family, 132 Pasco mining area, 148 Morococha mining zone, 4, Patria Nueva, 127–28 126, 135 Patria Roja, 173–74, 193 muliza (music of Argentine origin), Patronato de la Raza Indígena 100, 111–13, 115 (Trusteeship of the Indigenous Municipal, Ell (newspaper), 85 Race), 130 INDEX 225

Payne, James, 169–70, 176 public works, 28, 37, 149, 157, 164 peaje (road tolls), 41 see alsoo roads and infrastructure Pechú, Manuel, 63–64, 77 Puno, 128, 203 n14 penal settlements, 165, 174, 179 Perené colony, 136 Quechua language, 75, 79, 85, Pévez, Juan H., 128–29, 131, 101–2, 104, 107–8, 112–13, 202 n13 129, 160, 180 Pichis Trail, 37, 68, 120 Piérola, Nicolás de, 37 Rabelais and His World Pimienta, ña (wife of Lord of (Bakhtin), 116 Misrule), 114–15 race and racism, 15–17, 30, 76, Pizarro, Juan (Spaniard in el baile 79, 82, 119, 128, 176, 177, del Incaa ), 106–8 185, 188 plague, 91–92 Radical, El (newspaper), 85 Platt, Tristan, 11 radicalism Polar, Jorge, 49 first wave, 24, 53–74, 192 police, 127, 152, 157 second wave, 24, 119–42 political violence, 2–4, 18, 22, 118, teachers and, 47, 167, 179–88 130, 151, 163, 168–69, 186, third wave, 24, 152 188–89, 191, 193–94 see also specific movements and pollution, 131 political parties Pomachaca caserio, 162 Radical Party, seee Unión Nacional pongaje, seee forced labor Raimondi, Antonio, 7, 195 n4 pongo, 39, 195 n7 Rama, Angel, 21–22 pontazgo (bridge tolls), 41, 43 Rasnake, R., 195 n3 Poole, Deborah, 18, 20 reciprocity, 11–12, 28, 31, 36, 39, popular culture, 20, 24, 86, 129, 136 99–118, 188 Regeneración, La (The Portocarrero, Gonzalo, 147, Regeneration, antialcohol 156, 174 league), 84–85 potatoes, 33, 138 Regional Congresses, 132, 154 Prado, Mariano Ignacio, 63–65 Rénique, José Luis, 78, 121, Prado Ugarteche, Manuel, 151 203 n14 prefects, 13, 32, 40, 44, 56, 62, 68, república de letras (lettered 71, 72, 97–98, 156 republic), 78 presidential elections Restoration Movement, 164 of 1872, 55 Revista de Lima, 101 of 1875, 63–64 Revolutionary Government of the of 1945, 152–53 Armed Forces, 23 of 1962, 170 Ricrán district, 184 of 1980, 179 Rima Rimaa (newspaper), 149–50 price controls, 157 roads and infrastructure, 28, 39, 55, Primero de Mayo, El (First of May 69, 127, 135–36, 149, 155 sports club), 84, 88 Rodríguez y Ramírez, Prefect, 44 Progreso, Ell (newspaper), 85 ronda campesina (peasant public employee salaries, 156–57 militia), 186 226 INDEX

Rumboss (newspaper), 151, 161, 162, socialism, 47, 54, 76, 79, 83, 204 n18 86–87, 103, 121, 168 Rutten, R., 81 Socialist Party, 20, 119, 128, 146 Socialist Workers’ Association, 87 Salazar, Manuel, 153 Sociedad Amantes de la Ciencia Salomon, F., 45 (Society for the Lovers of San Pedro de Cajas, 140, 144 Science), 77 Santa Anna de Pampas (later Sociedad Amiga de los Indios Tarma), 4–5 (Friends of the Indian Society), Santa María, Manuel Reyes, 71 12, 63, 195 n8 Santa Rosa school, 47 Sociedad de Beneficencia Pública de Santa Teresa girls’ school, 44 Tarma, 76, 93, 201 n37 Santiago, feast of, 104 Sociedad de Obreros y Auxilios Santos Atahualpa, Jan, 7 Mutuos (Workers’ Society for Sección de Asuntos Indigenas Mutual Assistance), 121–23, (Bureau of Indigenous Affairs), 126, 135 127, 130, 139–40 Sociedad de Preceptores (Society of Seligmann, Linda, 177, 181, 205 n8 Instructors), 47 Sempertegui, Dolores, 47 Sociedad Independencia Electoral Sepa, El, penal colony, 174 (Society for Electoral Seven Interpretive Essays Independence), 55 (Mariátegui), 103 Sociedad Recaudadora de Seventh Day Adventists Impuestos (Society for Tax (adventistas), 136, 138, 142, Collection), 19 159–60, 203 n27 Soviet Union, 160, 187 Shining Path, 3, 23, 25, 85, Spanish rule, 6, 27–28, 102–3, 117–18, 142, 171, 179, 105–9, 115–17, 140 186–88, 193–94 Stahl, Fernando A., 136, 203 n28 Silbario Tarmeñoo (Vienrich), 89–90 Stallybrass, P., 116 Sindicato de Educadores de la state of emergency of 1932, Revolución Peruana (Teachers’ 140, 150 Union of the Peruvian subprefect, 32, 65, 72, 97, 133–34 Revolution, SERP), 174 Supreme Court, 140 Sindicato de Maestros (Union of “symbolics of sameness” vs. School Teachers), 149, 159 “difference,” 176 Sindicato Único de Trabajadores symbolic violence, 181 de la Educación Peruana (Union of Peruvian Education Tahuantinsuyu movement, 104–10, Workers, SUTEP), 173–79, 117, 120, 138–39, 148, 186, 188–89, 193, 205 n5, n6 202 n13 Sindicato Unión de Propietarios see alsoo Comité Pro Derecho y Choferes (Union of Truck Indígena Tahuantinsuyu Owners and Drivers), 149 Tapo district, 8, 42, 158, 183 small pox, 30, 93, 97 Tarma Municipal Archive, 8–9, 14, Smelter mining town, 126, 135 18–19 INDEX 227

Tarma municipal government, 3, 27 powers stripped from, 19, formal end of, 131–32 49–51, 97 legal framework of, 28, 54–57 protests of 1938 and 1940 municipal elections and, 57, 61, and, 151 66–73, 88, 153, 167 radical civilistas and, 54, 57, 59, office bearers, 57–59 61, 63–73 stripped of power, 72–73, 192 Sub Comité of Tahuantinsuyu Tarmapap Pachahuarainin, Fábulas and, 131–37, 141 Quechuass (Vienrich), 104 truck drivers and, 145 Tarmap Pacha Huaray—Azucenas Vienrich and, 76, 89 Quechuass (Vienrich), 102 voters and, 54, 59–61 Tarma Province see also specific office holders anniversary of foundation Tarmatambo, 6, 42, 59–60 of, 111 Tarma town APRA and, 144–52 cemetery, 92–93 as case study, 8–9 early history, 4–7 citizenship and, 191–94 indigenous relations and, 32–40 debates framing, 10–21 municipal electoral registers, early history and geography of, 59–61, 60, 67 4–8 municipal library, 9, 152 Junta Municipal Transitoria of Tarmeño, Ell (newspaper), 94 1945, 153–55, 158–59, 162 taxes, 19, 28, 41–43, 149, 151, 156 map of, 5 Taylor, L., 148 population of, 204 n7 teachers, 1, 24–25, 45–47, 49, 61, SUTEP teachers and, 168, 78–79, 146, 167–92 170–71, 175, 178–79, 188 agrarian reform and, 179–84 Tarma Provincial APRA ambiguous position of, 167, Committee, 144 173–75, 182–86 Tarma Provincial Council, 12–14, APRA and, 148–49, 157, 160–62 16, 27–72 radicalism and, 179–88 administrative organization and, salaries of, 157, 170–74, 178, 197 61–62 n48, 204 n5 archives of, 8–9 teachers’ associations, 169–71 Chilean occupation and, 64–65 teachers’ cooperatives, 175 district representatives on, 67–68 teachers’ strikes, 177–79 education and, 15, 19, 40–46, of 1960, 169 48–50 of 1971, 173 elected local governments of, 24, of 1973, 174 27–28, 61–73 of 1978, 177–79, 186–87 hygiene and, 92, 94–97 of 1979, 178–79, 186 labor service and, 31–32, 36–40 teachers unions, 161–62, 168 land rights and, 33–36 outlawed, 25 legal framework of, 28, 54–57 see also specific unions modernization and, 28–31 Tempestad en los Andess (Valcárcel), office holders and, 54, 57–59, 58 136, 142 228 INDEX tenientes gobernadores, 32, 125, 135 vaccination, 30, 91, 96–97 Thurner, M., 17 Valcárcel, Luis E., 136, 142, 159 tierras de composición (composition Váldez Figueroa, Federico, lands), 34–35 29–30, 91 tierras de repartición (repartition Vallejo, Cesar, 184 lands), 33 Vargas Llosa, Mario, 98 trade guilds, 7, 14, 83–84, 86, 100, Velasco Alvarado, Juan, 23, 105–6, 109, 122, 147 171–72, 174 tribute, 10–12, 31, 33 Vienrich Bünter, Adolfo, 76 truck drivers, 145, 157–58 Vienrich de la Canal, Adolfo Truck Drivers Union, 21, Diego, 51, 67–72, 75–109, 144–45, 149 143, 147, 151 Truth and Reconciliation background of, 75–77, 82 Commission, 3, 23, 195 n2 education and, 15, 43, 45–46, Túpac Amaru, Inca ruler, 105 48–49, 75, 82, 84, 88–90, Tupín, 42 195 n11 typhus, 30, 94–97 elections and mayoral terms of, 24, 61, 67–72, 86–89, 95 “un-imagined” national folklore and, 99–109 community, 17 hygiene and, 75, 90–97 Unión, Laa (newspaper), 85 inaugural address of, 69, Unión Nacional (National Radical 199 n25 Party), 1, 15, 20, 24, 36, 57, indigenous society and, 36, 38, 66–70, 79–80, 141, 144, 147 75–79, 123 collapse of, 97 leadership and, 81–82 education and, 84–85 legacy of, 97–98 folklore and, 99, 108–10 political opponents and, 16, 87, Liberal alliance and, 61, 68–73 97–98 workers and, 82–88 portrait of 1942, 152 unions, 143, 147, 150, 159, 175 Radical Party and, 76–81 organizing vs. sophisticating and, reevaluation of 1940s, 152 170, 176 resignation of, 70, 96 outlawed, 169 seminars on, 1–2 see alsoo labor strikes and unrest; suicide of, 72, 97–98, 121, 122 and specific unions teaching manuals of, 89–90 Unión Tarmeña, 66 workers’ movement and, 75, United States, 8, 88, 159, 164 82–88 Universidades Populares, 160, 175 Villar, Pedro, 149 Universidad Nacional del Centro in Vitoc, 62 Huancayo, 174, 184 voting, 54–57, 59–61, 66–67, 71, Universidad Nacional de San 147–48, 155, 199 n23 Cristóbal de Huamanga, 23, 171 Voz de Tarma, Laa (newspaper), 133, Universidad Nacional González 136–37 Prada, 163 Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Wade, Peter, 176 Marcos, 77, 120, 144, 145 Waris, 6 INDEX 229

War of the Pacific, 34, 42, 56, workers’ night school, 84, 89 64–65, 76, 77 workers’ rights to organize, war vs. Ecuador, 87 169–170 water, piped, 69, 155 working classes, 76, 78, 82–88, White, A., 116 120–22, 124–25, 143, 147, women, 14, 30–31, 47, 83, 106, 153, 160–61, 164, 177 123, 129, 148, 175–76, 180, World War II, 157 188, 192 voting rights, 155 Yauli province, 4, 43, 61, 62, 68 workers’ associations, 83–85, yellow fever, 30, 95 121–22, 143 workers’ movement, 65–66, 76, Zevallos Gámez, Horacio, 173 78, 82–88 Zulen, Pedro, 120, 121, 128