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Home , Deba Prasad Das, Indrani Rahman, Lachhu Maharaj, Mayadhar Raut, Pankaj Charan Das, Rukmini Devi Arundale

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espite considerable material progress, they have had to dispense with many aspects of the the world still views as an glorious tradition that had been built up over several ancient land steeped in spirituality, centuries. The arrival of the Western proscenium stage with a culture that stretches back to in India and the setting up of modern auditoria altered a hoary, unfathomable past. Indians, the landscape of the performing arts so radically that too, subscribe to this glorification of all forms had to revamp their presentation protocols to its timelessness and have been encouraged, especially survive. The stone or tiled floor of temples and palaces Din the last few years, to take an obsessive pride in this was, for instance, replaced by the wooden floor of tryst with eternity. Thus, we can hardly be faulted in the proscenium stage, and those that had an element subscribing to very marketable propositions, like the of cushioning gave an ‘extra bounce’, which dancers one that claims our classical dance forms represent learnt to utilise. Dancers also had to reorient their steps an unbroken tradition for several millennia and all of and postures as their audience was no more seated all them go back to the venerable sage, Bharata Muni, who around them, as in temples or palaces of the past, but in composed Natyashastra. No one, however, is sure when front, in much larger numbers than ever before. Similarly, he lived or wrote this treatise on dance and theatre. while microphones and better acoustics management, Estimates range from 500 BC to 500 AD, which is a coupled with new lighting technologies, did help rather long stretch of time, though pragmatists often classical music and dance a lot, they also demanded re- settle for a shorter time band, 200 BC to 200 AD. This harmonisation with the new paradigm. While classical is approximately when the Mahabharata and forms transcended the limitations of performing only were also composed. While linking current traditions before a small elite, the new democratic viewers brought with the oldest dates possible surely confers more awe different tastes and preferences into the halls. and respect upon , it will become increasingly clear that this may not be accurate. In this Politically speaking article, as we navigate through the dance traditions As India moved towards Independence, it was we celebrate today, we realise that what we see now is imperative to present or foist a ‘national culture and really not what was performed centuries ago. tradition’ and it was also realised that a federal cultural conglomerate like ours would need to project a multi- A new stage, a new audience ethnic, multi-dimensional one, rather than have just one The very term “classical” denotes that it was meant for ‘national dance’ or one national music, theatre or even a limited class of connoisseurs or rasikas. So, a question food. The pre-colonial glory of India, that had been that often arises is how large or limited were the earlier slighted and belittled by the British, was now brought ‘classy’ audiences of ancient and medieval classical out of the archives and the past, real or imagined, sought dance. To find a possible answer, I managed to obtain the to be resuscitated, re-energised and relived. At this floor-space measurements of themandapas attached to stage, let us try to locate when exactly the processes of the more important temples that were under the care of ‘modernisation’ began and when these classical forms the Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India. were ‘democratised’ enough for the people of India to This data revealed that the public halls of the temples claim ‘ownership’ of their traditional culture. The answer How Modern were usually quite small, relatively speaking. Except we find after examining the history of many important the two massive Brihadeeshwarar temples at Thanjavur forms of Indian classical dance is interesting, as and Gangaikonda Cholapuram that were endowed with everything seems to hover around mainly one decade, very large public spaces, the rest had limited areas for the 1930s. This is when most of them underwent a lot India dance and music. The space for performances in the of ‘reinvention’ and considerable overhauling, and also mandapas in the latter category was in the range of when the face-off between the past and the future 200 to 400 square feet, while some went up to 650 was the most pronounced. Those classical dances that Reinvented square feet. They could, thus, accommodate only small missed the bus in this brilliant decade appear to have audiences of some 30 to 40 persons, or at best, seat a been taken up for resuscitation and repackaging in maximum of 80 or so. Therefore, if these performing arts the next , in the 1950s. But the undeniable fact Classical had not been liberated from the confines of the temple is that Indians had a plenitude of reasonably ancient or the palace or the kothi-haveli, they would have never cultural traditions in many different regions, that had been democratised and thus viewed and appreciated been cultivated and nurtured over centuries. As these by large numbers, unprecedented in the history of India. could easily be woven into a new cultural tapestry, India Dance Like all ancient institutions, Indian classical dance did not, therefore, need to conjure and ‘manufacture’ In the first of a two-part series, eminent forms also suffered from the vicissitudes of time. Many culture – like the Disney characters of America or the public intellectual Jawhar Sircar takes a of them underwent long periods of ‘breaks’ when these ‘Bush Ballads’ and Crocodile Dundee of Australia. traditions received no patronage, when political fortunes India’s first Prime Minister, , took look at the evolution of ancient Indian fell. At times, several dances were even banned by the special care to rebuild modern India on the strong dance forms that accentuated classical colonial government. The point is that the classical forms foundations of the past, and he was also personally traditions while also reconditioning them we see nowadays represent an unbroken continuity in involved in setting up the three national academies neither form nor substance – they have had to move a for art, literature and the performing arts. The last of for modern India. lot from the past and undergo fundamental changes, these, the , which was meant

to adjust with the times and technology. Consequently, for music, dance and theatre, was set up in 1952, and SHUTTERSTOCK

24 • October 2019 NCPA NCPA April 2020 • 39 An dancer at the Brahmesvara Temple in

its task appeared to be classical dances, ready and cut out for The classical [dance] forms we see irrespective of region. it. Those ancient forms nowadays represent an unbroken It is the phenomenon of classical dance that of how a new class of had already begun their continuity in neither form nor performers, usually new life from the 1930s from upper economic were waiting for a much- substance – they have had to undergo strata and castes, required boost from fundamental changes to adjust with took these dances out the new government in from the monopolistic India. As for the other the times and technology possession of their age- classical dances, like old custodians. The latter Odissi, that had not yet been resuscitated by consisted of temple dancers, the ‘mistresses the time the country attained Independence, actually of the Lord’ as these traditional dasi attam practitioners needed more help and national ‘recognition’. The first were called, or court dancers who had kept the flame National Seminar of Dance was held in burning, often under adverse circumstances. Many in 1958, amidst a lot of hope, as the most pioneering of the forms associated with temple and and historic step that was taken to make sense of the palace tawaifs carried the dichotomous distinction of complex diversity of varied forms of classical dance in being ‘classy, highly skilled arts’ and, at the same time, different regions of India. of Andhra Pradesh, being branded as sensual and loose. We could view the for instance, made its pitch for being given recognition process of modernisation of form and technique and the but felt slighted at not being given appropriate status. accompanying sanitisation of public repute that began in It was confirmed at this seminar that India was literally the 1930s with as a sort of ‘Brahmanical sitting on a gold mine of incredibly rich ancient dance appropriation’. In most cases, the new dancers from the forms that had survived several centuries, with or upper strata overshadowed the older hereditary class without breaks. What it needed most was revival to of performers, while the latter usually stepped back and the extent possible and also serious ‘packaging’ for faded away. There were, of course, brilliant exceptions modern audiences, both in India and abroad. This was like Tanjore of origins, who achieved by redesigning costumes, and reconstructing became a world-class Bharatanatyam performer, the grammar of dance, as also by using new techniques. loved and adored by the public. In a way, therefore, Shortening performance time for recitals was critical as she was the dance-counterpart of M.S. Subbulakshmi, contemporary audiences were strapped for time, unlike the nightingale of Carnatic music, who was also the the leisurely rich of yesteryears. Almost all classical daughter of a devadasi. Both of them more than made up dance forms were, therefore, compelled to innovate for the ignominy and exploitation that their matrilineal and deviate to some extent from Shastric or Marga ancestors had suffered, over centuries. mandates. They had to attract and hold back present- day audiences, who had many more attractive cultural Jawhar Sircar, a public intellectual, writer and speaker, expressions and entertainment to choose from. has served as India’s longest-tenured Culture Secretary We cannot proceed further without referring to a and was also CEO of Prasar Bharati (Akashvani & feature that appeared quite common among several Doordarshan).

40 • April 2020 NCPA ESSAY The Dance Renaissance In the final part of a two-part series, eminent public intellectual Jawhar Sircar writes a sweeping history of the renewal and revival of each of the eight classical dance forms of India.

ow that we have analysed the basic theme, we may take a look at individual classical dance forms, beginning with Bharatanatyam, a form that was completely overhauled in the 1930s. The 30th of December, 1935, is a landmark date in its history, as it is on this day that a very Ndaring 31-year-old Brahmin girl, , created a stir by taking head-on the issues connected to Bharatanatyam. The elite in Madras was agog with the news that this young lady of high social standing was actually going to perform the dance of the low sadirs, but when Rukmini Devi started walking up to the stage at the Adyar Theatre before an amazed audience, the social leaders from her own Brahmin community of Madras staged a walkout in sheer disgust. Rukmini Devi, who had dared to marry a Christian, learnt Western dance from when she had gone to Europe with her husband. After returning to India, she took the trouble to learn Bharatanatyam from a renowned traditional devadasi dancer and her shattering of tradition added a lot of fuel to a raging controversy around the very existence of Bharatanatyam. As a temple dance based on the institution of devadasis, it was under attack by the British, as a grossly immoral system. An ‘Anti-Nautch Movement’ was inspired by Christian missionaries and moralistic Europeans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries not only in Madras but

in Odisha and several parts of India. SHUTTERSTOCK

32 • May 2020 NCPA Rebel redeemers forms, but she is better known for popularising We come across accounts of high-minded activists, , which, incidentally, was not held as like one prudish Miss Tennant, who were fighting disreputable, and Kuchipudi. against “wicked forms of dance” and in 1910, they Since we mentioned Vallathol, we may as well managed to have a partial ban imposed on dances touch upon the other dance form he retrieved held in temples. In 1927, the Viceroy’s Council of and ‘modernised’ — also in the 1930s. We refer State in Delhi seriously deliberated on a motion to Kerala’s Mohiniattam, that adheres to the to tackle the evils associated with the devadasi Lasya type, a more graceful and feminine form of system itself and licentious dances. The debate dancing. We come across Mohiniattam poses in that affected Rukmini Devi in Madras was triggered the sculptures at the 11th-century Vishnu temple at by Dr. , an activist legislator Thrikkodithanam, and the Kidangoor Subramanya who was the daughter of a devadasi. She was temple. We get the first direct reference to it in the determined to end this age-old system of dedicating 16th-century legal text called Vyavaharamala, and girls to temples, for dance as well as for physical we know that the normative structure of this dance exploitation. Ranged on the other side were people form was finalised in the 18th century. But as it was like E. Krishna , a Brahmin rasika or connoisseur associated with sensuality and sexual exploitation, of Bharatanatyam, who demanded that this the British banned it in the 1930s. This led to greater exquisite, ancient dance form be preserved, while public awareness in Travancore-Cochin and also to the controversial institution of devadasis could be protests led by the iconic Vallathol, to revive this dumped. He obtained the support of the Congress traditional dance of Kerala, by purging undesirable and organised the first All India Music Conference elements. Consequently, the prohibition was partially in Madras in 1927, which led to the founding of relaxed in 1940. As mentioned, he established the the iconic Madras Music Academy in 1928. On her Kalamandalam as the centre from which Mohiniattam part, Reddy had persuaded the Madras Legislative and Kathakali was spread all over. Among other Council to pass a stern resolution against “this stalwarts who pioneered the revival of Mohiniattam social evil”, and in 1930, she moved a Bill to abolish in the middle and late decades of the 20th century the devadasi system altogether. This was, however, were Mukundraja, Krishna Panicker, Thankamony, opposed by many like Iyer, and even by quite a few as well as the and dancer Kalamandalam devadasis, who claimed they were highly acclaimed Kalyanikutty Amma. As in most other age-old dance artistes of an ancient cultural form and certainly forms, we note that in Mohiniattam also, quite a bit not the vulnerable prostitutes that the Bill made of repackaging began in the 1930s, once a new them out to be. Incidentally, it was only in 1947, that class that was socially and economically superior to the Devadasi Abolition Bill was finally approved in the customary practitioners entered the arena and Madras, by a Congress government. ‘sanitised’ this dance. When discussing Rukmini Devi, we must mention We now return to Ragini Devi to recall her another pioneering dancer, an American lady, Esther contribution to another form of classical dance of Sherman, who stormed the world of Indian classical the south, Kuchipudi. This dance-drama category dance even before Rukmini Devi did. Sherman, originated from a village in the Krishna district of who declared herself to be ‘reborn’ as Ragini Devi, Andhra Pradesh and Ragini Devi claimed that this had arrived in India in the early 1930s, to learn name is derived from the word ‘Kusilava- and propagate South Indian classical dances. We puram’ or “the village of actors”. Like other classical place her name after Rukmini Devi’s because the dances, it invokes the Natyashastra for its inspiration chronology of her mission and important dates and presentation techniques, from postures and are a bit hazy, but also because Rukmini Devi’s gestures to bhava, rasa, steps and other dance impact on a single dance form in Madras was really methods. The older, original version of Kuchipudi astounding, while Ragini moved from form to form is mentioned in copper plate inscriptions of the and all over India, Europe and America. We know 10th century, and then it is referred to in texts in that in America, she had published a book on Indian the 15th century, but it was only in the 17th century dance in 1930 and that she had tried to absorb, quite that a monk named Tirtha Narayanayati and his voraciously, the skills of Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, disciple, Siddhendra Yogi, rebuilt the dance form Mohiniattam and Kuchipudi. Ragini also gave in its modern avatar. It was always a dance-drama public performances in many parts of India in order performed only by Brahmin males, even where to revive these forms and helped to re-package female roles were concerned. Despite some support them, while bestowing greater respectability on a from the Qutb Shahis, the rulers of Golconda, the vocation that was not viewed favourably. She met form languished from the 17th century and the Vallathol Narayana Menon, the legendary Malayali British colonial Raj’s distaste for Indian dances poet and social activist. He had founded Kerala and its frequent clampdowns only worsened the Kalamandalam in Thrissur in 1930 and Ragini sought situation. From the 1930s, revivalists like Vedantam his blessings. The high-water mark of her career Lakshminarayana Sastri, Vempati Venkatanarayana was when she danced in partnership with the great Sastri and Chinta Venkataramayya started retrieving Kathakali dancer, Guru Gopinath. Ragini tried many the situation from the 1930s, by re-codifying the

NCPA May 2020 • 33 form, permitting women into it and taking advantage Coming to Odissi, we find that though it was of modern techniques. This is an interesting case of surely among the oldest forms of classical dances de-Brahminisation of the dance form and adding and is the only one that is depicted in bas relief doses of sensuality by women instead of the other sculptures in the pre-Christian era, it was sadly way round. In fact, female dancers like Ragini Devi, languishing from the late 19th century till the her daughter , and actress Hema middle of the 20th century. As we have mentioned, Malini would eventually bring worldwide fame to women temple dancers were equated with public it, as did iconic couples like Raja-Radha Reddy, the prostitution and several restrictions were imposed Dhananjayans and the Narasimhacharis. on them by the British. Consequently, the traditional mahari dancers at and elsewhere were held in Generational guardians disrepute, despite the intricate skills and aesthetics Moving to north India, we discover that Kathak that they had evolved and preserved for several had the privileged history of being popularised centuries. Protests against the colonial ban arose in at the national and international level by males of the middle of the 20th century and it was decried the Maharaj (Mishra) clan of . This runs as cultural discrimination against the Hindus. But counter to the picture in the public mind of it being progress to reform Odissi was slow and it was only associated with seductive courtesans, and we may after the British left in 1947, could pioneering recall that even the British were entertained by these get into the act. Among the latter were worthies like ‘nautch girls’ from the earliest days of their arrival. , , Gangadhar This is, of course, not to say that women did not play Pradhan, and a major role here. They did, but where the revival who could finally revive Odissi. In fact, Laxmipriya and reorganisation of this Mohapatra did to Odissi in 1948 dance form in the 20th what Rukmini Devi had done century is concerned, to Bharatanatyam in 1935, by none can deny the Where the revival performing a dance recital, greatest contribution that an Odissi abhinaya, in the was made by the Maharaj and reorganisation of Annapurna Theatre in Cuttack. family. Though this clan Kathak in the 20th In the 1950s, a disciple of of Kathak specialists had Kelucharan, , entered the palaces of century is concerned, was among the earliest to Awadh with this dance in none can deny the popularise modern Odissi the latter part of the 19th in India and abroad, while a century, it was actually great contribution decade later, in the mid-’60s, its third generation that was made by the his noted disciples like Kumkum that really took it out of Mohanty and Sonal Mansingh the traditional habitat Maharaj family stormed the Indian dance and converted it into a world with Odissi. Others like stage-worthy art. The Kasturi Pattanaik followed and two names to remember are enhanced the artistic impact of this form, integrating and Lachhu Maharaj, whose best period was from the two streams, mahari and gotipua dances, that led around the middle of the 20th century. While to modern Odissi. Here again, we find that the upper Shambhu moved to India’s capital, Delhi, to lead the castes of Odisha led by the Karans, Khandayats and new Kathak Kendra and train the first two to three Brahmins, were the ones who created the new wave generations of dancers from respectable, non- of enthusiasm and refinement — while the original traditional families, Lachhu made the film capital discredited performers disappeared. of India, , his base. Besides outstanding stage performances, Lachhu made his mark as a Unusual champions film choreographer who crafted the unforgettable We now travel to Manipur in the north-east of India dance scenes in classic movies — from Mahal to take a look at the seventh form of classical dance in the late 1940s to Mughal-e-Azam and Pakeezah that evolved there, from the 14th or 15th centuries. in the 1960s and early 1970s. Thus, we note that the Though Manipuri claims a Vedic past, it is clear that repackaging of Kathak took place some two decades some components of this dance have surely deep after Bharatanatyam and Kathakali. Nevertheless, it roots in the tribal history of the Meitei, the majority appeared to outshine them not only as the hallmark community. The fact is, however, that much of the of ‘north Indian culture’ but also thanks to the very present-day version goes back to just two centuries, popular Hindi film industry. Interestingly, while well after this kingdom adopted Gaudiya Vaishnavism in many other dance forms, the new upper caste from Bengal as its state religion. Manipuri combines dancers appropriated them from women of lower the ‘great tradition’ of the east and northeast of social strata, and thereafter ‘sanitised’ the dance, the country with the little tradition of its local ‘Lai in Kathak, the leading lights were themselves males Hardoba’ and other pre-Hindu festivals and rituals. from the upper castes, who passed on the skills to The first major intervention to introduce this unique great women dancers. and graceful dance to the world was taken by

34 • May 2020 NCPA Rabindranath Tagore in 1919. India’s Nobel Laureate namghars. Maheshwar Neog formalised the modern had witnessed a dance composition of this school, form of Sattriya, while Rasheswar Saikia Borbayan called Goshtha Lila, in Sylhet that year and was and Maniram Datta Moktar played a big role as well. completely overwhelmed by its inherent grace and Without getting into great details, we find that the subdued delicate movements. He took immediate major tasks in modernising this medieval dance steps to introduce Manipuri dance teaching in were to secularise it by delinking it from religious Santiniketan, his internationally famous cultural spaces, and also to permit women to dance. Besides, institution in Bengal. He invited the finest expert of like other dance forms, Sattriya also had to adapt this dance form of the kingdom to the modern stage, lights of Manipur, Budhimantra and sound. Though it was Singh, to join and a few surely a temple dance, this years later, he induced Naba Manipuri combines form was not associated with Kumar to teach. Later, other the sleaze that marked its celebrated gurus like Senarik the ‘great tradition’ counterpart temple dances, Singh Rajkumar, Nileshwar of the east and where women were used and Mukherji and Atomba Singh exploited. were also invited to teach at northeast of the We have briefly covered Santiniketan. country with the the short history of how all These masters also assisted the major classical dances Tagore to choreograph many little tradition of its of India had to go through of his own dance-dramas, local ‘Lai Hardoba’ different processes of Rabindra Nrittya, where the modernisation some of which mudras, gestures and sublime and other pre-Hindu were common — like moving elegance of Manipuri is so festivals and rituals out of their traditional pronounced. Since Tagore settings. All of them had to took up his initiatives in the re-choreograph their earlier 1920s, his intervention in Indian performances to suit the classical dance actually preceded the modernisation confines of the proscenium stage; adjust to and of older dance traditions of south India, which utilise modern light and sound technologies; and, commenced in the 1930s. Manipuri can thus actually what is more important, shorten the time of their claim to be the first of the classical dances to recitals to suit contemporary audiences. In several undergo systematisation and readjustment to the cases, we have seen how the lotus of classical dance new habitat of halls, lights and sounds in modern rose from muck, while in others, men had to make India. Since there was no opprobrium attached to way for women to enter their preserve. In almost all this religious dance, no sanitisation was required cases, a new class of better-educated professionals and we cannot decipher any planned appropriation from the more solvent upper and middle classes (and by upper castes or non-traditional groups here. But castes) emerged, to lead these forms. Interestingly, Tagore’s encouragement and the support of other many dancers chose to specialise in forms that were critical persons, like the Gaekwad of Baroda, meant not connected to their own regions or states but that its renown soared from the 1920s and 1930s, had developed in other parts of India. This helped and several new practitioners from all parts of India cross-connect Indians of all corners with dances of joined its fold. Bipin Singh took the form to Kolkata their preferences, even if they were at the other end and Mumbai where it became immensely popular. of the vast country, which helped unify the nation. The Jhaveri sisters of the latter city elevated it It also entailed that entrants had to learn not only to new heights, as did Devyani Chalia and Charu the language in which the dance form they chose Mathur. had arisen or was nursed, but also the culture and We now come to Sattriya of Assam, the last of history of the region. the eight original classical dances traditionally It is undeniable that these classical dances have recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi, which all gone through remarkable transformation and received this honour only in 2000. Though this was rigorous modernisation in just a few decades, which much after the first seven forms, its history goes means that they appear considerably different from back at least to the 16th century when Srimanta their original traditions. Independent India needed Sankaradeva popularised it. Sankaradeva found this to reconstruct and reclaim its past and secure for dance, and its one-act plays called Ankiya Nat, to be itself the aristocracy that only antiquity can bestow very effective in spreading his message of love and — so it acquired classical dance, sans the traditional brotherhood and popularising the life of Krishna and practitioners, in most cases. But that is now history. Radha, and he used it as a powerful medium of mass propagation of Vaishnava religion. Like Kuchipudi, it thus started as a religious dance performance only Jawhar Sircar, a public intellectual, writer and of males, mainly the monks, who displayed it at the speaker, has served as India’s longest-tenured sattras or monasteries of Assamese Vaishnavism Culture Secretary and was also CEO of Prasar Bharati or in the public prayer and dance halls called (Akashvani & Doordarshan).

NCPA May 2020 • 35