Tiles in a multilingual mosaic Macedonian, Filipino and Somali in Melbourne Pacific Linguistics 578 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: John Bowden, Malcolm Ross and Darrell Tryon (Managing Editors), I Wayan Arka, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Lillian Huang, National Taiwan Normal Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne University Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Studies Jaya Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- Harold Koch, The Australian National Universität Mainz University Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of David Bradley, La Trobe University Auckland Lyle Campbell, University of Utah John Lynch, University of the South Pacific James Collins, Universiti Kebangsaan Patrick McConvell, Australian Institute of Malaysia Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Studies Evolutionary Anthropology William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Universitas Atma Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts- Jaya Universität zu Kiel Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la at Buffalo Recherche Scientifique Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- at Arlington Universität Frankfurt am Main Nicholas Evans, University of Melbourne Ger Reesink, Universiteit Leiden Margaret Florey, Monash University Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i William Foley, University of Sydney Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la Karl Franklin, Summer Institute of Recherche Scientifique Linguistics Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Charles Grimes, Universitas Kristen Artha Auckland Wacana Kupang Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Nikolaus Himmelmann, Ruhr-Universität John Wolff, Cornell University Bochum Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica Tiles in a multilingual mosaic Macedonian, Filipino and Somali in Melbourne MICHAEL CLYNE AND SANDRA KIPP Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2006 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Michael Clyne, 1939– . Tiles in a multilingual mosaic: Macedonian, Filipino and Somali in Melbourne Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN 0 85883 569 X 1. Multilingualism – Victoria - Melbourne. 2. Language and languages – Variation. 3. Linguistic minorities – Victoria – Melbourne. 4. Victoria – Emigration and immigration. 5. Victoria – Languages. I. Kipp, Sandra J. II. The Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Pacific Linguistics. III. Title. 409.9451 Typeset by Jeanette Coombes Cover design by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd Printed and bound by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd, Fyshwick, Canberra Table of contents List of tables and figures viii Acknowledgements x Chapter 1: The context 1 1.1 The three languages 2 1.2 Australia’s immigration program — changing policies and increasing diversity 5 1.3 Australia’s language policy and its impact on languages of more limited communication 9 1.4 Australia’s and Melbourne’s language demography (including differential language shift) 12 1.5 Models and factors of language maintenance and shift and their applicability to the languages under consideration, in the Australian context 14 1.6 Methodology 18 1.7 Concluding remarks 20 Chapter 2: Macedonian 21 2.1 History of the Macedonian language 21 2.2 Macedonian in Australia 24 2.2.1 The ‘renaming’ of the language in Victoria 27 2.3 Language maintenance institutions in Melbourne 30 2.4 The sample 30 2.5 Findings 31 2.5.1 Perception of Macedonian language maintenance in Melbourne 31 2.5.2 Does one country-of-origin group maintain the language better than the other? 33 2.5.3 Proficiency in Macedonian 33 2.5.3.1 Reading and writing in Macedonian 34 2.5.4 Proficiency in English 35 v vi 2.5.5 Language use 35 2.5.5.1 Language use in the home 35 2.5.5.2 Language use outside the home 37 2.5.6 Networking between the two groups 39 2.5.7 The role of the church 39 2.5.8 Attitudes to bilingualism, ethnic identity and language 42 2.5.9 Family structures, core values, and motivation for language maintenance 43 2.5.10 Perceptions of support for Macedonian 46 2.5.11 Language and the media 48 2.5.12 Language, multiple identity and transethnicisation 49 2.6 Concluding remarks 52 Chapter 3: Somali 53 3.1 History of the Somali language 53 3.1.1 Regional variation 53 3.1.2 The process of codification 55 3.1.2.1 Script 56 3.1.2.2 Status planning and terminology development 56 3.1.3 A note on diversity 57 3.2 Somali in Australia 58 3.3 Language maintenance institutions in Melbourne 59 3.4 The sample 59 3.5 Findings 60 3.5.1 The family case studies 60 3.5.1.1 Family A (Maxaad tiri speaking, living in the north-eastern metropolitan region) 60 3.5.1.2 Family B ((Maxaad tiri speaking, living in the inner city) 61 3.5.1.3 Family C (May speaking, living in the northern metropolitan region) 62 3.5.1.4 Family D (multigenerational family) (May speaking, living in the north-western metropolitan region) 63 3.5.1.5 Family E (May speaking, living in the northern metropolitan region) 64 3.5.1.6 Family F (Maxaad tiri speaking, living in the western metropolitan region) 65 3.5.1.7 Family G (Maxaad tiri speaking, living in the inner city) 65 3.5.1.8 Family H (Maxaad tiri speaking, living in the northern metropolitan region) 66 vii 3.5.1.9 Family I (single parent family) (Maxaad tiri speaking, living in the inner city) 67 3.5.1.10 Family J (May speaking, living in the northern metropolitan region) 68 3.5.1.11 Some comments on the case studies 68 3.5.2 Findings from the focus groups and surveys 69 3.5.2.1 Perceptions of what constitutes ‘Somali’ 69 3.5.2.2 Language, ethnicity and identity 70 3.5.2.3 Perception of intra-community support for Somali 71 3.5.2.4 Perceptions of language maintenance and transmission 72 3.5.2.5 Perceived language proficiency 73 3.5.2.6 Language use 75 3.5.2.7 Language, religion and identity 78 3.5.2.8 Language and media 81 3.5.2.9 Factors in motivation for language maintenance 83 3.5.2.10 Perception of support beyond the Somali-speaking community 84 3.6 Concluding remarks 84 Chapter 4: Filipino 86 4.1 History of the Filipino language 86 4.2 Filipino in Australia 88 4.3 Language maintenance institutions in Melbourne 91 4.4 The sample 91 4.5 Findings 92 4.5.1 Family structures 92 4.5.2 Language use 93 4.5.2.1 Language use in the home 94 4.5.2.2 Language use outside the home 96 4.5.3 Language proficiency 96 4.5.4 Language and media 97 4.5.5 Attitudes to bilingualism, ethnic identity and the place of language in ethnic identity 98 4.5.6 Motivation to maintain Filipino 99 4.5.7 Core values 100 4.5.8 Perception of support for Filipino 100 4.6 Concluding remarks 101 viii Chapter 5: Dimensions of community languages 103 5.1 Introduction 103 5.2 The larger mosaic 103 5.3 The depth studies (survey, focus groups) 104 5.3.1 Home language by language group 104 5.3.2 Proficiency in the community language 106 5.3.3 Language for social purposes 109 5.3.4 Media use 110 5.3.5 Attitudes towards bilingualism, ethnicity and language 111 5.4 Models of language maintenance revisited 113 5.4.1 Factors promoting language maintenance 114 5.4.1.1 Settlement concentration 114 5.4.1.2 Vintage/Old and new languages and language maintenance/refugee status 117 5.4.1.3 Low level of proficiency in English (and lack of pre-migration experience with English) 118 5.4.1.4 Core values 118 5.4.1.5 Pre-migration experience with language maintenance 119 5.4.1.6 ‘Distance’ as a factor — clear-cut or ambivalent? 119 5.4.2 Factors promoting language shift, and factors with potentially ambivalent effect 123 5.4.2.1 Family structures (specifically a high level of exogamy and/or limited access to grandparent generation) 123 5.4.2.2 Small size of group 125 5.4.2.3 Attitude of dominant community 125 5.4.2.4 Literacy issues 126 5.5 Degree of disruption 128 5.6 Cost benefits, generation gap and language maintenance 131 5.7 Homogeneity and heterogeneity 132 5.8 ‘Marginality’ 133 5.9 What these three languages can contribute to an understanding of language contact 136 References 138 Index of authors 145 Index of subjects 147 ix Tables and figures Chapter 1 Table 1.1: Proportion of immigrants per category, 1992–2000 7 Table 1.2: Source of immigrants, 1995–2000 (Australian Bureau of Statistics) 7 Table 1.3: Top 10 community languages in Australia, 2001 13 Table 1.4: Top 10 community languages in Melbourne and Sydney, 2001 13 Table