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Countering Violent Extremism in a Multicultural City COUNTERING VIOLENT EXTREMISM IN A MULTICULTURAL CITY: FROM NATIONAL SECURITY TO LOCAL IMPLEMENTATION IN MELBOURNE, AUSTRALIA by ELANNA LOUISE NOLAN B.A. (Hons.), The University of Melbourne, 2008 M.U.P., The University of Melbourne, 2010 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Geography) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) September 2019 ©Elanna Louise Nolan, 2019 The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the dissertation entitled: Countering Violent Extremism in a Multicultural City: From national security to local implementation in Melbourne, Australia submitted by Elanna Nolan in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography Examining Committee: Daniel Hiebert, Geography Supervisor David Ley, Geography Supervisory Committee Member Jamie Peck, Geography University Examiner Brian Job, Political Science University Examiner Additional Supervisory Committee Members: Sara Thompson, Criminology Supervisory Committee Member Kurt Iveson, Geography Supervisory Committee Member ii Abstract Since the events of 9/11, counter-terrorism has been a top priority for governments around the world. Concern over “homegrown” or domestic terrorism has led many governments to consider community engagement as fundamental to counter-terrorism and national security policy. Preventative frameworks are now commonplace. “Soft” approaches to counter violent extremism (CVE) rely on community-based models to tackle the underlying causes of violent radicalisation. Counter-terrorism and CVE programs have been seen to disproportionately target Muslim youth, typically seeking to address disenfranchisement, alienation and social exclusion as factors contributing to trajectories of radicalisation to violent extremism. Critics have described a national security paradox, in which soft security measures have “securitised” integration, social cohesion, and multicultural policies and programs. Implicit to the examination of national security policy in a multicultural setting are the scalar dynamics that shape how national policies are translated and implemented. By adopting an approach that cuts across multiple scales, it becomes clear that when paradoxical national security policies are ported to the local scale, significant negative consequences can follow. Under Australian national security policy and rhetoric, Muslim communities have been targeted, anti-Muslim sentiment and suspicion of Muslims has been endorsed, and belonging and access to welfare services rendered conditional upon selF-identification as “at risk” of radicalisation. This dissertation is motivated by a pressing central question: what is at stake when social policy is predicated on fear? Drawing on semi-structured interviews with state and local government workers and extended participant observation in a Melbourne local government this dissertation uncovers how policy practitioners negotiate two potentially conflicting objectives— multiculturalism and national security policy. The extended case study highlights capacities at state and local levels to mitigate the detrimental effects of hostile national security rhetoric, policy contradictions, and the stigmatising effects of participation associated with CVE. This dissertation argues that combining multicultural social policy with a national security agenda risks undermining positive social relations and service delivery for marginalised communities. However, it also highlights the conditions under which local government can afford resistance to the securitisation of Muslims, extend new spaces of belonging, and to promote a meaningful politics of diversity. iii Lay Summary This dissertation seeks to interrogate the relationship between multiculturalism and terrorism prevention. By showing the contradictory ways in which national security and multiculturalism are brought together in Australian policy and rhetoric, it highlights the challenge facing institutions and individuals involved in delivering multicultural service provision alongside terrorism prevention programs. This dissertation argues that combining multicultural social policy with a national security agenda risks undermining positive multicultural social relations and social service delivery for marginalised communities. However, opportunities exist at the state government and local government level to push back against these stigmatising and divisive effects. In particular, this dissertation shows under these conditions local government workers can support marginalised young people to find ways to speak out and be heard on their own terms, to create positive opportunities for multicultural belonging. iv Preface This dissertation is an original intellectual product of the author, Elanna Nolan. The fieldwork reported in Chapters 4-6 was covered by UBC Behavioural Research Ethics Board (BREB) Certificate number H18-01672. Chapter 2 draws substantially on work previously published in Nolan, E., & Hiebert, D. (2014). Social Perspectives on National Security: A review of recent literature. TSAS Working Paper Series 14-10, October 2014. The author contributed the majority of literature search, analysis and writing, supported in an editorial capacity by her supervisor Dr. Daniel Hiebert. Chapter 4 draws on work previously published in Nolan, E. (2016). Teaching CVE: a review of the Preventing Violent Extremism and Radicalisation in Australia handbook, and challenges across policy and practice. TSAS Working Paper Series 16-06, May 2016. v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary ................................................................................................................................ iv Preface ............................................................................................................................................ v Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 One step forward, two steps back ................................................................................... 1 1.2 National security divided: between hard and soft measures ........................................... 3 1.3 Multiculturalism is our best defence? ............................................................................. 6 1.4 National security arrives at the local scale ..................................................................... 9 1.5 Research design and questions ..................................................................................... 11 1.6 Structure of the thesis ................................................................................................... 14 1.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................................. 16 Chapter 2: What We Know So Far: A Review of Existing Literature ......................................... 18 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 18 2.2 Defining terrorism and violent extremism .................................................................... 20 2.3 The “homegrown” threat and the prevention paradigm ............................................... 22 2.4 Tenuous links between social exclusion & violent radicalisation ................................ 23 2.5 Framing security policy in multicultural settings with concepts of social cohesion and community resilience ................................................................................................................ 36 2.6 Major critiques of soft security policy .......................................................................... 44 vi 2.7 Making “suspect communities” .................................................................................... 59 2.8 Unintended impacts and negative effects ..................................................................... 62 2.9 Conclusions: Escaping the prevention paradox? .......................................................... 64 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 68 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 68 3.2 Research sites and design, by opportunities and constraints ........................................ 69 3.3
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