Notes 1 Introduction 1 . Comisió n de la Verdad y la Reconciliació n (2003). 2 . In this essay published posthumously, Degregori reflects on his thoughts and conclusions when serving as a member of Peru’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission. 3 . As Rasnake (1988: 201) notes in relation to Bolivia, the central square of Andean towns presented in miniature a kind of conceptual map of the organization of the central district. 4. Raimondi (1895) provides an estimate of the barrio population of the time. Some 12,000 people lived in the Tarma barrios: Collana was the largest with 2,400 people, followed by Urahuchoc with 2,200; Chancha with nearly 2,000; Huancoy with 1,500; Andamarca with 1,300; Cayao with 1,700; and Congas with 1,000. 5 . Per ú, Direcció n de Estad í stica (1878). This census under-reported the Andean population. 6 . Until 1908, the office of the prefect was to be found in Tarma and not in the departmental capital of Cerro de Pasco. 7 . Tarma Municipal Archive: Letters (TMA:L), Pedro Cá rdenas to Deputy of Tarma province, Lima, October 13, 1868. Pongoo was the name given to indentured servants at the beck and call of the authorities. Unless otherwise stated, translations from the Spanish are my own. 8 . The Sociedad Amiga was set up by Juan Bustamante, a writer and poli- tician from Puno, who became the spokesman of the indigenous peas- antry. In Huancané, Bustamante was killed after being captured by the military (Jacobsen 1997 ; Jacobsen and Domí nguez 2011 ). In a mani- festo written in 1867, Bustamante (1981 : 22) wrote of how “the indios of Peru have not been and are still not free men or citizens of their pueblos”; they remained “los parias del Per ú” (the pariahs of Peru). 9 . An important exception is Chiaramonti (2007) who analyses elections in Peru in the mid-nineteenth century, prior to the period covered in this book. 10. See also Larson (2005a) and Larson (2005b) on Bolivia. 11. Quotations come from a local study of Vienrich’s contribution to education by Ferrer Broncano (1959). 196 NOTES 12. La Integridad, Lima, A ño 14, January 10, 1903. 13. TMA: L, Aurelio Leó n to Direcció n de Primera Ense ñ anza, Lima, July 22, 1904. 14. Interview, Tarma, September, 1973. 15. See Petras and Zeitlin (1968). 16. Comisió n de la Verdad y la Reconciliación. 2003 , Segunda parte: Los factores que hicieron posible la violencia, Capít ulo 1, Explicando el conflicto armado interno, 1.4 Los Factores Institucionales, p. 25. 2 The Provincial Council in Action: 1870–1914 1 . The terms indioo and indígenaa are sometimes used interchangeably in the correspondence. More often they are given different shades of meaning, with indí gena suggesting greater respect and indio greater disdain. I have given the term used by the author. 2 . TMA:L, Federico V á ldez Figueroa to Subprefect, Tarma, May 1, 1885. 3 . TMA:L, Florent í n Bera ú n to Inspector of Hygiene, Tarma, March 17, 1877. With respect to Bolivia, Zulawaski ( 2000: 108) shows how public health became a central element in the debate about the roles Indians should play in the new society, reflecting both the elite’s fear of contagion and recognition that an economically productive work- force needed minimal levels of physical well-being. 4 . A more detailed account can be found in Wilson (2003). 5 . Nugent ( 1997: 165–8) writing on Chachapoyas points to the ruling elite’s construction of a mythical, egalitarian order and appeal to patri- otism to legitimate continued demands for labor service. 6 . Also known as ponguaje; I follow the spelling used in Tarma. 7 . Report by the Prefect of Juní n, El Peruano, October 23, 1874. 8 . TMA:M (Tarma Municipal Archive: Minutes), September 28, 1868. 9 . TMA:L, Manuel Exhelme to Prefect, Tarma, November 7, 1878. 10 . TMA:L, Jos é Manuel Alvari ñ o to Subprefect, Tarma, March 16, 1881. 11. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Gobierno, Lima, September 5, 1889. 12. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to district mayors, August 20, 1889. 13. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Prefect, Tarma, August 20, 1889. 14. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Gobierno, Lima, September 5, 1889. 15. Caravallo (1889); see also Mallon (1995: 216–217). 16. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Adolfo Vienrich, March 31, 1897. 17. TMA:L, José Mar í a Beraú n to Subprefect, Tarma, October 16, 1880. 18. TMA:L, José Marí a Beraú n to Subprefect, Tarma, August 14, 1880. 19. TMA:L, Arturo Cantella to Director General de Gobierno, Lima, August 11, 1896. 20 . Enganche was a term to which different meanings were given. Vienrich used it here in the pejorative sense, as the equivalent of debt peonage. But when used by official bodies, it simply meant recruitment. NOTES 197 21. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, February 24, 1897; his letter was also published in La Integridad, Lima, March 27, 1897. 22. TMA:L, Lizandro de la Puente to Subprefect, Tarma, January 17; February 12; September 18, 1901. 23. El Imparciall, Tarma, January 16, 1910. 24. TMA:L, José M. y Muñ oz to Director de Gobierno, Lima, December 27, 1874. 25. TMA:L, José M. y Muñ oz to Deputy for Tarma province, Lima, April 23, 1875. 26. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Santiago Zapatero, Tarma, August 12, 1876. 27. TMA:M, March 1, 1879. 28. TMA:M, December 14, 1877. This reflects how schools were consid- ered an extension of ayllu organization, as described by Salomon and Niñ o-Murcia (2011: 128). 29. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Francisco Flores Chinarro, Tarma, January 23, 1879. 30. TMA:L, José M. y Mu ñ oz to mayors of the districts, January 23, 1876. 31. TMA:L, Baldomero Lurquí n to Prefect, Tarma, October 31, 1884. 32. TMA:L, Eduardo Santa Marí a to municipal teachers, September 12, 1885. 33. TMA:M, October 29, 1886. 34. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Educación, Lima, April 13, 1892. The name of the body in charge of education changed frequently, as did the ministry under which education was placed. 35. TMA:M, December 21, 1891. 36. TMA:L, Juan Demarini to President of the Concejo Escolar, Tarma, July 9, 1902. 37. La Educación Nacionall, journal published by the Direcci ón de la Enseñ anza Primaria, Lima, No. 17, September, 1902. 38. Concejos escolares were established in March 1901 and comprised the mayor, sindico de rentass, priest, and two citizens. 39. El Tarmeño, April 28, 1902. 40. El Imparciall, Tarma, July 14, 1912. 41. La Voz de Tarma, July 28, 1937. 42. Rodr í guez y Ramí rez (1888). 43. La Aurora de Tarma, November 10, 1907. 44 . TMA:L, Albino Carranza to municipal teachers, Tarma, April 1, 1891. 45. TMA:M, August 11, 1906. 46. TMA:A, Memorial del Alcalde Marttín Ottero, 1893. 47. TMA:M, Memorial del Alcalde Albino Carranza, December 23, 1892. 48. In 1885, for example, urban primary school teachers were earning 20 soles per month while teachers in the barrios earned 10 soles; in 1892, a small salary rise was granted to teachers in Tarma town, but not to the barrio teachers (TMA:M, December 31, 1892). 198 NOTES 49. La Integridad, Lima, No. 204, June 17, 1893. 50. Adolfo Vienrich, 1903, Memorial sobre la provincia de Tarma, La Educación Nacionall, Lima, vol. 3, no. 29/30, pp. 449–461. 51. La Aurora de Tarma, September 18, 1903. 52. TMA:M, Planilla de sueldoss, March, 1914. 53. TMA:L, Albino Carranza to Director General de Instrucció n, Lima, April 13, 1892. 54. TMA:L, Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, July 21, 1903. 55 . TMA:L Adolfo Vienrich to Prefect, Tarma, May 25, 1903. 56 . TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to district mayors, April 30, 1904. 57. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Dirección de Enseñ anza Primaria, Lima, June 22, 1904. 58. TMA:L, Aurelio Leó n to Prefect, Tarma, July 9, 1906. 59. TMA:L, Segundo Briceñ o to district mayors, July 9, 1906. 3 Local Democracy and the Radical Challenge: 1870–1914 1. I draw on the insightful analysis of the 1860 Congressional debate in Chiaramonti (2007). 2. According to Contreras (2004: 283), state revenues originating in the sale of guano had accounted for between 60 percent and 80 percent of total fiscal revenues going to the state Treasury in the 1860s. Other forms of taxation had diminished greatly in importance or fallen into abeyance. 3. In the first period, six members belonging to the Santa Mar í a family held office, and in the second period, there were seven. To a lesser extent, the Mendizabal, Aza, and Cárdenas families ensured represen- tation through the presence of family members. 4 . TMA:L, Baldomero Lurqu ín to Prefect, Tarma, December 9, 1896; Germán Velez to Director de Gobierno, Lima, January 22, 1897. 5 . The registers of the 1920s were compiled during Legu í a’s Oncenio in preparation for elections to the Regional Congress. 6 . TMA:M, February 1, 1893. 7 . Some 20 years later, according to the Electoral Register of 1920, the occupational breakdown was the following: agriculture (30 percent), artisan trades (23 percent), trade (16 percent), professions (13 per- cent), and employees (11 percent). 8 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Provincial Council members, Tarma, August 12, 1876. 9 . TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Subprefect, Tarma, February 20, 1874. 10. TMA:L, Santiago Zapatero to Provincial Council members, Tarma, August 12, 1876. For many years, Tarma was represented by a miner, Antenor Rizo Patr ó n, resident in Cerro.