Quick viewing(Text Mode)

The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923: the First World War and the Wars of Independence

The Baltic States from 1914 to 1923: the First World War and the Wars of Independence

The from 1914 to 1923: The First World War and the Wars of

By LtCol Andrew Parrott*

lands the of was created relations with . This article aims Introduction from the southern parts of the to describe the events of the First World of , the Governorate of Kurland War in the Baltic and the Wars of In the aftermath of the First World War and the western parts of the Governorate Independence in each of the Baltic states. five new states were created out of what of . Further south the Republic of The routes to independence for the four had been Tsarist on the shores of Lithuania, formed from the Baltic states that will be considered here the . In the north the Republic of , and Suwalki, recreated were all similar to the extent that the same of emerged as an independent state a separate Lithuanian state for the first time factors were involved for each state. Where after just over a century as the in over five hundred years. The Republic their routes to independence differ is in of Finland. South of the of also came into being at this time, the relative importance of the various fac- the northern parts of the Governorate of more than a century after its earlier final tors. The first factor is the impact of Rus- Livonia and the Governorate of division between Russia, and Aus- sian political control. At the start of the became the Republic of Estonia. Combin- tria. Poland, though, is not considered period in question all of the Baltic states ing former Swedish, Polish and Russian further here other than in the context of were part of Tsarist Russia and the “His- * LtCol Parrott is the Head of Defence Administration and Management Department at the .

131 torical Background” section below relates Tsarist regime and the rise of the Bolshe- White and others opposed to the how that came to be. The second factor is viks provided a narrow window of op- and in this circuitous way gave the impact of the First World War and portunity for those wishing to escape from strength to the Baltic states. German influences in the Baltic area. The Russian domination. In the context of “First World War” section examines the Eastern at the time Russia was weak Background political and military impact of that war. but was militarily strong. In a A section entitled “The ” looks at wider context though Germany was po- Throughout history the lands of the the treaties that concluded the First World litically, militarily and economically weak Baltic states have been much fought over. War and notes how the Baltic states were and the Allies were strong. At the end of Until the twentieth century the , Es- excluded from consideration in these vari- the First World War the Allies had no wish tonians and were never masters ous treaties. The third factor is Baltic na- to allow the , defeated in the west, in their own lands. Previously the Russians, tionalism and identity and sections for each to profit from their success in the east. , Danes, Poles and Germans had of the Baltic states consider the struggle Again German weakness offered opportu- continuously contested control of the area. for national independence. There is a gen- nities to the Baltic states. The growth of The situation for the was some- eral pattern of cultural nationalism centred national identity in the Baltic states might what different. Lithuania had previously on language, giving way to a more asser- be seen not so much as a strength but as a been an independent state and then a part tive political nationalism in each state, but source of determination for exploiting the of the Polish-Lithuanian Union. the details of the development of national weaknesses and opportunities that arose. The power of waned during the identity vary from state to state. Finally There is no doubt that the intervention of after 1700 and in 1721 the impact of other actors, notably those the Allies gave strength to the Baltic states was made between Russia and Swe- allied against Germany in the First World but this was essentially a by-product of other den at the of Nystad. This treaty War, must be considered and this is done concerns. The Allies concerns in respect of incorporated the former Swedish posses- in the section entitled “Intervention”. Germany have already been mentioned but sions on the Eastern coast of the Baltic Sea That the Baltic states were able to assert the Allies had no wish either to see the Rus- into the as the their national identities and achieve state- sian Bolsheviks prosper. Generally it can be of Estonia and Livonia. Estonia, with its hood is a product of the overall balance said that, exhausted after the First World capital at , consisted of what is now of the factors described above. Fundamen- War, the Allies had no wish to fight the the northern half of Estonia and the is- tally Russia was weak. The collapse of the Bolsheviks. They did however support the land of Hiiumaa. Livonia, with its capital

132 at , consisted of what is now the south- order to seize the Danish fleet. Tsar Alex- cember what remained of the French Army ern half of Estonia and the island of ander I also agreed to attempt to mediate a was back in Vilnius and here and southeastern Latvia. peace with Britain but when these attempts left his army to return to . Mass graves The Polish-Lithuanian Union was di- failed Russia, seeking to exclude the Brit- recently discovered in Vilnius emphasise vided between Russia, Prussia and ish Navy from the Baltic Sea demanded of the total defeat of the French Army on in three stages starting in 1772. At the first Sweden the closure of Swedish ports to this ill-fated Russian campaign. division , now eastern Latvia, was the British Navy. The Swedes refused to At the Congress of in 1815, fol- absorbed into Russia, ultimately as part of comply with the Russian demands and this lowing the , certain parts the Vitebsk . The second division led to the invasion by Russia of Finland, of Prussia, which are now in modern in 1793 did not affect lands now part of then part of Sweden, in February 1808. Lithuania, were awarded to Russia.1 These the Baltic states but at the third and final By November 1808 Russia had occupied areas became part of the province of division in 1795 what is now southern and Finland and in return for certain assur- Suwalki. At this point, with one exception, western Latvia and nearly all of modern ances the Finns agreed to annexation by all the lands that now make up the Baltic Lithuania became part of the Russian Em- Russia at in March 1809. At the states had become a part of the Russian pire. The parts that are now Latvia were Treaty of in 1809 Swed- Empire. The one exception is the Klaipeda incorporated into the province of Kurland ish sovereignty over Finland was surren- area of Lithuania, which remained part of with its capital at . The parts that dered, and the , Prussia, as the better-known Memel Terri- are now Lithuania were divided between with the Russian Tsar as , was tory2 , and only became part of Lithuania the provinces of Vilnius and Kaunas with established. In 1812 the Tsar restored to at the very end of the period being dis- their capitals in the cities of the same name. Finland certain Finnish territories that had cussed in 1923. Russia was defeated by Napoleon in been ceded by Sweden to Russia at the The provisions of the 1807 but then at the Treaty of Tilsit en- Treaty of Nystad in 1721 and the Treaty ensured that, even though they were in- tered into an alliance with . Russia of in 1743. corporated into the Russian Empire, the recognised French supremacy in western On 24 June 1812 Napoleon invaded provinces of Estonia and Livonia retained and but was given a free Russia capturing Vilnius before the end distinctive systems of local administration, hand in the Baltic area and it was the Treaty of June. was occupied on 14 Sep- related to those of the previous Swedish of Tilsit that caused the pre-emptive strike tember but abandoned on 19 October at administration and different from those by the British Navy on in the start of the long retreat. By early De- in other parts of the Russian Empire.

133 When Kurland became a part of the Rus- Latvia, Estonia and Finland that are de- sian Empire this province, too, obtained The First World War scribed later. essentially the same status as Estonia and Germany declared war on Russia on 1 Livonia. The provinces of Vilnius and As the First World War progressed the 1914 but then, in accordance with Kaunas also initially retained distinct sys- Baltic area was by degrees involved in the the , declared war on France tems of local government related to those conflict between Russian and German two days later and commenced the inva- of the former Polish-Lithuanian Union. forces. As the Russian position weakened, sion of that via neutral . The highest representative of Tsarist power so the Germans came to occupy and domi- The German declaration of war on Russia was the -General. The Governor- nate the entire Baltic area. In the first year was the result of the Russian mobilisation General of the Baltic area comprising Es- of the war the Germans occupied all of designed to discourage the Austro-Hun- tonia, Livonia and Kurland resided in Riga. Lithuania and half of Latvia. For the garian Empire from taking action against The Governor-General of Lithuania, includ- two years the situation in the Baltic area . In Sarajevo on 28 Jun 1914, Ser- ing Vilnius and Kaunas, was based in was almost static, but then in the last six bian-backed Bosnian nationalists opposed Vilnius. Suwalki was subordinate to the months of the war in the east the Ger- to Habsburg rule had murdered the heir Governor-General in in the Rus- mans completed their occupation of to the Austro-Hungarian throne, the Arch- sian controlled Kingdom of Poland. The Latvia and Estonia before the signing of duke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. area that was subject to the most the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The fighting The idea of the German Schlieffen plan was the Latgale area of Latvia in the Baltic area was rarely if at all cen- was to avoid fighting on two fronts by that was incorporated into Vitebsk prov- tral to events on the Eastern Front. The achieving a rapid victory against France ince as a part of Russia with no distinct description that follows aims to put events before turning against Russia, where it was local status. As a Grand Duchy and not in the Baltic area into the context of mili- thought mobilisation would be slow and part of Russia proper, Finland enjoyed tary operations on the Eastern Front and ponderous. In fact Russian mobilisation considerable autonomy, including the the development of the political situation allowed the Russians, responding to French maintenance of its own military units, al- in Russia more generally. Understanding pleas for assistance, to invade though as Finnish nationalism developed the development of the situation on the on 12 . However initial Rus- the Tsar sought to increasingly weaken Finn- Eastern Front will hopefully aid an un- sian success against both the Germans and ish autonomy and assert Russian control. derstanding of the events in Lithuania, the Austro-Hungarians was not followed

134 up. Against the Germans in East Prussia, but were pre-empted by the Germans who offensive in the Germans launched Russian success at the attacked in the area of the Masurian Lakes a successful diversionary operation with on 20 August 1914 was quickly followed on 7 . The Germans achieved twelve divisions towards Riga on 26 April by defeat at the , end- considerable tactical success but two things 1915. By the start of in the Bal- ing on 31 August 1914. The Germans fol- denied them strategic success. Firstly con- tic area the German front line ran from lowed up their victory at Tannenberg with siderable Russian forces preparing for their the sea between Liepâja and east victory at the Battle of the Masurian Lakes offensive in East Prussia were able to act as to the line of the River Venta. The line some two weeks later. Against the Austro- reserves, and secondly simultaneous Austro- then ran southeast along the line of the Hungarians the Russians achieved some- Hungarian attacks in the south, designed River Venta and the River Dubysa to the what greater success in Galicia in Septem- to relieve the garrison of Przemysl besieged confluence of the River Dubysa with the ber 1914. After their victory in East Prussia since the Russian offensive of September River Nemunas. South of here the Rus- though, the Germans were able to come to 1914, failed. Przemysl surrendered on 22 sians retained a frontline on the west bank the assistance of their Austro-Hungarian . of the River Nemunas to the west of allies, and in fighting around Warsaw and By the end of the first seven months of Kaunas, and Grodno. In these first Lodz in October and the the war on the Eastern Front, therefore, few months of the war in the east the Bal- Russians were stopped. The Russians, when the Russians were very firmly on the de- tic area was very much on the periphery it comes to tactical victories, successfully fensive. Interestingly, poor Russian radio with the focus of events further to the defended both Warsaw and Lodz but stra- security is known to have given the Cen- south and west. tegically victory belonged to the Germans. tral Powers advance notice of Russian plans On the night of 1 May 1915 a joint In the Russians resumed their and intentions on a number of occasions. German – Austro-Hungarian offensive was offensive against Krakow but were out- The German High Command’s priority launched in Galicia between Tarnow and flanked by the Austro-Hungarians attack- for 1915 became the provision of such as- Gorlice and fourteen days later the attack ing from the Carpathian Mountains in the sistance to the Austro-Hungarians as was had reached the line of the River San over south, and forced to give up much of the needed to knock Russia out of the war, 130 kilometres (80 miles) from the start ground gained earlier in the autumn. The before entered the war against the line. The Italians entered the war on 25 Russians planned to renew the offensive Austro-Hungarians, while containing the May 1915 and, although some of the against the Germans in East Prussia with situation in the west. To divert attention Austro-Hungarian forces had to be rede- an attack scheduled for 20 February 1915, from preparations for the forthcoming ployed to meet the new threat, further gains

135 were made against the Russians. On 4 June all the guns. The Germans captured Brest Baltic area were now to remain almost static 1915 the fortress of Przemysl was recap- Litovsk on 25 , and continu- until . tured from the Russians. On 17 ing their advance they took Grodno on On 22 , the Russians the Russian High Command ordered a 2 and Vilnius on 19 Sep- mounted an amphibious attack involving general retreat, which became known as the tember 1915. Now, however, the German over 500 troops behind German lines west “”, and in the south the for- offensive ran out of steam, and Russian of the Bay of Riga at Pitrags. The raid was tress of (Lemberg), abandoned by the counterattacks in the vicinity of a success causing German withdrawal in the Austro-Hungarians in , was ¨ven²ioneliai midway between Vilnius and area but the landing force was withdrawn retaken on 22 June 1915. helped to restore the Russian later the same day in the absence of rein- Further north the Germans resumed position. By 26 September 1915, when forcements to support the landing. The raid the offensive on 13 in the Bat- the German offensive halted, the German caused the Germans to devote additional tle of the River Narev and the Russians front line in the Baltic area ran from Riga, troops to coastal defence and perhaps in- abandoned Warsaw on 4 August 1915. The where the Russians still retained positions fluenced their thinking for Operation important Russian fortress of Novogeor- on the west bank of the River , Albion in . gievsk on the River 30 kilometres along the line of the River Daugava to While the scale of the Russian defeat in (20 miles) northwest of Warsaw was sur- Daugavpils and then roughly due south 1915 was huge with over one million casu- rounded by the Germans in early August to . alties, the Russian command performed 1915, and surrendered on 19 August 1915. Whereas in the spring of 1915 the Ger- well in keeping their armies from disinte- Kaunas, heavily fortified and considered mans had occupied only a small corner of grating, and through the winter of 1915 the key to Russian defences on the north- southwest Latvia and parts of western and spring of 1916 the Russian forces staged ern sector of the front, was first attacked Lithuania, by the end of September they a remarkable recovery. A Russian attack to on 8 August 1915. The Russians repelled had taken control of all of Lithuania and coincide with British and French summer a major attack the next day but about half of Latvia. Vilnius, the focus of offensives in the west was being planned, after their own , some thirteen Lithuanian nationalism, was in German when the Germans struck at on 21 hundred guns in all, inadvertently de- hands and Riga, a similar focus for the . Coming to the aid of the stroyed some of the outer defences the Latvians, was in the front line with the French an ill conceived, hastily prepared, garrison surrendered on 17 August 1915 Russian forward positions in the western and poorly executed attack was launched giving up huge stocks of ammunition and suburbs of the city. The front lines in the by the Russians in the area of Lake Naroch,

136 some 100 kilometres (60 miles) north east the Italians. On 15 the Austro- Germans too brought reinforcements from of Vilnius, on 18 . Attacking Hungarians launched their Trentino offen- the west but the benefited on a narrow front, and after an ineffective sive. On 4 the commander of from a better railway network than was artillery preparation the Russians suffered the Russian South Western Front, Brusilov, available to the Russians, and by mid-,000 casualties in the first few hours. launched the offensive that now normally the balance of forces had shifted in favour Further assaults in the Lake Naroch area bears his name. Attacking, after a short but of the Central Powers. Urged on by the were made on 19 and 21 March 1916, in intense artillery bombardment of selected high command Brusilov persisted with his the mud of the spring thaw, and support- points, with all four of his armies simulta- offensive until the end of , by ing attacks in the area of Riga were aban- neously on a 480 kilometres (300 miles) which time further Russian progress had doned after 10,000 casualties on the first long front Brusilov made considerable become impossible. day. gains during June. The Austro-Hungarians The achieved a con- These attacks achieved very little success were driven back some 100 kilometres (60 siderable measure of success, but it was and certainly did not divert German forces miles) all along the front, a number of stra- bought at a very high price, a price that from the west. The Russians suffered 100,000 tegically important towns were captured the Russians could not afford. By the time casualties, and within a month the Ger- and the Russians took some 350,000 pris- the offensive was over the Russians had mans had recaptured the little ground they oners and 400 artillery pieces. suffered over one million casualties to add had given up. Despite its unfamiliarity in The Russians were as surprised by their to the five million they had already suf- the west, it has been suggested that this was success as the Central Powers were dis- fered during the war. These losses seriously one of the decisive battles of the First mayed. Russian plans to renew the offen- damaged the morale of the Russian Army, World War. Their failure in an area where sive in the Lake Naroch area towards Vilnius and in the absence of a strategic break- they had built up a considerable superior- were dropped, and instead reinforcements through it can be argued, that while the ity over the Germans convinced many in were directed towards Brusilov, but the Brusilov offensive did not cause the Rus- the Russian high command of their in- Russians were hampered in their efforts sian Revolution it did much to make it ability to defeat the Germans. by the inadequacy of the railway and road possible. Once again the Russians began planning systems. To stabilise the situation the On 7 January 1917 the Russian Twelfth a summer offensive but once again felt Austro-Hungarians had no option but to Army launched an offensive, known as the obliged to bring their plans forward to halt their offensive against the Italians and Battle of the River Aa, west from the vicin- come to the aid of western allies, this time return troops to the Eastern Front. The ity of Riga. In a surprise attack, without a

137 preliminary bombardment, the Russians mained unstable, and never in full control the Central Powers had gained over 160 achieved some success and by 9 January of the country, while still attempting to kilometres (100 miles) in the south, their 1917 both Jelgava and had been continue the war against the Central Pow- advance halted more by supply difficulties recaptured. German counterattacks from ers, until the Bolshevik October Revolu- than by Russian resistance. At the height 22 January 1917 lasted until the end of the tion. of this offensive Kerensky formally re- month, but the Russians retained the Following the the placed Prince Lvov as head of the Provi- ground they had gained. Although this Central Powers ceased offensive action on sional Government in a move that under- limited attack improved the Russian posi- the Eastern Front and took advantage of lined the instability of the Russian Gov- tion in the vicinity of Riga it had and the turmoil in Russia to transfer troops to ernment and its weakening position. achieved no strategic objective. the west. Kerensky, though, sought to keep During the “” in 1917 a Ma- In Russia a strike call on 22 January 1917 faith with Russia’s western allies and hav- chine Gun Regiment based in Petrograd led to the events of the February Revolu- ing taken over the War Ministry on 16 started an uprising on 16 in pro- tion. Troops refused orders to fire on dem- , attempted to renew the offen- test at the failure of the Kerensky Offen- onstrators on 11 , and by 13 sive against the Central Powers. On 1 July sive. The uprising attracted support from March 1917 most of the Petrograd garri- 1917 Brusilov’s South Western Front at- the Anti-War Bolsheviks, spread to sailors son had joined forces with the rebel work- tacked, with two of its four armies, the at the naval base, and to civil- ers. The Imperial Government resigned en Austro-Hungarian forces east of Lviv ians in major cities and towns all over masse on 12 March 1917, and Tsar Nicholas (Lemberg). Again considerable initial suc- Russia. Although the Provisional Govern- II of Russia abdicated on 15 March 1917. cess was achieved and gains of 50 kilome- ment was able to restore order within a The Russian ended the next day tres (30 miles) were made on a 160 kilome- few days, the incident improved the stand- when his brother, Grand Duke Michael, tres (100 miles) front, but Russian resolve ing of the Bolsheviks with an increasingly declined the crown. A Provisional Gov- weakened as their supply lines broke down pacifist population, and undermined the ernment headed nominally by Prince Lvov, and enemy resistance stiffened. On 19 July credibility of the Provisional Government including Kerensky as Justice Minister, was 1917 the Germans launched a powerful and the moderate socialists in control of formed, partly in response to the perceived counterattack that broke the Russians, and the Petrograd . Lenin fled to Fin- challenge from the newly formed Petrograd brought about their withdrawal in panic land where he remained until the October Soviet. The re- and disorder. By the start of September Revolution.

138 The Battle of Riga was the final full-scale to force the Irben Straits and trap the the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on 3 March battle between Russian and German forces Russian fleet in the Bay of Riga. Although 1918, but it was to be another three years on the Eastern Front. The German attack the German fleet successfully forced its way before the end of the was launched on 1 to clear into the Bay of Riga, the Russian fleet was and the consolidation of communist power the Russian salient west of Riga, and by able to escape through the Muhu Strait to in Russia. suggesting a German drive towards the north and the Gulf of Finland, before Operation Faustschlag was launched on Petrograd encouraged the collapse of the the Germans completed their occupation 18 in response to the halt- faltering Russian war effort. German forces of the islands to dominate the Muhu Strait. ing of the Brest-Litovsk peace talks, by the quickly established a bridgehead over the Starting on 5 November 19173 and over Russian Bolsheviks. Against minimal Rus- River Daugava south of Riga on the first the next three days, the Bolsheviks led by sian opposition the Germans quickly occu- day of the operation, and quickly followed Lenin and Trotsky in what became known pied considerable areas of territory, and up the Russian retreat from the city on 2 as the , seized power advanced 240 kilometres (150 miles) on some September 1917. The Russian forces, in Petrograd from the Provisional Gov- fronts. Tallinn was occupied on 25 Febru- though, were not pursued more than ernment of Kerensky. On 29 October 1917 ary 1918, and by 3 when the about 30 kilometres (20 miles) beyond the the had created a Mili- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed the Ger- city. tary Revolutionary Committee, effectively mans had taken control of all parts of Latvia On 11 October 1917 the Germans, fol- headed by Trotsky. This rapidly gained the and Estonia that they had not already occu- lowing up the success of their Riga opera- allegiance of the Petrograd garrison, work- pied. The passage of the First World War in tion, launched Operation Albion. In an ers , and naval personnel. Loyal the east saw Russian political authority re- amphibious assault involving some 20,000 troops, summoned by Kerensky to arrest placed by German military authority. The troops the Estonian islands of Saaremaa, leading Bolsheviks, were unable to dislodge Baltic economies, damaged though they Hiiumaa and Muhu were attacked. The the revolutionary forces that had occupied were, still remained largely in German hands 13,000 Russian defenders put up little seri- key strategic points. On 8 but, still fighting in the west, the Germans ous resistance, and by 20 Oct 1917 all three members of the Provisional Government faced a rising tide of Baltic nationalism. In islands were in German hands. A simulta- were arrested in the Tsar’s . all of the Baltic states a growing sense of neous naval operation, led by ten battle- The Bolsheviks, seeking peace, eventually national identity underpinned movements ships of the German High Seas Fleet, aimed agreed terms with the Central Powers at seeking independence.

139 cepted the original German terms on 19 USA seeking peace talks and made a formal The Treaties February 1918 and new German terms on request for a cease-fire on 4 . 24 February 1918 the day after they were Cease-fires with and the Austro- The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed presented. The Treaty extended German Hungarian Empire came into effect on 30 on 3 March 1918 between the Central Pow- influence over Finland, Estonia, Latvia, October 1918 and 3 re- ers and the Russian Bolshevik Government. Lithuania, and . The Rus- spectively. The final cease-fire with Ger- After the October Revolution in 1917 the sians also had to accept Turkish control many came into effect on 11 November new Bolshevik Government in Russia had over the Provinces and under- 1918. Wilson insisted that his “Fourteen no wish to continue the war and the Cen- took not to interfere in the internal affairs Points” serve as the basis for Armistice tral Powers were keen to transfer troops to of the lost territories. The Treaty was de- discussions, although Point Ten was modi- the west. Armistice negotiations began on nounced by the Allies, ignored at every fied to provide full independence for the 3 and a ceasefire was an- opportunity by the Bolsheviks, and for- subject peoples of the Austro-Hungarian nounced on 16 December 1917. The peace mally annulled as part of the 11 Novem- Empire, and Point One was interpreted to talks began in Brest-Litovsk on 22 Decem- ber 1918 Armistice agreement. Eager to allow secret negotiations at the Paris Peace ber 1917. The Russian Bolshevik Foreign maintain political and economic control Conference. The “” had Minister, Trotsky, took charge of the Rus- in , the Brest-Litovsk Treaty originally been presented to Congress in sian delegation on 9 and, did not give the Germans the opportu- the USA on 8 January 1918, as an outline hoping for an early socialist revolution in nity to withdraw as many troops from the statement of American war aims. The points Europe to strengthen his negotiating po- east as they had hoped. In the “Brotfrieden” were accepted by the Allies with certain sition, employed delaying tactics. Follow- agreement, with the newly independent but accepted reservations on 4 November 1918, ing a separate treaty, the “Brotfrieden” German-supported Ukrainian government, and finally agreed to by the Germans on agreement signed between the Central Pow- the Germans were eager to secure supplies 10 November 1918, although they still ers and Ukraine on 9 February 1918, the of Ukrainian grain and agreed readily to contained many ambiguities.4 Russians halted talks the following day. The the inclusion of certain Polish areas under The Paris Peace Conference opened on Germans responded with a rapid resump- Ukrainian administration. 12 to formulate a peace set- tion of hostilities in Operation Faustschlag In late the Central Pow- tlement following the armistice. Although on 18 February 1918. The Bolsheviks ac- ers approached President Wilson of the thirty-two allied took part, the

140 interests of the USA, , and Rhineland were placed under allied con- man possessions in the . The France, Italy and dominated the pro- trol. In the north territory was ceded to treaty was rejected by republican Turks and ceedings. No representatives of the Cen- , and in the east former German substantially revised at the Treaty of tral Powers were invited, and the Russian territory was given up to Poland, Lithua- Lausanne in 1923. Bolshevik Government refused to attend. nia, and Czechoslovakia. The treaty became The Treaty of St Germain was signed In a Council of Four was es- a focus for discontent in Germany that between the Allies and the new Austrian tablished to enable the USA, British, was fully exploited by the national social- Republic on 10 . The treaty French, and Italian leaders to deliberate in ists. confirmed the break up of the Austrian private. These deliberations saw confron- The Treaty of Neuilly was signed on 27 parts of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and tation between the liberal American Presi- Nov 1919 between the Allied Powers and banned political union with Germany. dent Wilson and the nationalist French . Bulgaria lost territory to all of The various treaties dealt only with the Prime Minister Clemenceau with media- , , and , as the Central Powers and their allies. Russia was tion attempted by the British Prime Min- price for siding with the Central Powers an ally of the Western Allies, and the break ister Lloyd George, the Italian Prime Min- in the First World War. away from Russia of the four Baltic states ister Orlando involving himself only in The was signed on 4 and Poland was essentially a matter for matters of direct Italian interest. Although between the Allied Powers and Russia, despite the opposition of the West- five treaties, the Treaties of Versailles, St . This treaty confirmed the break ern Allies to the Bolshevik regime, which Germain, Trianon, Neuilly, and Sèvres, up of the Hungarian parts of the Austro- came to power following the collapse of emerged from the Paris Peace Conference, Hungarian Empire and caused long-term the Tsarist Russian Empire. All of the Bal- the conference closed in an atmosphere of resentment, which dominated the foreign tic states achieved independence as a result failure and the US Congress refused to policy of the new Hungarian republic. of the turmoil of the First World War. It ratify the Versailles Treaty in November The Treaty of Sèvres between Turkey might be said, though, that the treaties that 1919. and the Allies was signed on 10 August concluded the First World War not only The was signed be- 1920. It placed the Bosporus and Darda- ignored the Baltic states, but also gave rise tween Germany and the Allies on 28 June nelles under international control, placed to the stresses and strains that led to the 1919. In the west, Germany lost territory Smyrna under Greek control, and con- Second World War. These treaties, there- to France and Belgium, and the Saarland firmed the independence of former Otto- fore, set the scene for the loss of independ-

141 ence suffered by three of the Baltic states they assumed the Tsar’s rights in respect of worker’s militias had formed and these at the time of the Second World War. Finland, but a majority in Finland believed sometimes found themselves confronted by that with the of the Tsar the civil guards recruited from among the Finland Russian Provisional Government could bourgeoisie and often supported from make no claim to being the supreme au- Germany. In 1914 some in Finland had The territory of the Grand Duchy of thority in Finland. looked to Germany for support in the Finland was not directly involved in fight- On 20 March 1917 the Russian Provi- struggle for independence and significant ing during the First World War, and the sional Government proclaimed the resto- numbers of Finns had received military impact of the war was mainly an economic ration of Finland’s constitutional rights, training in Germany during the course of one. Of course Finland had no option but rights that over a long period of years had the war. to follow Russia into the war and while been increasingly ignored by an ever more On 18 July 1917 the Eduskunta approved some areas of the economy suffered badly authoritarian Tsarist regime. The more lib- an act making Finland independent in all others prospered. The forestry industry eral Mikhail Stakhovich replaced Von Seyn, respects except foreign affairs and defence. with export markets in the United King- the much-disliked Russian Governor Gen- The Finnish cabinet was evenly divided on dom and was badly hit eral, and many political exiles were allowed the issue but controversially Stakhovich on but the metalworking, chemical, and tex- to return. Elections for the Finnish parlia- the instructions of Kerensky, head of the tile industries all prospered in satisfying ment, the Eduskunta, had taken place in Russian Provisional Government, voted the demands of the Russian war effort. 1916, but parliament was not allowed to against the measure, dissolved the Thousands of Finns too were in the Rus- meet until March 1917, when a new Social Eduskunta, and called new elections for sian armies, involved in the defence of Democrat government was formed and October. The Social Democrats lost their Finland as well as more distant operations. took office on 27 March 1917. overall majority in the October elections The February 1917 revolution in Rus- The new government was immediately but did not accept the validity of the elec- sia caused the collapse of the Russian war confronted with both internal law and or- tions, regarding the Russian Provisional effort, leading to economic hardship for der problems and external problems regard- Government as having no right to dissolve many in Finland, and fuelled the process ing its relationship with the Russian Pro- the parliament. In the turmoil, exacerbated of progress towards independence. The visional Government. With regard to the by the events of the October Revolution in Russian Provisional Government believed internal problems in a number of towns Russia, a Central Revolutionary Council was

142 formed on 8 November 1917 and called a sian troops on Finnish territory, and re- north towards Lahti to cut the railway line for 14 November 1917. quested help from those countries that had between and Petrograd. At around The strike and the violence that accom- recognised Finland. The next day the Gov- the same time White forces advancing from panied this strike alienated many Social ernment formally constituted the Civil the north captured . Helsinki fell Democrats. In the absence of any clear lead Guards as the state force responsible for to the German forces of General von der from Russia, the Eduskunta voted in a law and order. The civil war started on the Goltz on 13 and two weeks later government headed by the champion of night of 27 January when for- prominent members of the Red Guards Finnish rights P. Svinhufvud, who pre- mally took control of Helsinki and estab- and leaders of the Revolutionary Govern- sented to the Eduskunta a declaration of lished a revolutionary government. By the ment fled to Russia. On 16 May Finnish independence on 6 December beginning of February a front line ran Mannerheim led a victory through 1917. Svinhufvud met Lenin in Petrograd north of Pori, Tampere, Lahti and Helsinki. on 31 December, and was told that Russia with the Red Guards in con- On 18 May the Eduskunta met and ap- would recognise Finnish independence and trol of all the major urban centres. The pointed Svinhufvud as Regent with the the right wing government in Helsinki. “”, however, were better organised same powers as those previously vested in Finland slid towards civil war in Janu- and equipped and more united.The Whites the Tsar. Still expecting a German victory, ary 1919. On 18 January, General received significant reinforcement when the Svinhufvud sought to create a monarchy Mannerheim, charged by the government Finnish Jaeger arrived back in for Finland from within Germany. These with establishing a military headquarters, Finland on 25 February 1918. The Ger- plans came to nought with the collapse of left Helsinki for to establish such a mans also provided very significant assist- Germany and the withdrawal of German headquarters, since both Helsinki and ance to the Whites. In March German na- troops from Finland, and Svinhufvud re- Tampere were largely under the control of val units landed on and occupied the signed being replaced by Mannerheim as the Red Guards, as the worker’s militias Aaland Islands. On 3 April a German expe- Regent in late 1918. Mannerheim had re- had become. On 19 January the Govern- ditionary force commanded by General signed in May in protest at the degree of ment asked Germany to return to Finland von der Goltz landed at Hanko on influence being allowed to the Germans, the Finnish Jaeger battalion that had been the southwest coast, and started to advance and on being appointed Regent had to be fighting for Germany. Five days later they on Helsinki. A few days later another Ger- recalled from where he had been demanded the removal of the 40,000 Rus- man force landed at Loviisa, and advanced engaged on an unofficial mission to im-

143 prove relations between Finland and the War until 1918, Estonia was obviously af- In February 1917 revolution in Russia Western Allies. fected by the conflict from an early stage. resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas New elections to the Eduskunta were While it was feared that German victory II and the formation of the Provisional held in March 1919 and the Eduskunta would involve a process of “Germanifi- Government. The unrest in Russia was elected Professor K. Stahlberg as first presi- cation”, there was no enthusiasm for fight- mirrored by unrest in Estonia particularly dent of the Republic of Finland on 25 July ing for the Tsar, if “Russification” was to amongst the Russian population. The Pro- 1919. In Finland started peace be the result of Russian victory. The Esto- visional Government appointed Jaan Poska, negotiations with the Bolsheviks, once it nian economy was disrupted, Estonia be- an Estonian lawyer and Mayor of Tallinn, was clear that the White Russians, who were came a base area for operations in Latvia as their Governor General in Tallinn. De- opposed to Finnish independence, had and many refugees from Latvia arrived in mands for Estonian autonomy within been defeated. Agreement was reached at Estonia. About 100,000 were Russia reached a climax with a demonstra- the Treaty of signed on 14 October conscripted into the Tsarist Army and tion by 40,000 Estonians, 12,000 of them 1920, and by the terms of this treaty the about 10,000 were killed. The Russians armed soldiers, in Petrograd on 26 March Petsamo , giving Finland access to moved quickly to limit the influence of 1917. At the end of March the Provisional the Ocean, was ceded to Finland. the but as before, it was Government granted autonomy within a Tsar Alexander II had promised this area Russians that replaced Germans in the ad- new Estonian province, including Estonian to Finland in 1864, in exchange for two ministration not Estonians. German ideas speaking northern Livonia but excluding districts in the that Fin- for a joint Estonian-German provincial both the and Setu areas. Elections land had ceded to Russia. The Tsar had council involving concessions to the Esto- to a new provincial council were held in not kept his word though and it was left nians were not widely supported. The May 1917, and the council assembled for to the Bolsheviks to honour the promise Northern Baltic Committee based in Tartu, the first time in July when a government made by the Tsar over half a century later. but with branches all over Estonia, was was elected. Tensions between Tallinn and formed as a voluntary organisation. It Petrograd grew. The replacement of Rus- Estonia sought to help refugees, support the Rus- sians and the by Estoni- sian Army and help meet the economic ans and the in the new While Estonian territory was not in- needs of Estonia but it was also active in administration was much resented by the volved in the fighting of the First World spreading Estonian nationalist ideas. previous office-holders. The attempts of the

144 new administration to limit the influence vik rule became increasingly dictatorial. The to Estonia in . In accordance with of the Bolshevik Soviets that had formed Estonian national army units posed a prob- the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in Estonia were opposed by many work- lem for the Bolsheviks. They were com- while the Bolsheviks ceded sovereignty of ers. Finally the formation of all Estonian bined into an Estonian Division, com- the Estonian islands they retained jurisdic- military units, amidst the turmoil of the manded by Johan Laidoner, after the Oc- tion in Livonia and Estonia although Ger- collapse of the Tsarist Russian Army, al- tober Revolution, but it was not until Janu- man troops were to be stationed here for though supported by the Provisional Gov- ary 1918 that their replacement by Esto- security. ernment, was opposed within the Army nian Red Guards began. The Germans had no wish to encour- itself. Essentially the Provisional Govern- After the Bolshevik revolution the Bal- age independence in the form desired by ment in Petrograd was powerless to con- tic Germans sought assistance from Ger- the Estonians. Konstantin Päts, who had trol events, and the main opposition to many. The Bolsheviks, in response, began been declared Prime Minister, was impris- the new Estonian provincial government to deport the Baltic Germans. This pro- oned, Germans were reinstated in all posi- came from the Estonian Bolsheviks. gramme of lent weight to the tions of high office, political parties were In Tallinn the Bolsheviks seized power German decision to resume their offen- banned, and strict censorship was insti- on 27 October 1917 as soon as they had sive against Russia following the breakdown tuted. On 5 November 1918 the Baltic news of the success of the revolution in of the negotiations at Brest-Litovsk. As has Dukedom was proclaimed in Riga. For- Petrograd. Viktor , the Vice- already been related the Germans occupied mally independent the Baltic Dukedom Chairman of the Bolshevik Estonian Revo- Estonia during Operation Faustschlag included both Estonia and Latvia, and was lutionary War Committee, replaced Jaan from 18 February 1918 to 4 March 1918. intended to perpetuate German economic Poska. The ousted Provincial Government The Germans occupied Tallinn on 25 Feb domination of the area in a close political continued to meet illegally and at the end 1918 but on the previous day the Provi- relationship with Germany. of 1917 decided to seek independence for sional Government had declared Estonia On 11 November 1918 the Armistice Estonia and recognition from western independent. In the days before with the brought the First World War to an end in countries. Bolshevik elections, planned for help of national armed units the Provi- the west, at the same time as economic col- January 1918, were cancelled when it be- sional Government had taken power from lapse and social turmoil swept Germany. came clear that the Bolsheviks would not the Bolsheviks. The United Kingdom, The Provisional achieve an absolute majority, and Bolshe- France and Italy gave recognition resumed its activities on the same day. On

145 13 November 1918 Soviet Russia annulled fell to forces that had been landed on the White Russian forces, the North-Western the Treaty of Brest Litovsk and prepared coast. In the southeast Tartu was recaptured Army. While the White Russians were op- for offensive action in the . on 14 January 1919, Valga and Võru were posed to the Soviets, they were also op- On 22 November 1918 Soviet forces at- both retaken on 1 , and posed to Estonian independence. Initially tacked Narva but met stiff German resist- three days later Petseri was secured, leaving the offensive fared well. in the south ance and withdrew. However on 25 No- Estonia free of Soviet forces. Throughout was captured, as were Jamburg, Gdov, and vember 1918 the Germans withdrew from this period the Estonian Bolsheviks con- Luga to the north. The White Russian Pskov, and the Soviet forces followed in tinued to make trouble. An attempted forces, supported by small British detach- their wake quickly capturing Võru, Valga uprising in Tallinn in was ments, advanced to within a few miles of and Tartu, and most of southern Estonia. successfully countered, and a rebellion on Petrograd. 28 November 1918 is formally regarded as the island of Saaremaa in February 1919 To the south in Latvia, Estonian forces the start of the Estonian War of Independ- was put down. From February to secured Aluksne on 28 May 1919, and ence when Soviet forces resumed their at- the situation on the Narva front remained Jekabpils on the River Daugava in early tack on Narva, this time against Estonian static although Soviet artillery fire de- June. Cesis on the road to Riga was taken opposition. The Bolshevik Estonian Work- stroyed much of Narva. To the southeast on 31 May 1919, but retaken by the Baltic er’s Commune was declared in Narva on the Soviets launched a major counterattack German Landeswehr on 6 . In 29 November 1918. By the end of Decem- and recaptured Petseri on 11 March 1919. the Latvian Provisional Gov- ber Tapa had fallen to the Soviets, whose The Estonians, however, fought successful ernment had been ousted in a coup d’état forces were only twenty miles east of Tallinn. defensive battles south and east of Võru in by a pro-German Government, backed by To the southeast and south , , the second half of March, and Petseri fell the Landeswehr that preferred to turn and Pärnu were all threatened with cap- again to the Estonians on 29 March 1919. north against the Estonians rather than east ture. By mid-May the Estonians had completely against the Soviet forces. In a fierce battle On 6 January 1919 the Estonians coun- regained the initiative. lasting four days the Estonians defeated the terattacked, reinforced by a British naval In May 1919 the Estonian army com- Landeswehr, and the date on which Cesis presence and Finnish volunteers. In the mand decided to advance into Russia to was recaptured, 23 June 1919, has since been north on 12 January 1919 was re- secure the frontiers of Estonia. This move celebrated in Estonia as . Once captured, and on 19 January 1919 Narva required an uneasy alliance with the local again in the Latvians sought

146 Estonian help for the defence of Riga. Vääska, and threatened to surround Narva. the recapture of the towns of Tukums and In late August the Estonians were of- In very heavy fighting the Estonians man- Jelgava, which were held by the Russians fered peace talks by the Soviets and these aged to restore the situation. With the through the summer of 1917. On 1 Sep- took place in September in Pskov, which defeat of the attack on Petrograd the Allies tember 1917 the Germans launched an of- had been retaken by the Soviets at the end had lost hope of defeating the Soviets and fensive against Riga, very quickly captur- of August. No agreement was reached, no longer opposed peace talks. On 31 De- ing the city and a considerable salient to partly as a result of Allied pressure to con- cember 1919 an armistice was agreed which the east of the city on the east bank of the tinue fighting the Soviets, but the talks came into effect on 3 . Dur- River Daugava. The front line then re- did demonstrate that the Russians no longer ing January 1920 talks agreed the border mained static, until in February 1918 the regarded the conflict as a civil war, but as between Russia and Estonia, and the Treaty Germans advanced against minimal oppo- one between two sovereign states. In Octo- of Tartu was signed on 2 . sition to occupy all of the rest of Latvia. ber the White Russian North Western The presence of the German front line in Army launched an attack on Petrograd. This Latvia Latvia, and the perceived unwillingness of failed and the North Western Army col- Russian soldiers to defend what many of lapsed. By mid-November Soviet forces The First World War had a very severe them considered a German province, led were once again threatening Narva. The impact on Latvia, as the front line between to the creation of local Latvian Regiments Estonians disarmed the North Western German and Russian forces bisected Latvia authorised by the Russian government. By Army as it retreated into Estonia, but many for most of the duration of the war. By eight Latvian of its members joined the Estonian forces May 1915 the Germans had captured the had been formed, and during the course defending Narva. southwestern corner of Latvia, including of the war a total of over 130,000 men At the start of December peace talks re- the port of Liepaja. By September 1915 joined these local Latvian forces. In May commenced in Tartu. To strengthen their the Germans had advanced to the line of 1917 the Latvian Regiments transferred their negotiating position, the Soviets mounted the River Daugava, occupying all of Latvia loyalty to the Bolsheviks, partly through a heavy attacks on Narva. In the middle of south and west of the river, except for a sense of having been betrayed by the Tsar- the month the Soviet forces managed to Russian held salient on the west bank of ist forces in the fight against the Germans. create a bridgehead over the Narva River the river at Riga. In January 1917 a Rus- In March 1917 the Provisional Livonian to the southwest of Narva at Krivasoo and sian offensive from this salient ended with Council was formed at with au-

147 thority over the Latvian parts of Livonia, Latvia excluding Riga after early Septem- of the treaty the Germans continued to the Estonian parts having been absorbed ber 1917, banks and businesses were na- occupy adjacent parts of Russia in the into the new autonomous Estonia. In May tionalised, land was confiscated, civil rights Governorates of Pskov and Vitebsk. As has 1917 a provisional council for Latgale was and press freedom were restricted, politi- been related in the section on Estonia the formed at Rezekne. In the same month a cal activity was banned, nationalists were Germans had no desire to see the creation provisional council was formed for arrested, and religious freedom was not of genuinely independent Baltic states and Kurland in Tartu, as at that time the Ger- respected. The Bolshevik policies soon instead created a Baltic Dukedom, domi- mans occupied Kurland. On 5 July 1917 caused unrest amongst the majority of the nated by the Baltic Germans, incorporat- the Provisional Livonian Council was de- population and brought about renewed ing Estonia and Latvia whose “independ- clared the regional government by the Pro- support for independence. In on 16 ence” was proclaimed in Riga on 5 No- visional Government of Russia, which at November 1917 nationalist Latvian politi- vember 1918. Acting illegally during the the same time strongly opposed the unifi- cians formed a Provisional National Coun- German occupation the Provisional Na- cation of Latgale with the other of cil, which began to make preparations for tional Council united with the Democratic Latvia. On 12 August the Latvian authori- forming a constituent assembly and send- Bloc functioning in Riga to form the ties demanded total self-determination, and ing representatives to gather support in Latvian People’s Council. those closest to power decided that if the the west. A second sitting of the council in The armistice signed by Germany on Germans occupied Riga independence January 1918 confirmed the intention of 11 November 1918 at Compiègne in from Russia would be sought. separating Latvia from Russia and creat- France annulled the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk The first democratic elections to the ing an independent state but, at this time, and on 13 November the Bolsheviks started Livonian Council were held in August the council had no power to act. preparations for an offensive against the 1917, when the Bolsheviks gained a major- By the end of February 1918 the Ger- Germans in the east. The United Kingdom ity. After the October revolution in Rus- mans occupied all of Latvia. In accordance gave de facto recognition to Latvia on 11 sia the position of the Bolsheviks was much with the terms of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk November 1918 but it was not until 17 strengthened, and the Executive Commit- while the Bolsheviks ceded sovereignty of November 1918 that the first sitting of tee of Latvian Soviets wielded absolute Kurland they retained jurisdiction in the Latvian People’s Council, presided over power. In the areas not occupied by Ger- Livonia, although German troops were to by J. Cakste, took place. The People’s Coun- many, essentially northern and eastern be stationed here for security. Regardless cil appointed the Latvian Provisional Gov-

148 ernment headed by K. Ulmanis and the sea at Ventspils to the Lithuanian border. of March 1919 the German forces of Count declaration of independence of the Repub- With the advance of the Bolshevik forces von der Goltz with the South Latvian Bri- lic of Latvia was made in Riga Theatre on came the restoration of Bolshevik govern- gade were able to resume the offensive from 18 November 1918. ment, with the Latvian Soviet Republic the line of the River Venta. Tukums was The Latvian Provisional Government being declared in Valka shortly after its recaptured from the Bolsheviks on 15 had no armed forces at its disposal with capture. The situation was complicated by March, and Jelgava on 18 March 1919 and which to defend Latvia, and as the Ger- the fact that the Bolshevik forces included by 26 March 1919 the German and Latvian man forces withdrew the Bolsheviks occu- amongst their numbers the Latvian Regi- forces had closed on Riga, which remained, pied Latvia. The Germans were willing to ments, who now found themselves fight- though, for the time being in Bolshevik give up Latvia east of a line from Riga to ing for the Bolsheviks against not just hands. , and the Bolsheviks progressively German forces, but also the forces of the Count von der Goltz, however, har- occupied eastern Latvia without opposi- Latvian Provisional Government. boured aspirations still for the restoration tion. In the north Aluksne was taken on 7 In January 1919 the Landeswehr, formed of Baltic German dominance in the Baltic December, Valka on 18 December, and from the local Baltic Germans and the Iron area. On 16 April 1919 a coup backed by Cesis on 23 December 1918. In the south Division, formed from German volunteers, German units ousted the Latvian Provi- Daugavpils was taken on 9 December, were placed under the command of the sional Government and the regime of K. Plavinas on 17 December, and Skriveri on German General Count von der Goltz. In Ulmanis in Liepaja. While the Germans 27 December 1918. Riga fell to the Bolshe- January also the Latvian Provisional Gov- were able to arrest some ministers the ma- viks on 3 January 1919, and the Latvian ernment was able to form the South Latvian jority and the leadership, including Provisional Government moved to Liepaja. Brigade commanded by Balodis, Ulmanis, found refuge on the Latvian The Bolsheviks now engaged the Germans and by agreement with the Estonians was freighter “Saratov” under British protec- on the line they had chosen for their de- able to start forming the North Latvian tion in Liepaja harbour. On 10 May a fence. On 7 January Bauska fell to the Bol- Brigade, commanded by Colonel Zemitans puppet German-Latvian regime under the sheviks followed by Tukums and Jelgava in southern Estonia. Estonian forces re- leadership of A. Niedra was formed, but on 10 January 1919. The Bolshevik advance captured Valka and Rujiena from the Bol- this regime was recognised neither by the was only halted at the end of January 1919 sheviks on 1 February 1919, gaining a foot- Western Allies nor by the majority of the on the line of the River Venta from the hold in northern Latvia. At the beginning people of Latvia. In the areas under their

149 control the Landeswehr and the Iron Di- on 27 May 1919, further east Aluksne was forces began to retreat and were pursued vision took part in repressive measures to retaken by forces advancing from Valka on to Riga where they prepared to defend the force acceptance of the new regime. The 29 May 1919, and on 31 May 1919 Cesis city on 26 June. Under pressure though South Latvian Brigade did not accept the was retaken by forces advancing from from the Allies an armistice was agreed at new regime either but continued to co- Rujiena. In a very rapid advance south, Strazdumuiza on 3 . By its terms operate with the German forces, in oppos- forces from Aluksne reached Jekabpils on the legitimate government of Ulmanis was ing the Bolshevik forces and continuing 5 June 1919, linking up shortly afterwards to be restored, the Baltic German the liberation of Latvia from the Bolshe- with the South Latvian Brigade advancing Landeswehr was to be placed under the viks. from Riga. By the middle of June the Bol- command of the British officer, Lt Col On 22 May Riga was liberated from the sheviks retained control only of Latgale east Alexander (later Lord Alex- Bolsheviks by the German forces of Count of a line from on the Lithuanian ander of Tunis), and the Volunteer Ger- von der Goltz, which then continued their border to Aluksne in the north. However, man Iron Division was to leave Latvia. The advance northeast towards Cesis. The South there remained to be resolved the conflict government of K. Ulmanis returned to Riga Latvian Brigade was denied a major role between the largely German forces of on 8 July 1919 and the Landeswehr, under in the recapture of Riga, and was then Count von der Goltz loyal to the puppet British command, became a component directed to the southeast to pursue the Niedra regime and the Latvian and Esto- of the Latvian National Army. The Iron Bolsheviks along the banks of the River nian forces loyal to and supporting the Division, however, did not leave Latvia, Daugava. By ensuring that the German legitimate Ulmanis regime. despite a meeting between General Gough forces recaptured Riga Count von der On 19 June 1919 the German of the Allied Military Mission and Count Goltz was able to ensure the re-establish- Landeswehr and Iron Division opened the von der Goltz on 19 July, remaining in- ment of German authority in Riga. By his attack on the Latvian and Estonian forces stead at Jelgava. Allied pressure however subsequent dispositions he was able to en- around Cesis. By 21 June 1919 the Ger- did ensure that Count von der Goltz was sure that the German forces were so posi- mans had achieved considerable success, but recalled to Germany by the German gov- tioned that they were able to engage the the timely arrival of reinforcements ena- ernment on 3 October 1919. Estonian backed Latvian forces to the north. bled the Latvians and Estonians to coun- Allied support for the Baltic states was In the north of Latvia Limba¿i was cap- ter-attack and regain the initiative on 22 not motivated by any particular wish to tured by forces advancing from Estonia June 1919. Shortly afterwards the German see the Baltic states gain independence.

150 Instead allied support was motivated more Daugava. In fighting between 16 and 19 With the threat posed by the White by a wish to see that the Germans did not October at the Latvian National Russian forces extinguished and the depar- win territory in the east, having lost in Army defeated White Russian forces mov- ture of the last German forces on Latvian the west, and a wish to see the Russian ing east along the line of the River Daugava. territory, the Latvians could now look to Bolsheviks defeated and the Tsarist regime, Only in Kurland did the White Russians the liberation of Latgale where the situa- their ally in the war, restored to power. achieve any great success. The Latvians were tion had remained largely static since the For this reason the Allies supported the able only to hold the ports of Liepaja and summer. Plans were made in co-operation raising of the White Russian Western Ventspils and a narrow strip of the coast- with the Lithuanians and the Poles and an Army under the command of Colonel line east of Ventspils. The counter-attack offensive was launched on 3 January 1920, Bermondt-Avalov at Jelgava in late sum- of the Latvian National Army started on the same day as the Estonians agreed an mer and early autumn 1919, for opera- 11 October, and on 15 October the for- armistice with the Bolsheviks. The Lithua- tions against the Bolsheviks. The White tress of Daugagriva at the mouth of the nians and the Poles advanced on Daugavpils Russians, however, were no supporters of River Daugava was captured. With Allied from the south, and after the capture of the idea of independence for the Baltic naval gunfire support, the Latvians started the city the Poles advanced east to and states, and Germans who had previously to clear the parts of Riga on the west bank beyond Kraslava. To the north the Latvians served in the Iron Division of German of the River Daugava on 3 November, and advanced east on a broad front. Rezekne volunteers made more than three-quarters the whole of the city was back in Latvian was captured on 21 January 1920 and on 1 of Bermondt-Avalov’s force up. It should hands by 10 . On the night February 1920 an armistice was agreed with perhaps then have come as no surprise of 19 November Colonel Bermondt- the Bolsheviks. By this time, with the ex- when on 8 October 1919 the Russian Avalov placed his forces under the protec- ception of one small area in the north-east, Western Army commenced operations tion of General Eberhardt, the successor all Latvian speaking areas had been freed against the Republic of Latvia. to Count von der Goltz, who sought an from Bolshevik control and, although spo- Bermondt-Avalov’s forces marched on early truce. On 21 November the Latvians radic fighting took place for some time Riga from Jelgava but the Latvian National recaptured Jelgava. On the orders of the after the agreement of the armistice the Army, helped by volunteers from the popu- Allied Military Commission the whole of war of independence was over. A Peace lation of Riga, was able to prevent the Latvia was cleared of Bermondt-Avalov’s Treaty was finally agreed with Moscow on White Russians from crossing the River forces by 29 November 1919. 11 .

151 By the end of September the German sia in 1917 did not directly affect Lithua- Lithuania front line had stabilised along the line of nia although as a result the Germans re- the River Daugava in Latvia and south viewed their policy with regard to Lithua- The Germans occupied the area of mod- from Daugavpils to Pinsk. All of modern nia forming a Lithuanian council with lim- ern Lithuania in three stages during World Lithuania was now in German hands and ited powers. On 18 September 1917 a War One. Some seven months after the start would remain so for the rest of World War Lithuanian conference assembled in Vilnius of the war the Germans had regained the One. In spring 1916 the Russians mounted with J. Basanavi²ius as its elected Chair- initiative on their and, ad- an offensive northeast of Vilnius in the man. This conference stated the determi- vancing from Prussia, had occupied the vicinity of Lake Naroch but achieved no nation of the Lithuanian people to achieve border regions of the Russian Empire to a success, and thereafter the German occu- independence, and elected a 20 member maximum depth of some thirty miles in pation of Lithuania went unchallenged. Taryba or council chaired by A. Smetona the areas west of Kaunas and Alytus. As early as 1915 the political leadership to draw up a constitution. Germany pro- in Vilnius began to discuss the restoration In the Germans launched an posed a conference of Lithuanian politi- of Lithuanian independence. In Switzer- offensive in Lithuania to draw attention cians and this took place in Bern in No- land in 1916 the idea was first openly dis- away from their offensive being planned vember 1917, where agreement was reached cussed, and the desire for independence in Galicia. By the end of April 1915 all of on an independent Lithuanian state under was stressed in an appeal to the American western Lithuania had been occupied, and President Wilson. Lithuanians were encour- German protection. The Taryba presented the front line ran from north-west to south- aged during the spring of 1916 after the a document to the Germans on 11 Decem- east along the line of the Venta and Dubysa declaration of the formation of a Polish ber 1917 proclaiming the restoration of rivers, and then south just to the west of Republic under German and Austro-Hun- an independent Lithuanian state, but Ger- Kaunas, Alytus, and Grodno. In August garian protection, although there were fears many did not react to this document. 1915 the Germans resumed their offensive that the Poles might lay claim to Lithua- The Taryba, losing popularity, decided in Lithuania following up the success they nian territory. The Germans postponed to act decisively, and on 16 February 1918 had achieved further to the south. Kaunas any decision on the status of Lithuania the Independence Manifesto was signed and was attacked on 8 August 1915 and was until after the end of the war. Lithuania was declared independent. This captured nine days later. Vilnius fell to the Entirely occupied by Germany the time the Germans did react and recognised Germans on 19 September 1915. February and October revolutions in Rus- the Independence Manifesto on 23 March

152 1918, but only on the basis of the docu- The Bolsheviks captured Vilnius on 6 At the same time as the White Russian ment of 11 December 1917. On 13 July January 1919, and by the end of the same forces of Colonel Bermont-Avalov 1918 the Taryba elected the German Duke month only western Lithuania remained marched on Riga in October 1919, they Wilhelm von Urach as the King of Lithua- in Lithuanian and German hands. The invaded northwestern Lithuania and nia, in accordance with wishes expressed front line ran west and south of Tel¸iai, marched towards Vilnius. The Lithuanians in to link Lithuania to Germany as south of ¨iauliai and curved south east decisively defeated the Bermont-Avalov closely as possible. of Kaunas and just east of Alytus. On 5 forces at Radvili¸kis on 21 November Following the German armistice with the March 1919 the Lithuanian government 1919. Many of Bermont-Avalov’s forces Allies on 11 November 1918 and the annul- resorted to compulsory to were German volunteers, and as a result ling of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the Bol- sustain their army. In April 1919 Polish of his actions the Western Allies demanded sheviks resumed their offensive against the forces liberated Vilnius from the Bolshe- the withdrawal of all remaining German Germans in the east. The Germans fell back viks, and Lithuanian and German forces forces from the Baltic States and the last from the forward positions they had occu- went onto the offensive against the Bol- German troops left Lithuania on 15 De- pied in February 1918, but were determined sheviks elsewhere in Lithuania, soon lib- cember 1919. to hold positions in Lithuania to the east erating Paneve¿ys and Ukmerge. By the During July 1920 the Bolsheviks of their frontiers. The Lithuanian govern- end of June 1919 all of Lithuania had been mounted a major offensive during which ment started to organise a Lithuanian Army cleared of Bolshevik forces, and in Au- the Poles were driven from eastern Lithua- on 23 November 1918, but in early Decem- gust 1919 a ceasefire with the Bolsheviks nia, and Vilnius was captured on 14 July ber 1918 the Bolsheviks invaded Lithuania. took effect although this had not been 1920. The Lithuanians concluded a peace On 8 December the Provisional Lithuanian formally agreed and much of eastern treaty with the Bolsheviks on 12 July 1920 Government of Workers and Peasants was Lithuania remained in Polish hands. A that established eastern and southern bor- proclaimed. On 16 January 1919 it was de- Polish backed coup to unite Lithuania ders for Lithuania. (These borders were cided in Moscow to abolish the Belarussian with Poland was discovered and foiled in further east and further south than those Soviet Republic, absorb most of it into Kaunas in . A demarcation given to the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Russia, and amalgamate the rest with Lithua- line had been established with the Poles Republic in 1944 and accepted today.) nia as the Lithuanian-Belarussian Soviet in July 1919 but border clashes contin- Vilnius was handed back to the Lithuanians Republic. ued for the next year. by the Bolsheviks on 27 August 1920.

153 At the gates of Warsaw, with Warsaw Poland on 8 and remained in already reported as having fallen to the Polish hands until 1939, causing continu- Intervention Bolsheviks in some newspapers, the Poles ing ill feeling between Lithuania and Po- inflicted a massive defeat on the Bolshe- land. The intervention of the Western Allies viks, who started to retreat in disorder with Settling the borders of Germany fol- in the Baltic area at the end of the First the Poles advancing close behind them. On lowing the end of the First World War World War was not motivated by any par- 7 , with the Western Allies the territory of Memel (Klaipeda), that ticular policy to assist the Baltic states participating in the negotiations, an agree- part of Prussia north of the River achieve independence. Instead the allies did ment was signed between Lithuania and Nemunas, was detached from Germany as not wish to see the Germans profit in the Poland that, although it left certain issues a Free City. French forces occupied the east when they had lost in the west, and unresolved, left Vilnius in Lithuanian area but civil administration remained in sought to support the White Russians in hands. Two days later Polish forces led by German hands. The local German popu- the Russian Civil War. The Russian Tsarist General Zeligowski re-occupied Vilnius and lation, just under half of the total, aimed Regime had been a good ally and the west- the surrounding areas. The Polish govern- for reunion with Germany and the Poles ern powers had no wish to see the Bolshe- ment accepted no responsibility for the also made claims to the territory. In Janu- viks become established in Russia. How- actions of General Zeligowski who, they ary 1923 Lithuanian troops occupied ever following the losses of the First World Klaipeda in support of an uprising by claimed, was leading a force of local inhab- War the western allies had no wish to be- the local Lithuanian inhabitants. At first itants. In the Lithuanians come involved in an expensive conflict in the French occupation forces resisted the inflicted a defeat on the forces of General Russia. Support for the White Russians Lithuanian occupation but soon gave way Zeligowski at ¨irvintos north of Vilnius went as far as the provision of materiel and were returned to France. On 8 May support and volunteers, and the securing and started to advance towards Vilnius, but 1924 the in Paris for- of base areas for them but not as far, ex- agreed to a League of Nations brokered mally agreed to the incorporation of cept on isolated occasions, as actually tak- ceasefire before having retaken Vilnius. A Klaipeda into Lithuania. The status of neutral zone was established between Klaipeda soured Lithuania’s relations with ing part in fighting against the Bolshevik Lithuania and Poland on 29 November Germany, and on 22 March 1939 Lithua- forces. 1920. After a plebiscite Vilnius and the nia gave in to German demands that Allied forces supported the White Rus- surrounding area was incorporated into Memel be returned to them. sians from all points of the compass. In

154 the north, from the , British, Although the task of the British and Navy supported the Estonians, who had American, Italian, and Serbian forces op- French naval forces was essentially to block- gone over to the offensive, with naval gun- erated from Moermansk and Archangel. In ade the Bolshevik forces they maintained fire against the Bolshevik forces. the south, in the area, French an offensive posture and provided con- Vessels of the arrived in Riga and Rumanian forces operated from siderable support to the authorities and on 19 December 1918. Stores were landed, Odessa, and British forces operated from forces of the Baltic states. (By contrast the training was provided to Latvian volun- Batumi. In the east American, British, allied land forces committed in other parts teers, and naval gunfire was provided in Czech, and Japanese forces were present in of Russia maintained an essentially defen- support of the forces of the Ulmanis gov- . These land forces numbered in sive posture.) The British Royal Navy, com- ernment. However the Royal Navy could excess of 100,000 men. In the west mainly manded by Rear-Admiral Sinclair arrived not by itself prevent the fall of Riga to the naval forces lent assistance to the anti-Bol- in Estonian waters in the early days of Bolsheviks, it withdrew carrying refugees shevik forces, including the forces of the December 1918. One early act of support on 3 January 1919 and Sinclair’s force with- emerging Baltic nations. In the first half involved the bombardment of the only drew from the Baltic Sea. of 1919 the British Royal Navy had an bridge across the Narva River, destroying Sinclair was replaced by a force under average of just fewer than thirty ships com- it and creating severe difficulties for the the command of Rear-Admiral Cowan. mitted to operations in the Baltic Sea, in Bolshevik forces to the west of it in Esto- This force, in February 1919, was able to the second half of the year this figure in- nia. The Royal Navy also acted as a cover- provide additional materiel support to creased threefold. The , which ing force to a small Estonian amphibious the Latvians at Liepaja, and with the use worked in close co-operation with the Royal assault to the rear of the Bolshevik front of naval gunfire support the Latvians in Navy, had twenty-six ships involved in line, and provided over 5,000 rifles and the defence of Ventspils. In April addi- Baltic operations. The Americans had four- other stores to the Estonian forces. Before tional support in the shape of artillery teen ships present, and the Italians con- the end of December 1918 the Royal Navy guns and transport was provided to the tributed two ships. Direct assistance, both had captured two Bolshevik , Latvians at Liepaja, and the Royal Navy in terms of volunteer personnel and which were handed over to the Estonian played an active part in preventing the materiel, was also given to the Baltic states Navy and assisted in the transport of over capture of Ulmanis and the Latvian Gov- in limited amounts by a number of other 500 Finnish volunteers from Helsinki to ernment at the time of the German backed states, in particular the Scandinavians. Tallinn. Early in January 1919 the Royal coup.

155 May 1919 found the Royal Navy in the French Navy gave significant support sought a renewal of union with Russia, to Estonian waters where cover was once again to the Latvian forces. Both at Riga and at dispute the style of government of Fin- provided for Estonian amphibious opera- Liepaja naval gunfire supported the efforts land with the “White” Finns. Without tions and a close watch was kept on the of the Latvian government forces oppos- doubt the Germans contributed in large Bolshevik fleet at Kronstadt. Operations ing the White Russian forces of Bermondt- measure to the victory of the “White” against Kronstadt involved elements of the Avalov. Finns. Since the civil war in Finland took recently formed Royal Air Force. May 1919 British operations in the Baltic Region place before the end of the First World also saw the establishment of a British were not carried out without losses. A to- War the Western Allies played, essentially, Military Mission in the Baltic Region tal of 17 ships were sunk, with mines claim- no role in the . headquartered at Helsinki. ing a large number, and 37 were In Estonia the decisive events leading Following the defeat of the German also lost. 123 Royal Navy and 5 Royal Air to independence started some months later Landeswehr at Cesis, the Royal Navy played Force personnel were killed. than in Finland. In essence the Germans an important role in the negotiations at played no military role in the independ- Riga that led to the restoration in Latvia Conclusion ence of Estonia and left the field early. In of the government of Ulmanis. It was at large measure the Estonians achieved inde- this time that an officer from the British In the introduction four factors were pendence by themselves in opposition to Mission, Lt Col Alexander, was appointed identified as being relevant to the route to the Bolsheviks. The Western Allies, mainly to command the Landeswehr in support independence for all of the Baltic states, the British and in particular the Royal Navy, of Latvian objectives. Later, at the start of their relative importance being different did play a role in the independence of 1920, the Landeswehr were to play a major for each of the four states. Estonia. It is easy to overestimate that role role in the liberation of Latgale that con- In Finland the war of independence was if only because the assistance given was just cluded the Latvian War of Independence. more of a civil war than in the other states. enough at a crucial time, rather than sus- October 1919 saw the White Russian The Russian Bolsheviks recognised Finn- tained and substantial assistance over a forces of Bermondt-Avalov, with consid- ish independence at an early stage and did period of time. erable German support, commence their not openly play an active role in events in It is in Latvia that the situation is most operations against the Latvian government Finland. It was therefore left to Finnish complex. But for German assistance and forces. Again the British Royal Navy and Bolsheviks, who might or might not have resistance in the early stages Latvia might

156 have succumbed to the Bolsheviks. It was, And so for some twenty years the Baltic though, allied intervention, without a states enjoyed independence until the on- Annex doubt, that thereafter thwarted German set of the Second World War, a war with intentions in favour of Latvian aspirations. its origins in the imperfections of the trea- President Wilson’s “Fourteen Points”: Beyond that, allied intervention played a ties that concluded the First World War. 1. Point One renounced secret treaties role in defeating Russian aspirations, both Finland resisted the fight- demanding, “open covenants openly ar- Bolshevik and White. The Estonians too ing later with, but not for, Germany. Fin- rived at”. played a part in Latvia, playing a consider- land retained her sovereignty, although 2. Point Two required freedom of the able role in the defeat of the Bolsheviks in she lost much in terms of territory and seas outside territorial waters and an end northern Latvia, a decisive role in the de- limitations on her freedom of action. The to “blockade” tactics. feat of Baltic German aspirations, and giv- governments of Estonia, Latvia and 3. Point Three called for the removal, ing assistance to the Latvians in the defeat Lithuania chose not to resist the Soviet wherever possible, of trade barriers. of the White Russians. Union, although later many of their peo- 4. Point Four called for arms reductions As in Latvia, in Lithuania too the Ger- ple did, and sovereignty was lost. What 5. Point Five called for impartial arbi- mans played a role in keeping the Lithua- might have been the ultimate outcome if tration of all colonial disputes nians in the field against the Bolsheviks in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania had resisted 6. Point Six called for the evacuation, the early stages. The western allies played a in 1939? It is, at this stage of history, of by the Central Powers, of all former Rus- minimal role in Lithuania, and indeed lat- course impossible to say. Perhaps occu- sian territory. terly, in the case of Memel (Klaipeda), the pation and incorporation into the So- 7. Point Seven dealt with the restora- Lithuanians found themselves opposed to viet Union would have happened anyway, tion of Belgium. the French. Ultimately in Lithuania, where but there has to be a chance that their 8. Point Eight admitted French claims the struggle for independence lasted long- fate would have mirrored that of Finland, to and . est, the Lithuanians, having played their and there is perhaps a bigger chance that 9. Point Nine gave some recognition part in defeating the White Russian forces, their fate would have mirrored that of to Italian territorial claims. found themselves sharing cause with the Poland. Perhaps the 1990s could have seen 10. Point Ten provided “autonomous Russian Bolsheviks against a common en- democratic government restored instead development” for the various nationalities emy, the Poles. of sovereignty. within the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

157 11. Point Eleven demanded the evacua- and balance of power. The desire to construct an but local Lithuanians responded by forming a tion of occupied Romania, effective balance of power remained at the centre of Committee for the Salvation of Lithuania Minor. the Congress’ attention. Each power, however, had Lithuanian sovereignty over Memel (Lithuanian and Serbia with the latter having access to its own idea of what constituted a proper balance. Klaipeda) was internationally recognized when the Adriatic Coast. Russia’s ambitions in Poland almost broke up France, Britain, Italy, and Japan signed the Memel 12. Point Twelve guaranteed Turkish the conference: Britain believed that an enlarged Statute in . Memel was formally sovereignty over its heartlands but de- Russia threatened peace. Prussia wanted all of incorporated as an autonomous region of Lithua- Saxony: Austria feared a growing Prussia. While nia on , 1924. The local assembly () manded autonomy for subject peoples and the four wartime allies split, the clever French rep- was given extensive power over internal affairs sub- the opening of the to interna- resentative, Talleyrand, negotiated a secret treaty ject to the approval of a governor appointed by tional traffic. among the French, Austrians, and British that the President of Lithuania. Memel was returned to pledged mutual assistance to restrain the Russians the Germans on , 1939. The Lithuanians 13. Point Thirteen recognized an inde- and Prussians. Russia and Prussia eventually re- had bowed to Hitler’s inevitable demands and pendent Poland with access to the sea. duced their demands for land in Poland and turned the region over without a fight. Memel was 14. Point Fourteen recommended a Saxony, and the sought-after balance of power was heavily defended throughout the Second World “general association” of nations. achieved. War. The captured the heavily damaged 2 The city and region of Memel lies on the Baltic city on , 1945. Memel was renamed at the mouth of the River Niemen. The region Klaipeda and incorporated into the Lithuanian 1 After the Napoleonic War representatives of all came under Swedish control and, following the Soviet Socialist Republic in 1947. the European powers, except the , Napoleonic wars under Prussia. It remained within 3 At the time of the October Revolution Russia gathered in September 1815 at Vienna. They had the German Reich until the end of . still used the , so to find the Gregorian the imposing task of building a new political and Germans constituted a majority of the city’s popu- date we use the “rule of thumb” that after February diplomatic structure for Europe after a quarter lation while Lithuanians predominated in the sur- 1900 the Julian calendar was 13 days behind the century of wars and revolutions. Work went slowly rounding countryside. The Treaty of Versailles sev- Gregorian Calendar. This means that on 5 Novem- during the ten-month span of the Congress of Vi- ered Memel and the surrounding district from ber 1917 Gregorian calendar, it was 23 October enna. The leaders who gathered at Vienna - Lord Germany. Lithuanian representatives to the Paris 1917 according to the Julian calendar. Different parts Castlereagh of , Count von Peace Conference had asked the Allied Powers to of Russia changed from the Julian (JU) to the Gregorian Hardenberg of Prussia, Prince Klemens von grant them possession of the Memel area, but in- calendar (GR) on different times during and after the Metternich of Austria, Tsar , stead it was placed under a French administration revolution. Most sources refer to the change in Feb- and Prince Charles Maurice de Talleyrand of that governed under a League of Nations man- ruary 1918 where 31 January 1918 JU, was succeeded France - met in small secret conferences to decide date. An Allied commission recommended estab- by 14 February 1918 GR. This law was signed on 26 the future of Europe. In an attempt to restore some lishing a “Free City” under League of Nations January 1918 JU. balance, the Congress followed four principles: le- supervision in the fall of 1922. Memel’s German 4 Please find the full text of the “Fourteen Points” gitimacy, encirclement of France, compensation, and Polish communities favoured the proposal in the annex to this article.

158

Top View