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Alienation, Discrimination, and Securitization: Legal Personhood and Cultural Personhood of Muslims in Myanmar

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Alienation, Discrimination, and Securitization: Legal Personhood and Cultural Personhood of Muslims in Myanmar The Review of Faith & International Affairs ISSN: 1557-0274 (Print) 1931-7743 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rfia20 Alienation, Discrimination, and Securitization: Legal Personhood and Cultural Personhood of Muslims in Myanmar Nyi Nyi Kyaw To cite this article: Nyi Nyi Kyaw (2015) Alienation, Discrimination, and Securitization: Legal Personhood and Cultural Personhood of Muslims in Myanmar, The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 13:4, 50-59, DOI: 10.1080/15570274.2015.1104971 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2015.1104971 Published online: 15 Dec 2015. Submit your article to this journal View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rfia20 Download by: [UNSW Library] Date: 15 December 2015, At: 17:37 ALIENATION, DISCRIMINATION, AND SECURITIZATION: LEGAL PERSONHOOD AND CULTURAL PERSONHOOD OF MUSLIMS IN MYANMAR By Nyi Nyi Kyaw ince 2010 Myanmar has undergone a disturbance that resulted in the death of a series of significant political and social Buddhist man and a Muslim man and damage to reforms initiated by the U Thein Sein Muslim properties, including a cemetery. administration. Largely unexpected under However, the impact of the violence is still felt by Sthe shadow of the notoriously repressive rule of Muslims in Myanmar. During and after the the preceding government, the reforms quickly violent episodes, many Myanmar Buddhists garnered praise from the international raised issues of naing-ngan-tha (citizenship) and community. However, commentators and taing-yin-tha (indigenous or national identity) activists inside and outside of Myanmar also and questioned whether Muslims truly belong in raised questions about the genuineness of the Myanmar culture. Downloaded by [UNSW Library] at 17:37 15 December 2015 reforms. Of course, a challenging transition was The Rohingya are the only group whose to be expected, based on the experiences of other citizenship in Myanmar is still unresolved and countries that have undertaken similar transitions contested by the Myanmar government and from autocracy to democracy. people. Their ethnonym “Rohingya” itself has Myanmar has indeed faced a series of conflicts not been accepted either. However, a large —especially conflicts that have pitted Buddhists number of other non-Rohingya Muslims who are against Muslims. Those conflicts, which are citizens also face increasing questions of widely characterized within Myanmar as sectarian or intercommunal, were in fact clearly anti- Muslim. The country has seen a surge of anti- Nyi Nyi Kyaw has recently completed and submitted his PhD thesis Muslim hate messages or demonization of to the University of New South Wales in Canberra, Australia. Apart Muslims. It is worth noting that incidents of anti- from his doctoral research on the causes of the plight of the Muslim violence have not occurred since July Rohingya in Myanmar, he has also worked on anti-Muslim violence, 2014, when Mandalay was rocked by a Buddhist nationalism, the 969/Ma-Ba-Tha movement, Muslim identity, and religious freedom in Myanmar. 50 | volume 13, number 4 (winter 2015) © 2015 Institute for Global Engagement nyi nyi kyaw belonging. All of these questions, which are often Matthews (1995) notes that some Muslim leaders raised in an emotive way, are about Muslim claim that the Myanmar Muslim population is identity in predominantly Buddhist Myanmar. largely underestimated and may even be as high as Such trends represent a serious threat to the 13 percent. In a country such as Myanmar, where equality of all citizens regardless of race, origin, religious demography is a highly sensitive issue, it religion, sex, etc., as enshrined by all three of the is not wrong to suspect that the government’s constitutions that Myanmar has adopted since figure is an underestimation. But even if we independence. accept the government figure, a two-million- In this article, I first describe the Myanmar strong community is not insignificant. Rohingyas Muslim mosaic, critiquing the conventional constitute around half of the total Muslim categorization of Muslims and highlighting the population in Myanmar. Apart from Rakhine complexity behind such categorization. Second, I State, there are large Muslim communities across look at the texts that seemingly ensconce legal Myanmar, especially in cities like Yangon, egalitarianism in the three constitutions of Mandalay, and Mawlamyine. Myanmar, and then I discuss how the 1982 Myanmar’s Muslims have been Citizenship Law has nonetheless effectively conventionally divided into various ethnic undermined legal equality of all citizens. Third, I groups. However, this division is based upon the survey and analyze the two cultural concepts of now outmoded colonial-era method of ethnic and kala and eh-the, which have tended to exclude and racial classification, which was also derived from alienate Muslims. Fourth, I trace the emergence the census-making methods employed in British of the perceived Muslim threat. Fifth and finally, India. This categorization system is now largely I offer some concluding reflections. irrelevant because Myanmar Muslims are now taken as a more or less homogeneous group by the Who are Muslims in Myanmar? Myanmar Buddhist majority and government. Social surveys have never been conducted in Myanmar’s Muslims are traditionally Myanmar to assess demographics and socio- grouped into Indian or South Asian Muslims of economics of its Muslim community. Even various sorts such as Tamil-speaking Cholia Yegar’s(1972) authoritative study of the story of Muslims, Urdu-speaking Soorthis and Memons, Myanmar’s Muslims was not based upon surveys Bengali-speaking Bengalis; Bamar Muslims who or similar research. The government has delayed have converted to Islam and are found in middle the release of the 2014 census data on religious Myanmar; mixed-blooded Muslims or Zerbadees demography, most likely because of the extreme who are usually the children of Indian/South sensitivity of the Muslim issue. Therefore, the Asian Muslim fathers and Bamar Buddhist religious demographic data provided in the women and are mainly found in middle previous census, conducted in 1983, remain the Myanmar; the Panthay or Yunnanese Chinese Downloaded by [UNSW Library] at 17:37 15 December 2015 only available data on Muslims of Myanmar. The Muslims usually found in Mandalay and Shan census found out that 3.9 percent of the total State; the Pashu or Malay Muslims concentrated population in 1983 was Muslim, 3.8 percent in Southern Myanmar; the Rohingya in being Sunni Muslims and the rest Shiites Northern Rakhine State; and the Kaman who (Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs 1986). also live in Rakhine State (Khin Maung Yin Relying on this data, successive Myanmar 2005; Lambrecht 2006; Yegar 1972, 1982). On governments and the international community the face of it, this categorization seems to possess have estimated that Muslims constitute around 4 anthropological merits, but so-called percent of the total population. anthropological knowledge based on ethnography According to the 2014 census, the population mainly conducted by British colonialists has been of Myanmar stood at 51,486,253 (Ministry of questioned and critiqued by post-colonial Immigration and Population 2015). If we assume scholars. Moreover, the method, which is drawn that the 4 percent figure remains unchanged, from the censuses taken in colonial Burma, is Myanmar now has at least two million Muslims. based not upon noticeable racial characteristics the review of faith & international affairs | 51 alienation, discrimination, and securitization among those groups but upon language, again at then edited, re-imagined, and accepted as such by the behest of British census makers/takers. the military governments of Myanmar. Various authors have criticized the continued use The Ministry of Immigration and Population of this outmoded method by the Myanmar (MIP) classifies most Muslims as one of the three government (Steinberg 2006; Taylor 2015; mixed-blooded groups such as half-, one-third-, Turner 2014). Moreover, most of those Muslims one-fourth-, etc., -Indians, -Pakistanis, or of Myanmar now speak Burmese as their mother -Bengali/Bangladeshis, implying that most, if not tongue so the colonial-era method does not seem all, of them have South Asian ancestry or origin. a reasonable one in classifying them. Interesting racial combinations and/or Because there is a sheer dearth of permutations have been created by MIP in contemporary anthropological research on the issuing citizenship scrutiny cards (CSC or Myanmar Muslim community—and its identity national ID) to Muslims. For example, a CSC is contested mainly in legal terms and in cultural held by a Muslim in Mandalay has Indian- notions as well—it makes more sense today to Pakistani-Bamar although India and Pakistan distinguish Myanmar Muslims into three groups: denoted the same geographical entity in the late government-recognized taing-yin-tha Muslims nineteenth and early twentieth centuries when (now the 50,000–100,000 strong Kaman alone); Myanmar received migrants from then British non-taing-yin-tha groups who are accepted as India. Likewise, another Muslim who was born in citizens (Indian/South Asian Muslims, Panthay, the Ayeyarwady Delta has Indian-Bengali-Bamar Pashu, Zerbadees, Myedu, etc., whose respective on his CSC. One extreme example is found in a numbers are not known); and problematic groups
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