U.S. Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Wildlife Services

Historic document – Content may not reflect current scientific research, policies or practices.

FISH PROCESSING HANDBOOK FOR THE PHILIPPINES

By ARTHUR C. A VERY

Techno/ogist

Drawings by PIO MEDEL

RESEARCH REPORT 26

fish and Wildlife Service Albert M. Day, Director United States Department of the Interior Oscar L. Chapman, Secretary

U N IT E D ST ATE S G 0 VE R N M E N T P R I NT I N G 0 FF I CE : 1 9 5 0

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. : Price 50 cents ABSTRACT Fish is second only to rice as a food in the Philippines. This handbook, intended for both home and commercial processors of Philippine fishes, covers the handling of fresh fish, the various methods of preserving fish-freezing, salting, drying, smoking, canning, and miscellaneous methods such as pickling-and the spoilage of fish and fish products. It gives a step-by-step de­ scription of Philippine fish-preserving methods with suggestions on improving them, and of methods used in other parts of the world which have been adapted for Philippine use by the Philip­ pine Fishery Program of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Tables of useful data for fish processors and of drawings of common species of Philippine fish are included. PREFACE

Fish is second only to rice as the most important food in the Philippines. As such it merits as much attention or more than other foods. Through the past years the former Philippine Bureau of Science did much work on methods of preserving fish, but no deter­ mined effort was made to organize this experimental material, together with methods used in other parts of the world, to make a handbook that Philippine fish processors could consult to make new products or improve the old ones. I have tried to combine what I know about fish preservation with what has been published by scientists in the United States, to make a handbook suitable for use in the Philippines. I have borrowed freely from the works of Norman D. Jarvis, Technologist, Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Department of the Interior; Augustin F. Umali, Ichthyologist, Philippine Fishery Program of the Fish and Wildlife Service; and others of the Fish and Wildlife Service and the former Philippine Bureau of Science. Dominador Calvez was my assistant throughout the experimental work, and the value this handbook may have for the processors of fish will be a reflection of his efforts. William S. Hamm was initially in charge of the Fish Preservation Section of the Philippine Fishery Program and did much to establish the experimental work and the writing of the handbook. The work was under the general supervision of John A. Clague, head of the Technological Section of the Philippine Fishery Program. Leroy Christey and Clara Paltenghi did a great amount of work in reading and correcting the manuscript. To all those who helped produce this handbook, heartfelt thanks are extended.

II CONTENTS Page Preface ...... II Introduction ...... 1 Handling fresh fish...... 2 Freezing ...... 12 Salting ...... 18 Drying ...... 33 Smoking...... 46 Miscellaneous preserving methods...... 54 Canning ...... 61 Home canning of species that are seldom canned...... 100 Spoilage of fish and fish products ...... 105 Reference data for fish processors ...... 114 Bibliography ...... 139

Ill Transporting bagoong in Northern Luzon. FISH PROCESSING HANDBOOK FOR THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippine Fishery Pro­ Processes used successfully in gram 1 of the Fish and Wildlife other parts of the world are pre­ Service has cooperated with the sented, as well as those used in the Philippine Bureau of Fisheries in Philippines which are known to the preparing this handbook on fish author. It is understood that many preservation. of the local processes vary from one The purpose of the book is to section of the country to the next, present, under one cover, as many hut it is beyond the scope of this as possible of the fish-preservation book to describe all variants. methods that may be of use to Fili­ Not all of the procedures de­ pinos interested in home or com­ scribed have been tried in the Philippine Fishery Program lab­ mercial fish processing. It is not oratory, nor can all of them be rec­ a textbook for the student or an ommended. Some of the met.hods exhaustive treatise for the scientist, are included merely because they but presents various useful pro­ happen to be in use. Anyone who cedures in a step-by-step form that does fish-processing work will have it is hoped can be followed easily. to adapt the methods that he uses to his own particular circumstances. 'Part ot the Philippine Rehabilitation Pro· gram authorized by the Philippine Rehablllta· It is hoped that the information tlon Act of 1946, title 50, App. U. S. Code, sec. 1789. will prove interesting and helpful. HANDLING FRESH FISH

The proper handling of fresh fish this simple beginning the preserva­ is important from the moment it tion procedure for fresh fish is one lands in the fisherman's boat till it of taking additional steps to keep reaches the housewife's cooking pan. the fish at as low a temperature as The quality of a fish starts to de­ possible. teriorate when it leaves the water. The methods of cooling fish are No way has yet been devised to many, and they vary greatly in effi­ keep fish absolutely fresh. All that ciency. They include damp burlap can be done is to slow down the stal­ covering, leaves, cracked or shaved ing process. ice, refrigerated water or brine, re­ To approach the problem of keep­ frigerated containers, dry ice, and ing fish fairly fresh it is necessary others. Th:lciding which one will to know, in general, what causes fish satisfy each handler's situation de­ to "go bad". It is usually conceded pends on the factors of size of fish, that the flesh of the live fish is prac­ kind of fish, condition of fish, dis­ tically sterile so far as bacteria are tance to be transported, use to be concerned; it is not until the fish made of the fish, and facilities avail­ dies that the invasion occurs. From able. The fisherman, the middle­ the outside, the skin and fish slime man, and the retailer will each have have some protective action, so that to approach the problem by the way bacteria usually get a foothold from that will best fit his own circum­ the infested internal organs of the stances. fish. But bacteria alone are not re­ sponsible for the spoilage of fish; SMALL-BOAT FISHERMAN there are enzymes present in the The solitary fisherman in his flesh and organs of fish that have banca cannot make any great out­ the power to act on fish tissue and lay for ice or mechanical refriger­ lower its quality, and fish fats have ation, so the means of keeping his a tendency to oxidize and turn ran­ catch cool must be simple and inex­ cid. pensive. If the fish are small, un­ Fish deteriorate very rapidly injured, and can stand being en­ when exposed to high temperatures closed, the live well is the best means and the sun; when the temperature of keeping the fish fresh. The well of the fish is lowered, disintegration should be a shaded container made is slower. Thus, keeping fish in the of slats, netting, or screening, set shade is the first step toward in­ down in the water in such a way creasing their storage life. From that constant water circulation is

2 SMALL-BOAT FISHERMAN

Figure 1 .-Live wells that can be used on banca1. available and the fish will not likely to keep well than fish that thrash around so as to bruise or struggle in an otter traw 1 or gill kill themselves. net for a considerable time. Strug­ Another method is to place the gling causes a premature rigor fish in a shallow layer on a coarse mortis or muscle stiffening that does screen in a shaded place, exposed to not persist as long as in fish killed the breezes. If two or three pieces quickly; consequently the fish that of very wet burlap are placed over struggle do not keep as well. The them, the rapid evaporation of the fisherman must also remember not water from the burlap will lower to bruise fish by knocking them the temperature of the fish below about or stepping on them, as that of the air and will aid preserva­ bruises become focal points of spoil­ tion. A similar procedure uses an age. Another way to keep the qual­ openwork cabinet covered by wet ity high is to avoid leaving a fish burlap. in the water after it is dead, as the There are other things that the water leaches away some of the fisherman should know about the goodness. A final note to remember preservation of his catch. Fish is that eviscerating fish immediately caught with a minimum of struggle, after they die helps prevent auto­ , such as by fish trap, purse seine, lytic changes from the feed they and handline, are generally more have been eating, and invasion of

3 HANDLING FRESH FISH the flesh by the bacteria present in must be put between some of the the internal organs. Fish thus evis­ layers of fish to distribute the cerated must be washed and kept weight. If small fish are being clean afterwards or they will pick handled the ice has to be broken up np other spoilage organisms at the finer than for large fish; egg-size places where the skin has been cut. ice pieces do well with large fish, but sardines require ice pieces the MIDDLEMAN AND LARGE­ size of a pea, or ice flakes. This is BOAT FISHERMAN because large pieces of ice bruise The middleman and the large­ small fish. boat fisherman have very similar problems except that the fisher­ man has personal control over his fish from the time they leave the water, while the middleman has to depend on his fisherman to deliver good quality fish for him to handle. The essentials that all fresh-fish handlers should remember are to cool the fish as soon as possible after they are caught, and to bring the temperature as low as can ht done with the means available. Once cold (as close to 34° F. as possible) the fish should be maintained at this low temperature until ready to cook. Figure 2.-Removing iced fish from a Philippine The three means of fish refrigera­ trawler; use of a shovel bruises some fish. tion generally used are cracked or shaved ice, power refrigerators, and The shipment of fish in baskets a combination of the two. The first and boxes utilizes layers of ice and requires that the eviscerated or fish as if the fish were in bins, but round fish be placed in thin layers there are also other important con­ between layers of broken ice. If siderations. Whereas most boats the distance to be carried is short and refrigerated trucks hauling fish the thickness of the ice layer can are insulated to slow down the melt­ be thin as compared with that re­ ing of ice and prevent leakage of quired for a long trip. the cold air, most fish boxes and On ships and sometimes in trucks baskets are not. In the United and railroad cars the layers of fish States, shippers make up for the and ice are stored in bins. If the lack of insulation in the boxes by bins are deep and the ice melts ex­ insulating the conveyance, but in tensively, the fish at the bottom will the Philippines this is rarely done .. be crushed; to prevent this, boards For instance fish boxes used in Ma-

4 MIDDLEMAN AND LARGE-BOAT FISHERMAN

WOODEN FISH BOX BAMBOO FISH BASKET HOLDING ABOUT 5 KILOS HOLDING 20-50 KILOS

/ SHEET METAL FISH CANS FOR BAMBOO FISH BASKET HOLDING AIR SHIPMENT 10-40 KILOS c1e"x 1e•x24" >

/ ~"'1/:' HEAVY WOODEN BOXES ...... __,, FOR TRUCK 8 BOAT SHIPMENT NESTING TYPE METAL CANS (4o•x21"x2s• OR 4oux2o•x1su> FOR SHIPPING LIVE FISH Figure 3.--Fl1h-1hlppln9 containers used In the Philippines. nila are made of thick heavy wood Many of the fish transports in and are designed for long use rather America are heavily insulated than economical handling. trucks or railroad cars which are A good fish box for the Philip­ refrigerated by gasoline-powered pines should combine the elements or electrical cooling units, dry ice of insulation (because the price of (solid carbon dioxide), or water ice. ice is high) , sturdiness, and low They usually have power fans to cost. It should be easy to handle, keep the cold air circulating around should nest with other boxes for the fish which are stacked in crates reuse shipment, should have ade­ or laid out in bins. The fish are so quate drainage, and should soak up arranged that air can circulate as little water as possible. around them.

5 HANDLING FRESH FISH

FROZEN FISH~ ~'

Figure 4.-Refrlgerated delivery truck.

Because of the cost of ice and packed in lightweight metal con­ the problems of re-icing en route, tainers, with little or no ice, and are some fish transports in the United rushed to the airplane. They are States use a combination of icing loaded into the waiting plane with­ and mechanical refrigeration. The out delay and are flown at such high fish are lightly iced and are put into altitudes that a considerable degree insulated rooms, holds, or trucks, of refrigeration is obtained. At which are kept cool mechanically. destination they are again refriger­ The efficiency of this system lies in ated. This method may never be the ice preserving the fish by contact used to a great extent in the Philip­ while the refrigerating unit slows pines but under certain situations it down the melting of the ice by keep­ does have possibilities. ing the room cool. A refrigerating Things for fish shippers to re­ unit for this use can be much smaller member than one that would be necessary to do tJrn whole cooling process, and 1. Ship only good fresh fish, and the operator does not have to worry ship them as soon after catching as about faulty air circulation as the possible. ice in contact with the product keeps 2. Be sure the fish are cold before it cold. starting shipment. Air transport is possible if the 3. Pack the fish in layers so that cost of the product is low at the every fish is thoroughly cooled by point of origin and high at selling the ice or circulating cold air. point, with a differential great 4. Do not put too many fish in a enough to pay the higher air trans­ layer, or they will heat up and spoil. port costs. In the most successful 5. Do not pack many fish in one procedure, the precooled fish are container unless boards or other

6 RETAILER means are used to distribute the the next construct boxes with water­ weight and prevent the crushing tight metal interiors, and exteriors of the lower rows of fish. of matched wood boards or light 6. When icing small fish, use rough boards covered with rust­ finely crushed ice; when icing large proof metal. The space between fish use coarsely crushed ice. the interior and exterior should be 7. Once the fish are packed for compartmented and fi11ed with dry shipment, move them to their desti­ rice hulls, to provide insulation. nation as quickly as possible. The hinged top and the bottom 8. When the destination is should be of the same double con­ reached repack the fish with enough struction as the sides. Inside, racks ice to keep them until they are sold. should be provided for sliding trays. The extra fish can be placed on RETAILER the trays, covered with cracked ice, The final responsibility for pre­ and placed in the racks. The trays senting good fish to the consumer are thus separated for good air cir­ rests on the retailer. If the fisher­ culation, the .fish do not become man and shipper have done their crushed, and the water from the ice job properly there is little difference .can drain a way to the bottom of the between the original product and box and thence out to a sewer. Even the one he has to off er for sale. As if the ice melts away entirely the a link in the chain of fish distribu­ residual coolness of the box will tion the ret_ailer must do his part. provide some preserving action. He must preserve the fish as well as possible, display it to advantage, and sell it in a way that satisfies his customer. If the retailer can dispose of his entire stock each day, he can gen­ erally keep the fish that are not on display cool in the shipping boxes, by the addition of a little extra ice. However, if he has a carry-over from day to day he needs more per­ manent and efficient facilities. The coldstore opemtor has his refrigerator and cold display cases to keep his fish, along with his other produce, but the public-market Figure 5.-Cold box fo.- fish retailers. stallkeeper has to rely on the use of rented refrigerator facilities or Only enough fish need be dis­ such means as he can devise. It is played to show customers a repre­ suggested that retailers who have sentative sample. Those displayed to keep fresh fish from one day to should be neither better nor poorer

7 HANDLING FRESH FISH and screening or netting to keep the flies from the fish will be appre­ ciated by most people, and so will efforts to keep the salesman neat and clean. If any fish cutting is done, the cutting block and knives must be kept washed and sanitary. The waste must be disposed of in cov­ ered, watertight containers that are Figure 6.-lnsanitary method of selling cut fish. washed out after the waste has been emptied. Running water should be provided for rinsing off the fish and washing the equipment. ''Taste water should be disposed of immedi­ ately and not allowed to stand around to breed bacteria or flies. Other methods that can be used to attract customers are use of aquariums and odd fish specimens; distribution of printed recipes on Figure 7.-Unattractive display of whole fish. how to cook each particular species

Figure 9.-White tile makes a good display Figure 8.-Too much fish on display. counter. than those in storage. The fish should be clean and trim looking. The addition of greenery, lights, and display cases all tend to attract attention to the product. It is well to freshen the fish from time to time by rinsing in clean fresh water, but the same water should not be used time after time, as it becomes heav­ ily contaminated with microurgan­ isms. The use of neat display cases Figure 10.-Some fish can be sold alive.

8 RETAILER of fish; the service of dressing and fish, such as the Spanish mackerel, filleting the fish; use of attractive may be baked without further waterproof wrapping to prevent preparation. leakage; and, above all, establishing A dressed fish has the scales, a reputation for selling only a good viscera, fins, head, and tail re­ wholesome product. moved. One enterprising dealer makes up recipes and sells a small package with all the ingredients except the fish, so that when a customer pur­ chases a fish he can also purchase all the recipe ingredients without fur­ Figure 12.-Dressed fish. ther shopping. Scaling is done by holding the fish HOW TO CUT FISH firmly with one hand and scraping The following material is re­ the scales off, with a knife held printed from 0 osmopolitan Fish almost vertical to the fish, from tail 0 o o k er y for the Philippines to head. Soaking a dry fish in water (Avery, 1950) for those interested a few minutes before scaling facili­ in knowing how to cut fish for retail tates the operation. Scrapers, with sale. serrated edges or made from numer­ When the fish is intact, with head, ous blunt nails driven through tail, and viscera still attached, the blocks of wood or made from soda fish is whole or in the round. It is bottle caps, can be used instead of quite usual in the Philippines to a knife. see fresh small fish in the round, cut with lateral slashes along their sides, rolled in salt, pierced lengthwise with a bamboo splinter, and broiled over a charcoal fire. A drawn fish has been eviscerated (a slit made down the center of the soft belly and the entrails removed). Figure 13.-Flsh being scaled. Small fish, so treated, may be baked, pan fried, or broiled. Large tender The head is removed by cutting above the collarbone behind the gills and then slicing straight through the backbone or snapping it off by bending it over the edge of the table. The pectoral fins can be re­ moved with the head. The dorsal fin is removed by Figure 11.-fish being drawn. making vertical cuts down each

9 HANDLING FRESH FISH side of it toward the backbone and the fillet. Holding onto the tail end then giving it a sharp pull forward of the skin the operator turns the toward the head. The ventral fin edge of the knife toward the head can be removed in a similar manner and pushes the blade along the skin while the pelvic fins are removed by with the cutting edge just slightly cutting the flesh that attaches them tilted downward and at the same to the belly flaps. time pulling the skin firmly. The tail can be removed by a Butterfiy 'fUlets are joined to- chopping blow with a heavy knife. Steaks are cross-sections of fish. They are obtained by cutting di­ rectly across the dressed fish at right angles to the length. They may be of any thickness desired but it is well to bear in mind that steaks cut too thin become excessively dry and hard while those cut too thick are Figure 14.-Flrst step In fllletlng. not cooked in the center when the outside is done. Steaks cut one-half to two-thirds of an inch thick are usually best. Fillets are the meaty sections re­ moved from the backbone and ribs of the fish so that they are prac­ tically boneless. The skin may or Figure 15.-Second step in fllleting. may not be removed. Filleting is done with a sharp, thin knife. A cut is made down to the backbone from just behind the head to the tail. Then a cut is made just in back of the gills down to the backbone. The knife is then turned flat and the cut extended to the tail Figure 16-Thlrd step in fllleting. by running the edge of the knife along the backbone and ribs at the same time. The entire side of the fish exclusive of the bones, is lifted off. The operation is repeated to remove the other side. The fillet may be skinned by lay­ ing it, with the skin side down and the tail toward the operator, on the edge of the table. A cut is made down to the skin close to the end of Figure 17.-Finished flllets. 10 gether by the underside skin, while not handy, dipping the fingers in a stick.~ are small elongated chunks of bowl of fine salt will accomplish the the same size and thickness cut from same thing. Incidentally, scrubbing the fleshy portion of the fish. the hands with salt and hot water After dressing, the fish should be is a good way to get rid of the fish thoroughly washed in clean cold odor, when soap will not touch it. running water. If the fish is hard A stout pair of kitchen scissors to hold during the dressing pro­ makes easy work of opening the cedure, a pair of canvas gloves body cavity and snipping off the facilitates handling. · If gloves are fins, gills, and small tails.

Figure 18.--Flsh In the round, dressed, single flllet, butterfly flllets, and fish sticks.

11 FREEZING

The freezing of fish requires a where their cell liquid is fluid freezing unit to solidify the fish, enough to carry on metabolic another to transport it, and yet an­ processes. other to store it. Of course, all of The methods used to freeze fish these can be the same unit, but it are quite variable and can usually must be realized that once a fish is be adapted to the equipment avail­ frozen it should stay that way until able. Not all the procedures in use sold. For the best quality frozen will be discussed in this handbook, fish, one must start with the best but the essentials will be covered. quality fresh fish. Freezing does not improve fish. It can only pre­ BASIC METHODS serve 'as nearly as possible the qual­ ity the fish had before they were The basic methods of freezing fish frozen. Therefore, since it is an may be classed in five groups: (1) extremely perishable product, fish Brine contact freezing, (2) indirect that is to be kept in freezing stor­ brine freezing, ( 3) metal coil or age should be frozen as soon as pos­ plate contact free:r,ing, ( 4) sharp sible after it leaves the water. freezing, and ( 5) air-blast freezing. The spoilage of fish is naturally retarded when the temperature is BRINE CONTACT FREEZING lowered below the freezing point. Brine contact freezing is one of Bacterial growth is practically the oldest of the commercial stopped, and enzymatic action is methods. It may be done by im­ greatly slowed down. The fat con­ mersing the fish in a cold concen­ tent of some fish is great enough to trated brine solution or by spraying give a slight rancid flavor when it the fish directly with the brine. The combines with the oxygen of the air brine is generally maintained at a but even this is inhibited somewhat temperature between 0° and 10° F. by freezing storage. One should by use of direct-expansion ammonia not get the idea that because bacteria coils around which the brine is con­ are made relatively inactive they tinuously circulated. are completely destroyed because Fish frozen by direct contact with some bacteria are very resistant to brine inescapably absorb some of the the effects of freezing and will com­ salt. For fish that are to be sold mence to grow and multiply as soon later to compete with fresh fish this as the temperature rises to a point is a disadvantage, but if the fish are

12 METHODS t.o be used as bait or canned, as are INDIRECT BRINE FREEZING tuna, it is quite acceptable. Ab­ This method of utilizing the sorption of salt is more pronounced freezing power of low-temperature in gutted fish than in fish in the brine also uses tanks of brine and round, so most fish are frozen in the brine sprays, but the brine does not latter state. Another disadvantage come in direct contact with th~ fish. of this type of freezing is that the The fish are laid in metal pans or on salt in the fish flesh hastens the de­ plates. These receptacles are either ve1opment of fat rancidity. How­ carried through the brine or the ever, the method is very rapid, effi­ brine is sprayed up against them. cient, and simple; there is little loss When the fish are frozen, the pans of weight in the fish, and the treat­ are immersed briefly in warm water ment leaches out some of the blood, and the blocks of fish dumped out. making the meat whiter. The blocks are dipped into cold This method is used mainly in fresh water so that coatings of ice the tropical tuna fisheries where the are formed over all the fish (glaz­ fol1owing procedure is used: ing) and they are then either pack­ Almost immediately after the aged or put into cold air storage tuna are caught they are placed in unti] ready to be used. tanks or wel1s where sea water at A simi1ar method is to pack the 28° F. is circu]ated. This cools the fish in pans which are covered by fish and aids in leaching out the overhanging covers so that the re­ blood. frigerated brine can be sprayed up When the well is full of fish the from the bottom and sides and down sea water is pumped overboard and from the top as well. This gives a the well is filled with concentrated brine precooled to about 0° F. This freezing action on all sides. Cal­ brine is pumped over the fish and cium chloride is usually used in this back over ammonia coils until the method, and the temperature of fish are thoroughly frozen. brine is brought down to about The fish are kept frozen by coils 20° F. that virtually cover the bottom, top, Another adaptation of this and sides of the compartments. In method is to pack fish in a can simi­ some cases the fish remain in the lar to that used in making blocks brine for the entire trip. of ice. When the can is ful1 of fish Some French boats use a brine the spaces between them are filled tank on deck to freeze the fish in 2 with clean fresh water. When the hours' time. Then they are stored block is frozen in refrigerated brine, in net bags in a cold-storage room. it may be dumped out and handled The fish slime is not washed off and like a block of ice. Some operators it is al1eged that this preserves glaze the outside of this ice block flavor and prevents freezer burn. to make sure al1 the fish are covered.

894001 0-51-2 13 FREEZING MET AL COIL OR PLATE FREEZING against cold still further slows up This type of freezing uses the the time of the freezing process. rapid conductivity of metal to In the simplest form of sharp transfer the heat of the fish to the freezing the air picks up heat from cold brine- or ammonia-cooled pipes the fish and is chilled by contact or plates. In some ways it is simi­ with ammonia or brine coils located lar to the method just described, in the room. Better freezing action except that the product is often com­ is obtained by installing the coils as pletely packaged before freezing. racks and laying the product either The best-known freezer of this directly on the coils or on metal type is the multiplate or lazy-tongs sheets on the coils. The contact freezer. Whole fish, fish fillets, area can be further increased by shelled oysters, crabmeat, beheaded using square rather than round pipe. shrimp, or scallops are placed in AIR-BLAST FREEZING parchment-lined cartons. The car­ This system is a faster-acting tons are placed on a thin metal plate adaptation of sharp freezing. and slid between two horizontal Powerful fans chill air by driving it ho1low metal plates. The whole past the cooling pipes, plates, or tier ·of hollow metal plates with fins. The chilled air is circulated packaged produce sandwiched be­ rapidly around the materials to be tween them is hydraulically com­ frozen. This improvement in heat pressed and ammonia is allowed to transfer speeds up the freezing expand directly into the hollow process. Many Army and Navy plates where it takes up the heat type reefers have a direct-expansion and freezes the fish. gas system that opens into small SHARP FREEZING multifinned pipes. The air is cir­ Exposing a product to the air in culated past this pipe system and a room where the temperature is thence out into the box by use of a fan connected to the compressor maintained substantially below power system. The produce is freezing is called sharp freezing. placed on perforated trays set a The term is rather misleading be­ short distance from each other so cause, since air is a poor conductor, that cold air is allowed easy passage the process is very slow and may and rapid freezing is obtained. all°'v some deterioration before the There are some continuous freez­ enzymes and bacteria are inacti­ ers that use a slowly moving belt on vated. However, the method is which the product to be frozen, simple and permits storage of the either in a box or uncovered, travels product where it is frozen. Indi­ through a tunnel while a constant vidual fish, fillets, or packages may stream of very cold air is blown be frozen in this way, but use of a about it. The material emerges packaging material which insulates completely frozen.

14 PROCEDURE

Figure 19 .-Air-blast freezer.

GENERAL PROCEDURE broken off, leaving only the tail which contains most of the meat. Fish should be frozen as quickly Oysters, clams, and similar shellfish as possible in a form that is readily have the shells removed. usable, and on thawing the flavor 4. The fish should be frozen in should closely approximate the the form in which they are to be fresh flavor. The following steps sold or used. If the fish are to be are important in freezing fish used as bait or are to be sold indi­ properly: vidually they are usually frozen 1. Select good, sound, fresh fish. separately. Big fish such as tuna, 2. Before freezing, wash the fish Spanish mackerel, barracuda, and thoroughly in clean running water. large caranx are usually frozen in To use water over and over again this manner. When ready for sale or to use harbor or river water de­ they are thawed out and cut up. If feats the object of washing, as the the fillets or fish are to be packaged fish to be frozen may become so they are either packed solidly into heavily contaminated with bacteria molds, so that they will fit into the that they will spoil very rapidly package to be used or placed in the when thawed out. If there is doubt sales package and frozen there. about the purity of the water, it is 5. Within the limits of the equip­ best to chlorinate it before using. ment available, it should be remem­ 3. The fish or shellfish should be bered that the best-quality fish is prepared in a way that is both ex­ that which i8 frozen the fastest. pedient and economical. Fish may The reasons for this are that the be frozen in the round, dressed, fish does not have a chance to spoil filleted, or cut into steaks, sticks, or during fast freezing; the ice crys­ chunks. Shrimp and spiny lobsters tals that form in the fish are smaller usually have the head and body and do not rupture the cell walls,

15 FREEZING causing leakage of nutrients upon the process and the coating of ice thawing; the rate of fat oxidation should give complete surface cov­ or development of rancidity is not erage. If the fish is stored several as great in quickly frozen fish as months it should be reglazed at in­ it is in slowly frozen fish; and the tervals as required. amount of surface drying or desic­ 7. After the product is frozen cation is not as great. and glazed it should be stored at a If the freezing is done by air alone, speeding the movement of the air around the product by means of fans will result in faster freezing. The insulating effect of paper or cloth wrapping will retard the freezing rate. If the freezing is done by con­ duction from metal, the process will be hastened by getting as much metal as possible in contact with the fish. If refrigerating brine is used it should be circulated rapidly. 6. After the freezing is complete a coating should be placed around the outside of the fish to prevent freezer burn or surface desiccation, as this condition results in a dena­ turation of the proteins and lowered Figure 20.-Glazing frozen fish in cold water. quality in the thawed fish. constant temperature at or below Ice is the coating generally used, 0° F. if possible. Whatever the as it is cheap, easy to apply, and method used, the operator should be effective. It has to be replaced pe­ careful not to handle the fish riodically, but not often enough to roughly and he should be sure that be burdensome if the storage tem­ the refrigerated air has free passage perature does not fluctuate. around the stored fish, to keep it The methods of applying this ice frozen. Care should be taken that coating or glaze, as it is called, vary the product does not thaw and according to the product to be freeze a number of times as this glazed and the facilities available. lowers the quality. The frozen fish may be dipped 8. When the frozen product is briefly in cold water, or the operator thawed for use it should be remem­ may use a hose with a fine spray and bered that slow thawing at a tem­ coat the fish as it is stacked in stor­ perature of about 38° to 40° F. is age. Whatever the method used, best. Little decomposition of the the fish should not be thawed out in fish takes place during the thawing

16 PROCEDURE process at that temperature range, To sum up the freezing proce­ and if the thawing is gradual tissue dure : Use good sound fish, freeze cells, that have had the water frozen them quickly, glaze them after out of them during the freezing freezing, sto.re where constant-tem­ process, have a chance to reabsorb perature freezing air can ci'rculate much of this liquid. arouru~ thern, (Jfnd thaw, them slowly.

Figure 21.-Packaged frozen shrimp.

17 SALTING

The salting of fish goes along with these bacteria are not growing and freezing, smoking, and drying, to that in time a large part of them make up the oldest methods of pres­ will die; but not all types will die. ervation known to m an-going If the concentration of salt is re­ b a c k e v e n to prehistoric times. duced, the bacteria start reproduc­ 'Whereas freezing protects against ing at a great rate. In fact, some bacterial action by maintaining a bacteria grow best at salt concen­ temperature too ]ow for bacteria to trations of 10 to 15 percent. Most carry on their life processes, salting salt that has been passed through a preserves by lowering the water refining process is relatively pure. content of the food below the point Food and industrial processors where bacteria can live and grow. usually demand salt of a higher What liquid is left is so salty that standard of purity than is produced many bacteria will be killed and in Manila. California solar salt is most of the rest will not multiply. 99.9 percent pure sodium chloride. When a piece of fish is salted, Manila solar salt does not run over water in the flesh leaves it to dilute 92 percent sodium chloride. The the concentrated salt solution that impurities noted in Manila salt were forms around the grains of salt. 0.6 percent sand and other in­ Soon some of the salt starts to pass solubles, 1.36 percent calcium salts, into the fish flesh as well, until an 3.9 percent magnesium sulfate, and equilibrium is set up. The concen­ 2.7 percent magnesium chloride. trated brine within the fish tissue Fish salted with pure salt is soft, thickens cellular fluid and causes and has a yellowish-white color. the fish to stiffen to a certain extent. 'Vhen fresh water is added to it the flesh becomes quite soft and freshens SALT up almost completely, to resemble Salt in itself is not an antiseptic. fresh fish. On the other hand as In fact, at weak concentrations salt little as 1 percent of magnesium or aids the growth of bacteria. calcium impurities in the salt ·used Salt crystals as they come from causes the fish to become white, hard, the salt beds quite often have con­ and brittle. This fish when fresh­ siderable numbers of bacteria cling­ end does not soften completely and ing to them. It is true that most of the taste is strong and bitter.

18 METHODS

Figure 22.-Philippine solar salt production.

GENERAL SALTING METHODS 3. Brine-salting.-Place the fish in a saturated brine with a rack de­ Fish may be impregnated with signed to keep them all below the saJt by the fo1lowing methods: surface. The brine has to be stirred 1. Kench salting or dry-salt­ from time to time to prevent local ing.-Salt the fish in layers in a areas of dilution, and more salt may stack or on a rack in a container have to be added to keep the salt such us a barrel, jar, put, or tank, and let the liquid drain a way from concentration at about 25 percent. the fi sh. The fish may require re­ 4. Fermenting.-Some fish are stacking and resalting during the salted so that they ferment and process. A weight may be applied the proteins hydrolize to produce to aid in removing the moisture. pastes, semisolid materials, or liq­ 2. Dry-salting to make brine.­ uids which are quite desirable. Pack the fish in layers with salt in barrels or other containers so that KENCH SALTING the brine as it forms will gather and The method that follows is one come up and around until it covers used for mullet in the southeastern the fish. After a time more salt United States. It has been modified may have to be added to the brine to somewhat to fit Philippine prac­ keep the required concentration of tices. It can be used for other fish about 25 percent. as well.

19 SALTING The fish are scaled if necessary. spread between the layers and over They are then split down one side the top of the stack so that the final of the backbone, so that the two proportion of salt to fish is 3 to 10, halves of the fish are joined only by by weight, or if Philippine salt is the belly skin. The gills, viscera, used, 3 to 8. A weight is put on top, and dark kidney vein are scraped and the resultant brine may drain out. away or not, as the processor desires. If the meat is thick it is gashed The fish may be repacked every 2 at 1- or 2-inch intervals to facilitate weeks until ready lo use, or they the penetration of salt into the fish. may be washed off in strong brine The fish are soaked in a 10-percent at the end of 48 hours of brining, brine for 30 minutes and are placed in piles with a heavy weight washed well. on top overnight, and then dried in After a short draining period, the shade. The processing and dry­ they are rubbed all over with ing is repeated each day until the medium-grained salt and piled on a fish is hard. If rain interrupts the rack with the first layer skin down drying, the fish may be lightly salted and all other layers skin up. Salt is and replaced in the weighted kench.

Figure 23.-Kench salting fish. 20 METHODS

DRY-SALTING TO MAKE several months. It is usually BRINE washed in brine and repacked in salt for shipment. '\iVhether the fish are large or small, in this method where the fish SPANISH MACKEREL are covered with dry salt and then In some places Spanish mackerel permitted to remain in the brine that cannot be transported to the mar­ is formed by the water drawn out kets in time to sell them as fresh of the fish, the steps are much the fish. Salting and drying can well same as for brine-salting. be utilized in these cases. After the fish have been prepared The fish are split down the back for salting, the individual fish or and the gills, viscera, blood, and fish pieces are rubbed thoroughly in fins are removed. The two halves salt so that all surfaces are coated. of the fish may be joined by the belly Then the fish are packed in layers, skin or they may be separated. The with salt sprinkled between layers. thick flesh in the two halves is The usual proportion of salt to fish gashed deeply at intervals of about is 1 to 3 or 1 to 4 by weight. 1 to 2 inches so that the salt can ·when the brine has formed it penetrate readily. Salt is rubbed may be necessary to put a weight into all of the exposed surfaces. on the fish to hold them below the If the fish are to be held only sev­ surface, or more saturated brine eral days, they are lightly salted may need to be added to cover the and are not dried. If they are to fish. If the brine becomes weak be kept for longer periods, they must more salt is added. After about 2 be heavily salted and then sun-dried weeks all fish are removed, brushed to lower the moisture content. off, and repacked with a little more salt between the layers. The brine VISCERA OF LARGE FISH is strained and used to refill the bar­ Of course most fishermen now rel until the fish are just covered. realize that fish livers are a poten­ The Spanish fishermen cut big tial source of vitamin-A oil. Not 500-pound tunas into skinless, bone­ all of the fish-liver oils are rich in less fillets, and then further cut the vitamin A, and in some cases where fillets in long strips none of which the oils are very potent the liver when deeply gashed has a maximum does not furnish enough oil to make thickness of over 2 inches. These it worthwhile to extract it. In small pieces are salted down in concrete fish, the livers are not big enough to vats at the ratio of 3 pounds of be worthwhile and most fish in the salt to 7 pounds of fish. The salt is Philippines are sold in the round rubbed thoroughly into all surfaces so that the problem of collecting and gashes of the strips and more is enough livers in any one place to thrown over each layer of fish. It make it commercially feasible is is allowed to stand from a week to considerable. Shark livers may be

21 SALTING cut up into strips and salted at the by weight. Enough salt is put on rate of 1 part salt to 10 parts of top to make up for that which dis­ liver, by weight. Other species of solves and runs out as brine. fishes might require more salt. In this type of cure the fish are They can be stored in cans or barrels sometimes prepared ungutted, in this way until shipped to market. which case the bellies swell and The Spanish fishermen save the burst during the process, making an stomach and intestines of large fish inferior-looking product. such as tuna. These are cleaned thoroughly and washed. The stom­ ach is split open. The viscera are BRINE-SALTING dry-salted for 2 days, rinsed off, Very small fish are not heavily and dried in the sun. The dried salted except in the making of ba­ viscera are freshened and fried, or goong. It its not until fish get to a are cut up and added when cooking size of 6 inches or more that salting rice and vegetables. The product as the sole method of preservation is popular with low-income groups. becomes feasible. In the Philippines, brine-salting KENCH-CURED SMALL FISH of fish of all sizes is much used, but (BUDO OR BINORO) only as a temporary preservative until they can be dried or smoked. The term "kench-curing" as used This has probably been the case be­ in the Philippines denotes sardines cause the .use of impure salt to make or other small fish that are brine­ brine gives an acrid-tasting product salted, drained overnight, and that is very hard and requires a packed in loose salt. The procedure great deal of freshening. Also, the is as follows : use of impure salt causes red and Mackerels, hasa-hasa, alumahan, black molds to form on the salted or other fish approximately 5 to 8 product with a consequent reduc­ inches long are gutted, thoroughly tion of flavor, keeping time, and washed, and soaked in a saturated sales value. brine for 3 to 4 hours or in a 60° As a general rule only fish with a salinometer brine overnight. low fat content should be salted. The fish are removed from the Pure salt should be used, and the brine and thoroughly drained. brine should not be reused except in They should now be fairly firm. emergencies. They are packed in boxes or baskets lined with mats. A layer of salt is MEDIUM-SIZE FISH placed on the bottom of the basket The fish should be washed thor­ and the fish are put down in layers oughly, gutted, and the gills re­ with a heavy sprinkling of salt over moved. If the fish have scales, these each layer. The proportions of salt should be removed if expedient. may vary between 1 to 5 and 1 to 8 The fish may be split down the back-

22 BRINE-SAL TING bone leaving the belly skin intact, replaced and the pieces of fish or the be1ly alone may be opened. scrubbed off in clean brine with a If the flesh is thick at any point, stiff brush. small gashes should be made to per­ LARGE FISH' mit the free passage of salt. The fish should be put down in Large fish are handled much the layers in wooden, metal, or pottery ~a?1.e as smaller fish, except in their receptacles. The bottom layer 1111t1al preparation. The fish are should be placed skin side down; washed and scaled; if the skin is the rest should be placed skin side tough it is removed; the fish are up. It is a good plan to place the gutted ; the gills are removed. fish on a low rack on the bottom of Large fish may be filleted and the the container. meat cut into strips or salted The next step is to add enough down as fillets. Whether the saturated brine to cover the fish meat is in halves, fillets or strips completely. The brine is made by thick pieces should he 'gashed t~ adding 25 to 26 pounds of good salt permit the salt to strike rapidly. to 74 to 75 pounds of water. If the The fish are packed down in bar­ producer is forced to use impure salt rels, pots, or tanks, and saturated it is a good plan to bring the salt brine is added to cover th.,m. A solution to a boil first, cool it, and weight is put on top of the fish to then add it to the fish. A weight hold them below the top level of the should be set on top of the fish to brine. The brine should be checked hold them under the surface of the from time to time by salinometer to brine. see that it is kept strong, and after Loose salt should be added to the the first week the fish should be un­ brine from time to time to keep it packed, scrubbed off in brine, and strong, as the water drawn from the repacked in saturated brine. fish and the salt entering the flesh BORO (SALTED FISH) of the fish causes the brine to become This method is sometimes used to dilute. A solid potato should float preserve small fish during gluts on in the proper strength brine, ex­ the market, or to keep them during posing a half to a third of its sur­ shipment inland. face area to the air. The addition Whole sardines, anchovies, small of about one-fourth to one-half of 1 percent of sodium benzoate and ben­ herring, and mackerels are im­ zoic acid ( % to 1 pound for each mersed in saturated brine for 12 200 pounds of brine) will inhibit hours. The fish are then allowed to the growth of many molds. drain for a few hours or overnight.

The container should be well Actually, 30 to 45 minutes in bri

23 SALTING salt can nry greatly, but about 1 to FERMENTING 7 or 1 to 8 by weight is best. The Small fish are difficult to salt amount should be just what will w~thout some fermentation and pro­ readily cling- to the fish. The fish te111 hydrolysis taking place. Ba­ should not be packed too tightly, goong is a good example of small and if possible it is best to put a salted fish. In some cases the fish layer of banana leaves between each used in bagoong completely disin­ two layers of fish. Any liquid that tegrate during the fermentation forms should be permitted to drain process. Usually the free liquid away freely. from bagoong is skimmed off and Pomera is a similar product. used as a sauce called patis, while Anchovies or other small fish are the semiliquid residue is ground, if mixed with salt at the rate of 60 necessary, and sold as bagoong. kilos of salt to 50 gallons of fish. Some manufacturers, after the pa tis The fish-salt mixture is shoveled into burlap bags. These bags of is drawn off, add saturated brine to fish are allo,Yed to drain 24 hours the bagoong residue, let it stand a and the fish are ready to ship. ' few days, and make another extrac­ Sometimes fish , shrimp, or small tion of patis. This procedure may crabs are lightly salted in a similar be continued until no further flavor manner to preserve them for 2 to 7 can Le extracted from the fish days. residue.

Figure 24.-Salt being mixed with anchovies to make pomera.

24 FERMENTING

POTS OIL DRUMS WOODEN VAT.

MIXING OF SALT 8 FISH DRAINllCG OFF PATIS Figure 25.-Patls and bagoong manufacture.

BAGOONG AND PATIS traneous material is removed. The Fish such as anchovies ( dilis) , use of harbor water or stream water may add microorganisms and slipmouths (sap-sap), and other fly larvae that will lower the quality of small fish, of little economic impor­ the bagoong. tance in the retail fish market, are 2. The salt is mixed thoroughly usually purchased from the fisher­ with the fish at the rate of 1 to 3 men in large 40- to 50-kilo baskets or 2 to 7 parts by weight. A large to make bagoong. wooden box and a shovel make 1. The fresh fish are thoroughly handy equipment to use in mixing washed in clean fresh water, and the fish and salt to assure that every all seaweed, sticks, and other ex- fish receives its quota of salt.

25 SALTING 5. A f t e r the characteristic slightly fishy, cheeselike odor has developed and the fish flesh has dis­ integrated to a considerable extent the proteinaceous liquid similar t~ soy sauce can either be skimmed off the top of the fish-and-brine mix­ ture ?r drained off through a spigot openmg near the bottom of the con­ tain:r. This liquid, patis, may be s~ran~ed or filtered until it is quite hght m color if the filterina medium Figure 26.-Anchovies salted to make bagoong. is efficient. As with the ;tis from alamang or shrimp baaoong the 3. The fish and salt mixture is • 0 ' pat1s from small fish may be sim- placed in earthenware pots, wooden mered over a fire until clear. How­ or steel barrels, or vats to undergo ever, it has been the author's experi­ fermentation. The c o n t a i n er s ence that patis thus prepared is not should be tightly covered to exclude as good in flavor and a flocculent flies, which will lay eggs that hatch ~recipitate settles out of the patis in out into visible maggots and reduce time. Good patis may contain 9 to the quality of the bagoong. 10 percent protein. 4. The containers with the salted If the major product from the ba­ fish are allowed to stand for periods goong is to be patis, a number of from 2 weeks to a year to develop ~xtractions are usually made by add­ the characteristic aroma and flavor mg a concentrated brine solution (1 brought about by the breakdown of pa~t salt to 3 parts of water by the fish proteins. ~ve1ght) to the fish residue, letting In a Philippine Fishery Program it age_ about 2 weeks more and again report (Hamm, 1950) on the effect d~awmg off the liquid. The pro­ of temperature and purity of salt tem content of the patis decreases on bagoong and patis manufacture, data are given to show that the use of pure salt results in a fermenta­ tion rate during the early stages of digestion twice as fast as in bagoong salted with impure solar salt. It \YaS found also that carrying out the first week of storage at 45° C. and the next 2 weeks at 37° C. gave about the same degree of fermentation as normally results after 6 months or more of storage at regular Figure 27.-Patis and bagoong in a Philippine temperatures. market.

26 FERMENTING after each addition of brine so that TINABAL (VISAYA) a fourth extraction will generally This product is much the same as contain less than 1 percent protein. bagoong with a few minor varia­ The general practice, after draw­ tions in procedure. ing off a fair amount of patis, is to The fish ltre thoroughly washed in ~rind up the bagoong in a meat clean fresh water but they are not rrrinder and fill the material into gutted. They are put down in con­ "'cans or bottles for sale. If the centrated brine for 2 to 3 hours, bagooPg is not fluid enough, addi­ then dipped 0tit onto concrete floors. tional concentrated brine is added. They drain for a few minutes and Patis is usually sold in second-hand are mixed with salt at the rate of beer or catsup bottles; bagoong is 1 to 3 or 1 to 4 by weight. This salt usually sold in renovated tin cans is added at intervals while the fish or in bottles. are being stirred with shovels.

Things to remember 1. Use only good fresh fish (an­ chovies are preferred). 2. Wash the fish thoroughly in clean fresh water. 3. Mix the fish thoroughly with clean pure salt. 4. Place the fish in flyproof clean containers with a minimum of sur­ face exposed to the air. 5. Store the bagoong in a clean warm place which has a minimum of circulating air. Figure 28.-Small Rsh before processing Into 6. ·when the proper aroma and tlnabal. body have developed in the product, The fish are packed in barrels and drain off the patis and grinJ. the 5-gallon petroleum cans. After a residual bagoong. week or two of fermentation the 7. Strain the patis and pack it in containers are sealed. The best clean bottles. Pack the bagoong in product ages from 6 to 15 months. clean containers. A patis is made by first adding an If a dealer wants to develop a equal amount of water to the tinabal thriving business he should not di­ and then cooking it for 5 to 6 hours lute the patis or bagoong and thet• or until the volume is half the orig­ pass it off for something better tha11 inal. The liquid is well-strained, it is. bottled or canned, and sealed.

27 SALTING

BALBAKWA AND BAGOONG two more days after which it is TULINGAN formed into cylinders or cubes and Balbakwa, as known in Batangas sold in the market. Province, is a product similar to Guinamos alamang or shrimp bagoong in that a certain degree of paste is a similar product except enzymatic hydrolization seems to that salt is added to the shrimp at take place during the aging process, the rate of 2 gantas of salt to 10 but it differs in that quite a bit of gallons of shrimp after the first dry­ bacterial action probably occurs ing period and the shrimp-and-salt also. Native salt is mixed with mixture is only dried 1 day after whole 6- to 10-inch fish in a native being made into a paste. pot in the proportions of approxi­ mately 1 to 5 by weight. The pot is covered and allowed to stand 6 to 8 months. When the pot is opened the pasty red sides are lifted from the fish and f r i e d. The use of whole large fish seems to prevent the disintegration common to ba­ goong and the smaller amount of salt seems to allow a certain amount of bacterial action to take place which is evidenced by the strong odor and rich sharp taste. In some sections of Batangas Province, the people make what they call "bagoong tulingan." This Figure 29.-Drying shrimp before making is similar to balbakwa in that a guinamos alamang. small amount of salt is used, and the finished product looks and tastes much the same, but the preparation differs in that the head of each fish is removed, the viscera squeezed out, a slash is made down each side of the fish, and the fish is mashed flat with the pressure of the ham.}. DINAILAN (PHILIPPINES) Very small shrimp are spread out on platforms and dried in the sun for a day. The partially dried shrimp are then ground or placed in a mortar and pounded fine. The Figure 30.-Guinamos alamang after first mass is then dried and pounded for drying.

28 FERMENTING

, ... .

.. ' .'\ '~...:. ' f t .-\ ...... ~. -' I •

Figure 31.-Grinding shrimp to a paste.

Figure 32.-Sealing shrimp paste in oil cans.

894001 0-51--3 29 SALTING time it is anticipated that the prod­ uct will be held before using. The mixture is put in 5-gallon oil cans or earthenware jars and is sold by the cupful. Some small fish such as the sar­ dines, the small mackerels, and others can be fermented until they have developed a rich salty flavor but at the same time the flesh does not completely disintegrate with the bulk of the goodness going into the brine as the native anchovy does. Spain, Portugal, and Italy have types of anchovies (not the same ones that are native to Philippine Figure 33.-Containers used to transport guinamos alamang. waters) which are fermented in this way; while in Norway, Sweden, BELACHAN Denmark, and Germany sprats are This Malayan product is a praw11 salted to make an anchovy-like or shrimp paste similar to the paste and various spices are added Philippine product, dinailan. to lend richness to the flavor. The shrimps are spread out to In the Philippine Fishery Pro­ partly dry. They are then mixed gram cannery, sardines from the "·ith a little salt and are thoroughly southern area of the Philippines, pounded to a paste. The paste is which had been frozen for ship­ put out to dry and then is pounded ment, were packed down in salt again. This goes on for 6 weeks to after thawing, and fermented. The 2 months after which the product resultant product was rich in flavor is packaged and sold as a flavoring and compared well with imported agent for curries and other dishes. anchovy pastes. LAMA YO (PHILIPPINES) FISH PASTE Five gallons of very small shrimp are mixed, with 51h quarts of salt The following is a Philip}!ine and are placed in a bag, on which Fishery Program method of mak­ heavy weights are put until no more ing fermented fish paste (not brine can be extracted. The shrimp bagoong): are then spread out in the sun to Fresh sardines or other firm­ dry for half a day. fleshed small fish are washed The partially dried mixture is thoroughly and the scales are re­ thoroughly macerated with addi­ moved if possible. For the best tional salt, the quantity of which quality product the heads should be will vary according to the length of twisted off, removing the viscera at

30 FERMENTING

Figure 34.-Guinamos alamang in the retailers stall.

the same time. The heads may be pasty some good salad oil will have used to make bagoong or patis. to be added-2 ounces to a pound The fish are thoroughly mixed of fish should be about right. with salt at the rate of 21/z to 3 The paste should then be put parts fish to 1 of salt by weight and through a fine sieve to remove any the fish are packed down in a barrel bones, large salt crystals, scales, or or large pot. Sometimes 6 grams other extraneous material. The of saltpeter are added to each kilo fine-textured paste may then be of salt used, to insure a good rich sealed in cans, jars, or cartons, or red color and exercise a preservative it may be sold in bulk as it keeps action. very well if kept from the flies and A weight is placed on top of the molds. fish to keep them from floating in Spanish or Italian anchovies may the brine that forms, and the barrel he prepared in much the same way is thoroughly covered to exclude except that in some cases the fish flies and permit as little circulation are removed from the brine at the of air above the product as possible. end of 2 or :3 months and are re­ After 3 or 4 months, depending sulted at the rate of 25 pounds of on when the fermentation is com­ salt to 100 pounds of fish. Ocher pleted, the fish are removed from may be added to improve the color the brine and gently washed in of the fermented fish. strong brine. The skin and bones are removed by hand from the red NORWEGIAN OR SWEDISH flesh, which is then put through a ANCHOVIES fine food chopper. If the ground This method of making an fish does not appear to be oily and anchovy-like product has been modi-

31 SALTING fled somewhat to suit it to Philip­ 5. The entrails should be removed pine conditions. and the black skin and blood wiped The herring-type fishes are thor­ out of the belly cavity. oughly washed, scaled, and gutted. 6. The fish should, if expedient, The heads may or may not be re­ be soaked in a strong brine for about moved. The fish are mixed with 1h to 1 hour to leach out as much of salt at the rate of 5 parts fish to 1 the blood as possible. part salt by weight and are put In kench salting the fish should down in a barrel with just enough be heavily salted and tightly stacked water added to cover the fish. After in a pile. A weight may or may not 12 hours the fish are drained on a be placed on top. The brine as it rack. is expressed is drained away. Each 5 pounds of salt used should 7. The fish should then be thor­ be mixed thoroughly with 3 ounces oughly rubbed with dry salt (if the of ground pepper, 3 ounces ground a11spice, 1 ounce ground cloves, 1 dry-salt-to-form-brine method is ounce ground nutmeg, 1 ounce of used) and the fish stacked in layers ground Cayenne pepper, and a few with salt beneath each layer and on chopped bay leaves. The drained top of the final layer. A brine forms fish should be mixed thoroughly to cover the fish. with this mixture and packed down In brine-salting the fish should be in a large we11-covered container stacked loosely without salt or with for 2 weeks in a cool place. a small amount until the container is full, and then the concentrated THINGS TO REMEMBER brine should be added. In the case ABOUT SALTING of small fish the brine may be made 1. Process the fish as soon as pos­ up and the fish dumped into it. sible after removal from the water. 8. At the end of 48 hours to 1 2. If expeditious, bleed the fish week the fish should be washed and upon removal from the water by salted down again as done origi­ ripping out the gills, cutting the nally except that less salt is used lateral line on each side of the tail, between the layers in brine-salting or other suitable means. and the same brine is again added 3. Scale big fish and skin tough­ after straining. skinned fish. 9. The fish may be left in the 4. Split the fish along the back pickle until used, if it is kept up to down to the belly skin or cut it into strength and remains sweet. If the halves, slices, fillets, or strips in brine gets sour or slimy or the fish accordance with ease of handling, get moldy and slimy, the brine personal desire, or sales appeal. should be thrown away, the fish Thick pieces of flesh should be should be scrubbed in strong fresh gashed deeply to permit rapid trans­ brine, and the fish should be put mission of salt to all parts. down in good fresh brine.

32 DRYING

Drying preserves by lowering the For example-200 pounds of fish water content of a food below that is dried down to 50 pounds. One­ in which microorganisms can grow fifth of 200 pounds gives 40 pounds and reproduce. The total number of of water-free material in the fish. microorganisms present at the time This 40 pounds subtracted from the of the drying is reduced, but many 50 pounds total dried weight gives of those present are only inacti­ 10 pounds of water in the dried vated, so that if the moisture content fish. This figure 10 (weight of of the dehydrated food is raised to water in dried fish) divided by 50 a point where these microorganisms (total weight of dried fish) and the can carry out their natural life result multiplied by 100, gives a processes they will grow again. water content of 20 percent in the The safe moisture content for dried fish. dried fish is about 20 percent, but The water can be removed by any unless great care is taken the mois­ one or a combination of the follow­ ture content will be around 40 per­ ing methods: cent or above. If an operator is 1. Using salt or brine to extract interested in getting a rough esti­ the moisture by osmosis. mate of the efficiency of his drying 2. Pressing the material in a press procedure, he can figure it out in or by weights. the folJowing way. About one-fifth 3. Drying under sunlight. of the original weight of fish is 4. Dehydration in heated ovens, water-free material that does not boxes, or dehydrators, with or with­ change much in weight during dry­ out the circulation of air. ing. ~y subtracting this weight­ 5. Freeze-drying. that is, one-fifth the original weight 6. Drying in shade where air has of the fish___:.from the total dried free passage, with or without circu­ weight of the fish, he can find the lation of air. weight of the water remaining in The usual practice with most the fish after drying. Take this processors is to salt the fish first, latter figure-the weight of the to extract the surface moisture and water in the dried fish-and divide to preserve the fish during the dry­ it into the total weight of the dried ing process, and then place the fish fish, and multiply the result by 100 in the sun to extract the moisture to get a percentage figure for the down to the point where microor­ moisture content of the dried fish. ganisms will not grow. The meth-

33 DRYING ods that folivw are those found 5. The salted fish are placed in a satisfactory in the Philippine Fish­ single layer on wire screen, coarsely ery Program cannery, those used woven rattan, or bamboo racks to successfully in other parts of the dry. If the fish are salted heavily world, and those in current use in enough to keep them, drying in the the Philippines 'vith suggested shade makes the better product as modifications to make them more there is apt to be some case-harden­ effective. ing from very rapid drying in the SMALL FISH sun. Case-hardening is a denatur­ ing of proteins that causes some It was found in the Philippine parts of the fish to remain hard Fishery Program cannery that a despite long soaking in water. It first-class dried product could not is a good policy to leave the drying be made from small fish unless they fish exposed to the sun for the first were gutted first. The fish would 3 or 4 hours in the morning and dry hard and keep well, but many then place them in the shade where of them would be belly-burned (the a good breeze can blow across them. belly wall perforated) and there The fish should be turned over every was a slight putrid smell even when hour or two. At night the racks the fish were completely dry. When should be stacked under cover where freshened the fish would have quite air can circulate but moisture can­ a definite off flavor. If fried while not reach them. still dry, the off flavor was not very 6. When the fish are dried thor­ pronounced but the fish were dry oughly they may be packed in clean like corn flakes. The procedure boxes or baskets, or in bundles. that follows was found to be best It was found that fish 4 inches for most fish up to a fourth of a and over dried better if split down pound in weight. through the backbone and the top 1. Good fresh fish are washed of the head, with the two halves thoroughly in clean water. joined by the belly skin. In this 2. The viscera are removed by case the evisceration takes place squeezing them out through a slit after the splitting. made across the belly (most Fili­ pino operators do not do this). MED·IUM AND LARGE FISH 3. The fish are soaked in a 10- percent brine ( 1 part salt to 9 parts This procedure was the one found water by weight) for half an hour to best in the Philippine Fishery Pro­ leach out the blood. gram cannery, for fish, fillets, and 4. The fish are placed in a con­ strips above one-half pound in centrated brine for 3 to 6 hours or weight. The removal of moisture is in a 60° -salinometer brine from 12 carried out in three ways-salting, to 24 hours, depending on the size drying, and pressure. of the fish and the concentration 1. The fish are washed thoroughly of salt desired in the fish. in fresh water.

34 MEDIUM AND LARGE FISH

Figure 35.-Dried fish in a Philippine market.

2. They are prepared for salting method awkward and of little bene­ by butchering and eviscerating. fit. Another method used in the They are cut up in a form that will southern Philippines entails cutting be easy to handle and easy for the the fish meat into a criss-cross open­ cook to prepare and that will allow work net. for the rapid penetration of salt to H the flesh is thick on any side of all parts of the meat and make the the fish, crosswise knife slashes into drying process rapid and thorough. the meat are necessary to enable the Fish that are not too thick-fleshed salt to penetrate readily to all parts. and chunky can be split down Big fish should be filleted, leaving through the back so that the fish the bony collarbone just in back of will lie in two halves joined by the the gills attached to each fillet. belly skin. They may also be split Very big fish should have the through the beHy and backbone or fillets cut into strips, 3 to 6 inches ribs in such a way that the two wide, 8 to 18 inches long, and % to halves are held together by the skin 1 inch thick. If thicker pieces are along the back, yet the fish can be desired they will have to be gashed, laid out flat. Sometimes the fish are so that no part of the piece is more split into two sides and a backbone than one-half to three-fourths of an all joined together by two hinges inch from an open surface. of skin. The Philippine Fishery The belly cavity is emptied and Program laboratory found this washed clean. The gills and any

35 DRYING visible blood, eyes, or other extrane­ packed. A weight may be necessary ous material are removed. Very to keep the top fish below the surface tough skin should be removed or of the brine. cross-cut in such a way as to prevent 5. After the fish have struck (36 the distortion of the fish when the hours for medium fish to 1 week for skin dries and shrinks. big fish or pieces) they are removed 3. The fish, fillets, or strips, are from the brine and scrubbed thor­ soaked in a 10-percent brine for oughly in fresh clean brine with a about half an hour to leach out as brush or coarse sack material to re­ much blood and slime as possible. move all extraneous material and 4. Each piece of fish is rubbed coagulated blood. They are then thoroughly in salt so that every part ready for drying. of the surface is coated. The fish 6. The fish may be strung on are packed in vats, barrels, or earth­ hooks suspended from poles or they enware pots with salt between the may be laid out on trays or racks. layers and around the pieces. The For the first day or so they should ratio of salt to fish averages about not be exposed to the bright sun at 1 part to 3 parts by volume or 1 to 4 all, but after that they may be put by weight. The mixture is covered out for 3 to 6 hours each morning to exclude flies. and toward the end of the drying At the end of 48 hours the fish period left out all day. This care may be repacked in a small amount is exercised to prevent case-harden­ ing. The best product is prepared of additional salt and the brine that by drying the fish in the shade has already formed. Medium fish where there is a good breeze with­ ( 1 to 3 pounds) will generally be out any direct sun-drying at all. struck through at the end of 36 If the fish are laid out on trays hours and will not have to be re- they should be turned over four or five times a day to promote even drying. 7. To hasten the drying it is a good plan to stack the fish in piles about 2 to 3 feet high each night and apply a gradually heavier weight on top of each pile, starting with a weight about two-thirds the weight of the fish the first night and ending with a weight about three times that of the original amount of fish in each pile the last night. 8. After the fish is thoroughly dry it may be wrapped in wax paper and packed in boxes or baskets, or Figure 36.-Rubblng salt on a tuna flllet. in bundles.

36 SHRIMP

' ff' Figure 37.-Shade-drylng split and unspllt fish.

Medium-size fish ( 1 to 3 pounds) The shrimp when cooked correctly will dry in about 3 days; large fish show a high degree of shell separa­ and strips may take a week or 10 tion from the meat. The shrimp days or even more. are spread out in a thin layer on The fish need not be pressed at drying racks, metal roofs, or con­ night, but in this case it must be crete or stone areas. They should protected from the night moisture be turned every hour or so to pro­ by suitable covering. The individ­ mote even drying. ual fish or trays of fish should be When they are dry and quite hard so arranged under cover that air is the shrimp may be placed in sacks free to circulate around them, thus and beaten against a wooden block, preventing heating. or the operator may beat the sack of shrimp with a board. This SHRIMP breaks the sheHs away from the The following is an American meaty tails. The shells may be method for drying shrimp. separated from the meats by win­ The shrimp are washed thor­ nowing them like rice in a stiff oughly in clean water; all spoiled breeze or dribbling the mixture shrimp and debris are discarded. over an inclined *-inch wire mesh 1 pound of salt to each 9 pounds of where the shells will fall through A salt solution is made by adding and the meats will slide to the water. This is brought to a boil bottom. and the shrimp are dumped in and The shells may be ground and boiled for about 10 minutes after sold for animal or bird food. The the water comes to a boil a.gain. meats should be picked over and

37 DRYING any adhering shell removed. The dominal side of the fish, severing shelled shrimp should be kept dry the flesh and ribs from it but not until ready for use. cutting the skin that goes over the back. The backbone is lopped off RACKLING with the tail. A product much used in North­ The fish is laid out, skin side western Europe and in Scandi­ down, and the flesh is scored down navian sections of the l: nited States almost to the skin. This facilitates is rackling, prepared as follows: The salt penetration. fi sh is split into two separate fillets Salt is rubbed thoroughly into or sides with the head, backbone, and the cuts, flesh, and skin. The fish big rib bones removed, but the heavy are packed in a barrel or crock, skin collarbones behind the gills left at­ side down, a layer of salt on each tached by the two pieces of meat. layer of fish. About 1 part of salt The fillets are split lengthwise from is used to every 3 or 4 parts of fish the collarbone to the tail in long by weight. A weight is placed on narrow strips 1112 to lh inch wide, the fish to keep them below the dependin:z on the type of fish and brine that forms. the individual processor. After 48 hours the fish are re­ The fillets and strips are cleaned moved from the brine, scrubbed in well and sometimes soaked in a 10- fresh brine, and hung to dry in the percent brine for 10 to 20 minutes shade. Every night the fish are to leach out the blood. They are put stacked in a pile with thick layers in a saturated brine for 1 to 2 hours of clean sacking between the layers and hung out to hard dry in a warm, of fish .. A heavy weight is placed breezy place in the shade. It may on the top of the pile. This drying be stored like other dried fish, but and pressing procedure is continued will not keep as well if it becomes until the fish are dry. at all damp. PHILIPPINE METHODS DRIED BARRACUDA Small fish such as anchovies, small Korman Jarvis ( 1945), Technol­ gobies, and sardines are quite often ogist of the Fish and Wildlife Serv­ dried without any salting at all. ice, in a leaflet on home preservation The fish as they arrive at the proc­ of fishery products recommends the essors are washed and spread out in following method of drying barra­ a thin layer on split-bamboo racks. cuda. At frequent intervals the operator The fish is scaled and the head stirs the fish with a piece of card­ is removed in front of the collar­ board to promote even drying. bones but behind the gills. The Generally 1-day drying is sufficient, belly is slit open and the entrails are but most of the fish thus prepared removed. A cut is made on both have the bellies disintegrated. sides of the backbone, from the ab- " Then these fish are used they have

38 PHILLIPINE METHODS

Figure 38.--Placing washed anchovies on flakes (Cadiz:, Negros Occidentall.

Figure 39.-Putting out partially dried anchovies in the morning ICatbalogan, Samarl. a very strong off flavor which is dump the fish into a concentrated somewhat bitter and putrid. salt solution for 15 to 20 minutes By making a slit in the bellies of and dry them without any eviscera­ these fish and squeezing out the vis­ tion. Sometimes a slight belly dis­ cera and then washing them in a integration will occur but the taste strong brine a very good product of the product is much better than can be made. Another method is to when no salt is used.

39 DRYING ___ ....,..._, //~ ,---,/ .-

-~ .> " ...... '· "-~if ""' - .~ _ "'""' Figure 40.-Anchovies drying on flakes. Night covering in background (Codiz, Negros Occidentall.

Figure 41.-Turning over the flakes of anchovies and beating off those fish that are stuck.

SINARAPAN lMISTICHTHYS perishable so the natives mix them LUZONENSISJ with fine salt at the rate of 1 part salt to 5 of fish by weight, and dry At Lake Buhi in the Bicol region, them in thin cakes. These hard­ very small fish, called sinarapan or dried cakes are stored in glass jars tabios, are caught. The fish, which until used. The cakes are usually are less than an inch long, are very fried with no freshening. Some

40 PHILLIPINE METHODS eooks steam the cakes a little hefore frying.

BOLINAO IMINDANAOl Two or three pounds of fin e salt are mixed with 30 to 35 pounds of small fi sh such as ancho,·ies and let stand for a couple of hours. In the Visayas sardines are soaked in a strong brine for 2 hours and are then washed and dried. An­ other method is to mix the fi sh with dry salt at the rate of 1 to 4 or 1 to 5 by weight and let the fish stand in big tanks 12 to 24 hours befor<> washing and drying.

Figure 42.-Dried anchovies, ready to pack.

Figure 45.-Tanks of salted fish (Cadiz, Negros Occidental>.

Figure 43.-Processors bidding for anchovies and sardines at a Visayan fish landing.

Figure 44.-Wooden tanks used to salt fish Figure 46.-Sardines and slipmouths drying for drying !Cadiz, Negros Occidentall. in Sagay INegros Occidental!.

41 DRYING

Figure 47.-Laying out split fish to dry (Catbalogan, Samarl.

Figure 48.-Spreading large anchovies to dry !Catbalogan, Samarl.

42 PHILLIPINE METHODS by weight, in a wooden barrel or vat. (To each kilo of salt one table­ spoon of saltpeter is added.) The fish are allowed to stand 24 hours in the brine that forms. Then they are washed in fresh water and are laid out on mats and dried~ be­ ing turned over periodically during the process. The saltpeter gives a rich red Figure 49.-Dried fish being stored (Cadiz, color that enhances the appearance Negros Occidentall. of the fish.

MACKEREL The fish are split down the back, leaving the belly \Yall intact. En­ trails and gills are removed, and the fish are washed. Fine salt is rubbed over all the exposed surfaces. The fish are stacked in individual piles for 3 to 6 hours. At the end of this time they are washed in con­ centrated brine solution and sun­ dried for about 2 days or until hard. Figure 50.-Packing dried fish for shipment ISagay, Negros Occidentall. The product is fairly good but spoiled spots occur occasionally and ·The fish are spread out on mats sometimes the fish does not reconsti­ and dried until hard. It would tute well. A preliminary salting in seem that the product could be im­ brine might help prevent the spoiled proved by soaking the fish in a 15- spots \Yhile shade-drying- at least percent brine for an hour or two part of the time might help elimi­ before drying, as the salt distribu­ nate the other defect. tion would be more uni form. CATFISH JAPANESE-STYLE SMALL FISH The following is a method of dry­ The following is a Japanese fish­ ing catfish in Manila. drying method, formerly used in Small catfish are split down the the Philippines. back and eviscerated. They are Fish such as sardines and small placed in a strong brine overnight mackerel are mixed with salt in the and are washed the next day in clean ratio of 3 parts of fish to 1 of salt, fresh \Yater.

43 DRYING The fish are skewered on bamboo 20 minutes. They should be cooked splinters so that they lie flat. About throup:h and be quite elastic and 5 fish are placed on each splinter or rubbery. The visceral cavity is pair of splinters. They are sun­ opened and the contents thoroughly dried an average of 1 day. scraped out. The product looks good and The trepang are dried in the sun smells good. It is sold right on the nntil quite hard. Some operators splinter. dry them in kilns and others shade­ dry them. It is probable that a combination of sun-drying and kiln smoke-drying is best. In this case, when the product is almost dry it is smoked for 24 hours to complete the process. Whatever process is used, the cooking and drying should be begun as soon as possible, as trepang is very perishable.

Figure 51.-Filipino method of skewering fish for drying. CHINESE-STYLE TREPANG The following is a Chinese SHARK FINS method of drying trepang : The fins are cut from the fish as Trepang are taken to the shore soon as possible after capture. The right after catching; the undersides fleshy portions are slit and salt is are slit open and the viscera re­ rubbed into all exposed surfaces. moved. The fins are hung in the sun to The trepang are dropped into a dry. This takes from 2 to 5 days pot of boiling water and cooked un­ although some operators continue til hard and rubbery. The exact to dry them until they have enough time depends on the size, variety, to take to market, or the operator and condition of the trepang. They may boil the fins and remove the are sun-dried on both sides--half a cartilaginous material which is de­ day for each side-and then put in sired; this in turn must be dried. a smokehouse where a combination The white or lightly spotted fins of heat and smoke dehydrates and are best and are used for soup. The preserves them. black fins are poorest and often are The trepang mold and deteriorate used to make glue. if not stored where they can be kept moisture-free. Where the humidity TREPANG

The tuna, usually bonito or skip­ SWEDISH LUTEFISK OR jack, are filleted and the belly meat LYE-TREATED COD is discarded with the dark meat. Fillets are simmered in water at This procedure might be adapted 170° to 190° F., or steamed in large to utilize some of the hard-dried receptacles, until t h o r o u g h 1 y large fish that are prepared in some cooked. The skin and any bones sections of the Philippines. that remain after the initial butch­ The Swedish people use codfish erings are removed. The cracks in which has been salted and hard­ the fish are smoothed over by hand dried. The fish is soaked in water rubbing. for a week with frequent changes The sticks are dried at 170° F. of water. It is then placed in a over artificial heat for about an birchwood-ash and unslaked-lime hour a day for 2 to 3 weeks. When combination or soda-and-lye mix­ not being dried, they are stored in a ture for a week. It is soaked in fre­ dry place. In some places this dry­ quent changes of water for 8 to 10 ing is alternated with smoking. days. The fish is prepared for eat­ They may be sun-dried the final ing by boiling and serving with a day. rich sauce.

894001 0-51--4 45 SMOKING

Smoke as such has very little pre­ the moisture content of the food has servative action. Done properly, it been lowered sufficiently and if the does make a product look better-in salt content has been built up high many cases it adds a distinctive enough the food will stay good for flavor and an attractive color. a long time. However, the smoke Generally speaking, there are two itself helps but little in preserving types of smoking : hot and cold. f he product. Hot-smoking is, indeed, a slow type of broiling, where the product is THE SMOKEHOUSE put in close proximity to the fire and the food is cooked as well as In general, a smokehouse should saturated with smoke. vVe might be a fairly airtight container into very well call this ''barbecue smok­ which smoke can be introduced. A ing." Products rece1vmg this pot, box, barrel, or shed, in which treatment are quite flavorous and trays, rods, or hooks can be placed juicy, but they have a short storage for holding the food, will serve. life unless kept under refrigeration, Either the house or the source of because the moisture content of the smoke should be movable so that fish remains high. the smoke can enter hot or can be In cold-smoking, temperatures of allowed to cool before entering. 90° to 110° F. are used in contrast In the Philippine Fishery Pro­ to the 150° to 190° F. temperatures gram laboratory an old refrigera­ of hot-smoking. It is true that tor-shipping box was used. The foods may be cold-smoked for just bottom was discarded. The front a few hours and have even a shorter was taken off and adjusted so that storage life than hot-smoked prod­ it could be opened and shut like a ucts, but usually cold-smoked prod­ door. Within the box, wooden ucts are subjected to low-tempera­ rails were nailed to the two sides ture smoke over a period of days or to hold coarse wire trays that were ''eeks during which time the food slid in loaded with the product to not only picks up a strong smoke be smoked. A hole was cut through flavor but is decidedly dehydrated the top of the box and a pipe was as well. Some cold-smoked Ken­ fitted over it. Between the pipe tucky hams have been stored with­ and the top was placed a sliding out refrigeration for years. board to regulate the draft. For a Not all smoked foods stand up firebox a native stove was placed over a long period of time, but if on the ground. The heat was pro- 46 . I

SMOKEHOUSE

FAN

HOT SMOKE

COLD SMOKE

NATIVE SMOKING POT

\" RECOMMENDED SMOKE HOUSE Figure 52.-Fish-smoking equipment for use in the Philippines.

47 SMOKING vided by a charcoal fire and the boo or wire trays, suspended on smoke by sawdust on the charcoal hooks, threaded on rods thrust fire. through one gill flap and the mouth A closable opening was cut in the of each fish, impaled on bamboo lower right-hand corner of the door. splinters or rods thrust through the One end of a sheet-aluminum hood flesh under the collarbones, or by about 18 inches square and 3% feet any other means that will permit long was fitted into the opening. the greatest amount of the surface Thus, when cool smoke of 90° to of the fish to be exposed to the action 100° F. was desired, the native stove of the smoke. was placed in the end of the hood The sawdust or wood used should farthest from the smokehouse and be nonresinous or the smoked fish a fan was placed to blow on the may become inedible from the off­ hood. A detachable piece of can­ fla vored materials in the smoke. vas covered the open end of the hood. When the charcoal became a COLD-SMOKING bed of coals, sawdust would be thrown on it. As the cloud of The following Philippine Fish­ smoke arose and moved to,vard the ery Program methods of cold-smok­ smokehouse end of the hood, the ing were found to work out quite heat from it would be taken up by well. the aluminum hood and be blown SMALL FISH away by the fan. Total construc­ tion time was one-half day by one Fish from one-eighth to th;ree­ man. fourths pound are scaled and The firebox is placed on the side washed. of the smokehouse from which the The forefinger of one hand or prevailing winds blow. It is best preferably a broad hook or curved to have the fire lower than the knife blade about a third of an inch smokehouse and the tunnel or pipe wide is inserted through one gill that carries the smoke should in­ flap of each fish and the gills and cline upward. When hot-smoking, all organs that will follow are a metal deflector should be placed scooped and pulled out by a com­ directly over the fire or opening to bined hooking motion of the knife deflect the heat as that part of the and pressure from the thumb hold­ product directly over the heat ing the knife on the. nearer gill. source will take up most of the heat Another method is to make a and be overcooked if this is not small slit below and between the done. gills, through which is removed as Shown in the illustration are much of the gills, heart, and other several types of fish-smoking equip­ viscera as can be hooked out with ment that are in use (p. 47). one motion. The fish may be placed in the The fish are washed again and smokehouse on coarsely woven barn- immersed in a 10-percent brine ( 1

48 COLD-SMOKING pal't salt to 9 parts water) for about time to give a higher salt content an hour to leach out as much of the and better preservative action. blood and slime as possible. The fish are put into a 60° -sali­ MEDIUM-SIZE FISH nometer brine ( 15 pounds salt to 85 Fish from % to 3 pounds, such as pounds water) for from 1 to 6 mullet, bangos, dalagang bukid, hours depending on the size of the gizzard shad, mackerel, are washed fish a~d the amount of salt desired and scaled. They are split down in the finished product. They al'e the back to the belly or up from the then removed from the brine and belly to the back skin so that the fish washed with fresh water (not is split into two halves, joined soaked). either by the back skin or the belly The fish may be placed on rods by skin. Small fish may have only the threading the rod through the gill belly cavity opened and the gills flap and out the mouth, suspended and viscera removed. by strings attached to the head and The fish are washed thoroughly thence to a rod, or laid on wire or inside and out, and all blood ves­ bamboo racks. (This latter method sels, blood clots, and extraneous ma­ leaves marks on the side of the fish terial are removed by brushing or that some dealers may not like.) scrubbing with burlap. The fish The fish are hung in the shade with are soaked in a 10-percent brine for a good breeze blowing on them, or 30 to 60 minutes to leach out as much out in the sun. They must be blood as possible and to lighten the turned frequently. This drying is color of the flesh. carried out for 1 to 4 hours or until The fish are then soaked in a con­ all the surface moisture is removed centrated brine from 4 to 8 hours from the fish and a dry skin or and then washed in fresh water. pellicle forms over the surface. The length of the salting period The fish are placed in a smoke­ varies according to the amount of house where the temperature is be­ salt desired in the product, the size tween 90° and 100° F. The smoke and kind of fish, and the length of should be fairly thin for the first time it is to be kept after smoking. 4 to 6 hours and thick for the last They are hung up to dry in the 16 to 18 hours. The operator will shade so that the air is free to cir­ have to gage the length of time nec­ culate around all parts of the fish, essary to provide the color and yet the valuable sections of meat are flavor that his trade desires. not perforated by suspending equip­ If the product is to be used soon ment. The drying is continued (within 2 weeks) the processing is until the surface of the fish is dry completed at this point but if it is and a skin-like rubbery pellicle has to be kept for months it should be formed. shade dried until fairly hard. The fish are put in the smoke­ Also, the salting process should be house over a low smoldering fire carried out for a longer period of with light smoke for 4 to 6 hours 49 SMOKING followed by dense smoke until the poon) should be added and mixed process is completed to the desired in. Pieces of fish over 1 inch in color and flavor. This may take thickness should be gashed to per­ from 1to7 days. The temperature mit the ready penetration of salt should not be above 90° to 100° F. to all parts of the fish. A weight If the product is to be kept for a should be put on top of the fish to longer period of time the smoking keep it below the surface of the may be continued until the fish have brine that forms. dried out enough to keep, but pref­ After 2 days the fish should be erably they should be dried outside repacked and more salt added be­ the smokehouse after the desired tween layers of fish. The old brine color and flavor have been reached. may be strained and used to cover the stacked fish. The fish are left FISH HAMS out about 5 days before removing, Large fish are best prepared as or may be stored in the brine until fish hams. Species that lend them­ eaten. Fish to be smoked are selves to this product are tuna, bar­ freshened in a number of changes of racuda, Spanish mackerel, pom­ fresh water for about 12 to 24 hours. pano, large red snapper, and per­ The fish are hung to dry for 1 to haps others. 2 days in a shady, breezy place. The fresh fish is washed thor­ The next step is smoking in a oughly in clean water. The head dense cool smoke (90° to 100° F.) is cut off just in back of the gills so 8 hours a day, for 3 days, or until that the collarbone is still attached. the color is a rich reddish brown. The belly is slit and the viscera re­ If the product has been processed moved. The fish is split clown the correctly the flesh will have a good back into two equal pieces and the red color and a taste like pork ham. backbone, fins, tail, and belly flaps The hams may be hung up where it removed. Fillets and strips may is clean and dry to be kept until also be used. used. Those in the Philippine The fish sides are doused thor­ Fishery Program laboratory kept oughly in pure salt, inside and out, very "·ell for 6 to 8 weeks. so that all exposed areas are covered. Particular care must be taken not to overfreshen the fish and to see The sides are then packed in a barrel that the preparation takes place in or crock with the bottom layer skin good drying weather, or the pro­ side down and the others skin side duct may spoil before it is smoked. up. Salt should be sprinkled over the bottom and between each layer HOT-SMOKING so that the final proportions of salt to fish are about 1 to 4 by weight if The following two methods of pure salt is used and 1 to 3 for hot-smoking fish were found satis­ Manila salt. To each kilo of salt, factory in the Philippine Fishery 6 to 8 grams of saltpeter ( 1 tea- Program laboratory.

50 HOT-SMOKING

SMALL FISH The fillets or strips are washed This method of hot-smoking cat­ in fresh water and dried for about fish might be applied to other fish an hour in a good breeze. Then as well. they are put in a smokehouse and Small fish less than 3 pounds are subjected to a light smoke for 1 beheaded, gutted, and skinned. hour at 170° F. and to a dense smoke They are held in a 90°-salinometer for 2 to 3 hours at 90° to 100° F., brine from 3 to 6 hours, depending or until the desired color and flavor on the taste preference of the are obtained. operator. The finished product is quite per­ The catfish are washed and either ishable and will not last in ordinary put on oiled wire trays or threaded storage for more than ~ or 5 days. onto rods and dried in the shade It will stand up indefinitely in freez­ until a rubber-like shiny skin or ing or cold storage. The product pellicle forms on the surface of the also may be canned. fish. They are then put in the smokehouse, where they are smoked lightly and dried at 80° to 90° F. for 7 to 12 hours depending on their size and the amount of smoking desired. Then they are hot-smoked at 160° to 175° F. for up to an hour. The fish can be cooled and wrapped in wax paper. They may be eaten without cooking further but will not remain preserved for more than a ''"eek or 10 days.

LARGE FISH Big fish such as tuna, dolphin, talakitok, Spanish mackerel, barra­ Figure 53.-Arranging tuna hams in a smoke­ cuda, and red snapper are scaled, house. dressed, and filleted. No piece should be over 1% inches thick. If SOME PHILIPPINE METHODS the skin is tough the fish should be Here are three Filipino methods skinned. of smoking fish. H. R. Montalban The fillets are washed off in fresh (1930) in a Philippine Journal of water and soaked in a 20-percent Science article on fish preservation brine for 1 to 3 hours depending on at Estancia, Panay, gives several the thickness of the meat and the methods that work out well; the amount of salt desired in the final second and third method given here product. are from his article.

51 SMOKING

BRINE SOLUTION

Figure 54.-Maklng tlnapa.

Tl NAPA as from 4 to 20 minutes depending on the size of the fish. Large sardines, 4 to 8 inches long, are washed thoroughly in sea or The fish are placed in coarsely fresh water. They are soaked in woven baskets (kain) and are dip­ saturated brine for 1 to 4 hours. ped into boiling saturated brine Larger fish may be soaked over­ until the eyes turn white and fall uight, though in some localities the out. This usually takes about 5 brining takes only half an hour. minutes, but it depends on the size One reference gives the brining time and species of the fish.

52 PHILLIPINE METHODS The fish are put out in the sun on used trays are shipped back to where bamboo racks to dry for 1 to 3 hours, the initial processing occurred. or they may be allowed to set in the The fish will keep from 2 weeks to circular shipping baskets ( tital) to a month, but the bellies usually rot dry and become firm. out and the fish does not look too In some sections, the baskets of good for some time before that. fish are then shipped to the Tondo section of Manila where they are COLD-SMOKED SARDINES smoked. In other localities they do Sardines are split down the back the smoking themselves using the and the entrails are removed. The same circular trays used for the fish are washed thoroughly and then cooking. The processor builds a soaked in a satuated brine for 2 charcoal fire in the bottom of a tall hours. After a short drying period pot which has a small hole in the the sardines are cold-smoked for 36 bottom and an open top. When the hours. Montalban states that sar­ fire is going good, laua-an sawdust dines prepared in this manner will 't or that from other nonresinous keep for a month under normal wood, is thrown on the coals, send­ storage conditions. '1 ing up a dense cloud of smoke. One or more trays of fish are put over SPICED AND SMOKED SARDINES each pot and a tightly woven basket Sardines in the round are put in is put over the top. The smoking a concentrated brine for 2 hours. may take from 45 minutes to 6 hours They are placed in spiced vinegar depending on the size of fish and solution containing mustard, pep­ amount of smoke desired. Tunsoy per, cinnamon, ginger, and garlic, takes about 50 minutes, lapad 60 to which has been simmered, the solid 120 minutes. The fish should be material strained out, and the vine­ turned several times during the gar cooled. It is allowed to stand smoking. for 2 hours. The fish are drained Some fish are sold directly from and dried. The dry fish are the trays while others are repacked smoked at 140° F. for 3 hours and at in boxes and sold that way. The 95 ° F. for 24 to 36 hours.

53 MISCELLANEOUS PRESERVING METHODS

Under this heading are placed PICKLING METHODS some of the various pickling methods, fish cooked with various The Philippine Fishery Program ingredients, and other methods that did little experimental work on do not fall logically under any other spiced or pickled fish, so most of the heading. methods given here come from other Pickled and spiced fish do not references. The following pick­ ordinarily depend on the vinegar ling methods are recommended by alone to keep the fish, but also Norman D. Jarvis in the Fish and utilize salt, sugar, or heat. Vine­ Wildlife Service's Fishery Leaflet gar does not ordinarily provide a 18, April 1945. preservative action over such long HERRING periods of time as salt and drying. It also appears to have some diges­ Ordinary salt herring may be tive action which renders the fish pickled in vinegar, but herring not softer and pastier. specially cured for spicing have a To stop completely the growth of shorter period of preservation, are bacteria, the acetic acid of the pickle darker in color, lack flavor, and are must be 15 percent. When we con­ tougher and more fibrous in texture. ~ider that the strength of retail­ The first step in curing herring store vinegar is between 4 and 6 per­ for pickling is to cut off the head cent and of most nipa vinegar is and trim oo/the thin belly-flesh to between 2 and 3 percent, we can see the vent. / The cut herring are that vinegar in the concentrations cleaned thoroughly, paying special that will entirely prevent bacterial attention to removal of the kidney action cannot be used for food, as which is the dark streak along the even these lesser concentrations are backbone. The fish are washed often too strong for ordinary con­ thoroughly in fresh water and sumption. However, concentra­ drained. The drained fish are tions of as little as 3 percent acetic packed loosely in a crock, and acid will retard spoilage for short covered with a brine testing 80° periods of time. Distilled vinegar salinometer ( o/s cup salt to 1 quart is the type most often used for water) and containing sufficient pickling, as it is usually sold at a vinegar to give it an acidity of 2.5 standard concentration of 5 percent percent. This requires about equal and it does not have any extraneous quantities of water and distilled material that might give the prod­ vinegar. uct in off flavor. The fish are left in this brine until

54 PICKLING the salt has struck through, but f'piced herring may be repacked in must be removed before the skin pint or quart glass jars. If packed starts to wrinkle or lose color. in jars, the herring may be stored Length of cure therefore depends in a refrigerator where they will upon the judgment of the pickler, remain in good condition for as long and varies with the temperature, as 6 months. Add to each jar a few freshness, and size of the fish. The fresh spices, a bay leaf or two, and average time is about 5 days, but a slice of lemon at the side of the may vary from 3 to 7 days. jar to give an attractive appearance. When the herring are judged Rubber jar rings should not be used, sufficiently cured, they nre repacked since the vinegar causes them to more tightly, a very little dry salt deteriorate. is scattered among them, and they The quantities given in the for­ are covered with a salt-vinegar mula below are sufficient for 10 brine one-half the strength of that pounds of cleaned herring. Whole just described. The crock is stored spices are used in all recipes, un­ in a cool place. At this stage, the less otherwise specified. fish cannot be kept for more than 1 qt. vinegar. 1 oz. red peppers. 2 or 3 weeks. 1 pt. water. 1 oz. white peppers. Final processes in the manufac­ 3 oz. allspice. 1 oz. sugar. 2 oz. bay leaves. % oz. cloves. ture of spiced herring include the ,• soaking of the herring in a tub of 2 oz. mustard seed. % oz. sliced oniom:. 1 oz. black peppers. cold water for 8 hours. The fish ,. are removed, drained, and placed in Rollmops " a solution of vinegar, salt, and water for 48 hours. This solution Each vinegar-salt-cured herring is made up in the proportions of 1 is cut into two fillets, and the back­ gallon of 6-percent distilled vine­ bone rP.moved. Each fillet is then gar, 1 gallon of water, and 1 pound rolled around a small piece of dill of salt. Some prefer to omit this pickle and fastened with a wooden last step, using the herring im­ toothpick. The rolls are packed on mediately after they have been end in a crock. Sliced onions, bay freshened in cold water. leaves, and the spices used in the following sauce formula are scat­ Cut spiced herring tered on the bottom and over each Cut the vinegar-salt-cured her­ layer. ring across the body in pieces 1 to Cook slowly 1 quart vinegar, 1/2 1112 inches long. Pack in layers in pound sliced onions, and 1 ounce a crock with sliced onions, bay sugar until the onions are soft. leaves, and spices. Cover with Add the following : vinegar dilut~d with water in which the sugar is dissolved. Allow to 1 oz. mustard seed. 1 oz. cracked whole 1 oz. black peppers. ginger. stand in a cool place at least 24 1 oz. cracked stick 1 oz. bay leaves. hours before using. The cut, cinamon. lh oz. cloves.

55 MISCELLANEOUS PRESERVING This quantity is sufficient for 10 angles to each other, with the top pounds of cut herring. The sauce one packed backs up. Scatter the is simmered, not boiled, for 45 min­ balance of the spice curing mixture utes. The spices are strained out over the top layer, and weight it to pack with the rollmops. The down so that the fish will be en­ sauce is cooled, and poured over the tirely covered when the brine forms. fish until the fish are covered. Some people also scatter diced Allow to stand for 2 or 3 days before onions, ground or sliced horse­ using. radish, and capers between the Rollmops will remain in good layers. The amount required for condition for about 2 weeks in sum­ 10 pounds of small herring is % mer, and from 6 weeks to 2 months pound onions, 14 pound horse­ in winter, at ordinary storage tem­ radish, and a small bottle of capers peratures. This product may be (about 2% ounces) . The fish are kept much longer if held in a re­ allowed to cure for 10 days to 2 frigerator. weeks before using. Under proper ~torage conditions they should keep Russian sardines from several months to a year. Wash and scale 10 pounds of Potted herring small herring (from 7 to 10 inches) ; remove the gills and as much of the Remove heads, clean, wash intestines as possible by pulling thoroughly, and drain. Wipe dry, them out through the gill flap with­ and rub belly cavity with fine salt out tearing the throat or belly. and ground black pepper. Place Rinse again, drain, and pack in a in layers in an earthenware baking crock. Cover with 3 parts distilled dish, with a few bay leaves, whole vinegar and 1 part water. Allow to cloves, and peppers or allspice. stand for 12 hours. Half cover the fish with vinegar and Make up a mixture of the follow­ bake in a slow oven. (The potted ing: herring may be eaten as soon as they 2 lbs. fine salt. 1h oz. bay leaves. have cooled.) They will keep 1 lb. po w d er e d 1h oz. cloves. about 2 weeks. sugar. 1h oz. ginger. 1 oz. allspice. 1h oz. hops. CARP 1 oz. pepper. 1h oz. nutmeg. % oz. saltpeter. Clean the carp carefully, skin, The spices should be finely and cut into fillets, removing the ground and thoroughly blended. backbone. Cut the fillets in pieces After the fish have drained, about 2 inches square. Wash well dredge them in the mixture, and in fresh water and soak for 60 pack in a crock, belly up. A small minutes in a brine made in the pro­ additional amount of the mixture portion of 1 cup of salt to 1 gallon may be scattered between the layers. of water, to remove diffused blood. The layers should be packed at right Drain fish, pack in a crock, and

56 PICKLING rover with a 90° brine (saturated garlic, and spices for 10 minutes, suit solution). Brine for 12 hours, add the fish and cook for 10 minutes 1 1 rinse in fresh water, and pack in an longer. Pack the cooked fish in earthenware crock. Scatter a few sterilized jars, adding some chop­ spices on the bottom. Pack in a ped onions, a few spices, and a slice layer of fish, follow with a thin of lemon to each jar. Strain the ]ayer of sliced onion and spices, re­ spice-vinegar sauce, and bring the peating unti] all the fish are packed. sauce to a boil. Fill the jars im­ Cover with 2 parts vinegar and 1 mediately and seal tight. The part water, adding a smaJl piece of mixture recommended is- alum. Boil slowly until the fish 11h pts. distilled 1 tbs. allspice. may be pierced easily with a fork vinegar. 2 ths. mustard seed. Coo], and pack in pint or quart 1% pts. water. 1 ths. bay leaves. glass jars, adding a few fresh 2 cups chopped 1 tsp. black peppers. onion. 1 tsp. cloves. spices, a bay leaf or two, and a slice 1 clove garlic, of lemon around the side of a jar. chopped. A few slices of onion may be packed This amount should be enough with the fish. Strain the vinegar for at least 5 pounds of fish, cleaned sauce and pour over the fish in the and prepared. jars. The amounts given in the follow­ EELS ing formula should be sufficient for 10 pounds of fish, ready for Clean and skin the eels and cut pickling. into pieces about five-eighth inch thick. Wash, drain, dredge in fine 2 qts. distilled vine- 1 oz. allspice. gar. 1 oz. mustard seed. salt, and allow to stand for an hour. 21h pts. water. 1h oz. bay leaves. Rinse off the salt, wipe the pieces 1 oz. white peppers. 1h lb sliced onions. dry, and rub with a cut clove of 1 oz. red peppers. garlic. Brush with melted butter The same receipe may be used for or salad oil, and broil until the sur­ catfish or other fresh-water fish. face is a light brown. Place pieces of cooked eels on absorbent paper. PIKE OR PICKEREL When cool, pack them in layers in Clean and wash the fish thor­ a crock with a scattering of sliced oughly. Cut into fillets, and re­ onion, allspice, bay leaves, mustard move the backbone. Divide the seed, whole cloves, peppers, and fillets into 1- to 2-inch lengths and mace between the layers of fish. dredge the pieces in fine salt. Pick 'Veight the mixture down to keep them up with as much salt as will it compressed. Store for 24 hours. cling to the flesh, and pack in a Add 6-percent-acid distilled vinegar crock or pan. Leave in the salt 12 in the proportion of 3 parts vinegar hours, rinse off the salt, and soak to 1 part water sufficient to cover the for one-half hour in fresh water. pieces. Cover the crock tightly Cook the vinegar, water, sugar, and allow to stand 48 hours before

57 MISCELLANEOUS PRESERVING using. For 10 pounds of eels the lites (counting from the time the ingredients are as follows: brine again begins to boil after the 1 qt. distilled vine- 1h oz. mustard seed. shrimp are added), they should be gar. 1h oz. cloYes. removed and allowed to cool. Pack 1 i>t. water. % oz. blacl• peppers. in sterilized jars with a few fresh 1 oz. allspice. 1h oz. mace. spices and a slice of lemon in each 1 oz. bay leaYes. jar. Fill the jars with a solution CLAMS, OYSTERS, AND MUSSELS made in the proportions of 2 pints water, 1 pint of 6-percent acid, Scrub the shells well, and steam white, distilled vinegar, and 1 table­ just enough to open the shells. spoon sugar. Seal jars tightly and Save the liquor, or nectar. Remove keep in a cool, dark place. the meats from the shells; cool meats and nectar separately. When SOME PHILIPPINE METHODS cool, pack the meats in sterilized jars with a few bay leaves and The methods that follow are some "·hole cloves. Put a slice or two of of those used in the Philippines. lemon in each jar. Strain the liquor obtained in PINACSIO (SARDINES IN VINEGAR) .steaming., To each quart of liquor Fresh sardines are washed in a

58 PHILLIPINE METHODS

PAKSIW (MACKERELS IN VINEGAR) Full-grown mackerels such as the hasa-hasa and alumahan have the viscera and gills removed. They are washed inside and out with clean fresh water and soaked for 2 to 4 hours in a solution of 1 part coconut or nipa vinegar to 2 parts water. They are then packed in layers in clay pots or gasoline cans. Salt to taste is sprinkled over each layer until the container is filled. The bottom of each container has a layer of coarse-sliced coconut­ palm stems or woven-bamboo mats to keep the fish from burning. Coconut vinegar, sliced ginger, and onion are added over the layers of fish. figure 55.-Sinaeng as it Is prepared on a native stove. The containers are put in an oven or over slow fires and simmered for can be used. The fish may be 30 to 60 minutes. The tops of the cleaned or not, as the operator de­ containers are put in place and the sires. Cross slashes are cut in both cans are shipped to market. The sides of the back of the fish and product will usually keep for 2 coarse salt is rubbed into them. weeks. A woven-bamboo mat or some other coarse vegetable fiber is put INASAL

59 MISCELLANEOUS PRESERVING

PODPOD (FISH CAKE) and dalags or mudfish used for this dish are usually those that have . Cheap fish are either steamed or died while awaiting sale, and the ' boiled until tender. They are dealer wants to enhance their sale spread out on a rack to cool. The value. meat is separated from the bones, The operator washes the fish and scales, and skin. It is mixed with removes the scales, fins, and viscera. salt according to taste and mashed Usually the fish are cut crosswise with the young tender leaves of the into wide slices. Variable amounts calamansi. The cakes are heavily of cooked rice and sometimes ang­ smoked and will keep for 10 to 14 kak, a reddish coloring, are added days. to the fish. To each 6 kilograms of fish 1 ganta of salt (2 kilograms) is BORO (FISH AND RICE> added nnd mixed in well. The This preparation, though called preparation is heaped up in bowls by the same term as salted fish, is in front of the saleslady. It will quite different. The small catfish keep from 3 days to 1 week. ·

60 CANNING

Fish are canned by putting them ner must consider the following in a container that can be sealed so factors: so that air with its contaminants 1. Is the spread between the cost cannot enter, and then processing of the raw material and the price with heat to kill the microorgan­ obtained for the finished product isms within the can that cause spoil­ great enough to pay all expenses age under normal storage con­ and yet return an adequate profit? ditions. 2. Is the supply of cheap raw ma­ Anyone who cans fish, whether terial constant and large enough to commercially or for home use, must justify the high initial capital out­ consider the following factors: lay and to take care of the high 1. Is the equipment available ad­ yearly depreciation of equipment? equate to do the job economically? 3. Will the market accept the 2. Is the raw material in suitable type of product that is to be put condition to be processed into a out? quality product? 4. Does the product meet the 3. Can the quantity of raw ma­ pure-food standards of the market terial available be processed before that it is intended for? it deteriorates in quality? 'There are other factors to con­ 4. Are the method of processing sider, such as shipping, labeling, and the container used suitable for storage, and competition, but it is the type of fish and equipment not the intent of this publication to available? discuss in detail the problems that 5. Do the condiments used with face a manufacturer, but only to the fish complement its flavor? give detailed instructions on the 6. Does the exhausting method basic elements of fish canning and used provide an adequate vacuum? step-by-step instructions on the 7. Does the sealer do a thorough preparation of the various canned job of sealing the can? products that may at some date be 8. Does the retort reach the preserved in cans or jars in the temperature required? Philippines. Not all the methods 9. Is the process time adequate described here are directly appli­ but not excessive? cable to materials and conditions as 10. Are the cans cooled promptly they exist; the object is to give after processing? methods that can be adapted now or In addition the commercial can- used as conditions change.

894001 0-51-5 61 CANNING BASIC PROCEDURES Moreover, most canning procedures are geared to use good fresh fish, The objective of any fish proces­ and if a semidecomposed material sor should be to start with as good is used the various process times and a raw material as he can, and by regulated procedures will not apply careful manipulation to produce a and the fish may disintegrate or be preserved product as good as or further damaged. better than the material he started The usual criteria for judging with. He cannot make a good and selecting fresh fish are those product with poor material, but in that can be applied with the indi­ some cases he can add flavor to a vidual senses of sight, touch, and product that lacks it, by means of taste, without special machinery. smoke, spices, and the like. After If an operator buys from the the best possible procedure has same fishermen or dealers each time, been worked out it should be care­ he can do much toward instructing fully standardized so that the cus­ them in the proper care of their tomer will always get the same catch. In this way it may be pos­ quality product. sible to better the quality of the raw material and thereby improve the SELECTING RAW MATERIAL canned product. As mentioned before, one cannot P,Xpect to get good quality products TRANSPORTING AND STORING from poor quality raw material. After the operator has selected The stale, offodor of poor raw fish good fresh fish, he must move them tannot be removed by processing. to his processing plant and have

How to tell fresh fish from stale fish [Adapted from Refrigeration of Fish, Taylor, 1927]

Fresh fish Stale fish

1. OooR______Fishy ______Stale, sour, or putrid. 2. EYES ______Bright, not wrinkled or sunken_ Dull, wrinkled, sunken. 3. GILLS ______Bright red, covered with clear Dull brown or gray, slime · slime; odor under gill covers cloudy; odor under gill fresh, fishy. covers sour and offensive. 4. COLORS ______Bright______Faded. 5. FLESH ______Firm; in quite fresh fish the Soft and flabby; impressions body is stiff; impressions made by fingers remain; made by fingers do not slime absent (halibut); remain; slime is present and slime cloudy, ropy (eels). clear. 6. BELLY WALLS_____ Intact______----- ______- - Often ruptured, viscera pro­ truding. 7. MUSCLE TISSUE____ White-~-- ____ ------Pinkish, especially around backbone. 8. VENT ______Pink, not protruding ______Brown, protruding.

62 BASIC PROCEDURES them arrive in good condition. Further butchering may entail This may involve the use of cracked removal of the head, fins, tails, ice on the fish or the use of re­ belly flaps, skin, or backbone, or frigerated trucks. In all cases it even filletting. This varies with means that the fish should be kept the different sizes and species of fish out of the sun and transported and styles of pack. rapidly to the processing plant. Washing is usually done both At the cannery they should be before butchering and after but kept cold until used. In some cases may take place only afterward. the fish may be brined or precooked . Quite often the dressed fish are immediately to preserve them until soaked in a brine for a while to ready to process, but as a general leach out the blood and whiten the rule the fish must be used im­ meat or to firm the flesh so that it mediately, kept in refrigeration, or can better stand handling during iced. ~he canning process. The washing may be by hand-scrubbing, rinsing BUTCHERING AND CLEANING by pressur~ sprays, or agitated This operation involves the tanks of water or brine. Care scaling, evisceration, removal of should be taken that the fish does parts not to be canned, and thor­ not remain in the water long enough ough washing in either salt or fresh to become soft and spongy. water. PRECANNING PREPARATION The scaling may be done by hand with serrated-edge scrapers, the Precanning preparation may in­ edges of knives, bottle caps, nails volve a number of operations such thrust through sticks, or other as steallling, soaking, drying, smok­ means devised by the technician. ing, frying, salting, mixing, grind­ Mechanical methods include rotary ing, precooling, and cutting to can wire-mesh drums fitted with a water size. The operations vary for dif­ spray, which remove scales by the ferent products and will be dis­ abrasive action of the rotating cussed under the various procedures. screen on the fish as they tumble through; carborundum potato peel­ FILLING INTO CANS OR JARS ers; a1id rotating serrated scrapers, Most products sold commercially mechanically operated by cable are required to have a definite drives attached to electric motors. weight of fish exclusive of any This last method still requires in­ liquid added to the can. This fac­ dividual operators but scale re­ tor, combined with the general moval is very rapid. necessity of packing the fish tightly Anchovies or small sardines may to prevent it from shaking around not need to be eviscerated, but for and breaking up into undesirable­ most fish a slit must be made near looking pieces, requires the fish to the center of the belly and the en­ be packed in an orderly fashion. trails removed. Machines have been developed for

63 CANNING packing some products but not all. ''ith hot air or steam and then Most of the fancier packs are done quickly sealing the can. A fourth by hand. method used with glass jars and If fish are packed in jars it is well sometimes with tin cans is carried to arrange the product so that the out. by placing the lid on loosely, full display value of the glass is using a high temperature to drive utilized; the fish should be ar­ the gases and air from the ju.r ranged neatly and the best-looking under the loose cover and then seal­ portion of the pack should be ing the container immediately. visible. A glass jar is sealed by tightening The cutting and the filling of the a glass or metal lid down onto the cans or jars should be regulated top of the jar by means of a screw carefully. A space of about an hand or wire bale. A rubber ring eighth of an inch should be left in or compound is used to seal the lid the top of the container in order to the jar effectively. that a proper vacuum can be ob­ A tin can is sealed by a sealer tained. Care should be taken to c o m p r i s i n g two mechanically see that the containers are clean and driven metal rollers. The first that no extraneous material is roller turns the overhanging lip of included. the cover down and then up under the flaring top edge of the can. At EXHAUSTING AND SEALING the same time the top edge of the Exhausting is the removal of can is bent outward and downward gases from a canned product to to form a hook that links into the produce a vacuum. This lowers the hook formed by the cover. The possibility of oxidative changes in second roller flattens the two hooks the product during storage, de­ together. To make sure the seal is creases the possibility of can failure airtight the cover contains a rubber­ from internal pressure during pro­ like gasket material on its under­ cessing, and gives some indication surface where the seam will be that gas-producing microorgan­ formed. isms are not still alive in the can. This exhausting or production of HEAT PROCESSING vacuum can be done in a number of Fish products and other low-acid ways. One consists in filling the foods are usually processed in steam can with the hot product and seal­ at temperatures of 240° to 250° F. ing it immediately. A second is This operation _is usually carried placing the can in an airtight cham­ out in heavy metal airtight re­ ber and then sealing the can after ceptacles that will stand internal a pump has drawn the air out of the pressures of 20 and 30 pounds or chamber and can. Another con­ more to the square inch. Each sists in placing the canned product retort has a hinged door or an easily in a hot medium to drive off the removable top which is bound to the gases and fill the top of the can body of the retort by clamps or

64 HOME CANNING other types of quickly adjustable Process time starts at this point. ,, fasteners. Usually the retort is Keep the retort at this pressure, or equipped with thermometer, pres­ temperature, as closely as possible. sure gauge, and safety valve. 7. " rhen process time is up, re­ Some inexpensive retorts have move the heat source from the re­ either a thermometer or a pressure tort. If well-exhausted tin cans gauge ; more elaborate retorts have are being retorted, the pressure 'may recording thermometers and pres­ be reduced by opening the exhaust sure gauges as well. A vent is pro­ valve, but glass jars niust be cooled vided to let the air escape when more slowly, by allowing the retort steam is introduced. Some retorts pressure to drop without steam have outside steam sources while bleeding, or the liquid contents of others, particularly small kitchen the jars will boil out. pressure cookers, generate steam 8. After the pressure is reduced from water inside the unit by the to zero the top of the pressure application of heat from burning cooker may be removed and the cans wood, coal· gas, or charcoal, or elec­ water- or air-cooled. Jars should tric heating units. be air-cooled. Jars should be cooled The steps in pressure-cooker slowly, as sudden dropping of tem­ operation are usually as follows : peratures may cause the glass to 1. Place lukewarm water in the c~ack. cooker to depth of about 1 inch. On pages 66 and 67 is shown 2. Set jars or cans in the metal what happens in the pressure rack and lower this into the cooker. cooker and in the jar. Sometimes glass-top jars are left a quarter of a turn loose, others are HOME CANNING fully sealed but not too tightly. Home canning means that the 3. Place the top on the cooker ; process is carried out in the home, tighten clamps evenly on all sides. using equipment that the average 4. Open the bleeder or exhaust middle-class family would have in valve, and apply heat to the bottom its kitchen-exceptions might be of the retort or cooker. the glass jars and pressure cooker, 5. When steam starts to issue although these items are standard from the exhaust valve, begin tim­ equipment m many American ing and after 8 or 10 minutes close homes. the exhaust valve. This allows for Until the Philippines get a cheap­ driving out of air, whose presence er and more dependable supply of would keep the gauge pressure read­ tin cans it is assumed that glass jars, ings from being accurate indica­ 72-pint, pint, quart, and 2-quart, tions of temperature. will be the standard containers in 6. Note when the temperature use. In this book, where a home­ reaches 240° F. (just an example of canning procedure is described glass a temperature used) or the corre­ jars will be indicated unless other­ sponding pressure of 10 pounds. wise prescribed, and where com-

65 WHAT HAPPENS IN THE PRESSURE COOKER

A pressure cooker is used in canning to mal{e it possible to raise the temperature of food materials above 212° !<'., so as to destroy the organisms that cause canned food to spoil. A pressure cooker is quite safe if handled properly. Things to remember are-

Clean the release or safety valve after each using.

Have the pres.mre yauge tested a.bout on ce a yeai· /01· accu1·a.c11.

The drawings show what happens when jars are processed in a pressure cooker.

AIR 1. When heat is applied to the cooker, the water begins to boil at 212° F., forming steam. The steam drives out the air through the open petcock. Heat begins to penetrate the jar.

2. As heating continues, the air Is exhausted from the cooker. Air must be excluded because It Interferes with the passage of heat. Heat continues to penetrate the jar.

3. The petcock Is closed after steam has escaped for 10 minutes. The steam can no longer escape, so the pressure rises. Water under pressure boils at tempera­ tures above 212° F. At 5 pounds gauge pressure, water boils at 228° F.

'· The heat penetrates the jar by conduction, that is, heat passes from one vibrating molecule to another. At 10 pounds pressure, water boils at 240° F.

66 PRESSURE COOKERS

5. Heat ts distributed also by convection. Heated fluids expand, rise, and are replaced by cooler fluids. Movement le retarded by fat, tightly packed food, and solid materials. Heat. J•Pnetratf'R hy convection and conduction at the same time.

6. Food, steam, and air tend to expand as beat enters, thus increasing the pressure in the jar. "Head space" of one-half inch acts as a cushion. In jars the pressure usually gets so great that most of the air is driven out under the lid. The pressure and the temperature In the jar is finally equal to tba t in the cooker.

7. At the end of the processing time, the source of heat is removed. Active boiling stops. Tem­ perature aQd pressure in the cooker start to fall as the cooling-oft' period begins.

8. Wrong procedure allows quick cooling which lowers the cooker pressure rapidly. This sudden release of outside pressure permits steam to form explosively in the jar, and liquid boils out.

9. With correct procedure, cooling continues slowly. The gauge needle returns to zero. The petcock Is opened after 2 minutes. Air enters from outside.

10. The jars are removed from the cooker and sealed immediately. Even as the jars cool, the contents may continue to boil as the jar pressure 0 Is reduced ily condensation of steam. Continued " boll1ng ls a good indication that the jars are 10 .. sealed tlgb tly. rn 67 CANNING mercial processes are described tin cans will be indicated. Of course, this does not prevent a processor from using glass jars commercially or tin cans in the home, if they are available, and it does not mean that home methods and commercial methods cannot be used inter­ changeably if the proper adjust­ ments are made, such as increasing the process times for glass-packed products over tin-packed products. Figure 56.-Types of pint jars for canning. In general, home-canning pro­ cedures are much the same as com­ 1 clock. mercial-canning ones, although 1 heat source. more stress is placed on personal 1 steam bath with cover. preferences than in commercial It is possible to get along on less cannmg. equipment than this and some The equipment recommended for people will require more, but this home canning is as follows: is a good average. 1 pressure canner and cooker. SMALL FISH 1 cutting board. 1 large mixing bowl. Small fish such as sardines, an­ 1 jar funnel. chovies, and small herring usually 2 large cooking kettles ( 10- to have bones that soften up easily on 16-quart). cooking, the flavor is delicate, the 2 to 4 large shallow bake pans. texture is soft, and they may be 1 collander or other receptacle eaten in their entirety or not, as in­ for draining purposes. dividual preference dictates. The 2 small earthenware pots flavor is hard to maintain, so it is . (glazed if possible). customary to strengthen or change 2 large dishpans. it with the use of salt, tomato, 1 pint measuring cup, with smoke, oils, and other flavoring handle. agents. 1 quart measuring cup, with The tenderness of the meat is also handle. a liability, as the fish will fall apart 1 meat grinder. before or after being placed in the 1 large ladle. can if certain precautions are not 1 set of measuring spoons taken. The most important of 2 long-handled spoons. these is a lowering of the moisture 1 set household scales. content of the fish by precooking 1 set jar tongs. and partial drying. The heads 1 thermometer. may be left on or off, according to 1 deep-fat-frying basket. consumer preference.

68 SMALL FISH •. ANCHOVIES AND LIKE FISH hour or until the right degree of smoking has been reached. 1. Wash strictly fresh fish thor­ 7. The fish may be packed in 1h­ oughly in clean water. Scale them pint or smaller jars, sardine flats, if necessary. %-pound tuna cans or larger con­ 2. Remove the heads and at the tainers. They should be packed same time as much of the viscera as head and tail alternating, and as possible by pinching the heads off tightly as possible. between the thumb and forefinger 8. Add about 2 ounces of good or by pushing the edge of a dull knife down just in back of the gills salad oil to the 1h-pint jar or 1/z­ and pushing the head of the fish pound can. away from the body. 9. If the oil is added very hot, 3. Wash the fish thoroughly and 190° F. or more, and the cans are soak them in a saturated brine for sealed immediately, no exhausting about 10 minutes. Fish over 5 is necessary. Otherwise, the cans inches long require more than 10 should be exhausted in a steam minutes; smaller ones require less chamber for about 10 minutes. time. Different species of fish or 10. Process the cans about 60 taste preferences will require some minutes at 240° F. If the fish are adj nstment of the brining time. very small, 45 minutes will do. If 4. Rinse the fish briefly under a the bones do not soften up properly, water spray. 10 to 15 minutes may be added to 5. Lay them out on oiled wire­ the process time. mesh racks (the Philippine Fishery 11. For best storage results, place Program racks have %-inch mesh) the cans in a cool, dark, dry place. so that no two fish touch each other, Steam them for 10 minutes more or MAINE SARDINE-CANNING less according to size, species, and METHODS condition. 1. The fish are washed, and 6. Place the fish in a drier (the scaled if necessary. smokehouse may be used as a drier) 2. The heads may be removed at for about an hour at 110° F. to dry this point or after the precooking. and thus stiffen the flesh and also This is done by shears or knives in render it more receptive toward such a manner that most of the vis­ absorbing smoke. Sun drying may cera is removed at t4e same time. be used. 3. The fish are dumped into brin­ If a smoked product is desired the ing tanks that contain 90°- to 100°• fish may be dried on both sides until salinometer brine. They remain in the surface moisture is gone and this brine from 30 minutes to 3 then placed in a smokehouse at a hours. They should be firm to temperature between 100° and 110° pressure but not wrinkled in ap­ F. in a heavy smoke for about an pearance.

69 CANNING 4. The fish are spread out in a 8. For a 14-pound can the prod­ thin layer on wire-mesh screens ( %­ duct should be processed for 45 inch mesh) and steamed without minutes at 240° F. pressure for about 10 to 15 minutes. 9. The cans should be washed in 5. They are shade-dried in a good a hot alkaline bath, rinsed in hot breeze or sun-dried mitil the surface clean water, and spread out to dry of each one is dry. Where hand and cool. labor is cheap, it is a good plan to 10. They are packed in cases, 100 turn them over by hand. Sun dry­ cans to the case. ing will usually be for about 10 to In packing Maine sardines the 20 minutes on a side. following numbers of the various An expensive method which pro­ length fish are used to fill a 14 - duces an excellent product is to fry pound oblong sardine can: 8-inch the fish in oil (cottonseed oil pre­ sardines, about 4 tail sections to a ferred) at a temperature of 230° can; 6-inch sardines, 4 or 5 beheaded to 240° F. for 3 to 5 minutes, de­ fish to a can; 514-inch, 9 to a can; pending on the fish size and variety. and 41/2-inch, 12 or 14 per can. When the fish is cooked the brittle tail snaps off cleanly. CALIFORNIA SARDINE-CANNING Fried fish have to be drained {to METHODS save the oil) and then dried the In the canning of larger sardines, same as are steamed fish. like the pilchards of the west coast 6. The fish should be packed head of the United States, some of the and tail alternating with an equal methods used in California are number of the correct size of fish quite applicable to Philippine con­ in each can. A 14-pound sardine ditions. can may take all the way from 4 The canning of pilchards or Cali­ to 30 fish. If the heads have not fornia sardines has been highly me­ been removed before, they may be chanized. The following method removed now with scissors. If the of fish dressing is followed in most fish are small only the heads are of the fish-processing plants: The removed; if they are larger, both heads of the fish are cut almost off heads and tails are clipped off. by a circular power knife that cuts Little effort is made to remove vis­ down from the back of the head to cera. Fried fish are usually packed the belly skin; then a whirling in 1,6- and 1-pound cans. paddle beats the heads· off, taking When the customer opens the can the viscera too. Another method he should see the most desirable side removes the head entirely and then of the fish. sucks out the entrails by vacuum. 7. About ll/2 tablespoonfuls of cottonseed or olive oil is added to Fried sardines each 1,4-pound can; a mustard or 1. The fish are brined in 80° - to tomato sauce may be used instead 100°-salinometer brine for 60 to 90 to make the product less expensive. minutes.

70 SMALL FISH 2. They are dried in a hot-air 8. The cans are washed and air­ drier (for Philippine use, sun-dry­ cooled. ing should be adequate, except in Broiled pack inclement weather) until enough of In this style pack, the raw clean­ the surface moisture is gone from ed sardines are packed into 1-pound the fish to prevent the rupture of oval cans and placed in an oven at the skin during frying. 320° to 350° F . for about 45 minutes 3. They are fried at temperatures and the liquid that forms is drained between 180° and 230° F . The off. The sauce is added and the former is usually the starting tem­ cans sealed and processed as perature in a continuous cooker described above. while the latter is the finishing tem­ perature. In batch frying a tem­ Steamed perature of about 220° F. will do. In this method the cleaned raw Cottonseed oil is generally used, but fish are packed into the 1-pound I see no reason why coconut oil can­ oval cans and steamed for 30 to 45 not be used. Big fish 8 to 10 inches minutes in a steam box at 210° F. Jong are fried in about 7 minutes; The liquid is thoroughly drained those around 6 inches long are fried from the cans, the sauce is added, for 5 minutes. and the cans are processed as noted 4,. The fish are drained for about in the directions above for "Fried 12 hours and packed into flat cans, sardines." 15 ounces of fish to a 1-pound can Sardines in brine and 7 ounces to a %-pound can. A tasty cheap pack may be made 5. The cans are exhausted in by packing the raw dressed fish in steam for 12 to 15 minutes and the round No. 1 cans so each can is over­ moisture that forms is poured out. full. The cans are exhausted for 5 6. Hot tomato or mustard sauce to 10 minutes. The liquid is is added, about 2 ounces, to each 1- drained off and 4-percent brine is pound oval can and 1 ounce to each added. The fish is squeezed down %-pound oval can. in the round can to provide the 7. The cans are sealed and then proper head space and a solid pack. processed for 50 to 55 minutes for The can is sealed. A No. 1 tall, the %-pound can and 70 to 75 filled hot, is processed 80 to 85 min­ minutes for the 1-pound can. If utes while a No. 1 picnic is proc­ the product was packed in hot oil essed 70 to 75 minutes, both at the 1,4-pound can would be pro­ 240° F. cessed for 30 minutes and the 1/2- Smoked fillets pound for 45 minutes. All of these Large sardines (10 inches long) times are at 240° F. or 10 pounds are used for this specialty product. pressure and the product should be The fish are first soaked for 60 to above 100° F. before the process 90 minutes in a 20-percent brine and starts. then filleted. The •fillets are laid

71 CANNING out on screens and smoked at 100° BRINE-PACKED SMALL FISH to 110° F. for 90 to 120 minutes. / This method worked quite well in They are packed in square cans or the Philippine Fishery Program in lf2-pound tuna cans. After an laboratory, for fish such as gizzard exhaust of 20 minutes at 212° F. shad and small talakitok, 8 to 10 they are drained, and some type of inches long. a hot oil, tomato sauce, or sweet The fish are scaled and the heads spiced sauce is added. The pack­ viscera,. fins, and belly flaps are re-' ing and processing is the same as for moved. They are washed in clean the "Fried sardines." fresh water and soaked in a 90° - SMOKED SMALL FISH salinometer brine for 45 to 60 min­ utes. They can be cut slightly The following method of canning larger than can size, placed in the small fish was developed in the cans, and steamed for 10 to 15 min­ Philippine Fishery Program lab­ utes. The brine is poured off and oratory. the cans are sealed and placed in The fish are beheaded so that the the pressure cooker and processed bulk of the viscera is removed. at 250° F. for about 1 hour for They are soaked in a 90°-salinom• 1h-pound tuna cans and 75 to 90 eter brine for 10 to 15 minutes. minutes for the No. 2 cans. The After this they are quickly rinsed in bulk of the bones will soften and be clean fresh water and drained. edible. They are spread on greased wire Although most of the commercial trays so that no fish touches another methods have been set up for the and steamed for 10 minutes. The standard . oval and oblong sardine trays are placed in a smokehouse cans, in most cases the procedures and subjected to a dry heat of about can be modified slightly to adapt 190° to 200° F. for a period of 30 them to 1h-pound tuna cans, No. 1 minutes to 1 hour depending on the and No. 2 cans, and various types size and type of fish. The surfaces of small jars. of the fish should then be dry. They are smoked from 15 to 20 minutes NORWEGIAN SARDINES on each side in cool, dense smoke. The fish should be packed head The sardines used in Norway are and tail alternating in ~-pound usually of the genus Clupea sprat­ tus. As they are caught, they are sardine cans or in No. 1/2 tuna cans with about llh tablespoonfuls of put into pounds or live traps where good hot (190° to 200° F.) cotton­ they are kept for days or weeks until seed oil in the former and 3 table­ ready to be canned. As the fish do spoonfuls in the latter. The cans not get much food during this should be sealed immediately and period their stomachs are empty processed at 240° F., 45 minutes for and evisceration is not necessary. the 1,4-pound cans anrl 60 minutes 1. The fish as removed from the for the lh-pound cans. pound are washed thoroughly.

72 SMALL FISH The fish are dry-salted down in keep the cans from bursting, the barrels, or they are soaked in brine pressure of the steam in the retort from 10 to 30 minutes depending on must be kept near that of the cans; the size of the fish. but as this would make the tem­ 2. After the salting, they are perature too high, air is mixed with washed again and laid out in it. grooves on a table with the heads of 22 fish in a straight line. A sharp FRENCH SARDINES rod is pushed through the heads at The French deplore the fact that a point near the eyes. Thirty of Americans put up a number of these rods of impaled fish are set species of fish as sardines ; they into a frame which in turn is fitted recognize only Olupea pilchardus on a truck with nine other frames. as sardines, and require that all This is wheeled into the smoke­ other species of fishes have qualify­ house. , ing terms on the label when canned 3. The fish are smoked for 30 to as "sardines." 55 minutes. An operator from The fish are sprinkled lightly time to time changes the position of with salt, and the heads and all the the frames to promote even smok­ viscera are carefully removed by ing. The fish are lightly smoked hand. They are brined in a strong and cooked at the same time. The salt solution for 20 to 60 minutes smoke is under forced draft and and then washed. They are then enters the smokehouse at about 250° arranged in wire baskets and dried F. and leaves at about 175° F. either in the air or in ovens until . 4. After smoking, the heads are the moisture on and directly under cut off mechanically, while the fish the skin is . removed. After this are still on the rods. The fish are they are fried in hot peanut oil or fitted into %-pound sardine cans at highly refined Norwegian herring the rate of 12 to 40 to the can. oil for about 2 minutes. Olive oil or refined herring oil is The fish are packed into cans with added before and after filling. The hot olive or peanut oil and are sealed cans are sealed on French sealing without an exhaust. The cans of machines at a rate of 2,600 cans an fish may be processed in a boiling­ hour. water bath for 2 hours or in retorts 5. The cans will not stand much at 240° F. for 1 hour. pressure so they are processed under water with a combination steam and There have been some improve­ air pressure over them for about 1 ments in recent years, among them hour at 240° F. and water-cooled, the substitution of cooking in steam also under pressure. This is done chests at 221° F. for 5 to 15 minutes, because the material in the cans cooking in dry air at 300° to 320° F., builds up an internal pressure and use of radiant heat from in­ during the processing which carries frared lamps in place of the fat over into the cooling period. To frying.

73 CANNING MEDIUM-SIZE FISH Place the jars in a weak brine (2- to 3-percent) so that the liquid The bangos provides the greatest comes over the top of the jars. poundage of fish brought into the Bring to a boil and maintain for 15 Manila fresh-fish market. It is a to 20 minutes. Turn the jars with pond-raised fish and does not de­ the open end down on a screen and pend on the vagaries of the weather allow the brine to drain out fairly or the cycles of the moon for its completely. presence on the dealer's counter. It If desired, add two bay leaves and has a delicate sweet flavor but it has several slices of onion, but they are an incredible number of bones not necessary. Seal containers im­ which make it more of a task than mediately. Do not seal glass jars a pleasure to eat. However, there too tightly or the air will not ex­ is a way of getting around the haust from them during processing the mountainous task of picking the or the jar may break. Process pint bones from the meat and that is to jars for 90 minutes and No. 2 cans can the fish and pressure-process it. for 80 minutes, both at 250° F. The flavor changes are slight and When jars are used, reduce the tem­ the eating pleasure is much greater. perature after processing slowly to Two of the simplest methods of avoid boiling out the contents. processing bangos are those that BANGOS-METHOD TWO immediately follow. The proces­ sor can try both and take his choice. Cut the dressed fish transversely to fit the cans, but do not split. BANGOS-METHOD ONE-- Otherwise follow the same proce­ dure as the first method, up to the Scale the fish and remove the point of precooking in the weak head, fins, tail, and viscera. vVash brine which is not done in this the fish thoroughly and scrub the second method. belly cavity to remove the black Seal the jars lightly and exhaust membrane. If this membrane, the cans for 15 minutes in a steam which covers an accumulation of box before fully sealing. Process fat, is not removed and the cavity pint jars for 110 minutes and No. 2 scrubbed out, bits of solidified fat cans for 100 minutes, both at 240° may rise on the canned product, F. Reduce the pressure slowly for impairing its appearance. the jars but more rapidly for the Split the fish down the backbone tin cans. into halves and cut it into lengths If in either of these processes it that will fit into the pint jars and is noticed that the bones are not just come even with the top. Soak completely soft and edible, lengthen the pieces for 60 minutes in 4- to the process. 5-percent brine and then drain. Fill the fish lengthwise into the jars ESCABECHE-STYLE BANGOS with the skin side out and head and The fish are scaled and the fins, tails alternating. Pack tightly. head, tail, and viscera are removed.

74 MEDIUM FISH The fish are washed thoroughly in processed at 250° F., 80 minutes for fresh water and are cut a little long­ cans and 90 minutes for pint jars. er than can or jar size. Then the SMOKED BANGOS pieces are cut in two crosswise to The fish are scaled and the fins prevent distortion during frying tail, head and viscera are and to permit ready penetration of removed~ They are scrubbed thoroughly in­ the sauce. They are soaked in a 5- percent brine for 30 minutes, then side and out in clean fresh water. placed on a rack in the sun or in the They are cut to lengths that are shade where there is a good breeze slightly more than can or jar size. until all the surfaces are dry. This These are placed in a 10-percent will necessitate several turnings of brine for about an hour, more or " the product and a total drying time less, depending on the amount of of an hour or two. salt desired in the product. After The pieces are fried in deep fat at brining they are quickly rinsed in 375° F. until they are a light brown fresh water and are dried about an all over. They should be drained hour on each side. on absorbent paper. They are smoked for about 1 One medium onion and one clove to 11;2 hours at 140°-150° F. and 1 garlic are diced. About 3 table­ to 3 hours at 90° to 100° F. or until spoons of diced sweet peppers and a light, attractive smoke color is 1;2 tablespoon ginger threads are obtained. Remember that the prepared. The garlic is fried in smoke flavor will be somewhat em­ about 4 tablespoons of good oil un­ phasized on canning so it should til it is a light brown. The garlic not be too strong when the fish are is discarded and the onion, bay leaf, placed into the can.

The pieces are packed into No. 2 ~ pepper, and ginger are sauteed un­ I til the onion is cooked through and cans. They may now be covered is transparent. One-half cup of with a 2- to 3-percent brine and distilled vinegar is added to the simmered for 15 minutes before in­ mixture, and it is simmered for 10 verting the cans and draining them. minutes. If desired, 2 to 4 table­ Three to four tablespoons of good spoons 'of sugar can be ad~ed, the hot oil are added and the cans are amount depeuding on the taste of sealed or the oil may be added and the individual. However, the ad­ the cans or jars sealed immediately dition of sugar may give a caramel­ without any precooking. ized, off-flavor after processing. The fish should be processed about This recipe makes enough sauce for 90 minutes at 240° F. two No. 2 cans or pint jars. The Bangos may also be packed in a pieces of fish are fitted lengthwise spiced sauce or a good tomato into the jars or cans and about half sauce. the hot sauce is put in each con­ HERRING AND LIKE SLENDER FISH tainer. This method is generally appli­ The containers are sealed and cable to fish about 8 to 10 inches

75 CANNING long. The fish are washed and minutes, after which time the jars scaled. The heads, fins, entrails, are removed and set, open end down, and tails are removed. The in­ on a wire screen to drain. After terior of each fish is thoroughly about 5 minutes' draining, a couple scrubbed out. of bay leaves and a slice of onion The fish are soaked in a 60° - may be added to each container, and salinometer brine for 6 to 8 hours. they are sealed immediately. If If they start to change color they desired each jar may be half filled should be removed. with hot 3-percent brine. They should be cut so that they A tomato sauce may be added to will just fit into a No. 2 can or pint cover the fish. It is made by boil­ jar, whichever is to be used. Each ing the following ingredients slowly fish should be wrapped in a piece of until they are about half their origi­ parchment paper. Possibly the in­ nal volume : 2 quarts good tomato ner leaf of an ear of corn could be puree, 11.l cup good patis, 3 table­ used. spoons vinegar, 3 tablespoons sugar, The pieces are fitted tightly into 1/2 teaspoon whole cloves, 3 bay the containers and a hot 2-percent leaves, 1h teaspoon white pepper, 1h brine is added. The cans must be teaspoon mustard seed, and about 1 exhausted 10 minutes and the covers teaspoon ginger-root threads. The sealed on. The jars may be sealed mixture should be strained before just firm, but not tight. The cans using. are processed for 60 minutes and The containers of fish are proc­ the jars for 70 minutes at 250° F. essed at 240° F., 100 minutes for the pint jars and 90 minutes for the No. FRIGATE MACKEREL AND LIKE FISH 2 cans. The fish are scaled if necessary, NEW ENGLAND STYLE HERRING and the head, fins, tail, and entrails are removed, The skin on each side The head, belly flaps and viscera of the back of the fish is gashed and are removed. The dark kidney vein the belly flaps are cut away. The is scraped from the backbone side fish are soaked in a 10-percent brine .of the belly cavity. The fish are for 45 to 60 minutes and are rinsed cut to a full can length, No. 300 (300 in fresh water. They are cut to x 407) or about 41/2 inches long, and pint jar or No. 2 can size and are are washed well. They are brined filled in lengthwise, alternating in a saturated salt solution for at head and tail and with the skin side least 11;2 hours. They are then outward to present a desirable drained and packed into the cans. appearance. The cans are precooked for 30 min­ The jars, without lids, are placed utes at 212° F. or 10 minutes at 240° in a warm 2-percent brine that will F. The open ends of the cans are cover them completely. The water placed down on a screen and they is heated to boiling for 10 to 15 are drained for several minutes.

76 MEDIUM FISH For the tomato sauce type pack, They are filleted and packed into 1% to 2 ounces of hot tomato sauce C-enamel cans, and covered with is put in each can; for the brine type hot 21;2-percent brine to which a pack, the cans may be filled to within small amo1,mt of vinegar has been 1h inch of the top with hot water. added. The cans used are the 1- The cans are sealed immediately, pound ovals used for California and are processed for 75 minutes at sardines %-pound tuna cans 240° F. and are water-cooled. To could probably be adapted. The be absolutely safe, perhaps 90 min­ cans are sealed and then processed utes' process time would be prefer­ for 75 minutes at 240° F. able-at the Philippine Fishery Program cannery, no spoilage was PACIFIC COAST STYLE MACKEREL found for 75 minutes' processing, The fish have the head and viscera but 90 minutes seems safer. removed and the dark vein or kid­ ney scraped from under the back­ BOSTON STYLE MACKEREL-TYPE FISH bone. After a good washing and brushing in fresh water the fish are The fish are dressed by removing cut to containe1· size and may be the heads, tails, and viscera, and soaked in an almost-saturated brine the dark streak along the backbone for about an hour, although some side of the_belly cavity. The fish operators do not do this. The fish are washed and drained thoroughly. are tightly filled into No. 1 tall cans I recommend soaking in a saturated so that each can contains about 17 brine for 30 to 45 minutes, though ounces. this is not a part of the commercial The fi~h should be precooked in process. the cans without sealing for 30 to The fish are cut to can size, No. 40 minutes at 212° F., and the liquid 1 tall or No. 2 short, and then they drawn off. Then the cans may be are tightly fitted into the cans with sealed. If the fish were not brined, a bay leaf in each can. The cans hot 3-percent brine should be filled are exhausted for 10 to 15 minutes into each can of fish. The cans at 210° to 212° F. in steam. Then containing about 1 pound of fish .they are sealed and processed for 75 should be processed for 90 minutes minutes at 240° F. This makes a at 240° F. or 75 minutes at 250° F. very .cheap pack of fish if the raw Some operators may want to pack material is inexpensive. their mackerel products in tomato sauce. This can be done by adding FILLETS OF SALT MACKEREL the sauce just before sealing. The fish are thoroughly cleaned, the heads and viscera removed, and KIPPERED HERRING the belly cavity scraped out. The This is a product much relished fish are put down in saturated brine by many English people and fellow for 6 to 12 hours, more or less, de­ Europeans, and a fair number of pending on the size of the fish. Americans. As it is perishable and

894001 0-51-6 77 CANNING cold-storage facilities are at a pre­ down from the top of the back along mium in the Philippines, it is rec­ both sides of the backbone. This ommended that kippered herring eliminates the backbone but not the be prepared in cans. Other fish rib bones. The fillets are placed in may be substituted for herring and a 15- to 20-percent brine for 1 to 2 the process adapted accordingly. hours, to make the meat firmer and The product should be prepared remove some of the blood. from good quality, fat, fresh fish. The fillets are laid out on racks They are opened down the back and steamed in a retort for about 10 from head to tail, and the viscera, to 15 minutes. The muddy streak gills·, and blood are washed out. If remains soft and can be scraped out the fish have scales, these are re­ but the surrounding flesh becomes moved, too. firm. The hot meat is removed They are soaked in a saturated from the bones and skin and the brine for about 30 minutes, then flakes filled into No. ¥2 tuna and spread open and hung to dry in a 1-pound low cans. The smaller cans good current of air for from 2 to 3 are processed for 60 minutes and hours until the surface of the fish the larger ones for 90 minutes, at is dry with a thin shiny skin over it. 240° F. After drying, the fish are smoked LARGE FISH in a dense, cool smoke from 3 to 4 hours. They may then be trimmed Many large fish may be canned as to fit into 1-pound oval cans or the sides, fillets, steaks, strips, or processor may choose to place them chunks. Usually as a matter of in a. No. 1 picnic or No. 2 can. The convenience and better processing cans should be exhausted 15 to 20 efficiency there should be several minutes at 210° to 212° in a steam pieces in each can; however, some exhaust and the liquid that forms fish such as salmon are canned in is drained away. The cans are a single piece per can. Many fish sealed at once and are processed at when cut and placed in a can will 240° F., 65 minutes for the 1-pound disintegrate upon processing. This ovals, 75 minutes for the No. 1 pic­ is generally caused by too high nics, and 90 minutes for the No. 2's. a moisture content in the meat.­ Some of this water must be removed MUDDY-FLAVORED FRESH-WATER by precooking, salting, or d·rying FISH before canning. A method of canning has been de­ veloped for those fresh-water fish SPANISH MACKEREL, POMPANO, that normally cannot be eaten with AND LIKE FISH pleasure because of their muddy If the fish has scales, these are flavor. scraped off. The head, fins, vis­ The fish is thoroughly washed and ceni, and tail are removed, the belly the head is removed. The fish is cavity scrubbed, and the fish washed divided into two fillets by cutting in clean fresh water. The fish is

78 CHOWDER split along both sides of the back­ have good white meat. Cut the bo1{e, leaving only the two sides of meat from the bones and skin. meat. The beJly flaps are trimmed Then cut it into small cubes. Save away. If the fish is quite large the the bones and the head. sides are fi11eted and the skin re­ Cut % pound of salt pork into moved. The dressed fish is cut into small cubes and put into a frying can size and soaked in a saturated pan. When the fat is partially brine for 60 to 90 minutes depend­ tried out of the pork, add 2 cups of ing on the salt content desired in the finely chopped onion. Fry them fish. together until most of the fat is The pieces are rinsed in clean tried from the pork and the onions fresh water and fitted into cans or are cooked. Be sure the onions d.o jars. The open jars are placed in not burn! n pressure cooker where they are Prepare the fish broth by simmer­ processed at 3 to 5 pounds pressure ing the fish bones and head with for 30 minutes. The cooker is re­ about 2% quarts of water for 1 to moved from the fire and the pres­ llh hours. Add 1/2 teaspoon black­ sure aJlowed to drop without open­ pepper berries, 4 to 5 bay leaves, and ing the exhaust valve. The jars are 1)i, teaspoon thyme to the broth as placed open-end down on a wire it simmers. At the end of the cook­ screen and are drained for 5 ing, strain off the broth and it is minutes. ready for use. A quart of cottonseed oil is heat­ Thoroughly mix 112 to % cup of ed to about 200° to 250° F., with 6 flour into 8 cups of the fish broth or 7 bay leaves, 1 tablespoon of and add the whole mixture to the whole black pepper, 1 tablespoon of onions and pork. Add 6 to 8 table­ cloves, and a tablespoon of mar­ spoons of good patis and about 1)i, to joram, and then is strained. About % teaspoon of white pepper. 1 to 2 ounces is placed in each pint Mix 10 to 12 cups of the cubed fish jar or No. 2 can. The containers with an equal amount of potato are sealed-jars are sealed just firm, cubes. Pour the hot broth over the not tight. mixture and simmer it about 3 min­ The jars are processed for 100 utes with gentle stirring. Drain off minutes at 240° F.; the No. 2 cans the broth and save it. are processed for 90 minutes at 240° Place 1% cups of the fish-and­ F. The jars are allowed to return potato mixture into each pint jar to normal pressure gradually, while or No. 2 can with about 1;2 cup of the cans are returned quickly to the hot broth or a little less. Seal normal pressure by opening the the containers, but remember not to pressure-release valve. seal the jars too tightly or they will break before venting. FISH CHOWDER Process the cans for 80 minutes Fish chowder is best made from and the jars for 90 minutes, at 240° some of the large species of fish that F. When ready to use, the con-

79 CANNING tents of each can may be diluted 5. The flakes are filled fairly with water or preferably milk and tightly into %- and 1-pound flat C­ heated. enameled cans. If the contents are If desired, substitute about 3 cups still very hot, the cans may be of well-washed rice for the potato. sealed at once; otherwise they In this case add enough fish broth should be exhausted 15 minutes at to finish filling the dozen cans or 210° to 212° F. in a steam bath pint jars that this recipe is designed before sealing. for. 6. The %-pound cans should be FISH FLAKES processed for 60 minutes at 240° F. and the 1-pound cans should be pro­ There are many flaky-type fish cessed for 90 minutes. in the Philippine Islands that do Some operators will like to fill a not have bones that soften up well, low-sugar tomato sauce in with the and that are hard to filleL Some flakes, in which case the process of these fish could be processed to times may be lowered about 20 make a canned product such as fish percent. flakes. These flakes are ready for a housewife to make into fish cakes, fish loaf, custards, hashes, soups, NORWEGIAN FISH BALLS and many other dishes, or they may (FISKE-BOLLER) be warmed and seasoned to be eaten directly. 1. White flaky-fleshed fish are Usually the only fish that should washed and steamed. be used are those which have flaky 2. Fifty-six pounds of the fish meat that does not break up into a meat, removed from the bones and mushy mass. skin, is ground. 1. The viscera and scales. are re­ 3. Twenty quarts of milk, an moved, and the fish are well washed equal amount of fish broth, 2 pounds inside and out. of potato flour, 1 po·md of wheat 2. They are soaked in saturated flour, 1 pound of salt, with nutmeg brine for 6 to 12 hours depending on and ginger to taste, are well mixed. the size and species of fish. 4. The fish is gradually added 3. They are put on racks and and mixed in. steamed from 15 to 60 minutes in a 5. The paste is dropped in little cakes into a pan of boiling hot water pressure cooker at 250° F. This, where they stay for 10 minutes or also, depends on the size of the fish. until they set. It should be well cooked but not 6. The cooked cakes are filled into completely disintegrated. 1-pound flat cans and the space is 4. The flakes of fish are removed fi1led with hot seasoned fish broth. from the skin and bones. In some The cans are sealed at once. cases, the fish should be allowed to 7. The cans are processed for 80 stand for several hours, so that it minutes at 230° F. They are water­ will handle easily without matting. cooled.

80 TUNA FISH BALLS Tunas are not particularly rel­ ished for food in many parts of the The following method is that used islands, as most of the people con­ in the Philippine Fishery Program sider the flavor too strong. Big cannery. tunas sometimes spoil before they Talakitok are beheaded, skinned, can be sold. When there are other and filleted. The meat is put fish to be caught, the tunas are not through a %-inch-hole meat grind­ sought. There have been two suc­ er. All meat that can be scraped cessful tuna-processing plants in the from the bones is used. For 31/2 Islands, one at Aparri and the pounds of fish meat, 1 cup of milk, other at Zamboanga, both operated 1 cup of fish broth (made by sim­ by the .1 apanese. The former made mering the fish bones in a little katsuobushi and the latter canned water for an hour), 3 tablespoons tuna. of flour, 7 tablespoons of patis, and the nutmeg, pepper, and ginger for COMMERCIAL METHOD seasoning, are mixed together until Butchering.-Fresh tuna, or fro­ smooth, and the ground fish is zen tuna that have been thawed in mixed in. running water or by standing in the The paste is made into balls about open air, are slit down the middle 1 inch thick and these are fried in of the belly and the entrails ripped hot oil at 375° F. for 30 seconds to out. Sometimes the livers are saved 1 minute or until a light brown in for their oil content. The belly color. The balls are filled into No. cavity is washed with clean water 2 cans with hot fish broth or a light and an inspector smells the cavity tomato sauce. The cans are proc­ for stale or off odors which might essed 90 minutes at 240° F . indicate a spoiled fish. TUNA Tuna canning in the United States is a big business. It is also a considerable industry m Peru, Portugal, and Spain. A number of the tunas move through waters near the Philippine Islands. They include the yellow­ fin, skipjack or striped tuna, oceanic bonito, dog-toothed tuna, white­ barred tuna, and bluefin tuna. figure 57.-Butchering tuna. Other smaller varieties also come under the general Filipino classifi­ Precooking .-The tuna are placed cation of tulingan, but they are not in racks and cooked belly-down in important so far as commercial fish steam cookers with or without pres­ canning is concerned. sure. This drives off a great deal

81 CANNING cooling depends on the size and variety of fi sh and the temperature of the cooling air. It usually varies between 8 and 24 hours and is canied out at room temperature with the possible help of electric fans.

·Figure 58.-Smelling belly cavity to check freshness of fish. of water and oil from the tuna. The loss varies from 25 to 30 per­ cent of the total weight of the fish. Figure 60.-Cooling. Y ellowfin tunas 8 to 15 pounds in R emoving slcin, bones, and dark 'Yeight require about 21/2 hours steaming, without pressure. Other meat.-The fish is placed with the tunas 6 to 12 pounds in weight re­ head projecting over the edge of the table. It is broken down and away quire 21/2 to 3 hours. If facilities are aYailable, the tuna oil may be from the body. The skin is scraped recovered and sold. away and the fins and tail are re­ moved. The two chunks of meat on either side of the backbone are separated. The backbone is lifted out and each half is split again along the lateral line. The dark m~at is scraped away '"ith the belly flaps and rib bones. The loins that remain are all meat. They are checked for cleanliness before the next step. Slicing to can size.-The cutting of the fillets into can-length slices is usually done by a guillotine type knife. The crosswise slices should Figure 59.-Precooking. be 11/g inches long for the Yz-pound (} ooling .-The cooling period is tuna can and % of an inch for the necessary to make the flesh cool and 1,4-pound can. A number of fillets firm enough to handle. During the can be cut at the same time. cooling period a certain amount of Packing.-Tuna is usually pack­ drainage occurs also. The length ed in three grades-fancy, stand­ of time necessary to carry out the ard, and flakes. For the first, only

82 TUNA

Figure 64.-Lifting out the backbone.

Figure 61.-Breaking off the head.

Figure 65.-Removing the dark meat.

Figure 62.-Scraping off the skin.

Figure 66.-Slicing the fillets to can size.

Figure 67.-Packing pieces of tuna into Figure 63.-Splitting fish in two. %-pound tuna cans.

83 CANNING large pieces of meat "·ith no frag­ ments are fitted into each can. In the standard pack three large pieces of meat are placed in each can 'vith enough small pieces to bring the can up to the desired weight. And for the Inst, all the meat is in small pieces or fragments. The most common container for canning tuna is the 1/z-pound flat can (307 x 113) while some is pack­ ed in 1;4-, 1-, or 4-pound cans. While tuna will pack fair~y well in Figure 69.-Exhausting cans. plain tin cans it is safer to use cans 3 minutes to prevent the condensing coated with the C-enamel developed steam from clouding the oil. The for use with seafoods. cans are sealed as soon after ex­ As each can is filled it is tamped hausting as possible to get a good down with the hand and slid onto vacuum from the steam. If vacu­ a conveyor belt where fairly fine um sealing machines are used, ex­ pure salt is added at the rate of % 4 hausting and adding hot oil are not ounce to the 14-pound can, lh ounce necessary. The sealed cans are or slightly more to the %-pound washed in a hot alkaline solution can, and % ounce to the 1-pound 4 and then in hot clean water. This can. The corresponding amounts is to remove the oil and debris from of hot, good-grade, winterized the outside of the cans. cottonseed or olive oil are %, 11/z, and 2 ounces. The respective fill-in weights of the meat alone are ap­ proximately 31/2, 51/2, and 11 ounces. ~';?';;;· '··'

Figure 68.-Adding salt and oil. Exhausting, sealing, and wash­ Figure 70.-Sealing cans. ing.-The cans should be placed in a steam exhaust box for about 10 Processing.-The cans are placed minutes although most commercial in heavy strap-iron baskets or companies shorten the time to about trucks and are placed in the retort.

84 TUNA The steam is turned on and a short darker-meated tunas are used in period of time is allowed to bring preference to the yellowfin, al­ the retort up to the proper pressure bacore, and dogtooth. and temperature. The process time is measured from the time the prop­ Tuna in ga.rlic-flavored oil er temperature is reached. A 11.l­ The process is the same as for pound can is processed for 65 min­ regular-pack tuna except that the utes at 240° F. or 40 minutes at oil is flavored with garlic before 250° F. The %-pound can is proc­ adding it to the tuna or enough essed for 75 minutes at 240° F. or garlic is added to each can to give 55 minutes at 250° F. The 1-pound a noticeable but not obtrusive flavor. can is processed for 95 minutes at The oil found to be best in the 240° F. or 80 minutes at 250° F. Philippine Fishery Program can­ nery was prepared by simmering 24 cloves of garlic in 1 pint of cot­ tonseed oil at 200° F . for 1 hour.

BRINE-PACKED TUNA In the Philippine Fishery Pro­ gram cannery, a cheap way of pack­ ing tuna was found to be to use the commercial method already de­ scribed, and substitute 10-percent brine for the salt and oil normally used. This makes a pack that is not quite as rich looking as the other Figure 71 .-Processing cans. but the flavor is affected but little. At the end of the process time the As a caution, the brine used must pressure in the retort is gradually be made from pure salt. reduced until the retort can be HOME-CANNED TUNA opened. The pack is air-cooled and then labeled.· Home-canned tuna may be as tender and tasty as the commer­ OTHER COMMERCIAL METHODS cially prepared product if the fish Norman D.. Jarvis ( 1943), in a are canned when quite fresh and the Fish and Wildlife Service report, proper procedures are used. The describes several other products tuna may be packed into the jars which may be of interest to some raw and steamed there or they may processors. be precooked and packed in the jars. The latter method makes the best­ Tonno looking product but the former is a The Italians pack solid tuna meat bit easier. Both methods were in cans with olive oil and twice the carried out in the Philippine usual amount of salt. Also the Fishery Program cannery.

85 CANNING

Raw Pack 8. The jars are cooled slowly. 1. The fish are dressed and fillet­ Another way of making the raw ed. The dark meat is cut out of pack is to soak the fillets, cut so that the fillets. They may be skinned they will just fit in the jar, in a 10- if the operator desires. percent brine for 45 to 60 minutes. 2. The fillets are cut to a length Then the product is packed in jars, that projects slightly above the top sealed loosely and processed im­ of the jar and they are fitted in mediately as in No. 7, above. tightly in such a manner that the Precooked pack large meaty surfaces are to the out­ side giving a desirable-looking 1. Remove the viscera from the product. fish and wash them inside and out 3. The jars are submerged in a with clean water. lukewarm brine bath ( 1 cup salt to 2. Place the fish on a rack in a 2 gallons water) and the water steamer and cook it in a strong con­ brought to a boil for 30 minutes. centration of steam for 2 hours. 4. The jars are removed from the This is a long enough time for a 6- water and inverted on a wire screen t? 8-p~und tuna but the cooking so that the liquid will drain out. time will have to be increased for The meat will have shrunk away larger fish and decreased for smaller from the sides of the jars and the ones. headspace should be about correct. 3. Cool the fish 4 to 24 hours to fin~1 the flesh and make the handling 5. The jars are now half filled easier. with 5-percent brine (a weaker or 4. Break the head away from the stronger brine may be used to suit fish by bending it over the edge of a the taste) or a small amount of good table. Scrape the skin and coagu­ oil such as cottonseed, peanut, or lated blood from the fish. Insert deodorized coconut may be substi­ the thumbs of both hands into the tuted. If oil is used, 1 teaspoon of belly cavity and press them down fine salt is put in the bottom of the toward the backbone . and outward 1/2-pint jar and in each end of the at the same time. Do this in sev­ pint jar. eral places along the lower part of 6. The jar lids are put on and the fish until it splits vertically into screwed just firm, not tight. They two almost equal parts (the back­ are placed in a rack and put into a bone will cling to one half) . pressure cooker. Lift out the backbone and fins. 7. The %-pint jars are processed Split each side again along the line for 75 to 85 minutes at 240° F., of dark meat. Scrape the dark pint jars for 90 to 100 minutes. meat from each quarter. The former figure in each case is 5. For oil packs, place 1 teaspoon probably best for brine packs ·while of salt in the bottom of each %­ the latter is probably best for oil pound can or lf2-pint jar. Add a packs. second teaspoon of salt to the top of

86 TUNA each pint jar or No. 2 can after it smoked for 1to11;2 hours at 170° F. is filled. and 2 to 3 hours at 90° to 100° F. A brine pack can be made by just 6. The fish are cut to can or jar covering the product with 10-per­ size and placed in the containers. cent brine, made from pure salt. These are submerged in 2-percent 6. Cut the fillets to fit the con­ brine and brought to simmering for tainer. The pieces should be fitted 15 minutes for small containers and into the container so that the ends 20 minutes for pints. are one-half inch below the top of 7. The containers are inverted to the jar or can. Fill the meat into drain. Oil' at the rate of llh ounces the cans so that it is fairly solid and for 1;2-pint jars and %-pound tuna use scraps to fill in the spaces. Do cans and 2 to 21/2 ounces for the pint not use pressure to fill the con­ jars and No. 2 cans is added. tainers. Add 3 tablespoons of good 8. If cans are used they should be oil to the small containers and 4 exhausted and sealed while jars tablespoons to the larger ones. should be just closed firmly. , 7. Put the jar and can lids on 9. The containers of fish are then firmly, but not tightly. processed at 240° F.-85 minutes 8. The %-pint glass jars should for lh-pint jars, 100 minutes for be processed 85 minutes, the pint pint jars, 75 minutes for %-pound jars 100 minutes, at 240° F. tuna cans and 90 minutes for No. 2 cans. SMOKED TUNA 10. The jars are air cooled, 1. The 6- to 8-pound fish are slowly. dressed and filleted. The dark meat is cut out, and the skin is TUNA PASTE removed. Here is a product that does not 2. The fillets are soaked in a 60° have to be processed and makes a salinometer brine for 30 minutes to fine condiment and spread. remove the blood,. 1. Tunas-preferably yaito and 3. A solution is made by dissolv­ striped-are split down the back ing 6 pounds of salt, 3 pounds of and the viscera and gills are re­ granulated sugar, 3 ounces of salt­ moved. The inside and outside of peter, 2% ounces of black pepper, each fish is scrubbed thoroughly. 2. The fish are rubbed on all ex­ 2% ounces of bay leaves, 21/ ounces 2 posed surfaces with %-ground pure of allspice, and 2 ounces of cloves, salt and are put down in layers in in 20 pounds of water and simmer­ a barrel. Additional salt is sprin­ ing it for 30 to 45 minutes. The kled over each layer. The final fillets are soaked in the cooled mix­ proportion by weight of salt to ture for 2 hours. dressed fish is 1 to 4. A weight is 4. They are left overnight in the put on top to keep the fish below the unheated smokehouse to dry. surface of the brine that forms. A 5. The next morning they are small amount of saltpeter can be

87 CANNING added to the salt but it is not nec­ They are filled into clean pint glass essary. The container should be jars and sealed firmly but not tightly covered to prevent the en­ tightly. trance of flies. After a week the The jars are processed for 2 hours fish may be removed, checked for at 240° F. and air-cooled. The putrefaction and repacked. product has been kept for over a 3. After about 4 months the fish year and remained quite good. It may be removed and scrubbed with darkens and may turn a bit rancid a stiff brush on the inside and out. if left exposed to the sun. The rich red-colored meat is sepa­ TUNA AND RICE rated from the bones, skin, and the grey coating of the exposed meat. Dress the tuna and precook .it. At this point the product may be Scrape the skin off and shred the surface dried and then smoked for meat into coarse flakes. 3 to 5 hours to lend a smoked flavor, Using% to% cup of margarine but it is not necessary. or other acceptable cooking fat, 4. The meat is put through a fine saute 2 green peppers (chopped meat grinder at least twice until it fine), 2 medium onion!;l (chopped), is quite pasty and then is mixed and 2 large tomatoes (chopped) with good cottonseed or other oil at until they are almost cooked. Add the rate of 2 ounces or more per the 2 cups of flaked fish and 2 cups pound of paste. of good fish broth. Season the mix­ 5. The product is sealed into the ture to taste with salt and ground containers and allowed to stand white or black pepper. The broth about 2 weeks. No processing is can be ·prepared by simmering for necessary. an hour the fish bones and head with a few slices of onion, two bay leaves TUNA HASH and with or without one or two Another product from tuna that cloves of garlic and then straining can be used in the home or de­ off the broth. If tuna broth is not veloped for commercial sale is tuna desired, use broth made from the hash. bones of another kind of fish. 14 pound salt p

88 SHRIMP up valuable space and have little and the start of the actual canning food value. It is not economically procedure. feasible to can the very large ones The shrimp are first washed and as they bring too much money sold the damaged shrimp and debris re­ as fresh shrimp; while the very moved. The shrimp are peeled small shrimp do not yield enough from their shells by grasping the meat to make it worthwhile to re­ tail with the-left hand in such a way move the shells. Only the meat of that the legs point away from the the tail is of much commercial im­ picker, and the head, if still present, portance, although the shells and sticks out beyond the thumb and to heads may be dried, ground, and the right. With the right hand the used as animal food. head is broken off. The right thumb is inserted between the legs so that the shell is broken open and the first few segments are peeled off. Then the thumb and fore­ finger of the left hand exert pres­ sure from the tail and toward the front end of the shrimp to force the meat out. The picker's hands are constantly dipped in alum water to prevent the juices of the shrimp Figure 72.-Shrlmp as It arrives from the sea. from corroding them. Most shrimp are sold fresh, frozen, dried, or made into bagoong (see p. 25). However, a consider­ able amount is placed in cans and heat-processed. This is the best method to preserve it over a long period of time. COMMERCIAL METHOD The proper preparation of shrimp for canning starts when they are removed from the water. The Figure 73.-Shelling shrimp. heads should be removed within % hour after lifting the shrimp from The shrimp are washed and the water. This will remove much placed in baskets which are lowered of the black intestine from the tail into 50°-salinometer brine where as well. The tails should in turn they remain 8 to 10 minutes for wet be iced down to prevent autolytic pack and 10 to 15 minutes for dry and bacteriological deterioration as pack. The strength of the brine much as possible during the interval must be kept above 30°-salinometer between the removal from the water to prevent congealing or jelling in

89 CANNING the canned product, and it must not lined with parchment type paper. - be used too many times or it be­ The wet-pack shrimp may be sealed comes full of strings and the shrimp at once; the dry-pack shrimp should are impaired in appearance. be sealed under vacuum or be steam The shrimp are spread on wire exhausted. racks and air is blown over them to No. 1 cans, wet-pack, are proc­ promote surface drying. essed 20 minutes at 240° F. and 10 The shrimp must be sorted so that minutes at 250° F. all the shrimp put in a can will be No. 1 cans, dry-pack, are proc­ of the same size. Mechanical grad­ essed 85 minutes at 240° F., 60 min­ ers. using an inclined tray with utes at 250° F., if a one-piece parch­ gradually larger holes through ment liner is used. Process times which the various sizes of shrimp of 70 and 53 minutes, respectively, can fall may be used. The shrimp are indicated if no liner or a 3-piece start at the top and slide down the liner is used. Processing at 250° inclined tray under the impetus of F. is best in each case. a shaking motion. As they come The cans are usually water to a set of holes big enough for them cooled. to fall through they do so and are To fill glass jars, about 5 ounces thus sorted. The very large shrimp of shrimp are put into each 8-ounce fall off the end. The various sizes jar and 61/s ounces into a 9-ounce of shrimp are designated by the jar. Most of the jar-pack processes "count" or the number necessary to use brine and seal under vacuum. fill a No. 1 can. A 3-percent brine is used. The pro­ Most shrimp are packed into the cess times for 5- to 9-ounce jars are No. 1 picnic (211 x 400) can. For 22 minutes at 240° and 14 minutes a wet-pack, a drained weight of 5% at 250° F. As most of the jar lids ounces of shrimp is required. Hot are held on by vacuum the jars must 2-percent brine is added or a 50- to be slowly cooked under pressure to 75-grain salt tablet and hot water is keep the lids on. Glass-packed substituted. For a dry-pack, 51/s shrimp should be kept out of bright ounces of shrimp are placed in each sunlight to prevent discoloration. No. 1 picnic C-enamel can, which is HOME-CANNING METHOD The shrimp are beheaded directly after catching by the fisherman on the boat, if it can be arranged; otherwise they are beheaded and peeled as already described in the commercial method. After they are peeled they are washed in fresh water and then soaked in a 10-per­ cent brine for 20 minutes, more or Figure 74.-Packing shrimp into cans. less, according to the amount of salt

90 SHRIMP desired in the shrimp. They salinometer brine for 15 minutes. should be stirred to permit good This time may vary according to salt distribution in the meats. the taste of the processor. The The meats are dropped into a cooked shrimp are ladled onto a boiling 10-percent brine solution wire rack and spread to the thick­ for 6 to 8 minutes and are then ness of one layer. .Jf available a dipped out onto a screen. After fan should be turned on them to each boiling about a tablespoon of hasten the drying process and after salt should be added to the brine 20 minutes they should be turned and after 5 to 6 boilings it should be over. When the surfaces of the discarded to prevent ropy brine and shrimp are completely dry to the the resultant poorer quality canned touch, usually % to 1 hour, they shrimp. may be placed in the smokehouse The shrimp are dried until all for a cool smoking at 95° to 100° F. the surface moisture has disap­ for 60 to 90 minutes or until the peared from the shrimp. Then product is a pale golden brown in they are packed into 1f2- or 1-pint color. To smoke the shrimp after glass jars or %-pound or No. 2 C­ peeling makes them too hard. enamel tin cans. The shrimp in the jars or cans should be tastefully arranged to give maximum eye appeal. The shrimp should be covered with a hot 1- to 2-percent brine as desired by the processor. The jars should be closed firmly but not tightly. The cans can be fully sealed. The shrimp are processed in the jars at 240° F. for 35 minutes for pint jars and 25 minutes for %­ pint jars. No. 2 cans are processed Figure 75.-Placing shrimp on racks for smoking. for 30 minutes and %-pound flat cans for 20 minutes, both at 240° F. Now the shrimp may be placed in The jars should be cooled slowly, packages and frozen, packed into while the cans may be cooled in glass jars and kept in the refrigera­ water if desired. tor, hard dried in the sun and then shelled or they may be shelled and SMOKED SHRIMP canned. They are good prepared The shrimp are beheaded as pre­ in any of the ways mentioned. For viously described but the shells are canning, the shell is removed and left on. They are thoroughly the shrimp are packed into glass washed and all damaged shrimp jars or small C-enamel tin cans. and extraneous material removed. Then hot oil at the rate of 1 to 2 The shrimp are boiled in a 50°- ounces for small containers and 3

91 CANNING to 4 ounces for the pint jar and No. amount of swelling does not war­ 2 can may be added. If a cheaper rant this much. but less fresh and chewy pack is de­ The containers are sealed and sired, the shrimp may be packed in processed for 90 minutes at 240° F. a hot l:Yr or 2-percent brine. No exhausting is iwcessary but it makes OYSTERS for a better pack. The oil pack should be processed Most of the oysters in the United at 240° F. at the rate of 25 minutes States and Japan are grown on farms. In the Philippines, a few for the 1/2-pound tuna can, 30 min­ utes for the 1/2-pint jar, 40 minutes are grown by intent, but the greater for the No. 2 can and 45 minutes for proportion are uncultivated, and the pint jars. These process times are disturbed only when man feels have not been checked but they that they are big enough to market. worked out well in the Philippine A large number of Philippine Fishery Program cannery. oysters, brought to the public markets in the shells or shucked, are SHRIMP AND RICE heavily contaminated with micro­ Enough shrimp are boiled in organisms which make them dan­ salted water and peeled to fill 4 gerous to eat raw or partially cups. Each shrimp is cut into 4 to cooked. Whether pickled, dried, or 6 pieces. frozen, they are still unsafe if not The shrimp heads and shells, plus thoroughly cooked. This leaves the bones and heads of 2 fish weigh­ canning as probably the only eco­ ing about 1 to 2 pounds apiece, are nomical method of preserving oys­ simmered for an hour in 9 cups of ters and at the same time making water containing 2 sliced onions, 1 them safe. clove sliced garlic, 2 bay leaves, and COMMERCIAL METHOD a few sprigs of parsley. The broth is strained for use (fish stock). The oysters in the Philippines The shrimp, 4 chopped medium­ must be thoroughly washed. The sized onions, 3 finely diced green author recommends a rocker that peppers, and 5 tomatoes without he built and used successfully. A skins are sauteed in 1 cup of mar­ box 2 to 3 feet high is fastened on two rockers. Inside the box a re­ garine or other good cooking fat movable rack is constructed, 6 to 12 until they are fairly tender. They inches from the bottom of the box, are mixed with 4 cups of well­ which will support the oysters but washed uncooked rice and 8 cups of allow mud and debris to fall. An fish stoc~. The mixture is filled overflow is provided about 6 to 8 into pint jars or No. 2 cans leaving inches from the top. The box is about 1 inch of headspace in each filled to the overflow with water, container. This headspace may be and the oysters are dumped in until cut down if experience shows the there remains 2 to 4 inches of water

92 OYSTERS COVER WITH INSERTED RIM TO PREVENT SPLASHING

WATER INLET

REMOVABLE SCREEN ON WHICH O'tSTERS ARE PLACED

BOTTOM WHERE SILT 8ATHER'9

-.---SEMICIRCULAR WOOD FOR ROCKING PU1U•OSES

Figure 76.-0yster-washing rocker. covering them. A lid is placed are placed in each can to give a down inside about 1 inch from the drained weight of 5 ounces after top of the box to prevent excessive processing. splashing. The box is rocked back The oysters are covered with a and forth vigorously for a few hot 1-percent brine or a 35-grain minutes and the lid is removed. salt tablet and hot water is added. Water runs continuously into the They are sealed immediately. box. The remaining mud, if any, Smaller cans than the 5-ounce No. may be scrubbed off as the oysters 1 picnic are processed for 17 min­ are removed. The rack should be utes at 240° F. or 8 minutes at 250° removed and the rocker inverted F. The No. 1 picnic can is proc­ and washed out frequently. eSsed 18 minutes at 240° F. or 9 The oysters are placed in baskets, minutes at 250°. The No. 2 short trucks, or some other openwork con­ (307 x 400) can and No. 2 (307 x tainers, and placed in a retort 409) can are processed for 19 min­ where they are steamed 10 to 15 utes at 240° F. or 10 minutes at 250° minutes at 245° F. or 6to10 minutes F. The higher temperature is pref­ at 250° F. Probably 15 to 20 erable in each case as the quality of minutes at 3 pounds pressure is the product is improved. The cans sufficient for a 1-bushel batch. The are usually water-cooled. meats after being picked out are kept in a weak brine to prevent SMOKED OYSTERS darkening. Fairly large, fat oysters of uni­ The meats are washed thoroughly form size are thoroughly washed on and all extraneous material is re­ the outside to remove the mud and moved. Most of the oysters are debris. They are placed in small packed into No. 1 eastern oyster baskets or perforated metal boxes cans (210 x 400) without enamel. and steamed for 15 to 20 minutes at About 4% ounces of oyster meats 0 to 3 pounds pressure. This steam-

894001 0-51-7 93 CANNING ing should be sufficient to cause the HOME-CANNING METHOD shells to gape, and to loosen the The oysters are scrubbed to re­ oysters so they will slide easily from move the mud and debris, and are the shells. steamed in the pressure cooker at The oysters are opened with dull. 240° F. for 5 to 8 minutes, or cooked stout, short-bladed knives. The in steam without pressure for about meats as they are removed, are 20 minutes. The shells should gape drop~ed into a 3-percent brine _to somewhat and the meats should be wash them and to prevent dis­ easily removed from their shells coloration. with a stout, short-bladed knife. The shucked meats are brined for The meats are dropped into a 2- 2 to 3 minutes, depending on per­ to 3-percent brine to prevent the sonal salt preference, in 15-percent darkening that occurs when cooked brine. They are rinsed briefly in meats come in contact with air. fresh water and are spread over a The meats are washed thoro­ wire screen to dry. No two meats ughly. Then 8 ounces by weight of should touch. the drained meats are placed in 1/2- They are smoked in a light smoke pint jars, No. 1 picnic cans, and No. at 110° F. for 1 hour, with adequate lf2 tuna cans; 16 ounces are placed ventilation to dry thoroughly the in the pint jar and No. 2 can. surfaces of' the oysters. After this. Enough 3-percent brine is added to they are smoked at 140° F. fo: about co~er the meats. 1 hour in a dense smoke. This must Cans are exhausted in steam for be regulated by the trial and error 5 to 10 minutes. Glass jars can be method to fit each smokehouse. A sealed immediately but not tightly. medium brown color is considered The %-pound cans are processed for best. 20 minutes at 240° F ., the No. 2 cans The smoked meats may be packed 30 minutes at 240° F., and pint jars in %,-pound tuna cans or in %­ 40 minutes at 240° F. pound tuna cans. The former re­ quire about % to 1 ounce of hot cottonseed oil while the latter re­ CLAMS AND LIKE SHELLFISH quire 1 to 1112 ounces of oil. The No \VOrk was done on clams in the cans are exhausted in a steam cham­ Philippine Fishery Program can­ ber for 10 minutes and are sealed. nery, except the clam chowder that The small %-pound cans are proc­ will be described presently. The essed for 60 minutes at 240° F. and the lf2-pound cans are processed for other methods that follow are the 75 minutes at 240° F. After proc­ gist of those recommended for u~e essing the cans may be water­ in America by Norman D. J arv1s cooled · and washed. in Fish and Wildlife Service pub­ Glass-packed oysters also make a lications.· Philippine processors very desirable looking product with will have to adapt them to their own considerable sales appeal. raw material.

94 CLAMS BUTTER CLAMS OR LITTLE NECK ing with the thumb and forefinger. CLAMS The necks or siphons are clipped with scissors. On arrival at the cannery the The soft- clams are packed in C­ clams are thoroughly washed and enamel No. 1 picnic, No. 1 tall, No. are loaded into steaming baskets. 1 short, and No. 2 cans. A hot 3- They are steamed about 15 to 20 percent brine or clam broth is added minutes at 212° to 228° F. The to fill each can. The smaller sizes tough siphons (necks) and the dark of the above cans are processed 20 bodies are clipped with scissors and minutes at 240° F., while the larger discarded. In Philippine house­ ones require 25 minutes at the same holds these parts could be heavily temperature. Research on the pre­ salted to make bagoong. vention of clam darkening indicates The meats are washed and hand­ that a 1-minute dip before packing filled into No. 1 picnic, No. 1 tall, in a 1.. 5-percent citric acid solution and No. 10 cans having drained heated to 180° F., and the addition weights of 5, 8, and 36 ounces, re­ of 0.5-percent citric acid to the pack­ spectively. Strained hot liquor, ing brine, will help prevent the obtained from steaming the clams, darkening with no effect on the is used to cover the meats. They flavor. are sealed hot without exhausting. The process times used for the three HOME-CANNING METHOD sizes of cans mentioned are 20 min­ Live clams are well washed and utes, 70 minutes, and 100 minutes, placed in a prepared 10-percent respectively, at 240° F. brine, containing a few handfuls of cornmeal, and allowed to remain for SOFT CLAMS 12 to 24 hours. This will semi­ The clams are sorted and dead purify the clams. The clams may or broken ones removed. They are be opened with a sharp knife while washed and are steamed 10 to 20 alive or they may be steamed with­ minutes without pressure. out pressure for 15 to 20 minutes. Some processors steam the clams In both methods the juice is saved. 2 minutes to open the shells. The The stomachs are slit open and the liquid derived from this operation contents are removed by squeezing is discarded. The liquid obtained the clams. The tough necks or during the rest of the steaming siphons are snipped with scissors. period is saved, either to add to the 4. The meats are thoroughly canned meats or to can separately washed in lightly salted water and as clam broth. are blanched at 212° F. in water The body membranes are removed containing 1 teaspoon of citric-acid from the muscles, and the meats are crystals to the gallon. · They are detached from the shells. The dark packed into pint jars or No. 2 cans body masses are emptied by squeez- with about 12 ounces of meat in each

95 CANNING jar or can. The clam broth is mixed with an equal amount of boiled down to about half volume; diced white potatoes. One and one­ a teaspoonful of salt may be added half cups of this mixture are placed or not. The containers are filled in each pint jar or No. 2 can and almost to the top with the hot broth the hot broth-onion-pork mixture is and are sealed immediately. The added to fill the container almost jars are processed for 70 minutes to the top. The containers should and the cans for 60 minutes at be sealed immediately-the jars not 240° F. too tight. The jars are processed for 70 minutes and the cans for 65 CLAM CHOWDER minutes, at 240° F. This is a Philippine Fishery Pro­ gram method. SPINY LOBSTERS The clams are washed well and It is unlikely that lobsters will are opened by steaming or by raw ever be found in sufficient quantities shucking. The siphon, or neck, anywhere near large Philippine may or may not be removed. The centers of population to take care soft material may be removed by of the fresh-product demand, to say squeezing it through a slit made in the side of the body mass. I do not nothing of any demand by proces­ generally bother with removing sors. Thus, if any are ever canned anything from the clam, but grind in large quantities in the Philip· up everything except the shell and pines it will be in some out-of-the­ the inedible membrane joining the way place, where the creatures two halves of the shell. The meat is abound and they can be bought finely chopped. Four cups of cheaply. For those processors who meats are provided and the clam may happen on this situation or who juice is saved. may want to preserve some momen­ One-half cup of salted pork, cut tary surplus of the shellfish, a few in small cubes, is placed in a frying methods of canning and preserving pan and gently sauteed until the them will be presented. pork is half tried out. Two-thirds of a cup of finely diced onion is BRINE PACKED added and the mixture is cooked The lobsters are boiled in a 4- until the onion is transparent. percent brine for 20 minutes, then Three tablespoons of wheat flour dipped in ice water for 5 minutes: is mixed with 1 quart of well­ The latter step is not altogether strained clam juice and this is added necessary, but apparently simplifies to the pork-and-onion mixture. removal of the meat from the shells. About 2 to 3 tablespoons of ggod The tails are detached from the patis and ~ teaspoon of white pep­ heads with a twisting motion. The per are added and mixed well. The underside of the tails are slit with 4 cups of meats are thoroughly a sharp knife and the meaty tails

96 LOBSTERS; SQUID lifted out intact. The predomi­ The tails are sun-dried about 15 nantly green lobsters give one solid to 20 minutes on each side, then piece of meat which is somewhat cool-smoked (90° to 105° F.) for , tough. The brownish-colored lob­ about 2 to 3 hours or until a medium sters furnish a segmented and easily brown in color. broken piece of meat which is quite The tails are packed in No. 1/2 tender. No other meat is worth tuna cans with approximately 1 to recovering. 1% ounces of oil per can. They are A sharp cut is made down the exhausted in steam for 10 minutes back of each tail, and the sand vein before sealing, and are processed at is lifted out. The meat is washed 240° F. for 45 to 60 minutes. The in clean, fresh water. The pieces minimum figure was used in the can be dipped into a citric-acid solu­ Philippine Fishery Program can­ tion made by dissolving 1 table­ nery but the latter is believed safer. spoon of citric-acid powder in a The tails are sliced in thin, cross­ quart of water. wise slices when cut for eating. The pieces of meat are placed in C-enamel, parchment-lined, No. 1 SQUID standard cans, pint or %-pint jars, The Philippines have been one of and in C-enamel No. % tuna cans. the best markets for California­ In this latter container they may packed squid. The squid is also blacken slightly but not too seri­ found in abundance in some parts ously for home use. of the Philippines where it is The meat is covered with boiling normally dried and sold to restau­ hot 2-percent brine. The smaller rants to be used as canapes. It is containers may use 1 ounce of brine leathery and chewy, with a salty and the larger ones 2 ounces. The meat-like flavor. In some areas, the containers are exhausted or vacuum' squid are sometimes caught in such sealed, except the glass jars, which quantities that the residents find it are only sealed firmly. difficult to care for them. Some The smaller cans are processed enterprising man who seeks a busi­ for 60 minutes at 240° F .. and the ness of his own may find the answer larger containers, such as pint jars, in this industry. for 90 minutes at 240° F. Squid is normally packed by two SMOKED methods-in a raw pack, and in oil, with the ink bag removed. The lobsters are soaked in 60°• salinometer brine for 1 hour, after PACKED WITH INK which they are boiled in a 60° brine The squid are thoroughly washed for 15 to 20 minutes. They are and packed in %-pound tuna cans, cooled rapidly in ice water and the and No. 1 cans, picnic and tall. tails are lifted from the shells. They will hold an initial weight of Only the green lobsters are solid squid of 8, 10, and 16 ounces enough to use. respectively.

97 CANNING

METAL BASKET~__.~w OF CANS

THERMOMETER

Figure 77.-Removing cans from retort.

98 r SQUID The filled cans are exhausted for precooked in steam for 45 minutes 15 to 20 minutes in a steam box and at 216° F., or 1 hour at 212° F. are then filled with hot brine con­ They are allowed to cool 2 to 4 taining 3-percent concentration of hours. They are packed into No. 1 salt. They are sealed and processed picnic, No. 1 tall, and No. lf2 tuna 55 minutes for the lf2-pound tuna cans. After cooling, they are pack­ can and 75 minutes for the No. 1 ed lengthwise in the No. 1 cans and can at 240° F. If pint glass jars horizontally in the tuna cans. are used they should be processed About llf2 to 2 ounces of oil are for 90 minutes at the same tem­ put in each can before sealing and perature. the cans are exhausted for 15 to 20 minutes at 210° to 212° F. Pint OIL PACKED jars need not be exhausted. The squid are thoroughly washed No. 1 cans are processed for 75 and the sepia bag and other viscera minutes, No. % tuna cans for 55 are removed. They are washed minutes, and the pint glass jars for again and laid on trays. They are 90 minutes, all at 240° F.

99 HOME CANNING OF SPECIES THAT ARE SELDOM CANNED

There are some 2,000 species of BASIC PROCEDURES fishes in the vicinity of the Philip­ pines. Of this number, many are Procedure 1.-The fish was inedible and a considerable number scaled, and the head, viscera, tail, are eaten only in times of scarcity. and fins were removed. The fish Of those remaining, very few will was thoroughly washed. It was cut ever be of commercial importance, to can or jar size and soaked in a and a few more will be available for 5-percent brine for 60 minutes. home canning. The species that The pieces were then filled into the may be of importance for commer­ jar or can. The jar or can was sub­ cial canning are the herring and merged in a 21;2-percent brine and · sardines, mackerel, tunas, bangos, boiled for 15 minutes. The con­ and possibly the anchovies, shrimp, tainer was inverted on a wire screen and oysters. and allowed to drain. Two bay To investigate the possibility of leaves and 1 slice of onion were put preparing other species of fishes for canning-that is, home canning­ in the top of each container and it such fish as came into the Philippine was sealed at once. Glass jars were Fishery Program cannery were pro­ processed for 100 minutes and No. cessed to determine what time-tem­ 2 cans for 90 minutes, both at perature relation was necessary to 240° F,. soften the bones of each fish, and the fish were canned by from one to Procedure 2.-Procedure 1 was four different methods. If the followed except that hot tomato bones were not softened by 2 hours sauce was added to within lf2 inch at 240° F. or 11;2 hours at 250° F., of the top of the container just no further tests were run. before sealing.

100 PROCEDURES Procedure 3.-Procedure 1 was Spiced Sauce followed up to the precooking step. At this point the jar was filled with 1 qt. vinegs,r. ¥.i tbs. whole cloves. 1 qt. water. 1h tbs. crushed car- a half-strength spiced sauce, and 4 oz. sugar. damon. placed in warm water to within ll/z 1 tbs. whole black 1 onion, sliced. inches of the top. The water was pepper. 2 tbs. fresh ginger, boiled for 15 minutes and the jars 1h tbs. whole mus- cut in threads. were removed, inverted, and drain­ tard seed. 1 tsp. marjoram. 4 bay leaves. ed. Hot full-strength spiced sauce was added to within 1/z inch of the Individuals may vary the above top, and the container was sealed ingredients to suit themselves. The and processed for 80 minutes at only preparation directions are to 240° F. simmer the above ingredients for 1 Procedure 4.-The fish was be­ hour and then strain the solid ma­ headed, scaled, and eviscerated. It terial away, saving the sauce. was thoroughly washed in clean, The tomato sauce mentioned in fresh water. Small fish were cut to procedure 2 requires 2 quarts of container size and soaked in a satu­ tomato puree, 4 tablespoons spiced rated brine 1 hour ; larger fish were sauce, 2 tablespoons sugar, 3 table­ soaked 2 hours. They were quickly spoons good patis, and one-half rinsed off in fresh water and placed small onion, finely diced. These on racks or hung up for about 2 ingredients are boiled slowly to half hours. The fish were smoked for the original volume and strained. about 2 hours in a light smoke at 90° to 100° F. and then in a dense CANNING TESTS smoke at the same temperature until . done. Large fish were packed with­ The following table is the result out the bones and small fish with of tests made on a number of var­ them. They were steamed for 20 ieties of fish not usually canned com­ minutes at 3 pounds steam pressure, mercially. Average market-size followed by a quick draining. fish were used. As not all species Three, tablespoons of hot oil were of fish were tested, it is suggested added to each pint jar or No. 2 can, that anyone who desires to know the and the containers were immedi­ canning possibilities of an unlisted ately sealed and processed for 90 fish Tun tests of his own, or strike minutes at 240° F. a comparison with a tabulated fish.

101 ..... Home-canning tests made on some Philippine fish :r 0 0 "'° TIME AND PRESSURE TEST ~ CANNINO TEST l'T'I ("\ Processing- Comment )> KIND OF FISH Pack Comment z Time Tempera· z ture Flavor Bone softness Meat texture z Cl Asiatic threadftsh (Damis J{l hr ______240° F. 0 lawln). aomin ______250° F. ~:~;-~-ith--no--possi:-1 ~~~~======!~~~~~~~-----!}Tomato sauce _____I Edible, not desirahle . .,., bilities. ----- Vl.,, l'T'I Barracuda (Asugon>------l{P~hrs ______240: F. I Good_._ ------1SofL------J Good ___ ------J Spiced-plain ______! DGo~d_. 250 F. Good. __ ------______Soft______Good______Tomato-smoked___ ehcious. ("\ r ------;:;;

·n (D b"log) l{l~hrs______240° F . Very poor ______Soft______Pasty ______}Not packed l{No e~ortmade to can owing to few Vl 8 rt apan 11 1 ------I hr______250° F . Very poor______Soft______Pasty______------specimens. When fresh, ftavor 11oocl. Vl l'T'I Butterfly ftsh (Poro- {I~hrs ______:_ 240° F. Very poor______Soft______Pasty ______}Not packed {Prospl!Cts for !1 good canned product r paro). I hr______250° F. Very poor ______Soft ______Pasty______------considered ml. 0 0 Brine __ ------J Fine product. ~ Catftsh (Pantat) _----- __-1 Not tested_ ------l{Spice______Result not as good. ("\ Croaker (Alakaak) 1{2 hrs ______240° F. Very poor------J Soft ______I PastY------J}Not tested ______I No canning possibilities evident. )> ------I hr ______250° F. Very poor ______Soft______Pasty ______z I z 240° F. Poor ______I Not soft______"I Open------J}Not tested in this When given standard tuna-preparation l'T'I Dogtooth tuna ___ ------l{I~rs_------r ______250° F. Poor_------Not soft______Open______experiment. procedure, product similar to alba­ 0 core is developed.

Dolphin ______11~~ hrs ______240° F . Inferior ______----1 Soft ______------1·Open _____-----1{~~~~to ______- ---- Good. - - Good . I hr ______250° F. Inferior _____ ------Soft______Open ______{Smoked ______Good. Spiced ___------__ Not good. All canned as skinless, boneless fillets.

Drepane or angel ftsh 11 hr------1 240° F . Fair------J Soft and edible------J Soft______J Smoked ______I Good. (Mayang). 30mins ______250° F . Fair ______Soft and edible ______Soft______Tomato ______Good. Plain______Fair. Spiced __ ------Fair.

. ' !{BrineSpiced __ __ ------1Good . Flatftsh (Palad) ------1 Not tested_ ------Tomato ______}Flavor was masked. Smoked ______Goa&llsh (Saramulyete)--1 lVi hrs------j 240° F. Deteriorated ______! Soft______! Pasty ------i}Not test d .'"hould make a good pack when filleted . 1 hr______2sc° F. Poor_------Soft______Pasty------e ------\ When cooked, meat Is sweet and good. Brine ______Good. Leather Jackel (Durado) -1 Not tested __ --1------1------{Tomato ______-----1 Good. Spiced ______Very good . All canned as fillets.

Lizard fish (Kalaso)------1 H2 hrs ______I 240° F. I Poor ______I Soft ______, Separated _____l}Not tested l{Very . bony fish. Considered inex- 1 hr______250° F. Poor______Soft ______Separated_____ ------pedient to can.

Long finned cavalla I 'hr-.------1240° F. Fa!L------1 Soft ______! Separated _____l}Not tested (Lawayah). 30 mms______250° F. Fair______Soft______Separated_---· -·------

Brine __ ------Satisfactory. Mackerel (Hasa-hasa)____ 45 mins______210° F. Acceptable______Soft______Good ______{Tomato ______, Satisfactory. Smoked______Satisfactory. Whole fish could be eaten. Malabar cavalla (Mala-1 lhr ______, 240°F., Good ______, Complete!ysoft______, Good ______, Not tested ______, Notcannedowingtolackofspecimens. pando). Believe it should can as well as mackerel.

Mojarra (Malakapas) __ _ __ 1l l-2hr___hrs_ _ -______------1 250240: F. I Poor -______------1}sort______, WaterY------1 Not tested._------1------{Brine ______, Good. Smoked______Good. Pompano (Maraplni) •.. _. Not tested ______------· ------To.mato ______I PassagJ:· Spiced ______Passa .

Nemipterid (Bisugo) _____l ll-2 hrs ______240° F. Poor ______Soft·------1}open Not tested 1 hr______I 250° F . I Poor ______I Not completely soft___ ------I ------

Rayflsh (Pagl)------1 30 mins______240° F. Poor_------Soft______Watery______Not tested __ . _____,-B-el-ie_v_e_d_ll_es_h_w_o_u_l_d_n_o_t_s_ta_n_d_a-regu- lar sterilization. · !{Tomato______, Excellent. Rainbow runner (Bisu-1 Not tested_. __------_·------Smoked______Good . gong laot). Brine ______Good.

I ,, Red porgy (Bisugong I------1 1 hr ______I 240° F. Good ______i ------!------Soft______I Good ______! Nottested ______i Not canned. Believe it will provide tabo). product much like mackerel. May he canned with bones intact.

Red snapper (Maya- I 2hrs ______i 250° F. Poor ______I Soft______I Poor ______I TomatoBrine_ ------______1} Canned as fillets. Spiced and smoked· maya). {Smoked______packs not as satisfactory as other 2. Spiced_.------

Slipmouth (Sap-eap) ...• -.1 1 hr ______, 240° F. Poor /{Fair-size fish soft· I} 45 mins______250° F. Poor:::::::::::::::::· - enoughlarge-size, to benot eaten. soft Watery_-----Watery ______--I BrineSmoked_------/______Edible. -f ..... rn 0 w ~ ...... Home-canning tests made on some Philippine fish-Continued 0 J: ~ 0 ~ TIME AND PRESSURE TEST CANNING TEST m Processing- Comment KIND OF FISH "> Pack Comment z Time z 'Te~rera-1Flavor ,- Bone softness I Meat texture I------z ------G) Brine __------1Good. 0...., S~~l)~:J·~~-;.r.!:.(Tan- I Not tested __------______·------!{ ~~':;:!:L======g~~~: (/) Spiced______Poor. m'"ti Spotted grunt (Aguot>----1 l~ hrs ______240° F. Poor ______Soft______0 pen ______!{BrineTomato ___---- ______-----__-__-1 GoodGood. . "rr; 1 hr------' 250° F. I Poor______I Soft______I Open______Smoked______Fair. All canned as fillets. (/) (/) Soldier fish (Baga-baga) __I 1 hr------240° F. Poor ______i Completely soft______I Fair______I Not tested ______I Not enough specimens to run canning m I""' tests. 0 0 Tunas In general: 1{2hrs ______240° F . __ __,{~~:~:ci ~~::::======l}lf Under 5 lbs______l~~hrs ______Poor_ ------1Soft______I Open ______precooked, were good in practically ~ 250° F . 0

Over 5 lbs______250° F . i!-soit~======g~=~======2 hrs_ ------~~~::======~ ~~~:!t======all packs except spiced. " >z Brine __------1} z Small mullete ______I Not tested __------_------1 STpicedt_oma o______------_- Foundremove todmake . good pack if dorsal fins m {Smoked ______0

Brine __------1} Sallllah ______i Not tested ____------__------1 i~~<>======F~~~~a%:~akean edible pack, though {Smoked ______SPOILAGE OF FISH AND FISH PRODUCTS

It is the consensus of opinion that and oxidative rancidity which lower a fish as taken from the sea has no the quality of the fresh fish. harmful bacteria within the flesh itself. On the exterior of the fish, MICROORGANISMS however, is a slime that harbors There have been attempts to de­ large numbers of microorganisms. stroy the external microorganisms The gills and intestinal tract con­ by copious washings, scaling and tain many more. The numbers washing, chlorine or benzoate wash­ vary greatly and the types of or­ ings, germicidal ices, and numerous gan isms present inside the gills and other chemical applications. Many internal organs and on the skin of of these processes have the ability the fish vary with the contamina­ to decrease the su~face population tion of the water from which the of the bacteria and thereby increase . fish are taken. Samples from tuna the keeping quality. Most are too caught off Mindanao indicate as few expensive or time-consuming, how­ as 18 organisms per gram of skin ever, and so have not found favor in while oysters taken from Manila the fresh-fish industry. Bay have many thousands of or­ Bacteria do not grow and multi­ ganisms in each gram of the ground ply well when it is cold; thus most oyster. In the first case the fecal­ progressive fishermen either ice or type bacteria were not present, freeze their catch to protect against 'yhile in the latter case they ran into bacterial deterioration. thousands. Bacteria in the gills can be de­ UNPROCESSED FISH creased by washing. Bacteria can be removed almost entirely by rip­ Thus it would seem that the only ping out the gills and washing the problem in preserving fresh fish cavity with plenty of water or with would be to treat the external para­ a germicide. sitic microorganisms with some The microorganisms in the vis­ chemical and kill them. It is not cera can be removed by opening the as simple as this. Aside from the body cavity and removing the or­ fact that the microorganisms can­ gans. Care must be taken not to not be easily and cheaply destroyed break any in such a way as to let on the exterior and interior of the the contents pour onto the walls of fish, there are also chemical acti vi­ the visceral cavity. When the belly ties such as enzymatic break-down is sliced, the cut surfaces are bare

105 SPOILAGE for bacterial attack from other digest the neighboring flesh, aided sources. The Norwegians remove by the multitude of bacteria freed much of the content of the sardine from the intestinal tract by this viscera by allowing the fish to re­ action. main for days in pounds or "live At the same time, the natural en­ traps" where the fish empty them­ zymes present in the flesh break out selves because they have no access to of bounds also and begin to digest, food. In many sections of America soften, and disintegrate the flesh. where shellfish are heavily contami­ This digestion does not proceed nated, they are placed in clean water with any great rapidity and thus, or that which is lightly chlorinated unless they are controlled in some to clean themselves out. way, bacteria enter into the picture Some operators bleed fish by rip­ and wreak more noticeable damage ping out the gills, by cutting the by their greater activity. lateral lines near the tail, or by other The problem of controlling en­ means. They feel that the meat is zymes is one on which much work whiter and spoilage less. The remains to be done. It is known theory of bleeding fish is that the that they are susceptible to temper­ veins are drained of blood and ature extremes, strong acids, strong collapse, thereby closing channels alkalies, and other factors. Heat is . through which spoilage bacteria the means most often used to in­ can invade the body. activate enzymes permanently in the preservation of fish. Freezing ENZYMES and near-freezing temperatures are The action of enzymes is complex, used to arrest temporarily enzy­ and for the most part a discussion matic activity. Salt will destroy on this subject is beyond the scope many enzymes but not all. Vine­ of this book. A few items of in­ gar will act on some. Enzymes terest should be mentioned however. under control are valuable adjuncts Enzymes are chemical substances in some chemical processes, or the present in all live tissue. They aid production of certain goods, but in the digestion and conversion of when uncontrolled may cause foods and waste products. They trouble such as spoilage and de­ are important in the preservation of terioration of foods. fish because of their action on fish protein or muscle. OXIDATIVE RANCIDITY While the fish is alive, the This factor v·ill be barely men­ enzymes in the digestive tract tioned here. Suffice it to say that and those present in the flesh are oxidative rancidity is a deteriora­ kept under control. When the fish tion of fats in the presence of air. dies, the walls that held them under It is not as well recognized in fish control cannot restrain the enzymes as it is in stored fats, pork, sausage, any longer so they digest their way and similar fatty products. The through the gut walls and start to answer to the problem seems to be

106 SALTED AND DRIED FISH to eliminate as much oxygen as pos­ external surface of the fish, or by sible from the product by the use deeply gashing areas that are far­ of vacuum and coatings impervious thest from contact with the salt, to to air, by the elimination of other allow the salt to work down into the materials that help catalyze the muscle. oxidative action, and by the use of antioxidants. SALT-BURN This condition manifests itself in DEFECTS OF SAL TED FISH AND an excessive surface dehydration DRIED FISH under which the interior remains REDDENING unchanged. It is caused by the use of excessive amounts of fine salt Probably the best-known defect which draw out the surface moisture of salted and dried fish is redden­ so rapidly that the proteins coagu­ ing. This red color is noted on a. late to the extent that they will not great number of salted and dried soften and take up water again. To products. Research on the subject prevent salt-burn, it is recommend­ has led to the conclusion that red ed that larger salt crystals or less microorganisms that can live and salt be used. gradually multiply in a strong salt concentration are the cause. The CASE-HARDENING solution to the problem seems to be This is a condition of dried fish the sterilization of the salt by boil­ similar to salt-burn. It is a dena­ ing the brine, the use of kiln-dried turation of proteins which prevents salt or pure mined salt, and the the interior of the fish from drying avoidance of contamination of the out, and inhibits the proper rehy­ salt during the processing. dration of the fish when it is being "DIM" FISH prepared for the table. It usually Another defect of salted and manifests itself in a chalky-white, dried fish, often noted, is chocolate­ hard, brittle product. There are a brown spots on the surface of the number of reasons for this condi­ product. It is caused by using un­ tion; the two most important are washed fish, dirty utensils, or im­ the use of impure salt and a too­ pure salt. This surface mold can rapid drying process. be brushed off and it does not cause The discussion in the section on or indicate serious spoilage. Salting covers the use of impure salt; so only too-rapid drying will SOURING be covered here. When fish are re­ Souring is a putrefaction that moved from the brine, moisture on occurs in portions of the fish that the surface immediately begins to have not received a great enough evaporate if the air is not saturated concentration of salt. Souring can with water. By agitating and be prevented by using more salt, by moving away the air that is· next distributing the salt evenly over the to the surface of fish and has taken

107 SPOILAGE up as much moisture as it will hold, scrubbed and washed thoroughly, further drying can be carried out. and are repacked in a well-washed As the water is drawn from the sur­ container with new brine, the con­ face and from just below the sur­ dition will not usually manifest it­ face, the muscle cells become dehy­ self again for a considerable time. drated and they in turn draw water Sodium benzoate has some inhibi­ from those cells deeper in the meat. tory action on this condition. Thus, the muscle cells constantly seek to keep an equal amount of SURFACE MOLDS moisture in every cell. Many of the black, blue, and When the fish is placed in the sun, green molds on salted and dried fish the heat causes the surface of the products will cause little change in fish to yield moisture even faster, the character of the products, but and passage of water from cells they are unsightly and should be deep in the flesh is faster. If the removed by scrubbing or wiping. cells on the surface lose their mois­ Some molds will start to grow when ture at too great a rate, the cell pro­ a dried product has accumulated teins coagulate, and they are no more moisture that it should. They longer capable of transferring wa­ will start to work on the proteins ter. After a few layers of cells and soon the product is ruined. reach this state they form an insu­ Dried products should be washed lating area through which no fur­ and redried at the first sign of mold. ther moisture will pass. This condition can be noted by a hard dry DEFECTS IN CANNED FISH outer layer on the fish, with a soft moist interior. From the condition The causes of spoiled or inferior of the outer layer it would seem canned products can usually be that the fish could be stored for a broken down into three main cate­ long time; but the fish spoils gories: Poor raw material, faulty quickly because the moist interior processing, and container failure. supports bacterial and enzymatic activity. POOR RAW MATERIAL

"SLIMY BRINE" FISH A processed product will seldom be better than the raw material Fish packed in brine become used. A manufacturer of sardines slimy at times, and the quality of the product seems to be lowered. will not produce a fancy pack if As far as one can detect, this con­ he uses partially spoiled fish. The dition appears to be bacterial in na­ same is true of the oils, sauces, and ture and seems to be caused by an other condiments used in the can­ organism that loves salt, plus a ning of the product. They must small amount of organic material in be suitable and of good quality for the liquid medium or brine. If the the product that is being produced. fish are removed from the brine, A few cases in point follow:

108 CANNED FISH 1. Impure salt may add a biting washed just before placing the flavor to the product that is found product in it. undesirable by some people. 4. The ,product should be placed 2. Canned fish destined for cold In the container in such a way as to areas should not be processed with give the greatest eye appeal and still coconut oil. This oil solidifies at provide protection against rough relatively high temperatures form­ handling. ing an undesirable-looking product. 5. The head space (space between 3. The use of certain spices, product and cover) should be ·flavoring agents, and salt must be enough to provide a good vacuum regulated to satisfy the tastes of the but not so large as to permit oxida­ trade to whom the manufacturer is tive changes and excessive move­ catering. For example, many ment of the product within the people do not like the slightest sug­ container. gestion of garlic. 6. If the product is one in which 4. As rather an exception to the a great deal of air is trapped during foregoing, it may be added that the preparation or one that should be flavor of some of the more insipid kept under vacuum, an exhaust or varieties of fish can be enhanced by other vacuum-producing procedure packing them in tomato sauce. must be used. 7. The process must be adequate FAUL TY PROCESSING to destroy all pathogenic organisms The procedure for canning any and other organisms that may cause product must be organized to pro­ spoilage of the product, but at the duce an attractive, safe, and whole­ same time not cause such deteriora­ so~ food. Certain precautions tion of quality as to make the pro­ must be observed: duct undesirable. 1. The raw material must be pre­ 8. The product should be cooled pared as quickly and as economi­ promptly unless the computation of cally as possible. It needs to be the process time has taken a slow handled quickly to prevent deter­ cooling into consideration. This ioration, and economically in order will prevent overprocessing or to compete with other processors. stack-burn. 2. The raw material must be pre­ 9. The product should be attrac­ pared in the form which is as close tively and truthfully labeled so that to the demands of the eventual the consumer will know exactly consumer as possible. 3. The product should be placed what is in the container. in a container that is attractive to CONTAINER FAILURE the consumer, that is capable of withstanding transportation han­ Cans or jars purchased from rep­ dlings, and that will p1·otect the utable dealers, which are used in product adequately from factory to accordance with the manufacturer's consumer. The inside should be instructions, will have few failures.

894001 0-51-8 109 SPOILAGE Some things to remember about can some cases this may require a mix­ use are as follows : ture of air and steam to be used at 1. The can must be so constructed some stage of the process to produce that it will be suitable for the pro­ enough pressure on the outside of duct and will stand the processing the can to counterbalance that on and handling it will be given. It the inside. must have an interior coating that 6. The outside of the can should will resist the chemical action of the be thoroughly washed before stor­ product sealed in it, and an exterior ing in order to prevent materials coating that will stand up under used in processing from adhering to the environmental conditions to the outside of the can. Such resi­ which the finished product will be due would give the can a poor ap­ subjected. pearance and might attack the 2. The container must be used metal itself. within a reasonable period of time 7. The can should be stored in a after purchase, as the rubber gasket cool, dry place where it will not be material used in the lid will de­ subjected to temperature extremes. teriorate and the cans themselves Listed below are defects, and their will deteriorate somewhat before causes, commonly noted in canned processing, and both the interior fish products. and exterior of the can will rust away after processing. This de­ Can flipper terioration will be dependent on the Can end is bulged out, but the end composition of the product canned will go in when struck on a table. and the environment in which it is This is usually caused by overfilling stored. or by not properly exhausting the 3. The container must be sealed can. with a well-adjusted sealer that will join the lid to the can in the leaking cans manner the manufacturer intended. Cans that have some external The outer edge of the lid should be sign of the can contents in localized up and under the flaring top of the can, and the whole seal should be areas are classified as leakers. The pressed firmly together, making it seams or walls of the container have completely airtight. been ruptured in some way so that 4,. Unless adequate head space is gas, liquid, or solid material has es­ allowed in the container, the ma­ caped. Such ruptures may be terial within the can may expand caused by faulty seaming, defects so much under the heat treatment in the cans, improper processing, that it will rupture the can. bacterial action, production of gas, 5. The heat process should be so defective tin plate, rough handling, conducted that the pressure within or acid action on specific areas the can will not be great enough to which causes perforations through loosen or burst the can seams. In the tin plate.

110 CANNED FISH Can Swell Flat sour Can ends are bulged out hard and Sometimes a sour odor is noted in will spring back when pressed. a product' which was not put up This is usual in cans just removed in a sour medium. This usually from the retort and which have not indicates a spoilage caused by ther­ been cooled. But when it is noted mophilic (heat-loving) bacteria in stored cans of fish, it generally that survived an underprocessing. indicates bacterial spoilage. The These organisms are not generally material in such cans should not be dangerous but the product should used. (In some canned products not be used as unnoticeable patho­ having an acid reaction, such as genic bacteria may have survived citrus products and sauerkraut, the too. swellings are normally caused by Another type of souring, dif­ hydrogen formed by the action of ferent from fiat sour, is a souring the acid on the iron of the can, and that occurs when products are not these products are edible.) If can processed soon enough after prepa­ swelling occurs in fish products do ration. It is no more dangerous not eat the products I The con­ dition is usually caused by under­ than flat souring but it is well to processing, and viable bacteria are avoid using the material. at work. Blackening of product Buckling Occasionally, products such as This is a condition similar to can crab, clams, shrimp, and lobster swell. The can ends or sides are will turn black on storage, and pushed out of shape by improper sometimes the interior of the can control of the processing procedure itself will be blackened. This is and do not return to their proper caused by the sulfur of the meat place after cooling. It is usually combining with the iron of the can caused by a too-rapid release of re­ to form iron sulfide. It may be tort pressure which puts the interior combated by the use of parchment of the , can under great pressure liners, organic acids, and fish while the exterior is not, and if the enamel, either separately or in com­ can is not strong enough the seams bination, as the particular product are forced. may demand. Paneled cans Where copper kettles or other This defect manifests itself with copper equipment is being used in the flattening of the sides of the the production of some products, cans. It is usually caused by exces­ darkening sometimes occurs because sive vacuuin or external pressure in small amounts of the copper from big cans. In smaller cans it is equipment will combine with the usually caused by improper hand­ sulfur from the fish to form copper ling. sulfides.

111 SPOILAGE

Discoloration caused by too-long or haust which allows excessive oxy­ too-hot processing gen to remain in the can ; thus, the · Some products cannot be proc­ material on top oxidizes and essed at 240° F. because they will changes color. There may be flavor deteriorate in quality. Some types changes too. of products, such as Norwegian fish Watery packing medium balls, have to be processed as low Oils and sauces are sometimes un­ as 228° F. Caviar has to be proc­ attractively diluted with a watery essed below 150° F. fluid. This liquid is broth ren­ Along the same general vein, dered from the fish. Such liquid some of the more delicate fish pro­ may be decreased by precooking or ducts such as bangos will be grossly drying the fish and pouring off the overprocessed if placed immediately moisture before adding the sauce or after processing in solid stacks oil. without cooling. An overcooking goes on when the temperature drops Slack fHI too slowly. This defect is apparent when the space within the can seems to be Defects from included viscera very large in relation to the amount Discolorations and off flavors may of fish. The fish was probably put develop when some fish, such as into the can with all the space filled; sardines, anchovies, clams, and but upon processing, the fish tissue oysters, are canned without empty­ shrank as the proteins coagulated, ing the stomach. Along the same and the moisture was driven off. line, fish sometimes eat certain The result is that when the can is plankton which affect the flavor of opened, there is much liquid but the meat or render it poisonous. an insufficient drained weight of Rusty can exterior fish. This may be prevented in part Cans may be rusty on the outside by precooking the fish and then for a great variety of reasons: packing it, or' overfilling. the con­ 1. The cans were rusty when used. tainer with the fish, precooking 2. Cans were packed into the cases until it is down to the size of the before they were dry. container, and then sealing and 3. Cans were processed too long processing it. in damp, low-pressure steam. Contents falling apart 4. Cans were packed in damp or This may be caused by overly green-wood cases. rough handling of the container, 5. Cans were stored too long in slack fill which permits the contents damp atmosphere. · to move around too much, poor 6. Paste, used for holding labels, packing procedures, and most likely contained water-drawing powers. of all, too much moisture in the fish Darkened top of product when. it is sealed. The first three This is usually caused by too are self-explanatory. In the last, much head space or by a poor ex- however, there is an ever-pressing

112 CANNED FISH problem that plagues processors. was cooked before it was completely The flesh of many fish will become thawed. firm upon cooking at high tempera­ Tough texture tures but at the same time the con­ The ca.uses of tough fish are mani­ nective tissues may become soft and fold. The fish may be old or it may the bundles of muscles will fall be naturally tough. It may be apart like an overcooked piece of "freezer burned." (The proteins beef. may have lost so much moisture The solution of the problem ap­ during freezing that the proteins pears to be to dehydrate the fish to coagulated.) It may be over­ such an extent that the connective cooked. The preprocessing dehy­ tissue will remain firm enough to dration may have been too thorough. hold the fish together after it is pres­ The use of impure salt may be sure-cooked. To accomplish this, another caµse. fish are often precooked in steam, cooled, and the_n packed. Some fish Small glasslike crystals are precooked, dried, and then In shrimp, lobster, and similar packed. It would be well to re­ products, small, glass-like crystals ri1ember to keep fish products in cool will form sometimes. These crys­ storage as high-temperature storage tals are composed of magnesium also has some effect on softening of ammonium phosphate. They are canned fish. not dangerous and may be tested by Curdling of stews and chowders covering them with an acid. They Prepared products containing are safe to eat if they dissolve, but milk will usually curdle when pres­ if they do not dissolve they are sure processed, and the solution of probably glass. the problem has usually been the Darkened glass-packed products use of flour or something similar to Prolonged exposure to sunlight give the product a milky looking will visibly darken fish products color and consistency. Recent packed in glass. work, however, seems to indicate that if products containing milK: are Lack of liquid in glass-packed fish alkalized to the proper extent, the Quite often, fish and other pro­ milk will not curdle and the flavor ducts packed in glass jars will con­ will be but little impaired. tain much less liquid after proces­ sing than before. This is usually Open texture due to a too-rapid release of the .Some fish such as tuna are packed processing pressure, which causes into cans in large pieces; but when high pressures to build up in the opened, the meat does not appear jars, forcing out the liquid. solid, but flaky. This spoils the appearance of the pack. The cause Caramelized flavors may be among those already men­ The use of sugars, sweet pickles, tioned, such as too much moisture, sweet sauces, and the like, sometimes or \t may be because a frozen fish leads to a caramelized flavor. 113 REFERENCE DATA FOR FISH PROCESSORS

FISH IMPORT ANT FOR CANNING AND BEST AREAS TO FIND THEM

Herring and sardines Mackerels

COMMON SPECIES OOMMON SPECIES

Sardinella longiceps (Indian sardine) RastreUiger brachysomus (Short-bodied Tamban (Tagalog and iloko) mackerel) Tamban tuloy ( Visayan) Hasa-hasa (Tagalog) Turay (Bicol) Aguma-a (Visayan) Sardinella fimbriata (Fimbriated herr- Kabalyas (Bicol) ing) Mata-an (lloko) Tunsoy (Tagalog) Rastrelliger chrysozonus ( S tr i p e d Tabagak (Visayan) mackerel) Laolao (Bi col) Alumahan (Tagalog) Aber or bilis ( lloko) Bulao (Visayan) Burao (Bicol) Sardinella perforata (Deep-bodied sar- Mata-an ( lloko) dine) Lapad (Tagalog and Visayan) FISHING GROUNDS AND SEASONS Tamban kabasi-on (Bicol) Aber or bilis ( Ilokano) 1. Aparri: February to October (April to July, peak) Dus8Umieria spp. (Round herring) 2. Manila Bay: November to May Tulis (Tagalog) 3. Batangas and Balayan Bays: Feb- Balanti-ong (Visayan) ruary to June . FISHING GROUNDS AND SOASONS 4. Ragay Gulf : December to May 5. Samar Sea : February to October 1. Aparri: February to October (March 6. Visayan Sea : February to October to July peak) (March to July, peak) 2. Manila Bay : February to May 7. Malampaya Sound: February to Octo­ (young), June to December ber (March to August, peak) (adults) 3. Ragay Gulf : December to May 8. Northern Minadanao: January to May 4. San Miguel Bay : May to September (young) , October to February Tunas and bonitos (adult) COMMON SPECIES 5. Sorsogon Bay : September to May (Yellowfin 6. Southern Masbate: November to May Neothunnus macropterus 7. Samar Sea : November to May tuna) 8. Visa~·an Sea: Ap1·il to May (young), Tambakol (Tagalog) May to October (adults) Panit (Visayan) 9. Northern Mindanao : December to May Bangulis (Bicol) 10. Davao Gulf: .January to October Tangi ( Iloko)

114 FISH FOR CANNING

Katauwonus pelamis ( Skipjack) Milkflsh Gulyasan (Tagalog) Barilis (Visayan) COMMON SPECIES Dumadara ( Iloko) Cltanos cha nos ( Bangos) Eutltynnus yaito (Oceanic bonito) Bangos (Tagalog) Katsarita (Tagalog) Kisltinouella tonggol FISHING GROUNDS AND SEASONS Tulingan (Tagalog) Fish ponds: January to December FISHING GROUNDS AND SEASONS

1. Zambales coasts: January to June Gizzard shad 2. B"atangas coasts and Lubang: January to June COMMON SPEOIES 3. Ragay Gulf : December to May 4. Western Panay: February to May or Anodontostoma chacunda (Short-finned gizzard shad) June 5. Northern Mindanao: January to May Kabasi (Tagalog) 6. Southern Mindanao : January to De­ FISHING GROUNDS AND SEASONS cember (April to June, peak) 7. Northern Luzon: January to June Manila Bay : February to October

COMMON SPECIES OF PHILIPPINE FISH

On the following pages are shown the common species of Philippine fish with their popu.lar and scientific names and their average lengths.

115 REFERENCE DAT A

[Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.)

Sharp-nosed shark--Patlng Guitar flsh--Patlng sodsod Scoliodon palasorrah (Cuvier) Rhynchobatu8 djidden8i8 (Forsklll) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter Average length 0.5 to 2 meters.

Black-finned shark--Pating lnglesa Garcharias melanopterus (Quoy and Gaimard) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter .. ."''!I .

Blue-spotted sting ray--Dahonan Hammerhead shark--Blnkungan Da8yati8 kuhlii (Miiller and Henle) Sphyrna zygaena (Linneaus) Average size 20 centimeters across Average length 0.5 to 5 meters

Sawflsh-Tagan Pri8tis microdon (Latham) A\•erage length 1 meter on up

Marbled stlng-ray--Paging bulik Dasyat'8 11arnak (ForskiH) Average size up to 1.5 meters across

116 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH [Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.]

Hawaiian ten-pounder--Bidbid Elop11 hawaiiensis (Regan) Average length 0.3 to 1 meter

Spotted eagle ray-Paol Aetoliatus narinari (J<)uphrasen) Average size 0.3 to 2 meters across

Tarpon--Buan-buan Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet) Average length 30 centimeters

Milkflsh--Bangos Ohanos chanos (Forskl11) Average length 0.3 to 1 meter

Javan cow-nosed ray--Pallmanok Rhi noptera javainica (MUiler and Henle) A\•erage size 0.5 meter across

Silver-bar flsh-Parang-parang Ohirocentros dorab (Forskl11) Average length 0.3 to 1 meter

Spineless devil ray--Salanga Indian sardine-Tamban Moliula ergoodoo-tenkee (Cuvier) Sardinella longiceps (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Average size 0.9 meter across Average length 20 centimeters

117 REFERENCE DAT A

[Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.]

Fimbria ted herring--Tunsoy Sardinella fimbriata (Cuvle1· and Valen- ciennes) Average length 15 to 18 centimeters Short-finned gizzard shad--Kabasi A n o do n to 8 to ma chacunda (Hamilton­ Buchanan) Average length 15 to 20 centimeters

Deep-bodied herrlng--Lapad Sardinella perforata (Cantor) Average length 15 to 18 centimeters

Long-jawed anchovy--Dllls Stolephorus commersonii (Lacl!pMe) Average length 8 centimeters

Big-eyed herring--Tuabak Ilisha hoevenii (Bleeker) Average length 15 to 20 centimeters lndian anchovy--Tuakang Stolephorus indicus (van Hasselt) Average length 10 centimeters

Long-finned gizzard shad--Suogan Deep-bodied anchovy--Dumpilas Nematolosa nasus (Bloch) Scutengraulis hamntonii (Gray) Average length 20 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

118 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH

[Short scale by each figure Indicates 2 centimeters.]

·swamp eel---Palos Synbranchua bengalenaia (McClelland) A,·erage length 30 centimeters Green sea catfish--Kandull Arius thalaaainua (Riippell) Average length 50 to 75 centimeters

·- ---

Sliver pike eel--Plndanga Muraeneao:c cinereua (ForskAI) Average length 60 centimeters to 2 meters Smooth-headed sea catfish--Bongoan Arius leiotetocephalus (Bleeker) Average length 40 centimeters

Palntea moray--Pabukang benhe Common lizard fish--Kalaso Gymnothora:c pictua (Ahl) Saurida tumbil (Bloch) A\•erage length 80 centimeters Average length 30 centimeters

Fresh-water catftsh--Hlto Clariaa batrachua (Linnaeus) Blunt-nosed lizard fish--Kalaso Trachinocephalua myopa (Forster) Average length 20 to 45 centimeters Average length 20 cen tlmeters

·----~® .. - ---·--

Manila sea catftsh--Kandull ComprPssed-bodled garftsh--Kambabalo Arius manillenaia (Cuvier and Valenclennes) Ablennes hians (Cuvier and Valenclennes) Average length 30 centimeters Average length 0.5 to 1 meter

119 REFERENCE DAT A

(Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters. J

Common garllsh--Kambabalo Tylosurus giganteus (Schlegel) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter

Light-colored garfish--Batalay Smooth-scaled brlll--Dapang bllog Tylosurus strongylurus (van Hasselt) Pseudorhombus arsius (Hamilton-Buchanan) Average length 30 centimeters Average length 15 to 20 centimeters

Non-spotted halfbeak--Bugulng Hemiramphus georgii (Cuvier and Valen­ clennes) Average length 30 centimeters

Spotted halfbeak--Bugulng Rough-scaled brlll--Dapang bllog Hemiramphus far (ForskU) Pseudorhombus oligodon (Bleeker) Average length 30 centimeters Average length 15 to 20 centimeters

Small-scaled flying fish--Bolador Speckled sol~Dapang slnllae Cypselurus oligolepis (Bleeker) Cynoglossua puncticepa (Richardson) Average length 20 centimeters Average length 10 to 15 centimeters

Indian turbot--Kalangkao Ovate sol~Tamblkl Psettodes crumei (Bloch nnd Schnelder) Solea humilis (Cantor) Average length 20 to 40 centimeters Average size 10 centimeters

120 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH

[Short scale by each figure ln

Striated murrel--Palag Ophicephalus strlatus (Bloch) A,·erage length 30 to 40 centimeters Thick-lipped ·mullet--Talllong Mugil dussumieri (Cuvier and Valenclennes) A ye rage length 20 centimeters

Banded barracuda--Asogon Sphyraena Jello (Cuvier and Valenclennes) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter Common climbing perch--Martlnlko Anabas testudineus (Bloch) Avernge length 10 to 20 centimeters

]<'our-rayed threadfin--Mamale Eleutheronema tetradactylum (Shaw) Average length 0.5 meter Long·llnne

Striped barracuda--Torclllo Large-scaled mullet--Banak Sphyraena obtusata (Cuvier and Valenclennes) Mugil vaigiensis (Quoy and Galmard) Average length 25 centimeters Average length 40 centimeters

Black-finned mullet--Talllong Small-mouthed threadfin--Mamaleng bato Mugil melinopterus (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Polynemus microstoma (Bleeker) Average length 20 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

121 REFERENCE DAT A

[Short scale by each figure Indicates 2 centimeters.]

Halrtail--Ballla Trichiurlls haumela (Forskill) Average length 40 centimeters

Short-bodied mackerel--Hasa-hasa Rastre!liger brachyosomus (Bleeker) Average length 20 centimeters

Black pomtret--Duhay Stromateus niger (Bloch) Average length 20 centimeters Striped mackerel--Alumahan Rastrelliger chrysozonus (Riippell) Average length 25 to 35 cen tlmeters

Spanish mackerel--Tanglgl Oybium commerson (Lac.;pi!de) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter

Long-finned cavalla--Talakltok Oaranx armatus (Forskill) Average length 20 to 50 centimeters

Oceanic bonlto-Katchorlta Euthynnus yaito (Klshlnouye) Average length 40 centimeters

Yellowfln tuna--Albacora Malabar cavalla--Talakltok Neothunnus macropterus (Schlegel) Oaranx malabaricus (Bloch and Schnelder) Average length 1 meter Average length 20 to 30 centimeters

122 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH

I Short ficnle hy each figure indicates 2 centlmetns.J

Spotted cuvalla--Talakttok Even-bellied crevalle--Salay-salay lalakl Carat111J stellatus ( Eydoux and Souleyet) Camn11J djcdaba (Forskdl) A vern!l'e length 40 to 60 centimeters Average length 20 to 35 centimeters

l!anded ca ''alla--Talakitok Deep-be11led crevalle--Salay-salay aso Carat111J se11Jfasc.iatus (Quoy and Gaimard) Carani/J kalla. (Cuvier and Vallenclennes) Average length 30 centimeters to 1 -meter Average length 10 to 20 centimeters

'l'oothless · cavalla--Garapeche :fellow-striped crevalle--Salay-salay batang Caran11J spec;osus (Forski'l.1) Carani/J leptolepis (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter AYeraire length 20 centimeters

llig-eyed scad--Matang baka Philippine jack--Damis Camni/J crumenophthalmus (Bloch) Hynnis momsa (Herre) ..\\'ernge length 20 to 30 centimeters Average length 0.5 to 1 meter

123 REFERENCE DAT A

[Short scale by each figure Indicates 2 centimeters.]

Yellow leatherjacket--Dorado Scomberoides lysan (Forsklll) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter

t •• , , t~;i/jj ...... ~ . ~.. . Asiatic threadflsh--Damls lawln ~ .. • ... . .Hee tis indicus ( Riippell) Average length 20 to 25 centimeters -----'l

Spotted moonflsh--Chablta Hardtall--Orlles M ene maculata (Bloch and Schnelder) Megalaspis cordyla (Linnaeus) Average length 20 cen tlmeters Average length 20 to 30 centimeters

Canadian sergeant Fish-Gile Rachycentron canadum (Linnaeus) Average length 30 centimeters to 1 meter Big-bodied round scar-Galongong Dccapterus macrosoma (Bleeker) Average length 20 to 30 centimeters

'.rwo-flnned runner--Salmon Silver lactarld--Pelan Rla.gatis bipinnulat11s {Quoy and Galmard) Lactarius lactarius (Bloch and Schnelder) Average length 30 centimeters to 1 meter Average length 20 to 40 centimeters

124 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH

[Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.]

Wily sllpmouth--Dalupani Leiognathas insidiator jBloch) Average length 10 cent meters Common sllpmouth--Sapsap Leiognathus equulus (Forskl11) Average length 30 centimeters

Yellow-margined grouper--Lapo-lapong sen­ orita Variola louti (ForskU) Average length 40 centimeters to 0.5 meter

Banded sllpmouth--Huallng Leiognathus fasciatus ( Lac4!pMe) Average length 10 centimeters

Wavy-lined grouper--Lapo-lapo Rpinephelus undulosus (Quoy and Galmard) Average length 40 centimeters

Black-finned sllpmouth--Dalangat /,eiognathus daura (Cuvier) Average length 10 centimeters Long-pectoraled honeycomb grouper--Lapo­ lapong llgllg Epinephelus megachir (Richardson) Average length 30 centimeters

Spotted grouper--Lapo-lapo Spotted sllpmoutb--E-im EpinepheltiB corallicola (Cuvier and Valen­ Leiognathus ruconiua (Hamilton-Buchanan) ciennes) Average length 6 centimeters Average length 40 centimeters

894001 0-51--9 125 REFERENCE DAT A

[Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.]

Short-pectornled honeycomb grouper--Lapo­ lapong liglig F:pi11evhelus merra (Bloch) A ,· e rn~e length 30 centimeters High-finned grouper--Kolapo Cromileptes altiveles (Cuvier and Valen­ ciennes) Average length 20 to 40 centimeters

Marbled grouper---Oaropa Epillevhelus fuscoguttatus (ForsklU) Average length 40 centimeters to 1 meter

Two-finned sea bass--Apahap Lutes calcarifer (Bloch) Average length 20 to 50 centim11ters

Blue-spotted grouper--Lapo-lapo Plectropomus maculatus (Bloch) A ,·nage length 0.5 to 1 meter

Malabar red snapper--Maya-maya Lutjanus malabaricus (Schnelder) Average length 30 to 40 centimeters

Blue-lined grouper--Lapo-lapo Plectropomus oligacanthus (Bleeker) Average length 0.5 to 1 meter

White-lined grouper--Lapo-lapo Anyperodon leucogrammicus (Cuvier and Humpbacked red snapper--Maya-maya Valenclennes) Lutjanus g'bbus (Forsk!l) Average length 40 to 50 centimeters Average length 30 to 40 centimeters

126 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH

[Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.]

Slh·er-spotted gray snapper--lso Brown-striped snapper--Maya-maya Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forskil.l) Lutjanus vitta (Quoy and Gaimard) Average length 50 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

Decussa ted snapper--Dolesan Blue-striped snapper--Maya-maya Lutl·anus decussatus (Cuvier and Valen- L11tjanus spilurus (Bennett) c ennes) Average length 20 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

White-spotted red snapper-Maya-maya Flame-colored snapper--Maya-maya Lutjanus 6ohar (Forsklll) Lutjanus fulvus (Bloch and Schnelder) Average length 40 centimeters Average length 0.5 meter

One-spotted gray snapper--Maya-maya Plain-scaled snapper--Maya-maya Lutjanus monostigma (Cuvier) Lutja11t/.8 Johni (Bloch) Average length 30 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

127 REFERENCE DAT A

[Short scale by each ftgure Indicates 2 centimeters.]

Dentlculated caesio--Dalagang bukld Caesio cvning (Bloch) Red caeslo--Dalagang bukld Average length 30 centimeters PinJalo typus (Bleeker) Average length 40 centimeters

Black-tailed caeslo--Dalagang bukld Caesio caerulaureus (Lacj!pMe) Spotted pomadasld--Agoot Pomadasys hasta (Bloch) Average length 25 centimeters Average length 25 to 40 centimeters

Golden caeslo--Dalagang bukld Banded pomadasld--Sekoy Caesio chr11sozonus (Kuhl and van Haeselt) PomadasyB maculatus (Bloch) Average length 15 to 20 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

Ribbon-ftnned scolopsld--Taglsang Jawln Plump caeslo--Dalagang bukld 8colopsiB taenfopteruB (Cuvier and Valen­ Caesio lunaris (Ehrenberg) clennes) Average length 30 centimeters Average length 20 to 30 centimeters

128 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH

[Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.]

Striped scolopsld--Tagisang lawln Convex-llned theraponld--Bagaong Bcolopsls btmaculatus (Riippell) Therapon jarbua (ForskAl) Average length 20 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

Painted thick-lipped grunt--Lablan Plectorhinchus pictus (Thunberg) Three-lined theraponld--Babansl Average length 30 to 40 centimeters 1'herapon theraps (Cuvier and Valenclennes) Average length 16 centimeters

Four-lined theraponid--Babansl Pelates quadrilineatua (Bloch) Average length 15 to 20 centimeters Slivery theraponid--Ayungln Therapon plumbeua (Kner) Average length 10 centimeters

Two-lined theraponld--Babansi Long-tailed nemipterid--Bisugo Therapon puta (Cuvier and Valenclennes) N emipterus japonicua (Bloch) Average length 10 centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

129 REFERENCE DAT A

[ 1'hort ~l'nle by en ch fl~nre indicntes 2 centimeters.)

Ribbon-finned nemlpterld--Blsugo Nemipterus taenipterus (Cuvier and Valen­ clennes) Average length 20 centimeters Fresh-water porgy--Bakokong moro Sparus berda (ForsklU) Avernge length 20 centimeters

Common porgy--Bltilla Lethrinu11 opercularia (Cuvier and Valen­ ciennes) Striped rudder tlsh--Ilak Anrage length 20 centimeters Kyphosus lembus (Cuvier and Valenclennes) Average length 30 centimeters

Big-eyed porgy--Malaklng mata Monotazis grandoculis (Forskl\l) ,Average length 20 to 40 centimeters Spotted mojarras--Malakapas Gerres ftlamentosus (Cuvier) Average length 10 centimeters

Yellow-striped goatflsh--Saramulyete ·Red porgy-·-Mahuwana Upeneoides aulphureus (Cuvier and Valen­ Argyropa spinifer (Forskl\l) ciennes) Average length 20 centimeters Average length 15 centimeters

130 COMMON PHILIPPINE FISH

[Short scale by each figure indicates 2 centimeters.]

Smooth-scaled whiskered croaker--Kabang Banded whltlng--Asohos 8claena dt1BBumieri (Valenclennes) Sillago tnaculata (Quoy and Galmard) Average length Hi centimeters Average length 20 centimeters

Rough-scaled whiskered croaker---Kahang 8ciaena indica (Kuhl and van Hasselt) Average length 15 centimeters

Plain croaker--Alakaak PBeudosciaena anea (Bloch) Average length 20 centimeters

LeafHsh--Dahong gab! Plata:IJ orbiculariB (ForskAl) Average length 30 centimeters

Common whiting--Asohos Sillago Bihama (ForskAI) Average length 20 centimeters

131 REFERENCE DAT A

[Short scale by each figure Indicates 2 centimeters.)

Javan slganld--Samaral 1'euthis javus (Llnnaens) Average length 30 centimeters

Indian flathead--Sunog Platycephalus indicus (Linnaeus) Speckled dr e pan~Mayang Average length 30 centimeters Drepane punctata (Linnaeus) Average length 20 to 30 centimeters

~· Flat-headed goby--Blang pute Glossogobius giurus (Hamilton-Buchanan) •. \''- : · > Average length 30 to 40 centimeters

Common spadetlsh--Kltang Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus) Average length 20 centimeters

Long-tailed goby--Talimosak O:z:yurichthys microlepis (Bleeker) Average length 10 centimeters

Blue-lined surgPon tlsh--Labahita Common remora--Paraklt banka .{canthurus bleekeri (Giinther) Echeneis naucrates (Linnaeus) Average length 30 centimeters Average length 40 centimeters to 1 meter

132 REFERENCE TABLES

Volume Solublllty of salt

1 pinch ______Slightly less than ~ teaspoon Amount of salt that will 1 dash ______Amount of dissolve in- Slightly less than ~ Temperature salt In UIO of water grams teaspoon saturated 100 1 teaspoon ______60 drop11 solution grams 1 cup water 5 milliliters water 1 tablespoon ______3 teaspoons Table- }~ fluid ounce F. c. Orama Orama Pound1 apoom 16 tablespoons -20· 23.6 30. 9 0. 2 4. 1 1 CUP------68" 20• 26.4 36. 0 . 2 4. 7 2 gills 212°-·· 100° 28. 2 39.8 . 2 5. 2 8 fluid ounces 237 milliliters 1 pint ______2 cups 1 chupa ______0.375 liter Brine strength 1 quart ______2 pints 946.4 milliliters Amount of salt In solution 1 liter______1.06 U. S. quarts Proportion Sall· measuring- 0.881 imperial quart of salt by nometer 0.335 ganta weight reading 1 cubic 1,000 milliliters 1 liter foot l gallon 1 ganta ______3.16 U. S. quarts --- 2. 986 liters Percent Orama Pounda Pou nth l 3.s• 10.05 0. 6276 0. 0839 1 gallon______4 quarts 2 7.6° 20. 25 1. 264 .1690 4 15. 1° 41.111 2. 564 . 3428 1 cavan______2.13 bushels 6 22.6• 62. 48 3.900 .6214 19.8 U. S. gallons 8 30. 2° 84. 47 5. 273 . 7049 75 liters 10 37. 7° 1111. 1 6.684 . 8936 12 45.3° 130.3 8.133 1. 087 25 gantas 14 52. s• 154. 1 9.622 l. 286 200 chupas 16 60.4° 178. 6 ll.15 1.490 1 peck ______8 quarts 18 68. o• 203. 7 12. 72 l. 700 20 75. 6° 229.6 14.33 1. 916 1 busheL ______4 pecks 22 sa.o• 256. l 15.99 2.137 24 90. 6° 283.3 17. 69 2.364 1 kerosene can_ _ _ _ _ 5 gallons 26.6 100. 0" 311.3 19. 43 2. 598 1 oil barreL ______50 gallons

Weight Converting salinometer readings to per­ cent: 1 gram ______0.035 ounce 1 ounce (avoirdu­ 0.028 kilogram Sallnom• Salinom- pois) 437.5 grains eter Pr~r:non eter Proportion 28.35 grams reading reading of salt 0.0625 pound 1 pound ______16 ounces Percent Percent 453.59 grams 4• l.06 . 28" 7. 42 s• 2. 12 32° 8.48 7,000 grains 12° 3. 18 36° 9.54 0.4536 kilogram 16° 4. 24 40° 10. 60 1 kilogram ______20• 5.30 60" 15. 90 1,000 grams 24° 6. 36 so• 21. 20 2.21 pounds 100° 26. 50 35 ounces

133 REFERENCE DAT A

Pressure cooking reading will be in the column to the left. If the known temperature is centigrade Ga!(e pressure will be-- scale, the corresponding Fahrenheit read­ To maintain a ing will be in the column to the right. temperature of- At sea At 4,000 At 6,000 level feet fel't Tempera­ C'enti!!"radc ture to be Fahrenheit equivalent. equivalent F. c. Pounda Pounda Pounda converted 228° 109° 5 7 8 240° 115° 10 12 1~ 121° 15 17 lR -40.0° ______-40° 250° -______------22.-40. o• 259° 126° 20 22 23 -34.4° ------ao• o• -28.g• ------20· ------4. o• -23.a0 ______-10• ___ ------+ t4. o• For each 1,000 feet of altitude pound -20.6° ------5• ------··-----. _.23. o• % -17.80 ------o• ------___ a2. o• of gage pressure must be added to give -15. 0° __ .. ______5• ______41. o• 10• ______so.o• -12.2° - ·------· ---- ______5g_ enou~h heat for the proper process. - g.4• ------15° o• - 6.;o ______20• ______.68. 0° - a.g• ______25° ______77_0° ao• ______86. o• - i.1• _ ------______.. 95. Conversion table-gage pressure and tem­ ;- 1.1• ------a5° o• 4.40 ______40° ______104. o• perature: 7.2• ______45° ______.113. o• 10.0° ------50• __ .. ______.122. o• 12.80 ------55° ______.. 1a1. 0° Gage Temperature ______140. 0° Gage Temperature 15.60 -- - . ------oo• ______14g_ pressure at sea level pressure at sea level 18.3. ------·---- 65° o• 70° ______158. o• 21.10 ------______.167. 23 .90 ------75° o• Pounda Fahrenheit Pounda Fahrenheit 26.70 ------so• ______.176. o• 0 8. a 235° 85° ______1ss. o• o.a04 21a a229.4020 ---______------_ 1 215. 2° g 236. 6° 90• ------•. UK. 0° 1. a 2rn° 9.a 2380 a5.0° ______g5° ______..203. o• 2 218. a• 10 238.8° 37.8° ______100° ______.212. o• ______.221. 0° 2.a 21g• 10. a 240• 40.6° ------105° ______.230. a 221.a• 11 241° 43.30 ------no• o• . a.a 222° 11. a 242° 46.10 ------115° ------_23g_ O" 4 224. 2° 12 24a. t 48.go .. - ___ ------120° ______.248. 0° 4.a 225° 12. a 244° 51.70 ______.____ _ 125° ______257. o• 5 226. go la 245.a tao• ______.266. o• 54.40 ------______275. 0° s.a 2280 ta. a 246° 57.2° ------1a5• 6 229. 5° 14 247. a 140° ______284. o• 60.00 ------______.293 . 0° 6.a 230° 14. a 2480 62.80 ------145° 7 231. go 15 24g_ 1 150° ______aoo. o• 65.60 ------______.311. 0° 7. a 23a• 15.a 250° 6R.a0 ------155° 8 234.a0 100° ______..320. 0° 11.107a.g• ---______------______329. o• 165° ______338_O" 76.7° ------170° 79.40 ------175° ______..347. 0° 82.2• ______1so• ______356. o• Boiling point of water ss.o• __ ------·· 1ss0 ______.a65. o• 190° ______.a74. o• R7.8° . . . ------0° 90.60 - . ------195° ______.asa. 93.a0 ______200• ______a92. 0° At an altitude of- Water boils at- ______.410. 9R.9° ------210° o• 220• ______.428. 0° 104.40 ------______446. o• Fahrenheit Centigrade 110.00 ------230° 240° ______. .464. o• Sea leveL ·------212.0° 100. 0° 115.60 ------______.482. o• 2,000 feet______208. 4° 98. 4° 121.10 ------250° ______.soo. o• 5,000 feet_------__ 20a. 0° g5.0° 126.70 ------200° 1a2.2° ______270° ______518. o• ______.. 536. ta7.8° ------2800 o• 14a.30 ______290° ______554. o• 148.g• ______aoo• . ______512. 0° Temperature conversion

To convert temperature readings from Formula-centigrade to Fahrenheit: 0 Fahrenheit scale to centigrade scale or ( G. X%) +32=° F. from centigrade scale to Fahrenheit scale: Example: 60°centigrade to Fahrenheit Find the known temperature in the (60X%)+32=140° F. middle column, headed "Temperature to Formula-Fahrenheit to centigrade: be converted." (°F.-32)X%=° C. If the known temperature is Fahren­ Example: 140° Fahrenheit to centigrade heit scale, the corresponding centigrade (140-32) X%=60° C.

134 CAN SIZES

Can sizes used for fish and shellfish with the average net weight each will hold:

Can Size WUl hold t Clam chowder: 8Z short ______211 x 300 7% oz. 8Z talL ______211 x 304 8% oz. No. 1 picnic ______211 x 400 10% oz. No. 300 ______------___ ------300 x 407 15 oz. No. 1 tall ______301 x 411 1 lb. No. 303 ______303 x 406 1 lb. 307 x 409 1 lb. 4 oz. JumboNo. 2------______307 x 510 1 lb. 9 oz. No. 2~--- ______401 x 411 1 lb. 13 oz. No. 5 ______502 x 510 3 lbs. 9 oz. No. 10------603 x 700 6 lbs. 10 oz. Clam juice: 8Z short ______211 x 300 7% oz. 8Z tall ______211 x 304 8}'2 oz. No. 1 picnic ______211 x 400 10% oz. No. 300 ______300 x 407 15 oz. No. 1 taJL ______301 x 411 1 lb. No. 303 ______303 x 406 1 lb. No. 2 ______307 x 409 1 lb. 4 oz. No. 2%--- ______401 x 411 1 lb. 13 oz. No. 5 ______- _ - -- _ ------502 x 510 3 lbs. 9 oz. No. 10 ______603 x 700 6 lbs. 10 oz. Clams: 8Z short ______~------211 x 300 7% oz. 8Z talL ______211 x 304 8% oz. No. 1 picnic ______211 x 400 10}~ oz. No. 300 ______--- __ ------300 x 407 15 oz. No. I taJL ______301 x 411 1 lb. No. 303 ______- - - - _------303 x 406 1 lb. No. ~2 ______307 x 409 1 lb. 4 oz. No. 2}'2 ______------401 x 411 1 lb. 13 oz. No. 5 ______------502 x 510 3 lbs. 9 oz. No. 10 ______603 x 700 6 lbs. 10 oz. Clams, minced: No. )Ii ______------______------7 oz. Lobster: No.~------300 x 108 3 oz. No. ~- ______307 x 200 6 oz. No.%------404 x 114 9 oz. No. I flat ______404 x 206 12 oz. No. 1 taIL ______~ ______-- 300 x 409 1 lb. 1 These weights are not the drained weight of the product but only the average weight of product including liquid that may be put in each of the containers. 135 REFERENCE DAT A

Can Siu WUlllold I Salmon: Alaska: 1 lb. talL ______--- ______301 x 411 1 lb. l lb. flat ______401 x 211 15% oz. %-lb. flat ______207 x 201.25 7% oz. Columbia River: 1 lb. tall ______301 x 411 l lb. 1 lb. flat______401 x 210.5 15% oz. ~ lb. flat ______307 x 200.5 7% oz. X lb. flat ______301x106 3% oz. l · lb. ovaL ______------15% oz. ~-lb. ovaL ______------7% oz. }~-lb. ovaL ______------3% oz. Sardines: No. X oiL ______------ax oz. No. ~ oiL ______------8 oz. No. % mustard ______11 oz. No. }'2 ovaL ______------7~ oz. No. 1 ovaL ______15 oz. 300 x 407 ______------15 oz. 211 x 300 ______------8 oz. 6 oz. paste ______------5 oz. Shrimp: Dry-pack: No. 1 picnic ______211 x 400 10% oz. Squat ______307 x 208 10 oz. N-0. 1%--- _ -- - -- _ ------307 x 400 1 lb. 1 oz. Wet-pack: No. 1 picnic ______. 211 x 400 10~ oz . Squat ______-.- ______307 x 208 10 oz. No. l~--- ______------307 x 400 1 lb. 1 oz. No. 5 ______502 l[ 510 3 lbs. 10 oz Tana: No. ~ ______211 x 109 3~~ oz. No. ~--- ______------____ _ ------__ ------307 x 113 7 OZ, No. 1------401 x 206 13 oz. Tuna ·flakes: No. M------­ 307 x 113 6 oz. No. 1------401 x 206 12 oz. 0ysters: 3 oz ______211 x 212 7 oz. 4 oz ______211 x 306 9 oz. 5 oz., No. 1 picnic ______211 x 400 10M oz. 6 oz ______211 x 405 11~ oz. 8 oz ______307 x 400 1 lb. 1 oz. 10 oz., No. 2 ______- 307 x 409 1 lb. 4 oz. 12oz ______307 x 414 l lb. 5 oz.

1 These weights are not the drained weight of the product but only the average weleht or product Including liquid that may be put in each or the containers. 136 GLOSSARY

Term• used in fish preservation

BACKBONE.-'l'he large bone or i;ection of bones running along the back from head to tail. BALLS (bola-bola) .-Food compressed or shaped into spherical shapes. Bi.:1,LY FLAPs.-Loose pieces of skin and meat suspended from the ribs, that are ap­ parent when the belly is opened for evisceration. BLEND ( paghaluin) .-To mix foods or spices together so that one portion of the mixture is indistinguishable from the other. BOIL (pakuluin) .-To raise the tempernture of water until large bubbles rise in a continuous stream to the surface. This usually occurs at 212° F. (100° C.) at sea level. BRINE ( tuguo) .-Mixture of salt and water. It is preferable to use a pure salt when preparing a brine for fish processing. BROIL (inihaw).-To cook on a rack, spit, or skewer, by the direct heat of a broiler, coals, 01· charcoal. CANNERY.-A place where equipment is located to prepare and process food in tin cans or glass jars. C.-Centlgrade scale (temperature). CHILL (pinalamig) .-To lower the temperature to between freezing and normal room temperature. CHOP (tadtarin).-To cut into small pieces by use of a knife (see also "Grind"). CuP (taza) .-A measurement of volume (see Table of Volumes). DEHYDRATE (tuyuin) .-To remove the moisture 01· wetness from a product. DICE (tilarin nang parisukat) .-To cut food into small cubes. DISSOLVE (lusawin).-To mix a solid or powdered substance with a liquid until it becomes an indistinguishable part of the liquid. DRAIN (patitiin).-To place a food into such a place or position that the free liquid present will move away from contact with the food. F.-Fahrenheit scale (temperature). FILLET (magkabiyak na laman) .-Fleshy, almost boneless side of fish. FRY (frito) .-To cook in hot fat. Pan-fry or saut&-using only a film of fat in the bottom of a pan. Deep-fat fry-using enough fat to float the food. GAUGE.-A device on a pressure cooke1· for b'iving the internal pressure in pounds per square inch or temperature in degrees. GRATE ( kudkurin) .-To shred a substance finely by use of a metal abrasive device. GRIND ( gilingin) .-To render a substance into fine consistency by an application of pressure and abrasion, as in a food grinder.

137 REFERENCE DAT A

LIQUOR (katas).-Fluid that cooks or freezes out of meat and vegetables. MARINATE.-To place a food in an acid-fat mixture (marinade) until well seasoned. P11EcooK (malasaduhin).-To partially cook a food so that it will be in better condi- tion to use for some other cooking or preservation procedure. PROCEss.-Term used in canning, usually indicating the final heat t1·eatruent accorded a product to provide sterilization. PUREE.-A semiliquid food composed of finely di,·ided material suspended in liquid and well mixed. HACK ( basta1mn) .-A frame for holding articles or materials. RAW (hilaw).-Not cooked. RF.EFER .oR FREEZER (palamigan) .-An insulated refrigerated box in which food can be kept cold or frozen. SALINOMETER OR SALOMETER.-A device for measuring the salt concentration of brine. Roughly 10° salinometer is the same as one-fourth of 1 percent salt. SALT (asinan).-To apply salt (asin) to a food. SAUTE (igisa.)-See "Fry." SAWDUST (pinaglagarian).-Wood ground up in small pieces. SCALE ( kaliskisan) .-To remove scales from the fish. SEAL (pasakan) .-To close a container so that air cannot pass in or out. SHELL.-To remove the outer coat or layer of a seed, nut, or shellfish. SHUCK.-Same as "Shell." SIMMER (nilaga).-To cook in liquid just below the boiling point-usually at a temperature between 185° and 190° F.

SMOKE ( pausukan) .-To add smoke to a food by applyin~ so wdust to a ftre in such a way that it burns inefficiently, giYing off dense clouds of smoke. SPUT (hatiin) .-To cut, chop, or saw an article into two or more pieces. STEAM (pasin1rnwan).-To cook over boiling liquid in a medium of water vapor (usually in a closed container to hold the steam). STOCK (sabaw).-Liquid in which meat, vegetables, or fish have been cooked. TABLESPOON OR TABLESPOONFUJ, ( cuchara) .-A measurement of volume (see Table of Volumes) . TEASPOON OR TEASPOONFUL (cucharita).-A measurement of volume (see Table of Volumes). THERMOMETER ( termometer) .-A deviee for measuring temperatures. It may be glass or metal and may indicate the temperature in degrees Centigrade or Fahrenheit. VINEGAR ( suka) .-An acetic-acid liquid. The best for fish processing is distilled vinegar.

138 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A VERY, ARTHUR C. 1950. Cosmopolitan fish cookery for the Philippines. Philippine Fishery Program, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. 1948. Tuna ham. Special Release No. 9, Fish for Food Column. Philippine Fishery Prog1·am, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. BLAIR, BUELL W., E. J. CAMERON, and NORMAND. JARVIS. 1944. The canning of Maine sea herring. Fishery Leafiet 104, Fish and Wildlife · Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. CLASSEN, T. E. A. 1946. The tuna industry of southern Spain. Fishery Leaflet 188, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. HAJllM, WILLIAM s. 1950. Temperature and salt purity effects on the manufacture of fish paste and sauce. Research Report No. 24, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. H.uu.r, WILLIAM: S., and .ABTHUR C. AVERY. 1948. Canned smoked oysters. Philippine Fishery Program, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. HERRE, ALBERT w., and AGUSTIN F. UMALI. 1948. English and local common names of Philippine fishes. Circular 14, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. JARVIS, NORMAN D. 1942. Mild curing, pickling, dry salting, and smoking salmon. Fishery Leaflet 60, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. 1943. Principles and methods in the canning of fishery products. Research Report No. 7, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. 1945. Home preservation of fishery products. Fishery Leafiet 18, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. JARVIS, NORMAND., and JOSEPH F . PUNCOCHAR. 1946. Home canning of fishery products. Conservation Bulletin 28, Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Dept. of the Interior. KNAKE, BORIS 0. 1946. Icing of fish at sea. Fishery Leaflet 189, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. LEMON, J.M. 1947. Fish refrigeration. Fishery Leaflet 214, Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Dept. of the Interior. MARTIN, CLARO. 1949. Notes on experimental canning of fish at the fish preservation station in Estancia, Iloilo Province. Popular Bulletin No. 28, Bureau of Fisheries, Dept. of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Manila, Philippines.

139 BIBLIOGRAPHY

MONTALBAN, liERACLIO R. 1930. Investigations on fish preservation at Estancia, Panay, Philippines. Issue No. 2, vol. 42, Philippine Journal of Science. SEAL, ALVIN. 1914. Preservation of commercial fish and fishery products in the tropics. Issue No. 1, yol. IX. Philippine Journal of Science. TANNER, FRED W. 1944. The microbiology of fo0«ls (second edition) . Garrard P1·ess.

TAYLOR, HARDEN F. 1~7 . Refrigeration of fish. Doc. No. 1016, Bureau of Fisheries, U. S. Dept. of Comme1·ce. TRESSLER, DONALD K., and CLIFFORD F. EVERS. 1943. The freezing preservation of foods. Avi Publishing Co. TRESSLER, DoNALD K., and others. 1923. Marine products of commerce. Chemical Catalog Co.

UMALI, AGUSTIN F. 1936. Edible fishes of Manila. Dept. of Agriculture and Commerce, Commonwealth of the Philippines. Also used were a great number of unpublished trip reports, surveys, instructional sheets, verbal reports, and data books from the Philippine Fishery Program laboratory.

140 INDEX

A Paire Page Bacteria. ______. _ _ _ 2, 4, 18, 105-106 Aber (sardine) ______.. _ 114 Ba.~a.-baga. (soldier fish) ______.. _ 104 · Ablenn.es hian11 ______.. ______119 Baga.ong (thera.ponid) ____ .. - · _ _ _ _ _ 129 Acanthrus bleekeri______132 Be.goong (tia.lted fish) ______24, 25-27, 28 Aetobatus narinari ____ -· ______117 Be.kokong moro (porgy)______130 Agoot (pomadasid) . . ______128 Balanti-ong (herring)______114

Agnma-a (mackerel) ______114 Be.lay an Bay ___ _J ______114 Aguot (gruntj______104 Balbakwa (salted fish)______28 Air-blast freezing______14 Balile. (he.irte.il) ______.. _ _ 122 Air transport______6 Be.Us, definition______137 Alakaak (croaker)______102, 131 Ba.na.k (mullet) ______· - -- - 121 Alamang (shrimp paste)______26 Banded barracuda.______121 Albacora (tuna) __ ___ . ______122 Be.ngos ______49, 74, 115, 117 Alectis indicus ______124 Bangulis (tuna)______114 Alumahan (mackerel) ______114, 122 Barilis (skipja.ck) ______115 Anabas testudineus______121 Barracuda. _____ .. ______15, 102, 121 Anchovies. See aiso SMALL F1sH. dried______38 Bagoong ______.. ______24 Be.sta.gan (rack), definition______138 Ba.goong Tulingan ,. ______28 Bate.lay (garfish) .. ______120 Balbakwa.______28 Ba.te.ngas______115 Bolina.o ______.. 41 Bele.che.n (fililh pa.tite) ______30 Boro______23 Belly flaps, definition______137 canning______69 Benzoic acid ______.. ______23 drying ______38, 39 Biang pute (goby)______132 Norwegian ______31, 32 Bidbid (ten-pounder)______117 Paths______25 Big-eyed herring ______- ·--____ 118 Pomero______24 Bilis (herring) _ . ______114 salting______23-25, 30-32 Binkungan (shark) ______. _ _ 116 Swedish ______. ______31-32 Binoro (Kench-cured _fish)______22 Tinabal ______27 Bisugo (nem1pterid) ______103, 129, 130 Angel fish ______--·- ·· --·-- --·- __ 102 Bisugong la.ot (rainbow runner) ___ 103 Anodontostoma chacunda ______115, 118 te.bo (red porgy)______103 Anyperodon leucogrammicus ______126 Bitilla (common porgy)______130 Apahap (sea bass)______126 Blackening ______-·______111 Aparri ______------114 Black-finned shark______116 Argyrops spinifer______130 Blend, definition ______.. ___ 137 Arius s. PP-______119 Boil, definition ______. . ______137 Asiatic threadfish __ .. ___ __ .. ______102 Boiling point______------__ 134 Asinan (salt), definition ______·- ___ 138 Bola-bola (balls), definition _____ .. 137 Asogon (barracuda) ______102, 121 Bolador (flying fish)______120 Asohos (whiting)______131 Bolinao (small salted fish) __ _ . _ _ _ 41 Ayungin (theraponid) ______129 Bongoan (sea catfish) ______119 Bonito ______114-115, 122 B Boro (fish and rice)______60 Babansi (theraponid) ______129 Box, fish______5, 7 Backbone, definition______137 Brill ______. _ 102, 120

8N801 0 - 11 - 10 141 INDEX

Page Clams-Continued Page Brine ______------2 Little neck ___ -- ___ - - ______95 freezing______12-13, 14 miscellaneous preserving_____ 58 definition ______. 137 Soft______95 strength table______133 Clarias batrachus ____ - - ______119 Brine-packed tuna ______.. ______85 Cleaning _____ - _ - __ - - - ______63 Brine-i;alting ______22 Climbing perch______121 Broil, definition______· 137 Cod, lye-treated ______45-46 Broiled fiRh ______.. __ __ _ 59 Cold box______7 Bua.n-buan (tarpon)______117 smoking ______~ ______48-50 _ Buckling______11 l Container failure __ ------109-110 Rudo (kench-cured small fish)____ 22 Conversion tables______133, 134 Buguing (halfbeak) ______120 Cooking, pressure______134 Bulao (mackerel)______114 Cooling (see also FREEZING)_ 2, 4-6, 7, 82 Burao (mackerel)______114 Cow-nosed ray ______- ______117 Burlap______2 Crabs______24 Butchering ______9-11, 63, 81-84 Crevalle______123 Butter clams______95 Croaker ______102, 131 Butterfly fillets______10 Cromileptes altiveles ______126 fish______102 Cuchara (tablespoonful), defini- c tion______138 Caesio______128 Cucharita (teaspoonful), defini- Caesio spp. ______128 tion______138 Calcium impurities______18 Cup, definition______137 Can sizes ______135-136 Curdling______113 swell______111 Cut spiced herring______55 Cannery, definition______137 Cutting fish _____ ~ ------9-11, 63, 81-84 Canning ______61-104 Cybium commerson______122 tests ______101-104 Cynoglossus puncticeps______120 Cans, leaking ______110-111 Cypselurus oligolepis______120 Caramelized flavors______113 Caranx______15 D Caran:z; spp _____ ~ ______122, 123 Dahonan (sting ray)______116 Carcharias melanopurus ______116 Dahong gabi (leaffish)______131 Carp ______56-58 Dalag (murrel)______121 Case-hardening ______34, 107-108 Dalagang bukid (golden caesio) _ 49, 128 Catfish______102 Dalangat (slipmouth) ______125 drying ______43-44 Dalupani (slipmouth) ______125 fresh-water______119 Damis (Philippine jack)______123 sea______119 Damis lawin (threadfish) ______102, 124 Cavalla ______103, 122, 123 Dapang bilog (brill) ______102, 120 Chabita (moonfish) ______124 sinilas (speckled sole)____ 120 Chanos chanos (milkfish) ______115, 117 Darkened product______112 Chill, definition______137 Dasyatis spp______116 Chirocentrus dorab______117 Davao GulL------~------114 Chop, definition______137 Decapoda (dried squid)______45 Chowder, clam______96 Decapterus macrosoma______124 fish ______79-80 Deep-bodied herring or sardine_ 114, 118 Clams Defects of processed fish. See Butter ______95 SPOILAGE. canning ______94-96 Dehydrate, definition ______.. _ __ 137 chowder ______96 Dehydration ______33, 107 freezing ______15 Devil ray______117 142 INDEX

Paae Fish and rice-Continued P•a• Dice, definition______137 Oakes______80 Dills (anchovy) ______118 25, ham ___ ~ - - --- · ------50 ' Dinalilan (dried shrimp)______28 paste .. ______.. ______30-31 Discoloration______112 Fishing grounds and seasons ___ 114-115 Displaying fish______7-9 :Fiske-holler (Norwegian fish balls) _ 80-81 Dissolve, definition ______- 137 Flakes, fish______80 Dogtooth tuna ______- 102 Flat sour ______.. ______111 Dolesan (snapper) ______127 Flatfish______102 Dolphin ______-- - 102 Flathead______132 Dorado (leatherjacket) ______124 Flyingfish______120 Drain, definition ____ . __ -- ______- 137 Freeze-drying __ .. ______33 Drawn fish______9 Freezing (aee alao CooLING) ______12-17 Drepane ______102, 132 air-blast______14 Drepane punctata ______-- _ 132 brine contact_ __ . ______12-13 Dressed fish ______- 9 indirect brine______13 Dry ice ______2,5 metal coil or plate______14 Drying ______33-45 sharp______14 Dry-salting ______19 French sardines______73 to make brine ______21 Fresh fish criteria ______62-63 Dubay (pomfret) ______122 handling______2-11 Dumadara (skipjack) ______115 Fresh-water catfish______119 Dumpilas (anchovy) ______118 Fried sardines______70 Durado (leatherjacket) ______103 Frigate mackereL ______76 Duaaumieria SPP------114 Frimbriated herring______114 Frito (fry), definition______137 E Frozen shrimp______15 Fry, definition______137 Echeneia naucratea ______~ _ __ _ 132 Eels ______.. ______119 pickling ______57-58 G E-im (slipmouth) ______125 Galongong (scar)______124 Elagatis bipinnatatua______124 Garapeche (cavalla)______123 Eleutheronema tctradactylum______121 Garfish______119, 120 Elopa hawaiienaia______117 Garopa (grouper)______126 Enzymes ______.. ______.. _ _ _ _ 2, 106 Gauge, definition______137 Epinephelus SPP------_____ 125-126 Gerrea filamentoaua______130 Escabeche-style bangos (bangos in Gile (sergeant fish)______124 sauce).______.. .. __ 74 Gilingin (grind), definition______137 Euthynnus yaito ______115, 122 Gizzard shad ______49, 115, 118 Eviscerating fish______3 Glazing ______13, 16 Exhausting cans ______64, 84 Glossary ______.. __ 137-138 Gloasogobius giurua______132 Goatfish ______103, 130 F Fermenting __ ·· -- ______19, 24-31 Goby ______38, 132 Fillet, definition______137 Grate, definition______137 Filleting __ .______10 Grind, definition______137 Fimbriated herring______118 Grouper ______125, 126 Fish and rice______60 Grunt______129 balls ______------~81 Guinamos alamang (shrimp paste)_ 28 box______5 Guitar fish______116 cake______60 Gulyasan (skipjack)______115 chowder______79-80 GymMthoraz pictua______119

143 INDEX

H P11ge K Hairtail ______122 Paire Half beak______120 Kabalyas (mackerel)______114 Ham, fish ______--- ·· ------·· ·___ 50 Kabang (croaker) ______- ·· - ···· ---- 131 Hammerhead shark______116 Kabasi (gizzard shad)______JI 5, 118 Handling fresh fish______2-11 Kalangkao (turbot)______120 HardtaiL______124 Kalaso (lizard fish) ______.. _ _ 103, 119 Hasa-hasa (mackerel)____ _ 103, 114, J 22 Kaliskisau (scale), definition__ _ _ _ 138 Hash, tuna __ . ______88 Kambabalo (garfish) ____ .. _ _ _ _ _ 119, 120 Hatiin (split); definition______138 Kanduli (sea catfish) ______119 Heat processing _____ .. ______64 Katas (liquor), definition.______138 Hemiramph·us spp______120 Katchorita or Ke.tse.rita (bonito) Herring._ -- _ - ____ 54-56, 75, 76-77, 1J4 l15, 122 big-eyed ______.. 118 Katsuobushi (tuna sticks)______45 Boro ______.. ______23 Katsuwonus pelamis______l15 cut spiced ______._____ .'l.'l Ken ch salting______19, 32 deep-bodied______118 Ken ch-cured______22 fimbriated ______114, 118 Kippered herring ______77-78 kippered ______.______77-78 Kishinouelia tonggoL ______. 115 New England style ____ .. _ 76 Kite.ng (spe.defish) ______132 potted______56 Kolapo (grouper)______126 Roll mops______55 Kudkurin (grate), definition______137 round______114 Kyphosus lembus______130 Hilaw (raw), definition______138 L Hito ( catfosh) _____ . ______119 Home canning ______65--78 Laba.bite. (surgeon fish)______132 clams______95--96 Labie.n (grunt) ______129 miscellaneous spe- Le.ck of liqui'd______113 cies______100-104 Lacte.rid, silver______124 oysters _____ . _ _ _ _ _ 94 Lactarius lactarius ______124 shrimp ______90-91 Le.mayo (salted shrimp) ______30 tuna ______85--87 Laole.o (herring) __ . ______ll 4 Hot-smoking______50 I,apad (sardine)______l14, l18 H ualing (slipmouth) ______125 Le.po-lapo or lapo-le.pong (grouper) Hynnis momsa ______123 125, 126 Large fish: I butchering______Sl canning ______78-80,82,84-88 Ice. See COOLING; GLAZING. drying ______. ______34-38, 44, 45 lgisa (sauM), definition______138 freezing ______.. 15 llak (rudder fish)______130 salting ______21, 23 llisha hoevenii .. ______118 smoking______50, 51 Impurities of salt______18 Lates calcarifer______126 lnase.l (broiled fish) ______.. 59 Lawe.ye.h (cave.He.)______103 Indian sardine ______114, 117 Lee.ffish______131 turbot______120 Leatherje.cket ______103, 124 Indirect brine freezing______13 Leiognathus spp ___ ------125 Lethrinus opercularis ______130 lnihaw (broil), definition______137 Liquor, definition______138 Iso (snapper)______127 Little neck clams______95 Lizard fish______103, ll 9 J Lobster. See SPINY LOBSTERS. Jack _ - - -- ______. ______123 Long finned caballa______103

144 INDEX

Page Page Long-jawed anchovy______118 Milkfish_ - -- ______115, 117 Lubang______115 Mindanao______114, 115 Lusawin (dissolve), definition____ 137 Mistichthys ~uzonenis ______40-41 Lutefisk ______45-46 M obula ergoodoo-tenkee ______11 7 Lutjanus SPP------126, 127 Moisture content______33 Luzon______115 Mojarra_ - ______103, 130 Lye-treated cod ______45-46 Molds __ - - - ______107, 108 M onotaxis grandoculis ______130 M Moonfish______124 MackereL ______9, 30, 49, 103, 114, 122 Moray______119 Boston style______77 Mugil spp______121 canning______77, 78-79 Mullet______49, 104, 121 drying______43 Muraenesox cinereus______119 in vinegar______59 MurreL ______121 Pacific Coast style______77 Mussels______58 short-bodied______114 Spanish _____ 15, 21, 78-79, 104, 122 N striped______114 Nematolosa nasus______118 Magkabiyak na laman (fillet), Nemipterid ______103, 129, 130 definition______137 Nemipterus spp ______129, 130 Magnesium impurities______18 Neothunnus macropterus ______114, 122 Mahuawna (porgy)______130 Nilaga (simmer), definition______138 Malabar cavalla______103, 122 Norwegian anchovies ______31-32 Malakapas (mojarra) ______103, 130 sardines______72 Malaking mata (porgy)______130 Malampaya Sound______114 0 Malapando (cavallo) ______103 Oceanic bonito______115, 122 Malasaduhin (precook), definition_ 138 Ophicephalus striatus ______121 Mamale (four-rayed threadfin) _ _ _ 121 Oriles (hardtail)______124 Mamaleng bato (small-mouthed Ovate sole______120 threadfin)______121 Oxyurichthys microlepis ______132 Manila Bay______114 Oysters: canning ______Marapini (pompano)______103 92-93 Marinate, definition______138 freezing ______15 Martiniko (perch) ______121 miscellaneous preserving ___ _ _ 58 Masbate______114 smoking ______93-94 Mata-an (mackerel)______114 p Matang baka (scad)______123 Maya-maya (red snapper)_ 103, 126, 127 Pabukang benhe (moray)______119 Mayang (drepane) ______102, 132 Packing______82 Medium fish: Paghaluin (blend), definition_____ 137 canning ______74-78 Pagi (rayfish) ______103 drying ______34-38 Paging bulik (sting ray)______116 miscellaneous preserving___ _ _ 58, 59 Paksiw (in vinegar)______59 salting ______22--23, 28 Pakuluin (boil), definition______137 smoking______49 Palad (flatfish)______102 Megalaspis cordyla______124 Palamigan (freezer), definition____ 138 Megalops cyprinoides______117 Palimanok (cow-nosed ray)______117 Mene maculata______124 Palos (swamp eel) ______119 Metal coil or plate freezing______14 Panay______115 Microorganisms ______8, 33, 105-106 Paneled cans______111 Middleman and large-boat fisher- Pani t (tuna) ______114 man______4-7 Pan tat (catfish) ______102

145 INDEX

Page Pare Pao! (ray) ______- -- _ ------117 Pseudorhombus spp_ ------______120 Parakit banka (remora) ______132 Pseudoscinaena anea______131 Parang-parang (silver-bar fish) _ - - 117 Puree, definition ______138 Paro-paro (butterfly fish) ______102 R Pasakan (seal), definition ______138 Pasingawan (steam), definition_ __ 138 Rachycentron canadum______124 Paste, fish ______- __ - -- - 30-31 Rack, definition ______138 tuna ______87-88 Rackling______38 Pating (sharp-nosed shark) ____ - _ _ 116 Ragay Gu!L ______114, 115 inglesa (black-finned shark) 116 Rainbow runner______103 sodsod (guitar fish) ______116 Rancidity - - ____ - - - - - ______106-107 Patis (sauce)______24, 25-27 Rastrelliger spp______114, 122 Patitiin (drain), definition______137 Raw, definition______138 Pausukan (smoke), definition_____ 138 Raw-material selection______62 Pelan (lactarid) ______124 Raw-pack tuna______86 Pelates quadrilineatus______129 Rays ______11~ 117 Perch, climbing______121 Rayfish______103 PickereL ______- - _ _ 57 Red porgy______103 Pike______57 snapper______103, 126 Pinacsio (in vinegar) ______58 Reddening______107 Pinaglagarian (sawdust), Reefer or freezer, definition______138 definition______138 Refrigerated containers______2 Pinalamig (chill), definition______137 delivery truck______6 Pindanga (eel)______119 water______2 Pinjalo typus ______128 Refrigeration (see also FREEZING)_ 4, 6 Platax orlJicularis ______131 Refrigerators______4 Plate freezing______14 Remora______132 Platycephatus indicus ______132 Retailer ______• ______7-11 Plectorhinchus pictus ______129 Rhinoptera javanica______117 Plectropomus SPP------126 Rhynchobatus djiddensis______116 Podpod (fish cake)______60 Rice and shrimp______92 Polynemus microstoma______121 tuna______88 Pomadasid ______128 Roll mops______55-56 Pomadasys spp ______128 Round herring______114 Pomera (salted fish)______24 Rudder fish ______130 Pomfret, black______122 Runner______124 Pompano______78-79, 103 Russian sardines ______.. _ 56 Porgy______130 Potted herring______56 s Prawns______30 Sahaw (stock), definition______138 Precanning preparation______63 Sailfi::; h ______. ______104 Precook, definition______138 Salanga (ray) __ .. ______. _ _ _ 117 Precooked-pack tuna ______86-87 Salay-sa.lay (creva.lle) ______123 Precooking ______81-82 Salinometer or sa.lometer, definition 138 Preserving methods______54-60 tables___ 133 Pressure cooker______66-68 Salmon __ ___ .______124 cooking, table______134 Salt______18 Pristis microdon ______116 definition______138 Process, definition______138 solar______26 Processing cans______84-85 solubility of______._ ___ _ 133 faulty______109 Salt-bnrn______107 Psettodes cru mei ______120 Salt. mac kereL __ . ______. ______77

146 INDEX

Page Page Salted fish, defects______107 Shark, black-finned ______.__ 116 Salting ______.. _- - - _ -- ______- _ 18-32 fins______44 Saltpeter ______- _-- ____ . _ _ _ 31 hammerhead ____ _. ___ . ___ 116 . Ramar Sea ____ .. ______.. ______114 sharp-nosed______116 Samara) (siganid) -·______. _. _ _ _ 132 Sharp freezing ______. _ _ _ _ 14 San Miguel Bay______114 Sharp-nosed shark ______.. _ _ 116 Sapsap (slipmouth) ______25, 103, 125 Shell, definition______138 Saramulyete (goatfish)______103 Shellfish (see also names of various Sardines. See also SMALL F1se shellfish) ______.. ______15, 94-97 Bagoong ______. ____ . 25 Shipment of fish ______.. _ _ 4-6 Boro ______. ____ . __ _ _ _ 24 Short-bodied ma.ckereL ______114 Budo or Binoro______22 Shrimp: California canning methods__ 70 and rice ______------92 canning ______··- ______68-73 Belachan______30 French ______·------___ 73 canning ______88-89 fried______70 Dinailan______28 !nasal ______~------59 drying______37 Indian ______. ____ 114, 117 freezing______15 Maine canning methods_ _ _ _ _ 69 Guinamos Alamang _____ . __ _ 28 miscellaneous preserving ___ .. _ 58 Lamayo______30 Norwegian______72 miscellaneous preserving_____ 58 paste ______. _ 30 paste______28 pickling______56 Pomera______24 Russian ______.. _ 56 salting ______28-30

salting ______~ ______22 shelling______89 smoking (large) ___ __ . ___ -· _ _ _ 53 smoking ______91-92 spiced ___ .. ______. _ _ _ _ 53 Shuck, defimtion ------138 steamed ~ - ·· ------______71 Siga.nid______132 TinabaL______27 Sitlago spp _____ .. ______131 Sardinellaspp ______114, 117, 11~ Silver lactarid ______.. _____ .. _ _ _ 124 Saurida tumbil______119 Silver-bar fish______117 Saut6, definition __ . ______138 Silver pike eeL ______119 Sawdust, definition______138 Simmer, definition______138 Sawfish______116 Sinaeng (cooked fish) ______58-59 Scad ______.. ------123 Sinarapan (fish cakes) ______40-41 Scale, definition--.------______138 Skipjack ______------115 Scaling_ .. ______9 Slack fill______112 Scatophagua argus______132 Slicing______82 Sciaena spp .. .. ______131 Slimy-brine fish______108 Scoliodon palasorrah______116 Slipmouth ______25, 103 Scolopsid______129 Small-boat fisherman______2-4 Scolopsis spp ______.. ___ . _ _ _ _ 128, 129 Small fish: Scomberoides lysan______124 broiling______59 Scutengraulis hamiltonii______118 canning ______68-72 Sea bass______126 drying ______34, 38-41, 43 Sea catfish_ .. ______119 miscellaneous preserving_____ 58 Sea cucumbers ______. ______44 salting ______22, 23, 24-27, 30, 60 Seal, definition______138 smoking _____ .. ______48, 49, 51, 52 Sealing cans and jars ______. _ _ _ 64, 84 Smoke, definition______138 Sekoy (pomadasid) ______-· 128 Smoked bangos______75 Sergeant fish______124 fillets______71 Shad, gizzard __ _, ______115, 118 lobsters ______. ___ . _ 97

147 INDEX

Smoked bangos-Continued Page Page oysters ______. ______93-94 Swedish anchovies ______31-32 sardines______53 Synbranchus bengalensis______119 shrimp ______91-92 tuna______87 T Smokehouse ______46-48, 94 Tabagak (herring) ______114 Smoking ______48-50 Tables of volume, weight, etc_____ 133 Snappers______126, 127 Tablespoon or tablespoonful, defi- nition______138 Sodium benzoate--~------23 Soft clams______95 Tadtarin (chop), definition______137 Tagan (sawfish) ______116 Solar salt______19, 26 Soldier fish______104 Tagisang lawin (scolopsid) _ _ _ _ _ 128, 129 Talakitok (cavalla) ______122, 123 Soles______120 Talilong (mullet)______121 Solea humilis______120 Talirnosak (goby)______132 Solubility of salt, table______133 Tambakol (tuna)______114 Sorsogon Bay______114 Tamban (sardine) ______114, 117 Souring______107 Tambiki (sole)______120 Spadefish______132 Tangi (tuna)______114 Spanish mackerel. See MACKEREL 104, 122 Sparus berda______130 Tangigi (mackerel)______Tarpon______117 Speckled sole______120 Taza (cup), definition______137 Sphyraena SPP------121 Teaspoon or teaspoonful, defini- Sphyrna zygaena______116 tion______138 Spiny lobsters canning______96 Temperature- conversion table____ 134 Ten-pounder______117 freezing ______15 smoking______97 Terrnometer (thermometer), def- inition ______. ------___ 138 138 Split, definition______Tests, canning ______101-104 Spoilage______2, 105-113 Teuthis jai1·us ______132 Spotted eagle ray______117 Texture ______grunt______104 113 •11herapon spp __ ------.129 Sprat______30 Theraponid .. ______Squid ______45 129 canning ______97-99 Thermometer, definition ______138 Threadfin ______drying______45 121 Thres.dfish ____ .. ______124 Stale fish, criteria______62-63 Steaks______10 Tilarin nang parisukat (dice), definition ______--~------137 138 Stearn, definition______Tinabal (salted fish) ______27 Steamed sardines______71 Tinapa (smoked sardines) ______52-53 Sticks______11 Tomato sauce______100 Sting ray______116 Tonno (tuna in oil) ______85 Stock, definition______138 · Torcillo (barracuda) ______121 Stolephorus !!PP- ___ ------118 Tough texture______113 Storing and transporting ______62-63 TracMnocephalus myops ______119 Striped barracuda______121 Transporting and storing______62-63 mackerel______114 Trepang (sea cucumbers)______44 Stromateus niger ______122 Trichiurus haumela ___ _.. _.. _____ .. 122 Suka (vinegar), definition ______138 Tuabak (herring) ______118 Sunog (flathead) ______132 Tuakang (anchovy)______118 Suogan (gizzard shad) ______118 Tuguo (brine), definition______137 Surgeon fish ______132 Tulingan (bonito and tuna)______115 Swarn p eeL ______119 ba.goong (salted fish)____ 28

148 INDEX Page u Tulis (herring)______114 Page Tuna _____ 15,21, 102, 104, 114-115, 122 Upeneoidea s-µlphureus______130 and rice______88 brine-packed______85 v canning .. ______81-88 Variola louti ______------125 garlic-flavored______85 Volume, table______133 hash______88 Vinegar-(suka), definition ____ ··--- 138 home-canned ______85-87 Visayan Sea______114 paste ______87-88 Viscera. ______.. _ _ _ _ _ 21 precooked pack------··- - 86-87 w raw pack______86 Wahoo______104 smoked______87 Watery pack______112 ~ticks______45 Weight, table ______------133 Tunsoy (herring)______114, 118 Whiting______131 Turay (sardine) ______------114 Turbot, Indian ______------120 XYZ Tuyuin (dehydrate), definition___ 137 Yellowfin tuna ______114, 122 Tyloaurus SPP------120 Zambales______115 0

149