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The Politics of Civil-Military Relations in Mexico: a Historical and Institutional Approach

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The Politics of Civil-Military Relations in Mexico: a Historical and Institutional Approach The Politics of Civil-Military Relations in Mexico: a Historical and Institutional Approach Jesus Alberto Lopez-Gonzalez This dissertation is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The London School of Economics and Political Science Government Department October 2008 UMI Number: U613415 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U613415 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ivtescs c <\Oll Library a^ U & rary of Politics ^feenoffHc Science W\S \°l 2. Declaration I declare that this thesis is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except where specifically indicated in the text. Jesus Alberto Lopez-Gonzalez Date: October 18, 2008 2 Abstract Since the late 19th Century, the military in Mexico has been an important instrument of the executive branch of government to maintain political stability. In the 1880s, President Porfirio Diaz created the basis of a system of civil-military relations based on Presidential control (as opposed to civilian control). Since then, the Mexican armed forces have developed a unique bond with the President, remaining accountable and exclusively subordinated to this branch of power and no one else. Despite the Mexican Revolution in the first quarter of the 20th Century and the subsequent process of democratization after 1988, Diaz’s basic principle has not been broken. In fact, the military’s separation from the political arena after the Mexican Revolution inexorably strengthened its moral capital, gaining the population’s approval to participate in areas that surpass its conventional duties. This has made the executive branch become increasingly reliant on the armed forces to make certain policy commitments seem trustworthy, especially in areas where civilian agencies have consistently underperformed, such as the combat of organised crime and ordinary policing. This is definitely a unique characteristic within Latin America, where democratization has rarely been accompanied by an increasing role of the armed forces on internal affairs. By using deductive reasoning and historical narrative, the argument will propose that the rules governing the system of civil-military relations in Mexico are counterintuitive with the idea of democratic consolidation. It will also suggest that the current system of civilian control has become even more vulnerable due to the capacity of the military to resist and even reverse civilian initiatives to improve supervision over their expanding roles. To test these hypotheses, the argument follows closely the military’s counterinsurgency policy and its increasing participation in law enforcement institutions. I declare that this thesis consists of 95,888 words (excluding references). Jesus A. Lopez-Gonzalez 3 I dedicate this thesis to the memory of my grandmother Leonarda del Angel and my dearest father Jesus Lopez Dominguez. 4 Table of Contents Abstract 3 Table of Contents 5 List of Tables 8 List of Figures 10 Acknowledgments 11 Introduction 13 I. The historical context 16 II. Research question, methodology and aims of the study 21 III. Sources of information 26 IV. Outline of the thesis 30 Chapter 1. Civil-Military Relations in Mexico: A Theoretical Framework 34 Introduction 34 1.1. The traditional view on civil-military relations. 35 1.1.1 The importance of objective control 35 1.1.2 The structuralist critique 40 1.1.3 External/Internal determinants of civil-military control 42 1.1.4 Domestic understandings of civil-military relations 48 1.2 Contemporary approaches to civil-military relations 49 1.2.1 Historical Institutionalism: “modes of transition” 49 1.3. The theoretical framework 55 1.3.1 “Exclusive subordination” and the politics of military missions 55 1.4. Conclusion 61 Chapter 2. Articulating Civilian Supremacy: Civil-Military Relations during El Porfiriato and Madero’s Revolution (1876-1911) 63 Introduction 63 2.1 Civil-military relations in el porfiriato : the historical context 65 2.1.1 Military missions 67 2.1.2 Military budgets and personnel 68 2.2 Civil-military relations: the political side 71 2.2.1 Civil-military relations and the public administration 74 2.3 Civil- military relations: the professional side 76 2.4 Diaz’s military defeat (1910-1911) 79 2.5 Conclusions 83 Chapter 3. El Porfiriato Revisited: the Consolidation of Civilian Supremacy in Post-revolutionary Mexico, 1911-1934 85 Introduction 85 3.1 Madero’s brief presidential term, 1911-1913 86 3.2 Huerta, Carranza, the United States and the internal dimension of security 90 5 3.3 Carranza’s rule and the Constitution of 1917 95 3.4 The Agua Prieta Revolution and Obregon’s Presidency 99 3.5 The presidency of Plutarco Elias-Calles 107 3.6 Conclusion 112 Chapter 4. Defending the Mexican Revolution: Military Intervention in Politics, Social Policy and Internal Order (1934-1946) 115 Introduction 115 4.1 The military under Cardenas 117 4.1.1 The presidential succession of 1934 120 4.1.2 The new rules of the political game and the foundation of the PRM 126 4.3 Civil-military relations during the Presidency of Manuel Avila- Camacho 133 4.4 Conclusion 136 Chapter 5. Guarding Political Security and Growth: a New Era of Civil- Military Relations during Mexico’s Economic Miracle, 1946-1970 139 Introduction 139 5.1 Civil-military relations after 1946 141 5.2 The Federal Directorate of Security 146 5.3 The henriquismo and its casualties, 1952-1958 151 5.4 Violence returns: the 1960s 159 5.5 The rural guerrilla movement, 1965-1970 164 5.6 Student disturbances 169 5.7 Conclusion 172 Chapter 6. Armed Forces and Guerrilla Activity: the Primacy of Partisan Politics in the Definition of Mexico’s Policy of National Security 1970-1982 174 Introduction 174 6.1 The policy of national security in the 1970s 176 6.2 Los Halcones and the Corpus Thursday massacre 181 6.3 Guerrero’s rural guerrilla 185 6.4 The urban guerrilla 194 6.5 Conclusion 200 Chapter 7. From Insurgency to Terrorism: Chiapas, the EPR and the Shortcomings of Mexico’s new Democracy. 202 Introduction 202 7.1 The new era of guerrilla activity in Mexico 204 7.2 Human rights and the national distribution of army force 209 7.3 The army structure of promotions 221 7.4 New guerrilla tactics and the new politics of the EPR 225 7.5 Conclusions 233 6 Chapter 8. Civil-Military Relations and the Militarisation of Public Security in Mexico (1989-2007) 235 Introduction 235 8.1 Armed forces and the origins of the drug war 237 8.2 The militarisation of the PGR and the presidencies of Carlos Salinas and Ernesto Zedillo. 242 8.2.1 Budgets, performance and personnel growth of the armed forces as a result of their participation in drug trafficking. 249 8.2.2 Changes in the scale and criteria for moving across the ranks in the army 251 8.2.3 Formalising the role of the armed forces in the system of public security 256 8.3 Democratisation and militarisation of public security. 260 8.4 Conclusions 269 Thesis’ Conclusions 271 I. Empirical findings 273 II. Theoretical considerations and contributions 276 III. Further research horizons 278 IV. Final remarks 280 Appendix 1 281 References 286 1. Primary sources 286 1.1 Interviews 286 1.2 Archives/Collections 288 1.3 Public versions of intelligence dossiers: 288 1.4 Mexico’s Federal Government documents 289 1.5 Documents of restricted ciruculation provided by Mexican military personnel for consultation 289 1.6 Public Information obtained through the freedom of information act: 290 1.7 Dissertations 291 1.8 Laws and by-laws: 293 1.9 Statistics 293 1.10 Press Articles: 294 2. Secondary sources 294 2.1 Publications in books or refereed journals 294 7 List of Tables Table 1.1 Legitimacy of the state in Mexico: confidence of citizens in institutions Table 1.2 Mexico’s military operations on internal security 1946-1980 (1) Table 1.2 Mexico’s military operations on internal security 1946-1980 (2) Table 2.1 Political positions granted by President Porfirio Diaz to his political allies between 1876 and 1880 Table 3.1 Latin American wars 1906-1941 Table 3.2 Major military rebellions, 1920-1940 Table 3.3 Military budget 1917-1940 (budget in millions of pesos and military personnel in thousands of soldiers) Table 3.4 Mexican military officers working in the public administration as percentage of entire public service, 1914-1940 Table 5.1 Military expenditures as a percentage of government expenditures 1935— 1994 Table 5.2 Labour strikes 1938-1962 Table 5.3 Armed movements in Mexico 1963-1970 Table 7.1 Institution responsible for the forced disappearance during the dirty war according to the CNDH Table 7.2 Average of months in post of chiefs of military zones between 1976- 1989 and 1989-2003 Table 8.1 Mexico Attorney’s General 1988-2000 Table 8.2 Correlation between government expenditure and selected ministries budgets 1990-2001 Table 8.3 Correlation between military budget allocation and military functions 1990-2001 Table 8.4 States identified by the army to be highly active in drug trafficking (DT) or face presence of guerrilla movements (G) Table 8.5 Command experience of army officers promoted to the rank of division and brigade general.
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