Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest

Prime University

PUJMQ Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest

Editor Profulla C. Sarker Prime University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Associate Editor M. Abul Hossain Sikder Prime University Dhaka, Bangladesh

Book Review Editor P. Dash Sharma Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University Ranchi, India

Managing Editor Mohammad Arshad Ali Prime University Dhaka, Bangladesh

Published by Centre for Research, Human Resource Development and Publications Prime University 2A/1 North East of Darus Salam Road Section-1, Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Cover Design Amal Das

Printed by Color Line, 01715812345

Price : Tk. 250.00 / US $ 5.00

Editorial Board

Bong Joo Lee Gareth Davey Seoul National University University of Chester South Korea UK

Sarah Safdar Durgadas Bhattacharjee Peshwar University Dhaka University Pakistan Bangladesh

Antonio Fiori A. Renaweera University of Bolonga Colombo University Italy Sri Lanka

Manohar Pawar Tiong Tan Charles Sturt University Singapore National University New South Wales, Australia Singapore

Cecillia Chan Margarita Frederico HongKong University Latrobe University HongKong Australia

M.A. Sobhan Desa Shankwan Independent University Thamasat University Bangladesh Thailand

Edoardo Monaco Paul Olson HKBU-BNU, UIC Toronto University China Canada

M. Shahidullah Sarkar Ali Akkas Rajshahi University Jagannath University Bangladesh Bangladesh

Desmond P. Fleming Surindir Nath Institute of Hospitality Management Delhi University Ireland India

Cassie Landers Heinz Theisen Columbia University Catholic University of Köln USA Germany

Editorial Note

Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest (PUJMQ) is an international journal published twice in a year (January-June and July- December). It is a referred journal designed to promote multidisciplinary inquiry on research, education and development. PUJMQ encompasses all scientific academic fields dealing with life, society, culture, business, law, science and technology. The main mission and vision of PUJMQ is to make multidisciplinary linkages that promote to inter-lock the different disciplines in a single platform. Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest (PUJMQ) has an international editorial board involving the scholars of different disciplines across the East and the West and as a result it helps to mitigate cross- cultural issue-based problems across the globe. It is a multidisciplinary and international forum which acts as a catalyst to promote and exchange ideas, views, and knowledge of different disciplines that encourage scholars to enhance their creative and innovative knowledge in global perspective. It helps to contribute to the knowledge of the academics, researchers, policy makers, planners, practitioners and development workers in global perspective in order to formulate effective as well as pragmatic policies for need-based holistic development. Eight research papers have been selected in the current volume on different issues along with the book review. The first one deals with transforming Jharkhand (Indian estate) through development initiative. This paper is based on the findings of an experimental research project initiated by the government and non-government organizations which implies economic wellbeing as well as social transformation among the people of Jharkhand. The second paper focuses on communities‘ informal care and welfare practices for the caring of the elderly people. This paper addresses the caring needs and issues of the elderly both in developing and developed countries across the globe. The third one discusses the violence against targeted women through acid throwing for disfigurement in

Bangladesh. The main focus of this paper is to examine the main causes of acid attack and its trend, the laws enacted to prevent acid throwing against women and the problems for execution of these laws. The next one depicts the school feeding program to fight against malnutrition for the disadvantaged children to improve their quality of education and well being. The main objective of this paper is to examine to what extent the school feeding program is contributing to enhance the nutrition status of the weaker section of the children for their cognitive development. The fifth paper is an attempt to discuss the employment, education, health and housing scenario of British Bangladeshis in the United Kingdom in historical perspective. The sixth paper deals with the silver recovery from waste plasma TV monitors through leaching and coagulating precipitation technique. The seventh paper is an attempt to assess variation in ambient PM10 levels in urban-industrial ground level atmosphere of Benepa Valley, Nepal. The last one deals with the solution of unit commitment problem of electric power system using GA. The last paper discusses the perception on the state democracy and military-backed caretaker government in Bangladesh. The book review section covers the nutrition status of Indian population of eastern region, Muslim baradaries (caste like groups) found among the Muslims in Uttar Pradesh in India and how these groupings create disintegration and affects education, micro-finance and women empowerment in Indian society. All of these books are well reviewed by the scholars based on their specialization and interest highlighting the main subject.

Profulla C. Sarker Editor

Contents

Transforming Jharkhand through Development Initiatives: An Experiment in Natural Resource Management in a District of India P. Dash Sharma

Communities' Informal Care and Welfare Practices and Caring for the Elderly Manohar Pawar

Violence against Women through Acid Throwing in Bangladesh: An Atrocity Process for Disfigurement in Gender Perspective Anjelika Hasan

School Feeding Program: A Step towards Achieving Nutrition Security for the Disadvantaged Children Profulla C. Sarker

Employment, Education, Health and Housing Scenario of British Bangladeshis in the United Kingdom: An Overview M. Abul Hossain Sikder Jakia Nusrat Mithila

Silver Recovery from Scrap of Spent Plasma TV Monitors - an Electronic Waste: Using Hydrometallurgical and Coagulation-Precipitation Technique Biplob Kumar Biswas Katsutoshi Inoue Atsushi Hoshino

Assessment of Variation in Ambient PM10 Levels in Urban-Industrial ground level Atmosphere of Banepa Valley, Nepal Ahmad Kamruzzaman Majumder V. Krishna Murthy K. M. Nazmul Islam

Solution of Unit Commitment Problem of Electric Power System Using GA M. A. Barik A. B. M. Nasiruzzaman M. F. Zaman

Book Reviews

Nutritional Status of Indian Population: Eastern Region By K. K. Bhattacharya (ed.). pp. viii + 242, tables, epilogue, 2009. Anthropological Survey of India: Kolkata. Hard cover. Price Rs. 410/- P. Dash Sharma

Muslims Baradaries, Occupations and Educations By Abdul Waheed. pp. x + 103, tables. maps, annexure, 2011. Serials Publications: New Delhi. Hard cover. Price 495/- Asesh K. Haldar

Micro-Finance and Women Empowerment By B. Malleswari. pp. xvii + 252, abbreviations, tables, diagram, figures, bibliography, 2010. Serials Publications: New Delhi. Hard cover. Price 895/- Dipankar Chatterjee

TRANSFORMING JHARKHAND THROUGH DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES: AN EXPERIMENT IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT IN A DISTRICT OF INDIA

P. Dash Sharma 1

Keywords: Transforming. Development. Resource. Management. India.

Abstract: The recent literature on poverty has caused rethinking of development policies appropriate for poverty alleviation. Poverty does not come by itself, one needs to understand the causes of poverty. Once the cause of poverty is understood, the solution for minimizing the poverty can be found out, if not its complete eradication. In the present paper the author would like to focus his attention to the development process initiated by the government and non-government organizations which implies economic betterment of the people as well as social transformation. South Bihar (now Jharkhand), and Orissa, and also south-eastern part of Madhya Pradesh (now Chhattisgarh) has strong concentration of Scheduled Tribe population. We find a fairly uniform pattern of culture in this tribal dominated pocket of central India. The author specifically likes to present the economic inequality of the people of Jharkhand where 26 per cent people are tribals, who are struggling hard to adjust themselves with the rapidly changing situation brought in by large scale industrialization and ever increasing urbanization in specific centres interspersed between forests and agricultural tracts.

Introduction The basic principles of growth and development are the same the world over. Though we behave in a generally homogeneous manner, we are vastly different from economically developing countries of Africa and Asia, and from the affluent West.In a broad sense, development is defined as the overall well-being of the entire population. Thus any agenda on

1 Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Faculty of Rural and Tribal Development and Management, Morabadi, Ranchi 834008 , India (Retired Professor, Ranchi University. Guest Faculty) E-mail: [email protected]

10 development goes beyond the income of the individual or of the groups of individuals or of the society, and encompasses healthy living, equity, empowerment, participation, security, and social cohesion. Thus the goal of the nation for development is to increase economic growth and social justice, improve human resources, empower the poor, and create employment opportunity for them and consequently to reduce poverty. Thus a nation thrives and develops if it simultaneously encompasses all these for the betterment of its people. In India, there is low level of income and high incidence of poverty, which has impacted on all aspects of development of the human society. Extreme poverty is now heavily concentrated in two particular regions of the world: South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. They have among the lowest per capita income among all the regions (Amartya Sen, 2000:99, ―Development as Freedom‖). Poverty affects social development directly, as it has strong positive impact on infant mortality and death rate. The recent literature on poverty has caused rethinking of development policies appropriate for poverty alleviation. There is quite a good number of literature that generally refers to addressing poverty. Poverty does not come by itself, one needs to understand the causes of poverty. Once the cause of poverty is understood, the solution for minimizing poverty can be found out, though not its eradication. While talking about poverty, it reminds me of one cartoon by the celebrated cartoonist R. K. Laxman on Mr Rajiv Gandhi‘s ambitious plan on virtually eradicating poverty that appeared in Laxman Rekha, a Times of India Publication (edited by Nina Martyris, p. 121, 205). The lines run as follows against the cartoon on the facing page (120) : ―Mr Rajiv Gandhi outlined an ambitious plan of virtually eradicating poverty. He stated that 75 per cent of the population would be lifted above the poverty line within five years and that by the end of the century, the figure would be 95 per cent. He also said that from 1980 to 1984, the percentage for people brought above the poverty line had gone up from 36 to 51.‖ (This is an extract from his speech delivered on 5 December 1985). Based on his speech R. K. Laxman developed a cartoon thus — An aged haggard faced poor man with an empty thali and a lota sitting on the ground with folded legs before the pasted statistical chart on the wall, looking at the poverty line which hangs before him just a little above his bald head. The drawn

11 poverty line has been held stretched by a man, a facial carricature of Mr Rajiv Gandhi, partly bending across his working table, while on the other end on the right side, a bespectacled man stands holding the other end of the line, giving the impression of a bureaucrat, amidst sheets of papers (suggesting statistical estimates). The twosome join in hands through the line while the caricature of Mr Gandhi, the politician, speaks, ―LOWER IT. LET THE POOR FELLOW BE A WEE BIT ABOVE IT!‖ Though it is just a cartoon, but it shows the reality in India. Identification of poor and estimation of poverty in India has received considerable attention during the last few decades. The issue of identification of poor in rural areas is one of the most important factors for effective implementation of various poverty alleviation programmes. The basis for estimating poverty in India is the National Sample Survey data on Household Consumer Expenditure. The Planning Commission of the Government of India, or its Expert Group, as well as the other social scientists, estimate the poverty in rural and urban areas in India on the basis of the National Sample Survey data. There are controversies and diversity of opinions (Reddy, 2002:484) on the methodology and estimates of poverty released by the Planning Commission of the Government of India as it does not take into consideration the various facets of rural population like social groups (caste), type of household (occupation), possession of land, possession of irrigated land, age and sex of the head of the household and other members of the household. While the Expert Group for estimating the State-specific poverty line takes into consideration the various facets of the rural population (Cornia and Stewart,1993; cf. Reddy, 2002:484). Cultural characteristics of Bihar (north Bihar), Uttar Pradesh and north- west of Madhya Pradesh are fairly similar, being the Hindi speaking belt, where there is high concentration of Scheduled Castes. While south Bihar (now Jharkhand), and Orissa, and also south-eastern part of Madhya Pradesh (now Chhattisgarh) has strong concentration of Scheduled Tribal population. We find a fairly uniform pattern of culture in this tribal- dominated pocket of central India. Only Orissa and West Bengal are linguistically and culturally distinct from the central Indian Hindi speaking belt, though tribal cultural characteristics are similar to those of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Thus we find that the ‗high poverty states‘ show two

12 distinct linguistic groups, one Hindi speaking group, and the other Bengali/Oriya linguistic group. Assam is an exception. In the present paper the author would like to focus his attention to the development process initiated by the government and non-government organizations which implies economic betterment of the people as well as social transformation. The author specifically would like to present the economic inequality of the people of Jharkhand where 26 per cent people are tribals who are struggling hard to adjust themselves with the rapidly changing situation brought in by large scale industrialization and ever increasing urbanization in specific centres interspersed between forests and agricultural tracts. The paper would present discussions on development initiatives taken up by non-government organizations like Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Divyayan Krishi Vigyan Kendra Ranchi, and the Society for Rural Industrialisation, Ranchi. These two organizations are focusing on development initiatives in agriculture, education and technology development skills among rural and tribal youths. Apart from the development programmes which are being run by these two NGO organizations in the Angara block of Ranchi, the author would also like to discuss the rural and tribal development programmes of the Jharkhand government in general for impact assessment. Though anthropologists are greatly involved in tribal and caste communities study, very little contribution has been extended by anthropologists on human development aspects of these communities. Our findings on socio-economic aspects and health related aspects largely remain unattended on the pages of the journals. We do not communicate the problems of the people we study to the administrators. They love to discuss with us but we have to move our first step towards them. At least we can communicate the plight of the poor tribals through newspaper columns to attract the attention of the administrators.

The Scenario of Indian Society The Indian society is in the throes of transition. When we look around us we find that every aspect of life and organization is undergoing change. No where is this so prominent, perhaps, as in the patterns of stratification and differentiation. The traditional pattern of differentiation rooted in

13 professional family heredity and family behaviour, is being replaced by a new pattern based on competition and specialization which have thrown open newer modern occupations and professions. In India the twin process of mobility and urbanization are going on simultaneously. Today the tribals of some villages in Jharkhand are almost indistinguishable from the upper caste villages. The Oraons, for example, have forgotten their past tradition (Sachchidananda, 1970). The Gonds of some areas have become ―part-society as a caste‖. The Mundas have begun to lose faith in the power of ―Bonga‖ (Sachchidananda, 1979). The Bhumij exhibits caste like characteristics (Sinha, 1965). The tribals of Jharkhand differ widely among themselves in the level of social-economic development (Vidyarthi, 1974). The number of people living entirely by hunting and food gathering is very small. Many tribal communities have already got assimilated with the general population in India.

Rural Development and the Planning Process The rural character of the economy and the need for regeneration of rural life was stressed by Mahatma Gandhi as early as in 1936 when he wrote in Harijan (4th April, 1936): "India is to be found not in its few cities but in its 700,000 villages. But we town dwellers have believed that India is to be found in its towns and the villages created to minister to our needs. We have hardly paused to inquire if those poor folk get sufficient to eat and clothe themselves with and whether they have a roof to shelter themselves from sun and rain".Rural development is therefore, an absolute and urgent necessity in India now and will continue to be so in future. Indian policy makers have been emphasizing the need of rural development ever since the advent of the planning process in the country. The ultimate objective of rural development was the eradication of poverty and thus improving the quality of life of the masses. Hence the focus of planned development was on "growth with equity". However, despite a modest growth in the economy, rural areas have lagged behind in the process of development. The economic growth of India has remained concentrated in a few sectors and only in certain regions of the country. This has created wide regional disparities and inequalities amongst the different sections of the society. Planning and development policies for the

14 eradication of poverty in rural India has started since the inception of the First Five Year Plans (1951-61) which outlined a series of measures from land reforms to progressive taxation, to bring about reduction in economic and social inequality. Though, importance of rural development was recognised in the earlier plans, it was only from the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) onwards that due emphasis was laid on rural development.During the Sixth Plan (1980-85) a new strategy in the name of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was devised, which aimed to provide poor families with income generating assets to enable them to generate incremental surplus to cross the poverty line. The concept of decentralised planning was also introduced during this period. As per the recommendations of the committee constituted by the Government of India in April 1999 under the chairmanship of Prof. S.R. Hashim, Member, Planning Commission, two programmes viz. Jawahar Rojgar Yojna (JRY) and Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) have been integrated and renamed as Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojna. Based on the recommendations of this very committee, six programmes of self- employment viz. IRDP, DWCRA, TRYSEM, SITRA, GKY and MWS have been integrated into one programme known as Swarn Jayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojna (SGSY). The sustainability of any project presupposes its proper formulation and implementation. The main characteristics of a sustainable project are the choice of methods of implementation, the degree of involvement of the beneficiaries and the institutional arrangements for involving the people in the various phases of the project. In India we find this sustainability of the projects in a very bad shape. On the basis of experience in developed and developing economies of the world it has now been realised that the real motive force of socio-economic progress is the people. So people's participation in the development programmes is the need of the hour for sustainable development.Many non-government organisations and voluntary organisations after having understood the basic concepts of people's participation in rural development programmes have come forward to assist the government and its programmes to serve the predominant agrarian society in rural areas of India. In the tribal belt of Jharkhand there are more than 200 non-government organisations which

15 are actively engaged in the development programmes in the different districts of Jharkhand.

Science and Technology for Rural Development In India, all the science and technology institutions are only caring for the urban people. The chain of Science and Technology institutions for National Laboratories at one end and the ITI‘s on the other cater to only urban industrial needs. Science and technology for the vast rural areas of India is left to the traditional craftsmen and to ill trained and ill equipped personnel. Development administration at the block level is manned by ordinary arts graduates. India needs a science and technology policy to cater to its own special needs, the needs of the rural people, and not that which is based on the value system of the affluent West. The Western value system brings social stress and is a source of economic wastage. Society for Rural Industrialisation, (established in 1984), a non- government organisation has been striving hard for sustainable development of the rural and tribal people of Chotanagpur since 1985. It is worth recording that a model for development based on the philosophy of SRI evolved through nearly ten years of exploratory work in the field (since 1974). It was only in 1984, that some individuals, mainly Dr A. K. Basu, a faculty member of BIT, Mesra, who later resigned from BIT, and his student Dr Indrajit Dey, decided to form a legal association in the name of SRI. The vision of SRI is to industrialise rural India. The primary objective is to rouse an attitude in the rural people towards industrialization and not to set up industries in the rural areas of present Jharkhand. The present author had the opportunity to work on a project at Angara block of Ranchi district where the Society for Rural Industrialisation has taken up development programmes for the block people who are mostly tribals and belong to the underprivileged and backward communities. The project was initiated from the beginning of the nineties and it sustained the development programmes through the decades. It has developed the entire block with its land and people. Ultimately the project turned into a new development concept popularly known as ―Rural Technology Park‖. It

16 was developed by Dr A. K. Basu through his untiring efforts while working with the people at Angara. (see Dash Sharma, 2001).

Rural Technology Park (RTP) Based on the concept note on the role of Science & Technology in rural development presented to Smt. Indira Gandhi and subsequently a detailed approach paper on Integrated Appropriate Technology Centre to Sri Rajiv Gandhi, the first TRC in India was established at SRI by Ministry of Rural Development. The distinctive feature of TRC is that it facilitates simultaneous participation of scientists, engineers, administrators, promoters and village level users. Thus the development research is conducted jointly by all the three, which enhances its technical reliability, promotional support and social acceptability. One of the important objectives of Society for Rural Industrialisation (SRI) is skill, attitude, and confidence building among the inhabitants of the Angara block (Basu,2001). SRI is striving hard to create a science and technology based environment in the villages of Chotanagpur where the new ability acquired by the individuals can be put into practice. This programme, now sponsored by DST and other Ministries and supported by all States, originated during a meeting with the Prime Minister, Sri. P. V. Narsimha Rao. The issue was how to improve the accessibility of the poorer sections in villages to modern science and technology. The document on RTP prepared by SRI identified a block to be the zone of influence for each RTP to cater to the needs of 100,000 people. It argued that accessibility must ensure that they could learn, see, touch and play with the technology to develop confidence level before adopting it. The first RTP was established at Angara Block of Ranchi District.

Angara Block Angara block lies on the Ranchi-Purulia road, at a distance of 25 km from Ranchi (nearest point of block headquarters), and the farthest tip of the block covers a distance of 40 km from Ranchi city. The broad gauge Ranchi-Muri railway line divides the block into two halves. The block is

17 covered on the northern side by the boundaries of the revenue thana Ramgarh of Hazaribagh district. Ramgarh was elevated to a full-fledged district in the year 2010. Other sides of Angara block are covered by the five blocks (Ormanjhi, Kanke, Nankum, Sonahatu and Silli) of Ranchi district (see Angara block map). The block Angara has 92 revenue villages, 20 panchayats, and 400 tolas (hamlets).

Table-1: General Information about Angara Block of Ranchi District, Jharkhand Angara Block of Ranchi General Characteristics District Total Males Females Area (in sq. km) 444.91 sq km Household size 5.1 Number of households 20375 Population 103155 52007 51148 Scheduled Caste population 8116 4139 3977 Scheduled Tribe population 56521 28488 28033 Population below age 7 years 19016 9715 9301 Literates 42947 28781 14166 (51.0 ) (68.1) (33.9) Main workers 29720 20859 8861 Cultivators 26073 14780 11293 Agricultural labourers 9745 4267 5478 Workers in household 1568 878 690 industries Marginal workers 16382 5736 10646 Non-workers 57053 25412 31641

Note: Source: Census of India, 2001

Table-2: Percentage of Literacy in Census years 1991 and 2001 of Angara Block of Ranchi District Census of India Total Males Females 1991 27.9 38.0 10.5 2001 51.0 68.1 33.9 The rise of literacy rates in ten years from 1991 to 2001 census, is due to the contributors of Project Schools which are being run by two large organizations namely, Ramakrishna Mission Ashram of Morabadi, Ranchi, and the Society for Rural Industrialisation, Bariatu, Ranchi.

Planning for Rural Industrialisation in Angara In 1991 Area Planning for Rural Industrialisation was started by the Society for Rural Industrialisation at Angara block of Ranchi district. Primary data collection for area planning covered information on the occupation, assets and the potentials of the people living in Angara block and the natural resources of the area. For the next two years up to 1993 extensive data collection, data analysis and survey of the area were conducted by the above NGO. The following aspects were covered by the organisation for a long term action programme at Angara block of Ranchi district . They are as follows: a) Agricultural employment potential for the people of Angara. b) Development potential of the block on the following aspects: Human factor, Land and water, Energy, Minerals, Tourism and Fishery. c) Special programmes initiated in Angara block covered the following: School, Agricultural training, Health, Roads, Animal husbandry and Women‘s organisation. The most significant aspect of the area planning of Angara block is that the Society for Rural Industrialisation at Ranchi has taken a holistic approach of man and its environment before initiating sustainable

19 development programmes at the block level covering 92 villages of Angara block. The details of these projects have been presented by the author elsewhere (Dash Sharma, 2001). The author will presently discuss on the vision for the creation of ―Rural Technology Park‖ for which the background and the objective were created by Dr A.K.Basu of SRI at Angara on 13th October 1995.

Rural Technology Park During 1995-96, SRI gradually shifted its policy from individual skill development to area development programmes. The idea of Rural Technology Park (RTP) is to provide information, demonstration and training of rural technology programmes to the people of Angara which got crystallised with the inauguration of RTP on 13th October 1995 at Chamghati about 29 km away from the campus of SRI in the village Rajadera of Angara block of Ranchi district. The vision for the creation of Rural Technology Park is: ―Each Indian village will be a vibrant and conscious community with a dream and an urge to realise the dream‖ and the mission is ―to infuse scientific attitude and tech- nological awareness in each family of Angara block for the betterment of life with gender and environment sensitivity.‖(Basu,1995; extract from Chairman‘s address). The goals of RTP are: a) Scientific partnership building. b) Sustainable economic growth through optimum management of natural resources. c) Ensure growth with justice by creating enabling environment.

Approach and strategy of RTP: a) To organise the people through self-help groups of women, youth and farmers. b) To prepare a conducive environment to infuse a sense of confidence and joy in the villages. c) To adopt social mobilasation programme through a close and continuous interaction with the villagers.

d) To transform the villagers from passive recipient of measures to enterprising measure in development. e) To assist villagers to prepare village-wise development plans of their own priorities but formulated on scientific data base.

The main line functions of RTP are: a) Collection and dissemination of information. b) Live demonstration about 2 km of RTP. c) Creation of people‘s organization and people‘s institutions. d) Empowerment to villagers / women. e) Support services and linkages. f) Research on development programmes.

List of programmes for RTP: a) Live demonstration of technology to villagers. b) Meetings, workshops and orientation programmes for the villagers. c) Organisation of technology fairs for villagers. d) Development of support services and linkages to villagers. e) Promotion of technology and products in Angara .namely, i) Fish rearing in each pond, ii) Organic compost and produce, iii) Farm pond technology, iv) Health related products, and v) Monitoring and follow-up of the programmes.

Infrastructure and facilities at RTP: a) Information and data center at village Chamghati. b) Processing support center at village Chamghati, Jarga and Sirka. c) Zonal centers in the villages of Simalia, Rangamati, Musungu, Jagra and Hesatu. d) Action research center in a village Tati.

e) Engineering support center at village Rupru (training facilities for electrical maintenance, construction technologies, carpentry and weaving). f) Two-room guest house at village Chamghati. g) Wood based power generation unit at Chamghati (Gasifier) at village Chamghati and at Tati. h) Central support center for health related products.

After extensive field survey in Angara block during (APRI) Area Project of Rural Industrialisation (May 1991 to March 1993), Society for Rural Industrialisation realized the need for ―Leadership Development‖, for which the grassroots workers, the youths in rural areas, who have natural inclination for taking up a lead or initiative for a specific work, that is youths having more leadership qualities must be identified. Further, these identified youths having leadership qualities need to be specifically trained for developing their potential qualities of leadership. Basu, 2001). Keeping this in mind SRI through Rural Technology Park officials undertook the responsibility to train and develop the youths of Angara to make them the potential leaders for each Panchayat who could initiate the planning and the implement various programmes in the villages of Angara block. Once the objective was made clear and identified, RTP at Angara initiated the programme of ―Leadership Development‖ with the financial support of Misereor of Germany. The training of the identified potential youths for the leadership was conducted in batches between the period of December 1999 to May 2000. After completion of training, the trained leaders were given the responsibility to identify the small community-based projects with the consent of Gram Sabha for practical training. This process thus generated confidence among the trained leaders who with their own initiative took up small community based projects with the consent of the members of the Gram Sabha.

Energy Services for Rural Industrialisation The lack of excess of affordable energy is one of the factors responsible for the relatively poor quality of life in rural India. The problem of energy crisis is aggravated by the gradual denudation and deforestation of the forest lands to meet the growing demand for firewood. The Government of India (GOI), together with United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has launched a pilot sub-programme on ―Energy Services for Rural Industrialisation in Angara Block of Ranchi District‖. The project was started in the year 2000 February with the financial support of UNDP, while CAPART and SRI were the implementing agencies.

Project in Brief Because of poor soil productivity, no irrigation facilities and poor level of literacy and socio-economic conditions, the SRI team conducted the participatory planning with the perception that no one could understand and address the local needs and utilise local resources better than the local people in the area. For this the SRI team organised several village meetings, informal group discussions, door-to-door visits to understand the local resources, skills, operation and management capacities in the area where the project would be implemented. The issues relating to prioritisation of needs, procurement of the required raw materials, operation and distribution of the generated power, rules and responsibilities of the stakeholders, tariff charges, environmental aspects etc. were discussed and decision were taken keeping into account the needs and priorities of the villagers. Efforts were made to encourage women to actively participate and contribute in the planning process. Understanding the attitude, behaviour and the cultural aspects of the end users is necessary to match the implementation strategy for any planning process. The participatory planning process thus tried to assemble all these aspects for the success of the energy services for rural industrialisation in Angara. The concept of Gasifier mode of energy generation and its utility was explained to the villagers, such as night illumination, irrigation by electric pump, paddy husking, oil expelling, food processing etc. The villagers

23 from the following villages (hamlets / tolas) participated: Manasbera, Madhukamdih, Sarjamdih Manichapar, Pahantoli, Bantoli, Koirdih, Aswabera, Gutidih, Amuadih, Singari, Dimra, Mundatoli, Bandwadih and Rajabandh. Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) promotes biomass Gasifier through development programmes and financial subsidies.The project is aimed at the overall development of Angara block making it a Rural Industrial Area (RIA). This can be made possible by using energy as its main tool, as a catalyst, and as an initiator to trigger off the development process in Angara block. The entire coverage under the energy services for Rural Industrialisation in Angara has been planned to be increased in a phased manner to ensure that an optimal load of power is achieved.

The Gasifier at Tati At present SRI has a small Gasifier at Tati village. This is in a trial mode. For energy generation SRI has planned to use the locally available biomass for the Gasifier. The natural resources available at Tati are its tropical climate, forest area about 240 hectares, annual rainfall around 1800 mm, and a land area around 800 hectares. The forest-agro-eco system is producing good amount of biomass which can be harnessed scientifically for energy generation. SRI checked the available biomass at Tati and found Tati village ideally suitable for the installation of a Gasifier in the village for energy generation. With the installation of 10 kw Gasifier at Pahantoli as an entry point activity, the people have started showing interest in the energy project. The growing demand of electricity from the people of the adjacent villages indicate the growing confidence in rural technology programmes. The villagers have contributed three tons of wood, for running the Gasifier, which is now operational in Pahantoli. For the installation of Gasifier an area of 67 decimal has been donated by the villagers for establishing the Rural Industrial Area (RIA). The implementation of the entire project is being done by four statutory committees developed by SRI. As the Energy Services for Rural Industrialisation in Angara block is of nascent origin under the GOI-

UNDP programme, which actually started only in February 2000, it is too early to assess the actual outcome of the project and the benefits to the villagers who have actively participated in the planning process of the project.Thus with the initiative and direction of Dr A.K. Basu and his team of workers, the sleeping villages of Angara block of the eighties got transformed into vibrant villages showing all round activity for sustainable development through the Rural Technology Park. it is indeed, a great achievement and a grand success in the experiment of natural resource management.

Education Programme of Ramkrishna Mission Another big NGO in Ranchi district is Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama at Ranchi., which is giving emphasis on educational and agricultural training programmes for the rural youths. In the Editorial to the monthly journal Kurukshtra, September 2004, (published by the Ministry of Rural Development), the editor writes: ―Education in rural areas, despite being promoted on a grand scale by the government, still struggles to survive. Increase in drop out rate, decrease in enrolment rate, lack of infrastructure facilities, indifferent attitude of teachers towards students and vague understanding of the benefits of education among the parents of rural children are some of the major plaguing educational scenarios in rural areas. Census of India 2001 reveals that literacy rates have improved everywhere. However, there are trends showing decline in sex ratio particularly in prosperous regions where more children go to the primary school. Girls are being pulled out of school to work as wage labours. There is still much to do to actualize the goal of education in deprived areas. Lack of fund affects even the most motivated team of teachers. It is realized that the village based education programme can sustain for a longer period of time if the village community is able to take over its running. Community participation in education in rural areas not only ensures physical and human facilities at schools but also motivates the teachers to achieve higher quality of education. Integrating an income generation component into the education programme may also help to a great extent to achieve the objective.

In India, the educational efforts have to be continuously meaningful and innovative to sustain over a long period of time. In our country where the society is facing numerous social prejudices and indifferent attitude towards education no uniform strategy can effectively work. If we are committed to eliminating prevalence of non-schooling and living up to the constitutional directives of universal elementary education, our policies and programmes have to invest more resources and simultaneously stay open to multiple, context specific modes of meeting their objectives.‖ (Editorial, Kurukshetra, 52(11), September 2004). It is widely known that a significant proportion of children, especially girls with underprivileged background, either drop out before they reach class V or, even if they continue attending school, they learn very little. Primary education does not always improve the situation of the poor unless what they learn is perceived relevant to their family life situation, or helps in generating income for their family. There is a growing public awareness that other players of education like NGOs, citizens‘ groups and corporate bodies could make a large contribution in the spread of education. In the present paper the author would like to discuses the development initiatives taken up by the Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama at Ranchi through its Ashrama schools and other educational progrmmes conducted by Divyayan Krishi Vigyan Kendra at Ranchi.The Ashrama has adopted six major objectives for integrated development of the rural tribal people of Jharkahnd. The objectives are: Economic, Social, Health related, Educational, Cultural and Spiritual. In the present paper the author would discuss only the educational programmes which are being conducted by the Ashrama in the interior tribal villages of three blocks, namely Angara, Burmu, and Murhu of Ranchi district. Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama in Ranchi is located at Morabadi, some eight kilometers away from Ranchi railway station. When I had visited Morabadi area some four decades back it was a vast stretch of land with paddy fields in between clusters of houses of tribal families just beyond the slopes of Tagore Hill, now a heritage site declared by Jharkhand government. At that time just after the sunset people of Ranchi of city area usually did not venture to go to this place unless there was an urgency for

26 such a visit. Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Ranchi Centre, at Morababdi was established in 1927 by Srimat Swami Vishuddhanandaji Maharaj (the eighth President of the Ramakrishna Order), as a branch of Ramakrishna Mission. In the early sixties when the adjoining districts of Ranchi were in the grip of severe drought, this Mission Centre organized relief operators for the distressed in the afflicted area to bring succour to the needy. After the end of the relief-work, the monks of the Centre could not be contended with relief work. They engaged themselves in sincere efforts to evolve a lasting solution to the problem. It became very clear that unless the resource-poor and hapless farmers were equipped with appropriate and need-based agricultural technology supported by group action, they would never be able to counter similar adverse conditions in future. In order to fulfill the above requirements ‗Divyayan‘ (meaning Divine Way), a novel integrated rural development model was conceived and launched by this Centre in 1969. (Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Annual Report, 2005-2006, p. 4).Thus under the name ‗Divyayan‘ in 1969, a Residential Agriculture Training Centre with its related activities for tribal and rural youths was started at Morabadi. In 1977 this Residential Training Centre was given recognition by Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, as a Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK). For the period 1996-97, the best KVK award was given to Divyayan by the government (ICAR).

Ramakrishna Mission Schools The Ashrama has adopted six major objectives for integrated development of the rural and tribal people of Jharkhand. The programme objectives are: economic, social, health related, educational, cultural and spiritual. In the present paper the author would discuss only the educational programmes which are being conducted by the Ashrama in the interior tribal dominated villages of three blocks, namely, Angara, Burmu, and Murhu of Ranchi district. The educational objectives of Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Ranchi Centre, as presented in its Annual Report (2006-2007, p. 2) are: ―Educational objective to be achieved by guiding the local youths for

27 establishing primary schools, bridge courses. Establishing National Open School centre and faculty centre for graduate and post-graduate programmes‖. Presently the following educational programmes are being carried out by Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Ranchi Centre.

Primary School Under the guidance of this Ashrama, three primary schools are running in three blocks, namely in Angara, Burmu and Murhu, of Ranchi district. In these schools, a new course curriculum is being followed to make the students self-reliant and determined to harness natural resources available in their own villages. This education will not take away the farmer‘s son from the farmer rather it will convert the farmer‘s son into a farm manager with good social and moral values. To enhance the quality education, necessary items like bench desks, dress for physical training, school bags, geometry boxes and drawing books, etc. were distributed to 200 students of the Primary School.

National Open School This Ashrama has been an accredited institute under National Institute of Open Schooling to provide certified courses to the school drop-outs, and for those who can not attend school because they have to manage the home affairs in the absence of their parents who work in the fields as day labours or pursue some other economic occupations during day time. The Table below shows the number of students who were admitted in the Ashrama schools of the three blocks and successfully passed the examinations. The table shows combined presentation of the three schools. Table-3: School Admission in the three Schools run by the Ashrama for Open Basic Education Class Admission in Appeared in Number of the year Examination students who 2007-08 (including old successfully students) passed

III 105 04 02 V 99 14 08 VIII 198 592 119 Secondary 65 102 42 Higher 95 103 39 Secondary Note: Source: Annual Report 2007—08 of Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama, Ranchi, p.22.

Divyayan Krishi Vigyaan Kendra An integrated rural development programme was conceived and launched by ‗Divyayan‘ (meaning divine way) in 1969. A residential training centre for tribal ad rural youths in agriculture with its related activities was started by the Morabadi Centre of Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama under the name Divyayan. In 1977 this residential training centre was recognized by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research as Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK). Divyayan KVK has formulated a definite residential on-campus programme for training farmers in agriculture and allied subjects for holistic development of scientific skills and personality. Most of the trainees who are participating in the training programme are from the villages of Ranchi and adjoining districts. On-campus training programmes are sponsored programmes and consist of motivational and special courses. Motivational programmes are carried out at block level. There are special programmes on horticulture, poultry, dairy, bee-keeping , pump repairing, carpentry, welding , and electronics. Divyayan Krishi Vigyan Kendra also runs off-campus training programmes like Herbal Garden (Medicinal Plants) Project, to encourage the cultivation, preservation and production of certain herbs and trees that are useful for traditional medicine practices. Divyayan has been selected as an implementing agency for National Horticulture Mission Projects in Ranchi district, for focusing on horticultural research, development, post harvest

29 management, processing and marketing. Divyayan KVK has established a nursery at Getelsud covering 4 hectares in Angara block. Rural women are also being imparted training by Divyayan to enhance their employability and income generation. skills. The women are being imparted training on food processing, fishery, poultry, dairy, bee-keeping, bio-fertilizer, mushroom production etc. Thus we find that Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama through its Divyayan Krishi Vigyan Kendra is doing an immense welfare service towards social, economic, educational and spiritual development of the rural youths of Ranchi district. 0651-2 References Agarwal, Anil (1997) Old mindsets in a changing environment. Times of India, August19, p.13. Basu,A.K. (2001). Entrepreneurisation of Skill Training: To Infuse Entrepreneurial Qualities in Skill Development Programmes for the Rural Poor. Ranchi: Society for Rural Industrialisation. Dash Sharma, P. (2001) Transforming Angara through Rural Technology Park: An Experiment in Natural Resource Management. Ranchi: Society for Rural Industrialisation. Cornia, G. A. and Stewart, F. (1993) Two errors of targeting. Journal of International Development, 5(5). Sachchidananda (1970) Tribe-caste continuum: A case study of the Gond in Bihar. Anthropos, vol. 65. Sachchidananda (1979) Changing Munda. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Co. Sinha, Surajit (1965) Tribe-caste and Tribe-Peasant continua in Central India. Man in India, 45(1):57-82. Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama 2007-08. Annual Reports. Ranchi: Divyayan Krishi Vigyan Kendra. Vidyarthi, L.P. (1974) The tribal development in Independent India and its future. Man in India, 54(1):45-72.

COMMUNITIES' INFORMAL CARE AND WELFARE PRACTICES AND CARING FOR THE ELDERLY

Manohar Pawar1

Keywords: Communities. Care. Welfare. Practices. Elderly.

Abstract: The main objective of this paper is to discuss strategies to enhance communities' informal care and welfare practices (CICWPs) that systematically address caring needs and issues of the elderly both in developing and developed countries. Towards this, the paper will underscore the significance of CICWPs and argue that such practices have been fast declining due to several development factors. It will present the main findings of an international project and the contents of the training manual which aim at promoting mutual learning, understanding and international exchange of innovative and replicable CICWPs; and sensitising relevant personnel from non-government organisations (NGOs), government organisations (GOs), the corporate sector and communities (COs). Further, it presents several ways of developing and promoting CICWPs so that the elderly are treated with dignity and worth and looked after satisfactorily. It will also show what roles the four sectors - GOs, NGOs, business and COs - can play in building and consciously cultivating such practices.

Introduction Caring for the elderly is a demanding, challenging and satisfying task. It can be sometimes complex, tiresome and monotonous if caring needs, issues, duration and intensity increase. Comprehensive caring arrangement for the elderly and healthy and productive ageing depend upon a number of permutations and combinations of factors such as families, social relationships, culture and value orientation, economic conditions, health status and medical services, educational levels, housing, relevant policies and programs, overall geriatric infrastructure, a range of multi disciplinary

1 Professor of Social Work, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, 2678 Australia, Email: [email protected]

31 professionals and coordination among them, coordinated implementation of plans and programs, and futuristic thinking and planning. Among all these factors, one of the most crucial factors is communities‘ informal care and welfare practices (CICWPs). No amount of geriatric infrastructure, income and wealth, medical services, educational levels and well thought out policies and programs will suffice (Banks et al., 2006) if care for the elderly lacks genuine care together with love, affection and concern. If the elderly people lack family and community members‘ informal care and concern and love and affection, however healthy and productive they are, they may experience mental agony, dissatisfaction, frustration, disappointment and meaningless ageing. Thus, communities‘ informal care and welfare practices are one of the factors, they are the most important factors and they play very crucial roles in caring for the elderly. In fact, the elderly can greatly benefit from and contribute to maintaining these practices. CICWPs are informal practices that emerge within a community of people as a way of responding to specific need situations experienced by community members for which a particular community-based care or welfare response is regarded as appropriate and acceptable by all parties (Pawar and Cox, 2004). In other words, CICWPs are those systems in which individuals, families and communities come together without any formal requirements and professional intervention to meet felt or expressed needs or/and to resolve issues in a self-reliant and sustainable manner. These systems appear to operate spontaneously with a set patterns and with or without mutual expectations and support on an ongoing basis. These systems are mostly based on trust, human relationship, self-help group ideology and an element of selflessness (Pawar, 2004). The concept of CICWPs appears like social capital, but it is important to emphasise that it significantly differs from the social capital concept, though it contains some of its elements. The social capital concept is heavily based on mutuality, give and take (see Pawar, 2006), but CICWPs operate with or without mutual expectations. An element of selflessness in CICWPs is very important. In our lives, many a time we help people, both in terms of services and goods, not necessarily expecting anything in

32 return. That element of altruism in CICWPs needs to be underscored and cultivated in our day to day life. Like the classical welfare state, all welfare needs of people, from cradle to grave, were taken care of by formal welfare systems, CICWPs take care of welfare needs of people from cradle to grave. In all cultures and communities we may find CICWPs that operate throughout the life process from conception, pregnancy, birth, various life stages and death. For example, all over the world, informal care and support is provided to the elderly by families and communities. Gender care is a significant issue that needs to be addressed in a balanced way. Another example of CICWPs that readily comes to mind in regards to the elderly is the organising of the funeral by the neighbourhood and community and the process of overcoming grief and loss, which is depicted below (this example is from a village in South India). When a person dies, whether expected or unexpected, the death naturally causes a lot of trauma, stress, loss, shock and grief to the members of a family, relatives and neighbours, though with a different degree. CICWPs that follow the event are as follows: Family members cry loudly as well as narrate thoughts and deeds of the dead person. Relatives, friends, neighbours begin gathering as soon as the incident is known to them. The body of the dead person is exhibited in a particular way, facing the family members and visitors. Family members and others sit in front of the body and continue grieving and crying. Gathered people express sadness, support and listen to what the family members say and react with empathy. Distant relatives are informed and sometimes arrangements are made to transport them to the place. Simultaneously, some men prepare a bier by using locally available materials and make arrangements to burry or cremate according to the family ritual. Necessary materials are mobilised (cloth, wood, implements etc) either through donation or purchase, if the family members do not readily have them. Voluntary labour is mobilised to dig, if the body is to be buried. The bier is carried on shoulders to the cremation/burial ground, generally led by the eldest son. Family members and community people together complete the funeral rituals. For 4 to 5 days neighbours, friends and relatives keep supplying cooked food to the bereaved family. On the third day, again

33 family members, friends, relatives and some neighbours go to the cremation/burial ground to complete other related rituals. On the 13th day the bereaved family with the assistance of neighbours prepares community feast and most of the friends, relatives and neighbours consume the specially prepared food. On this thirteenth day, the bereaved family members ―bitter/sad mouth‘ is symbolically sweetened by giving sweets to them. Friends and relatives keep visiting the bereaved family up to three months and in some cases more. Every time a visitor comes, family members are expected to cry loudly, at least initially. In every visit, both family members and visitors repeatedly talk about the dead person‘s good deeds, thoughts, behaviour in different ways. Through this process they overcome their grief and loss. This is a brief sketch of how the communities‘ informal welfare practices operate during the incident of death in a village in south India. In contrast, in highly developed western societies, when death occurs in a family and if the family‘s means are limited, the welfare department generally grants financial support to organise the funeral. Bereaved family members are generally expected to demonstrate well composed behaviour, hiding their tears and grief beneath the heart. If pent up grief manifests in other problematic ways, formal counselling is provided to overcome the grief and loss.

Erosion of CICWPs The above two examples appear to suggest that in developing societies people follow some CICWPs, whereas developed societies mostly follow or depend upon formal welfare provisions as they seem to have almost lost their CICWPs over a period. Some highly developed western societies have now attained a stage where they have a clear evidence of not having help or even the neglect of CICWPs. Are developing societies going to follow the same suit? My own observation of communities in developing societies suggests that although CICWPs exist in those communities they have been gradually eroding. For example, in a relatively remote and rural village in India, I participated in the conduct of a funeral. The funeral required a priest to complete certain rituals. Friends of the family travelled to nearby villages during the mid-night and asked a few priests to attend

34 the funeral, but they refused to come. In rural areas, procuring cremation firewood was never a problem; neighbours gave it away or they purchased locally. Unfortunately, for this cremation it was not possible to do so and some friends had to go to a nearby town to procure wood for the cremation. This funeral was an eye opener for me and it changed my belief in rural communities‘ CICWPs. These are still in practice but appear to be eroding very fast. There are many factors that are causing the erosion of CICWPs. My analysis suggests thirteen important causes that lead to the erosion of CICWPs. CICWPs are generally eroding due to natural and evolutionary changes in the informal care and welfare practices which affect earlier forms of care and welfare practices; impact of industrialisation and modernisation on living styles of people; emphasis on uniform and standardised production; voluntary and forced migration of people from one area to another; prevalence of nuclear family structures; weak or disconnection from parental generations; impact of one dominant culture on other cultures; urbanisation; development of displacement of people; long civil conflict and external or internal war; natural or human disasters; availability of alternative choices; and undesired state interventions.

Increasing Relevance of CICWPs Despite the phenomenon of declining CICWPs in developing societies and the disappearance of CICWPs in developed societies, increasing relevance of and need for CICWPs for the elderly is being felt in both the societies due to several reasons. First, they are important resources to people and community as they enhance their wellbeing. Second, though some of them are weakening and disappearing now, we may find them useful in future due to change in circumstances. Thus it is important to practice and promote them. Third, as they have an important element of interdependence, they may require at least some sort of support from formal welfare approaches and states. And finally, some of them provide spiritual and aesthetic satisfaction that fills the significant gap in modern life. In many developed societies, so called classical welfare state is declining; some have called this decline as the demise of the welfare state. As a

35 consequence, well developed and extensive welfare provisions no longer exist or have been drastically cutdown by introducing strict means-test requirements. Such an approach is likely to exclude people who deserve welfare support and who do not have informal care and support systems around them. For example, in the absence of CICWPs, it is hardly surprising to see newspapers (in Australia) raising a question such as this – ―How can a person lie dead in their home for months without a neighbour noticing?‖ - and reporting unbelievable events: ―In one case, a skeleton of man was found sitting at his kitchen table – less than two meters inside the front door of his public housing apartment in Waterloo. It had been almost eight months since anyone had seen him alive.‖ ―A 62-year-old man was found dead in his Surry Hills flat.‖ ―A 79-year-old woman was found in her Umina flat on the Central Coast. Her body was only discovered after postal workers notified police that she had not collected her mail for six months.‖ ―A couple was found in their Neutral Bay home. A note was found near the bodies. They had been dead for about a week.‖ ―An 86-year-old woman was found in her Gordon home, several weeks after she died.‖ (Shedden, 2006, p. 8; ) The 78-year-old man was returning home from treatment at Katherine Hospital last month when he was left on the runway at Kalkaringi, 500 kilometres south of Darwin. But there was no one to pick him up and his body was found eight days later. He was blind, could barely walk and spoke limited English but was not given an escort and had no-one to meet him on arrival. Medical authorities refused an offer to send a young relative to stay with him during his treatment (ABC News Online, 2006).

Further, certain demographic changes such as changes in marriage and family patterns, intra and international migration, increasing number of single parent families, disabled people, people who require long-term care

(depression, chronic conditions such as arthritis, drug addiction of various kinds, HIV/AIDS, dementia and age-related conditions, and various physical and intellectual disability conditions) familyless households and unmarried individuals are likely to create pressure on the formal welfare system that is less likely to bear it and be effective due to the magnitude of costs involved, and complex responses required. Thus it is important to recognise and promote CICWPs and also promote them in partnership with formal welfare systems so that wellbeing of the elderly is enhanced, particularly the marginalised, disadvantaged and isolated elderly. Like developed societies, developing societies do not have well developed social security or welfare system that covers all people. They also differ from state to state and within the state, from province to province. For example, once the elderly people attain the set age (see age in parentheses) government-led non-contributory universal cash assistance is provided in Nepal (75 +), Brunei (60+), Hong Kong (70+) and Vietnam (90+). Government-led non-contributory means-tested cash assistance is provided in Bangladesh (57 +), India (60+), Thailand (60+), Malaysia (60+), Vietnam (60+) and Hong Kong (65-69). In China and Republic of Korea older people get cash transfers from means tested general social assistance schemes (guaranteed Minimum Living Allowance). In Sri Lanka, older people receive Poverty Alleviation Transfers (Wesumperuma, 2006). This type of support to the elderly is far from adequate and appears tokenistic. Most of the elderly, particularly in the informal sector do not receive government pensions. In addition, in some countries such welfare provisions are poorly designed and implemented. As a result, a great majority of people, particularly in rural and remote areas, survive without any formal welfare support system. In the past, much of this population was taken care of by traditional and informal family and community welfare practices. As stated earlier, such practices are eroding. As a result, many people will suffer as they may not have access to neither CICWPs nor formal welfare provisions. It would be a great challenge for us to meet growing caring needs of the elderly in developing societies, particularly when the elderly population increases and CICWPs diminish. It has been projected that in the next fifty years

37 there will be nearly four-fold increase in the elderly population, from 234 million in 2000 to nearly 1 billion in 2050 (Gubhaju, 2006). The analysis of the importance and relevance of CICWPs and the phenomenon of their erosion and disappearance suggest that we are confronted with two different worlds. First is the developed world where universal provisions are under threat and are being reduced due to declining faith in the welfare state ideology and the adoption of means-test measures under the influence of liberal ideology and market principles. In this so called developed and modernised world, CICWPs have almost disappeared. Second is the developing world where CICWPs are fast eroding due to several factors that have been stated earlier and well developed welfare provisions do not exist. By comparing and contrasting the roles of CICWPs for the elderly in the two worlds, I raise three critical questions for our reflection. • How are the vast majority of elderly people in developing countries without any full-fledged social security system and weakening CICWPs going to lead a better quality of life? • How are the elderly people in developed countries with highly tightened social security systems and without any CICWPs going to lead a life they have been used to? • Can some concerted efforts be made to identify, preserve and practice CICWPs so that people in both developing and developed countries may use such practices and enhance well being of the elderly?

CICWPs Project Towards addressing the third question, I am working on a project entitled Communities‘ Informal care and Welfare Practices in Asia-Pacific Countries. It is an interesting and innovative idea, and action oriented project that has potential to become an influencing international movement. Recognising this potential in the project, the Association of Commonwealth Universities conferred a Quality of Life Award to the project in 2001. The main objectives of the project are:

Objectives of the Project • To promote mutual learning, understanding and international exchange of innovative and replicable CICWPs; • To identify, document and promote the preservation and practice of CICWPs across Asia-Pacific countries; and • To sensitise relevant personnel from non-government organisations (NGOs), government organisations (GOs), the corporate sector and communities (COs) about CICWPs.

This is a broad project that has policy and practice implications and covers several categories of target groups such as children, youth, women and the elderly and looks at individual, family, neighbourhood and community based care and development oriented CICWPs that enhance the wellbeing of these and similar groups. The project is in its third phase and has produced several outcomes in each phase (see Pawar, 2004). One of the significant outcomes of the project is a training manual on CICWPs, which can be effectively employed and used to enable, empower, engage and care for the elderly.

The CICWPs Training Manual It is a flexible train the trainer manual that can be easily adapted and adopted to train personnel engaged in the field of welfare of the elderly. The training manual includes five sections and two appendices. First section discusses recent developments, the meaning of CICWPs and why CICWPs are at least sometimes as important today as they ever were. The remaining sections, two to five, translate this understanding into a focus on training various categories of personnel. In particular, second section covers six training modules pertaining to CICWPs. Module one is about the nature and importance of CICWPs and their roles. Module two looks at skills and techniques for locating, assessing, understanding and working with CICWPs.

Module three covers strategies for involving CICWPs in specific areas of need in collaboration with formal care and welfare systems. Module four discusses strategies for assisting CICWPs to assess their potential to respond to their perceived needs. Module five aims to identify strategies for CICWPs to work with the formal sector. Module six explores strategies for protecting, preserving and developing CICWPs. Then the third section looks at categories of trainees, fourth section identifies some factors that are likely to influence a training program and the fifth section provides a range of training delivery methods. Small group exercises are included in Appendix one and some useful references/resource materials are listed in Appendix two (See Pawar & Cox, 2004).

Application of the Training Manual to Welfare The term welfare is understood differently in different parts of the world and at times with negative connotations. For our purpose welfare includes three important aspects. To ensure welfare of the elderly, first, it is essential to meet their needs; second, create adequate opportunities for productive ageing; and third, appropriately manage issues relating to the ageing. In each of the three aspects, CICWPs can be effectively employed to facilitate overall wellbeing of the elderly. A preliminary step in the application of the training manual is to sensitise all those who are involved in the field of ageing (the elderly, families and key community members, the youth, community workers, relevant government and non-government officials at various levels, the corporate sector and other stakeholders) in regards to the importance and use of CICWPs. Many people take CICWPs for granted. It is important to consciously discuss what CICWPs are and where and how these can be identified and used. The first and second module of the training manual can be employed to sensitise personnel in the ageing field.

Concerned policy makers, planners, program implementers at all levels in the government, non-government, community and corporate sectors are essentially involved in meeting felt or expressed needs of the elderly and addressing related issues. Thus when you raise a question as to what are the needs of the elderly?, immediately Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs come to mind. As shown in Table 1 below, juxtaposition of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs with the welfare issues of the elderly suggests that when physiological, safety, love and belonging, status and self-actualisation needs of the elderly are not met, elderly people experience physical, social, psychological, economic and spiritual problems which affect their overall welfare and wellbeing. For heuristic purposes welfare of the elderly has been categorised into three aspects as stated

Table-1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Vis a Vis Welfare Issues of the Elderly and CICWPs. Maslow’s hierarchy of Welfare issues of the CICWPs needs (Wikipedia, 2006). elderly Physiological needs: Lack of access to safe Individual, family and Breathe, regulate body drinking water and community based temerature, water, sleep, balanced diet, calcium informal care practices eat, dispose of bodily deficiency. Lack of can facilitate meeting waste and exercise. facilities to exercise and some of these needs and dispose of bodily waste. can provide comfort to Feel sickness, pain, and the elderly discomfort. Lack of carers. Safety needs: Economic Lack of economic CICWPs in partnership security; safety from security resulting in with formal care and crime and violence; poverty. Abuse and welfare systems can moral and physiological neglect by significant contribute to meeting security; familial others. Fear of crime and these needs. security; and security of assault. Health issues. health .

Love and belonging Loneliness, social CICWPs can needs: Friendship; sexual anxiety, depression and significantly contribute to intimacy; and having a related issues. meet this need. family. Eg. Providing emotional/ social support Status (esteem needs): low self-esteem, Relevant CICWPs can be To be respected; to self inferiority complexes revived to provide a respect and to respect sense of respect, dignity others and to gain and worth to the elderly. recognition. Eg. Values and rituals of respecting the elderly. Self-actualization: is the Lack of purpose and Several CICWPs can be instinctual need of meaninglessness. Lack of used to meet spiritual humans to make the most facilities to meet spiritual needs of the elderly. Eg. of their unique abilities needs. Visiting places of and to strive to be the worship, prayers, best they can be. spiritual songs, etc. above and Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs have been classified into five areas, in real life these cannot be separated; they are closely connected to each other and not meeting or untimely meeting of these needs together create a lot of problems for the elderly. As pointed out in the introduction, the size of the elderly population is going to grow bigger nationally and globally and if proactive measures are not planned and introduced, elderly people are likely to lead a life of unmet needs and miseries. Poverty (that captures many of the unmet needs and related issues) among the elderly population is an important issue both in developed and developing countries, though with different degrees and intensity. When elderly people have less resources or become resourceless (in terms of employment, income, health, ability, social companionship, family members, housing, assets, etc.), they become more vulnerable. In many instances, they are exploited, abused, neglected not by formal systems of care and welfare, not by strangers, but by their own kith and kin. In addition to health and caring issues, many elderly people may not receive much needed love, affection and concern. Further they are abused and neglected by their own relatives both in urban and rural areas with

42 different degrees. Due to inbuilt limitations, formal systems of care and welfare alone may not be able to meet this need and address the issues of abuse and neglect for all the elderly and all the time. It is important to research what factors lead to proper care and welfare of the elderly and what factors contribute to abuse and neglect. Is it economic, educational, social, power, gender, values and cultural status of the elderly person, his/her family members, relatives and friends, and the community? My own observation of the issue and the available anecdotal evidence suggest that it is a complex issue and conclusion cannot be drawn based on these factors. I have seen families with very limited or meagre income, with very low educational levels and with very limited resources are caring the elderly by demonstrating needed care, concern, love and affection. I have also seen families with similar socio-economic status thoroughly abusing and neglecting their elderly members to the extent that it amounts to violation human rights. I also have heard situations where grown up children (adults) wait for father‘s pension receipt-date and demand money from the father who is often left with the intense feeling that ―my own children are not allowing me to enjoy my pension‖. On the other hand, I also have observed family members, who have good educational, economic and social background, provide needed care for the elderly. And there are also similar high status (wealth, money and all goes with it) families which not only disregard the elderly, but also abuse and neglect them without any remorse. A recently reported alleged abuse and neglect of a noted philanthropist Astor Heiress, supports my observation well. A Washington Post staff writer, Wiltz (2006) reported: ―She was famous for her glamour and generosity, the grandest of grande dames. For 40 years, Brooke Astor famously spread her considerable wealth -- $200 million to New York's neediest. Now, at 104, Astor is the talk of the town again, with horrific details splashed across the tabloids and court documents. Bedridden and reportedly neglected, Astor is now said to be living in Park Avenue squalor. Torn nightgowns and nights spent on a cold couch smelling of what her grandson believes

to be dog urine. Vaseline instead of Estee Lauder creams. Peas and porridge instead of a French chef.‖ When families are in poverty and cannot afford necessary comfort and services to the elderly, it may be understandable that formal welfare systems are needed to provide supplementary support to the elderly, though in reality formal welfare programs cannot cover all such elderly people. However, what is not understandable and so perplexing is, despite having all necessary resources, some family members are unwilling to care for the elderly. Let alone care, in some cases, they abuse and neglect them. From the CICWPs perspective, the following story identifies one important factor that can play a crucial role in enhancing care for and wellbeing of the elderly. There was a family in which a grandfather was living and he used to spend a lot time with his grandchild. But they had a different dinning arrangements. The grandchild and his parents used to have their meals on a dining table that had posh cutlery and silver spoons. But the grandfather for his dinner used to sit on the floor and had very ordinary, disposable cutlery. The child watched this difference so keenly everyday. As days passed, one day the grandfather passed away. The child collected grandfathers‘ plates and spoons wrapped in a nice cover and placed in a bookshelf. The father observed this act of the child and was annoyed and angry. In anguish, the father asked: why have you kept these plates there? The son innocently replied: when you become old, I need to give these plates and spoons to you! The morality of the story is that if you care for the elderly well today, if you inculcate caring values and responsibilities in children, you will be cared for when you become old. The most important factor is that when people lack caring values, responsibility, respect for the elderly and commitment to caring for the elderly, irrespective of socio-economic status of individuals, families and communities, their elderly people do not receive needed care and concern. In many communities, cultures and traditions, there are good practices and associated rituals that inculcate

44 good values of caring for the elderly, respecting the elderly and consulting the elderly. By practicing and promoting these caring values and responsibilities, commitment to caring can be developed. It appears that many elderly people are not looking for money, wealth, assets, power and so on. At the least, what they seem to starve for is some one who is concerned and interested in them, who respects them and who likes and loves them. When this is genuinely demonstrated to the elderly, their sense of wellbeing enhances, notwithstanding material resources and comfort. The above presented training manual can be adapted and used to train a range of personnel from several sectors in the ageing field to develop caring values and commitment from their CICWPs. Many elderly people can be productively engaged in locating, identifying and analysing relevant CICWPs. In my view, this is one of the important long term strategies that need to be effectively developed and used to ensure wellbeing of the elderly. I think this to be a neglected area in ageing policies and plans. The training manual aims to fill this gap. I hope many planners, policy makers, trainers and community workers find CICWPs useful in their work. As an author of the manual, I will be pleased assist the use of the manual and for that purpose, my contact details are provided in this paper.

Conclusion As we are going to embrace a rapidly growing ageing society, we need to prepare well to provide care for the elderly. Such care should enable and empower the elderly and make their ageing process meaningful. It is a complex and challenging task and no one policy, plan and strategy is going to suffice. It is necessary to develop multi-pronged strategies that combine both formal care systems and informal care and welfare practices. In this paper, I have discussed the meaning and importance of CICWPs and causes of their erosion. The paper further discusses why CICWPs have become increasingly relevant and needed both in developed and developing societies and how the CICWPs training manual can be used to deal with some of the caring needs and issues of the elderly. As CICWPs are neglected in policies and programs, such policies need to be consciously incorporated and relevant personnel working in the ageing

45 field need to appropriately use them both independently and in partnership with formal care systems to enhance the wellbeing of the elderly. Towards this, I hope the idea and CICWPs and the training manual may be of help to the elderly people and to those who plan and provide care for the elderly.

References ABC news online (2006) 'Institutional racism' blamed for Aboriginal elder's airstrip death‘(01/09/2006). Retrieved 14 September 2006, from http://abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200609/s1730574.htm. Banks, J., Marmot M., Oldfield, Z. & Smith, J. P. (2006) Disease and Disadvantage in the United States and in England. The Journal of the American medical Association, 295 (17):2037-2045. Gubhaju, B. (2006) Age structure transition and development in the ESCAP region: Opportunities and challenges. Power-point Summary presented at the UNESCAP EGM meeting, 30 June -1 July 2006, Shanghai, China. Pawar, M. (2006) ‗Social‘ ‗Capital‘? The Social Science Journal, 43 (2), 211-226. Pawar, M. (2004) Community Informal Care and Welfare Systems in Asia–Pacific Countries – Phase I: Lessons from the process and evaluation of an international project. International Social Work, Vol. 47 (4), 439-453. Pawar, M. and Cox, D. (2004) Communities‘ Informal Care and Welfare Systems: A training manual (2nd ed.). Wagga Wagga: CRSR. Shedden, C. (2006) Our ‗moral duty‘ to halt lonely deaths: Time to build stronger communities. In the Australian Senior, Vol. 29, No 4, April 2006. Wesumperuma (2006) Income support to older poor: non-contributory cash transfers. Power-point presentation at the UNESCAP EGM meeting, 30 June -1 July 2006, Shanghai, China. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (2006) Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Retrieved on 6 August 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs#Counterpositions. Wiltz, Teresa (2006) Astor Heiress Was Neglected Scandalously, Suit Charges. In Washington Post, Thursday, July 27, 2006; Page C01.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN THROUGH ACID THROWING IN BANGLADESH: AN ATROCITY PROCESS FOR DISFIGUREMENT IN GENDER PERSPECTIVE

Anjelika Hasan1

Key Words: Violence. Women. Acid. Disfigurement.

Abstract: This paper is an attempt to discuss the violence against women by acid throwing for disfigurement in order to take grievance when the women disagree with the proposal of either love or marriage of the men. Sometimes, it may takes place due to family disputes, failure of commitment of dowry, land disputes, and political conflict. Acid is being used as a weapon of choice for disfigurement and some times to kill the targeted women. The main target of the perpetrators is to disfigure the face, blind the eyes, change the shape of the nose, and make the genital organs inactive of the targeted women. This main focus of this paper is to examine the main causes of acid attack and its trend, the laws enacted to prevent acid throwing against women and survival pattern of the victims.

Introduction The total population of Bangladesh is about 160 million. The female constitutes about 48.5 percent of the total population. The women are the victims of gender discrimination which refers to the inequality between man and woman in relation to the process of socialization, health and nutrition, education, marriage and dowry, employment and wage, inheritance of property rights, participation in decision making process at the house hold level and so on ( Sarker,2008). Gender discrimination is rooted from instinct of religion which is fueled by socio-cultural and economic inequalities between man and woman. The violence against

1 Lecturer, Department of Law, Prime University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected]

47 woman is the product of those inequalities and lower social status in different phases of their life cycles. Women are vulnerable to violence because of their subordinate positions in power relationships sustained between men and women in kinship net work system, social structures, patriarchy, class and ideology (Khurshid, 2007). Violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women in the patriarchal social system which appears in different paradigms such as rape, sexual harassment, psychological abuse, domestic violence, trafficking, forced prostitution, killing and acid throwing. Acid throwing is also the consequence of the unequal status between men and women. Acid throwing is a violent phenomenon that primarily occurred in South Asian countries such as Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh (Bandyopadhya and Khan, 2003). Acid throwing also spread out across the world especially in Cambodia, China, Colombia, Ethiopia, Thailand, and United States of America (Whalen, 2006). Acid throwing is frequently inflicted in Cambodia upon mistress. Acid throwing is most common in Bangladesh and the trend is started 1992 and the rate of acid throwing is on the increase in recent years. There were about 200 cases of acid throwing in 1999 and that number increased to 485 in 2002 (Acid Survival Foundation, 2002). It is very difficult to get accurate information about acid throwing against women because many cases are unreported for many reasons. The crime rampantly occurs in the less developed rural areas and small towns where more than 85 percent people live. Most of the victims do not get proper medical treatment and plastic surgery due to financial constraint (Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Association, 2001:47). The main focus of this paper is to examine the main causes of acid throwing and the victims of acid throwing and to what extent the enacted laws against acid throwing are sufficient to safeguard the victims.

Conceptual Issues Violence against women is a violation of basic human rights to safety, security, and physical integrity. Violence is a pattern of coercive behavior in which one person attempts to control another through threats or actual use of tactics which may include any or all of the following: physical,

48 sexual, verbal, and psychological abuses. Of all the gender-based violences directed to women, acid throwing is the most horrific. The women are the weaker and vulnerable section of population in Bangladesh due to defective laws, socio-economic and cultural perspectives and as a result they are the target of violence by their counter part men if they are not satisfied with them. Acid is used as a weapon against women to disfigure them. It burns the body and a burning sensation starts that gradually increases the intensity and ultimately the skin becomes black and leathery. The chemical agents most commonly used to attacks are hydrochloric acid sulphuric acid or nitric acid.

The Acid Victims Most of the victims of acid throwing are the teen age girls and the women below thirty years of age. Many victims are the girl students and many of them meet their aggressors on the way from or to school or college. Usually, acid throwing takes place at night at the residence of the women when they sleep. The perpetrators throw acid through window of the room where the targeted girl or woman sleeps. The offenders carry the acid in safe container before throwing on the face of the women. The attack damages the face, vagina along with the other organs of the body. Most survivors experience a dramatic change in life style and become isolated socially. It not only damages self-esteem but also economic position. The unmarried victims are likely never to marry because of physical deformation. Bangladesh is not just the world‘s most densely populated country rather it records for having the highest number of women who have been disfigured in acid attacks. A statistical evidence is given on the next page to get the trend of acid attack against women in Bangladesh.

Table-1: Trend of Acid Attack against Women in Bangladesh from 1999 - 2010. Period No. of Incidents No. of Victims Percent 1999 159 159 5.07 2000 174 234 7.46 2001 252 349 11.15 2002 367 490 15.62 2003 335 412 13.13 2004 266 325 10.36 2005 217 272 8.68 2006 180 221 7.04 2007 154 192 6.12 2008 137 179 5.71 2009 120 150 4.79 2010 115 153 4.87 Total 2512 3136 100

1999 3500 2000 3000 2001 2500 2002 2000 2003 1500 2004 1000 2005 500 2006 2007 0 No. of No. of Victims Percent 2008 Incidents 2009 2010 Source: Acid Survivors Foundation Total

In the year 2010, ASF recorded 115 incidents of acid attracts , which left 153 people injured. Of the victims 71.89% or 110 persons were women and girls while 28.11% or 43 persons were men and boys. It is evident from the table-1 that the highest number of women were the victims of acid throwing in the year of 2002 and 2003. Similarly, in 2001 and 2004 about 15.6 and 14.6 percent women were the victims of acid throwing respectively among the total victims. It should be mentioned that sometimes the co-partner of the bed of the targeted women were the victims of acid throwing because of sharing the same bed. Consequently, it is found in the table-1 that the number of victims were higher than the incidence of acid throwing. Sight a case of Ambia Khatun. Ambia, a 30- year aged widow, was sleeping with her two sons, aged 4 and 6. Ambia was attacked because she refused the thrower‘s marriage proposal. She is now blind and the boys are scattered and become street children. To quote Ambia: It would be better if I would die after acid throwing. I don‘t have money to file case against the perpetrator and even to get treatment, because I am a foe. Moreover, the perpetrator is a rich man. If I file case against him, he may kill me and my sons. Under the circumstances, I can file a case to almighty Allah to give him divine punishment, otherwise, I have no alternative (Schetzer, 1999).

Causes of Acid Throwing The main cause of acid throwing is associated with social structure in terms of subordinate status of women in patriarchal social system in which the women have to depend upon men in their different phases of life cycle as daughter, wife, and mother. The specific causes of acid throwing against women are given below. Refusal of Love: When the proposal of a young boy to a young girl for love is refused by her, gradually the boy becomes angry and he tries to establish relationship using the different methods and techniques. If the boy ultimately fails, he uses the weapon of acid throwing against the girl in order to cripple her to satisfy his grievance.

Refusal of Marriage: The beautiful and fair looking girls are always the targets of the boys to marry. If it is does not happen due to the refusal from the girl‘s side, she might be the victim of acid throwing by the refused boy. Marital Conflict: A wife may be the subject of acid throwing by her husband due to marital conflict. Conflict may be the resultant effect of separation or divorce by the wife. Under the circumstances, the husband becomes jealous and finds out the weapon of acid throwing to take revenge. Failure of Meeting the Demand of Dowry: Commitment of failure of dowry is one of the reasons for acid throwing. Dowry is widely practiced in Bangladesh and when the parents of the bride fail to fulfil the dowry demand, the wife may be the subject of acid victim. Sometimes, the husband is inspired by the other members of the family to be involved in acid throwing. Remarriage of Divorcee: Many women fall victims to acid throwing by their ex-husbands. Even after divorce the ex-husbands do not want to lose their right to control the women as wives and the fulfillment of sexual urge with the divorced wives. If they are not able to fulfill the desired sexual urge, they become angry and want to take revenge by throwing acid. Disputes of Land: Land is one of the main sources of income of the people of Bangladesh. The dispute of landed property is a common phenomenon among the people of peasants‘ society. The rationale of throwing acid on women belonging to a rival family is to damage the family prestige. Deterioration of Law and Order: The culture of acid throwing depends on the total law and order situation of the country. If the perpetrators are not properly punished, the acid throwing can not be stopped. Corruption: Corruption of the members of law enforcing and judiciary departments are one of the contributing factors for acid throwing against women in Bangladesh.

Gender Biased Attitude: The males are the dominating people not only at the family level but also in the different departments. Under the circumstances, women do not get proper justice when they file case against men. Disagreement of Polygamy: About 85 percent population of Bangladesh is Muslims. The Muslim males are allowed to get polygamous marriage if they want but if the previous wife does not give consent, she might be the victim of acid throwing due to her disagreement. Processes of Acid Throwing Acid is now being used as a weapon of choice for disfigurement and killing of targeted women by the perpetrators. The different methods and techniques are used for acid throwing against women. Acid is inexpensive and easily available in the market. It depends upon the situation, place, and time when the perpetrators will take action against the targeted women. The chemical agent used to commit the attack is of different kinds of acids, that causes severe disfigurement. Acid is put into the bottle and kept very carefully before throwing it on the specific targeted organs of the body. Usually, the acid is thrown at night through windows on the body of the targeted women when they are sleeping (Franco, 1999). Many girls become the victims of acid throwing on the way from or to school and working place. Sometimes, they are attacked on the way to visit their relatives. It has been found that the women are attacked by acid throwing when they go to the toilet at night outside their residence especially in rural areas. It should be noted that many families do not have toilet inside the residence of rural Bangladesh. Under the circumstances, they use open space or toilet which is made by bamboo and polythene or any other materials. These are not well protected. In some cases, the perpetrators intimidate the victims. All of these attacks are pre-planned in advance.

Acid Throwing and Law There is a strict law in Bangladesh of acid throwing against women but the application of law is too insufficient due to many reasons. For example, the men who throw acid on women are rarely convicted because of culture

53 of bribe. It has been reported that only one out of ten perpetrators was convicted (Chung, 1999). There are several laws enacted for the protection of the acid victims. These are Dowry Prohibition Act 1980, Acid Control Act 2002, Acid Crime Control Act 2002, The Penal Code (second amendment Ordinance), The Women and Child Repression Control act of 1995, and The Suppression of Violence against Women and Children Act 2000. These laws provide imprisonment of different tenures and capital punishment is the highest punishment which may be accompanied by fines up to Tk. 100,000 (US$ 1470) in case of death of the victim. The law provides severe punishment for inflicting temporary or permanent injuries on the face, eyes, ears, breasts, or the sexual organs from acid. Similar punishments would be handed down to those abetting acid attacks. Proceeds from fines would go to the families and any negligence in this respect is also punishable. Through Acid Control Act, 2002, Government of Bangladesh for the first time regulates and monitors the use, sale, purchase, storage, transportation, import and export of acid.

Impediments of Execution of Law It is very difficult to execute of laws against acid throwing in Bangladesh due to socio-economic, political and cultural reasons in patriarchal society. In any legal case, if the complainant is absent, the case can be dismissed. In practice this discriminates against women who may be intimidated by their husbands and in-laws to stay away from court. Because of legal loopholes, the case of acid throwing is difficult to prove. The police know who is the real culprit. Usually, they do not take action against them due to bribe. Sometimes, the police try to convince or intimidate the victims to withdraw their cases. These enacted laws, however, have not been effective in reducing the incidents of acid throwing against women in Bangladesh, because a few women seek justice due to limited legal help, fear of perpetrators, deep rooted corruption in the law enforcing agencies and discriminatory legal system.( Al- Mutiri,2005). On the other hand, it has been observed that the perpetrators are so powerful and influential that the victims cannot fight against them either legally or socially. It should be noted that many cases

54 are found pending for trial. A table is given below to get the clear idea regarding this issue. It is interesting to note that the acid throwing offence is cognizable, non-bailable and non-compoundable. Under the circumstances, if the police report shows the reasonable ground, the lower court and the Appellate Division can grant bail in favor of accused.

Table-2: Table shows the Pending Cases for Trial of the Acid Perpetrators Year No. of Charge No. of cases Under Conviction Types of Cases sheets under Trial Conviction investigation Cases person D.S L.S Stay 2005 206 122 0 122 24 37 3 10 34 2006 146 80 0 80 12 22 1 8 36 2007 177 109 0 109 11 17 0 6 67 2008 163 80 0 80 7 13 1 11 58 2009 129 70 0 70 13 13 1 2 15 2010 97 46 18 46 0 0 0 0 45 Total 918 507 18 507 67 102 6 37 255

Source: Report of Acid Crime Control Monitoring Cell

Consequences of Acid Throwing Acid attacks impact the physical, emotional, social, and economic facets of survivors‘ lives. The physical consequences of acid attacks can be severe. In some cases the victims may be blind and lose their vital organs of the body and ultimately become crippled. The results of acid burnt scars are generally uncomfortable, tight and painful. The consequential physical scarring and disabilities cause some survivors to feel ashamed and embarrassed by their appearance, leading to social isolation and lack of public engagement. In addition, there is a social stigma attached to acid attacks that can lead to further marginalization of survivors. As a result the acid burnt survivors are often in vulnerable economic and social positions.

They have very limited opportunities to work, skill development training and to develop supportive relationships. Acid throwing changes the life style of the survivors dramatically. The victims are not only isolated socially but also lose their self-esteem. An unmarried woman attacked with acid is likely never to marry. The trauma stems from excruciating pain and unbearable shock compounded by social rejection even by their relatives to whom they are connected with kinship relations. To sight a case of Sufia: Sufia was a twenty years old college going girl. She was living in a remote village of Bangladesh with a dream to be an agronomist. Sufia and her sister Helen were sleeping in the same bed. A man threw acid meant for Helen on to Sufia‘s face because she turned down of marriage proposal of her sister. The great ambition of Sufia ended up in beggary.

Assistance for the Victims The assistance of acid attack is meager compared to the increasing number of victims. Some of the International Organizations and NGOs are providing supports for the acid victims with the close cooperation of the GOB. The Acid Survivors‘ Foundation (ASF) is one of them. This foundation was established in 1999 to coordinate ongoing assistance in the treatment, rehabilitation and reintegration of the acid attacked victims into the mainstream of the society. ASF was founded by British historian John Morrison and now it is funded by Canadian International Development Agency. Bangladesh Human Rights Commission (BHRC) provides treatment for the victims with the assistance of Organization Mondiale Contre La Torture (OMCT). This organization provides 90 percent support for medical plastic Survey. Moreover, some mobile medical teams provide free treatment for the acid victims. For example, free treatment has been given to the acid victims by a group of Spanish surgeons in association with ASF. A group of Italian plastic surgeons provided medication for the acid victims in 1998. It is really a difficult situation to provide treatment for the acid victims. The number of acid victims is increasing in alarming

56 rate, but the number of plastic surgeons is very limited. Moreover, plastic surgery is an expensive treatment and as a result it is difficult for the acid victims to get treatment. In medical college hospital burn units, there are limited beds. Even they don‘t have modern equipment for the treatment of acid burn patients. In addition of medication, the Dhaka-based Bangladesh National Women‘s Lawyers‘ Association provides legal aid to the victims of acid attacks (Hossain, 1999). Some of the NGOs are providing skill development training for the acid victims in order to get employment and reintegration with the main stream of population. Moreover, rehabilitation facilities are given to the acid victims through self employment and micro-credit program so that the acid victims can stand on their own.

Conclusion and Policy Implications Acid throwing against the targeted women is a violent phenomenon that is perpetrated by men not only for refusal of proposal of love, marriage, and sex but also for extra-marital sex affairs, jealousy and power along with other motives. It creates physical, social and emotional sufferings for the victims in their whole life. If this atrocity process of disfiguring of targeted women continues, the life of the women in Bangladesh will be insecured and as a result it will go against the human rights. To combat acid throwing against women as well as to provide rehabilitation to the victims, the following policies may be implemented.  Intensive awareness campaign against acid throwing on the women should be initiated at different levels of the society involving the GOs, NGOs, and civil society.  Law enforcing agencies should be trained up to prevent acid throwing against women and at the same time legal action should be taken against the perpetrators.  Sales of any kind of acid should be restricted and there should be reasonable ground to buy and sale acid.  Gender inequality and its effects of acid throwing against women should be included in the curriculum for the school students.

 To provide proper physical and psychological therapy to the acid victims every medical hospital should have plastic surgical unit with adequate facilities.  To provide a comprehensive rehabilitative treatment through funding survivors‘ education, and skill development training so that they feel confident in entering the workforce and support themselves.  The income generating projects should be introduced by the initiative of GOs and NGOs in order to create self employment opportunities for the acid victims so that they can stand by their own in future.  Since laws are not enough against acid throwing related offence, legal reforms as well as application of existing laws are of telling necessity.  The press, and the electronic media both public and private channels should play very active role in awakening public opinion or awareness to prevent this crime.

References Acid Control Act (2002). Supra Note 42. Acid Crime Control Act (2002). Supra Note 187. Afroja, Anowary (2003). Acid Violence on Medical Care in Bangladesh. Gender & Society, 17(2), pp.305-313 Al-Mutiri, Khaznal (2005). Acid Throwing against Women in Bangladesh. An published paper. American International School, Dhaka. Anoara, Begum (2004). Acid Violence: A Burning Issue of Bangladesh-Its Medico- logical Aspects. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 25(4), pp.321-323 Bandyopadhyay, Mridula and Khan, Mahmuda Rahman(2003). Loss of Face: Violence against Women in South Asia. In Lenore Manderson and Linda Rae Bennett(eds.) Violence Against Women in Asian Societies. London: Routledge. Chung, Conney (1999).20/20ABC news, Available at:http://www.abcnews.go.com/onair/2020/2020 991101bangladesh

Franc, Nicoletta D.(1999). Changing Gender Relations and New Forms of Violence: Acid-Throwing Against Women in Bangladesh and the NGO Response. IDS, Sussex: University Press of Sussex. Hossain, Farid (1999). Time International. 1(13):pp16-17. Mannan, A. (2004). The Problems of Acid Violence in Bangladesh. The Journal Surgery, 2(1), pp39-43. Sarker, Profulla C. (2008).Understanding Social Problems and Policies. New Delhi: Serials Publications.

SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAM: A STEP TOWARDS ACHIEVING NUTRITION SECURITY FOR THE DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN

Profulla C. Sarker1

Keywords: School. Feeding. Nutrition. Security. Children. Abstract: This paper is an attempt to describe the existing situation of malnutrition especially for the women and children which impair the minds, bodies, productivity and economic and social progress. This paper also discusses the role and importance of School Feeding Program (SFP) for the disadvantaged children. The main objective of this paper is to examine to what extent the School Feeding Program (SFP) in close cooperation of Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) fight against malnutrition to improve the quality of life and well being for the malnourished children to promoting education where their education performance is significantly low due to food insecurity.

Introduction In the age of globalization the world has come together to solve many problems especially in public health sector viz. water borne diseases, HIV/AIDS, arsenicosis, tuberculosis, malaria, and so on. But it has done little to address malnutrition. Malnutrition is rightly seen as a crucial threat to health and development. The problem of malnutrition is associated with food and nutritional insecurity especially in developing countries across the world. Food and nutrition are the key elements in maintaining physical growth, development and wellbeing. But the world still faces the large and familiar problems of spreading of hunger along with malnutrition due to insecurity of food and nutrition. The hidden hunger due to micronutrient deficiencies is widely spread in developing countries. Micronutrients

1 Profulla C. Sarker is currently Professor and Vice Chancellor. Prime University, 2A/1, North East of Darusalam Road, Mirpur-1, Dhaka, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected]

60 contain calories, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats and they keep cell working properly. The concept of food security has evolved since 1974 when the first World Food Conference was convened by FAO. Food and nutrition security is now a global issue especially in developing countries. Many development programs have been implemented by the GOs and NGOs in close cooperation with UNOs to attain food and nutrition security as a means to protect people against malnutrition. It has been found in many studies that the improvement of food security does not mean the improvement of nutrition status especially the women and children who are identified as vulnerable people and as a result they become the victim of morbidity and mortality. Food and nutrition security is a separate issue but they are interrelated, inter-dependent and interchangeable. Maxwell and Smith (1992) argued that while food is central to both concepts and there is overlap, but food and nutrition security are two distinct concepts. Food is confined into two components; the energy provided by food and vitamins and minerals, or dietary quality. Ensuring the nutritional security of any country depends upon the availability of food required for all of its citizens either produced or imported as components of the national food supply. The physical availability of food depends on productive agriculture, effective trade, and efficient food aid logistics. Agriculture, trade, along with aid policies are important in influencing the availability of staple and non staple food. The promotion of staple crops that are high in micronutrient status can increase calorie and micronutrient availability simultaneously. Economic access of food is a matter of prices and income which Amartya Sen (1981) pointed out in his research famines around the world that occur not because food is not available, but due to non-accessibility to the food. Food security is the ability of the people to produce or to buy required food to ensure adequate dietary intake. In the concept of FAO (1983) and World Bank (1986) food security means ensuring food for all people at all times. It has both physical and economic access to the basic food they require. Ensuring food security and proper nutrition remains a major challenge for women and children in developing countries including Bangladesh. The

61 main focus of this paper is to examine to what extent the school feeding program is able to face the challenge to improve the nutrition status keeping in view to promoting education for children where their education performance is significantly low due to food insecurity.

Methodological Issues This paper is based on data collected from secondary sources, primarily through literature review and targeted interviews with the key informants of cross-section of people. The data are fairly consistent and reliable, although there are some discrepancies between government and non- government sources. The emphasis has been given on qualitative analysis but some quantitative data is incorporated to supplement the qualitative data. To analyze the existing malnutrition situation, anthropometric measures for children (stunting, wasting and underweight) are considered.

Child Stunting Height-for-age: Z-score < -2 standard deviations (SD) Children with a Z-score < -3 SD are considered to be severely stunted. Child Wasting weight-for-height Z-score < -2 SD Child underweight weight for age Z-score < -2 SD

Situation of Malnutrition Malnutrition is a threat to development. Vitamin and mineral deficiencies affect a third of the world‘s population-impairing minds, bodies, productivity and economic and social progress of nations. About 60 developing countries have iodine deficiency which is a major cause of intellectual impairment. On the other hand, vitamin A deficiency is responsible for million of child deaths, about 40-60 percent young children of developing countries are suffering from iron deficiency which impairs the normal cognitive development. Similarly, folate deficiency is responsible for 200,000 severe birth defects every year and zinc deficiency is associated with ill health and poor growth. Mal- nutrition is a global

62 issue and it affects more than 2 billion people, kills more than 2.5 million children under 5 years of age every year. More than 42 percent children under 5 years of age are moderately or severely under weight in South Asia. More specifically, Bangladesh, India and Pakistan together account for half of the world‘s under weight children. Only one- third of children in South Asia are exclusively breastfed for 6 months and longer. The region has also high rates of anemia, iodine deficiency disorders and vitamin A deficiency.

Figure-1: Nutritional Status of Children Under Six Years of Age in Bangladesh

60 Stunting

50 Wasting

Underweight 40

0 Highest Middle Lowest Source: Nutrition Surveillance Project, 1990-2005 by Helen Keller International, Bangladesh

The facts about malnutrition in Bangladesh are about 47 percent of pre- school aged children and pregnant women are anemic (Gain, 2009). On the other hand, about 21.7 percent of pre-school aged children are suffering from vitamin A deficiency. About 6.5 percent of pregnant women suffer from night blindness and 42.5 percent of school-aged children are with iodine deficiency (ibid). About 48 percent children under 5 are under weight and 13 percent are severely under weight, 43 percent of children are stunted and 13 percent are wasted (Bangladesh Health Demographic Survey, 2009). About one-fifth of children die before their

63 fifth birthday, and two-thirds of these deaths are related to malnutrition. Children‘s malnutrition in Bangladesh increases by about 23 percent between age 5 and 6 years, when the children start primary school education. It has been found in many studies that the combined effect of malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies reduces a child‘s learning ability and hence poor academic performance.

Causes of Malnutrition The causes of mal-nutrition in Bangladesh are complex by a diverse range of factors viz. natural calamities in terms of draught, flood, cyclone, river bank erosion, and storm which are the regular features to destroy the crops, lives and property. Contrary to popular perceptions, malnutrition is not simply the result of having too little food to eat: in fact, many children living in households with plenty to eat are still under-weight or stunted because of traditional system of infant feeding and care practices, poor access to health services, and poor sanitation. In many developing countries including Bangladesh where malnutrition is widespread, because of food insecurity and nutritional deficiency. Some of the most important factors which are associated with malnutrition especially for the women and children in Bangladesh are given below.

 Pregnant and nursing women eat too few calories and too little protein, have untreated infections, such as sexually transmitted diseases that lead to low birth weight, or do not get enough rest.  Mothers have too little time to take care of their young children or themselves during pregnancy.  Mothers of the newborn discard their first breast milk known as ‘colostrum‘ which strengthens the child‘s immune system.  Mothers often feed children under the age of six months foods other than breast milk even though exclusive breastfeeding is the best source of nutrients and the best protection against many infectious and chronic diseases.  Inequality of gender-based food allocation and distribution at the household level creates problem for mal-nutrition in gender perspective.

 Culture of food habit in terms of customs, beliefs, and value system is one of the determining factors about the food taboo e.g., what food should be eaten what should not.  Dietary restriction in avoiding of eating of certain foods and observance of restriction of eating food in certain auspicious time may lead to malnutrition of pregnant women as well as fetus.  Iodine deficiency is an important factor for malnutrition of women especially in north-western part of Bangladesh.  Illiteracy and inadequate knowledge of health education and food value especially among the women in rural Bangladesh is also a contributing factor of malnutrition.  High rate of dependency on maid servants in affluent families for preparation and cooking food, because they have little knowledge of food value and how to maintain it.  Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticide in agriculture, horticulture, and vegetable production deteriorates quality of food and thus affects nutritional quality of foods.  Poverty and culture of feminization poverty is also one of the factors of malnutrition of women and children in Bangladesh. Besides, under-nutrition‘s most damaging effect occurs during pregnancy and in the first two years of life, and the effects of this early damage on health, brain development, intelligence, educability, and productivity are largely irreversible. Nutrition programs aimed at older children have little effect. Initial evidence suggests that the origins of obesity and non- communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular heart disease and diabetes, may also lie in early childhood.

Importance of School Feeding Early childhood malnutrition is a major issue for overall development of children. It has been found that early childhood under nutrition is associated with cognitive development and school achievement (McGregor, 2007). About 200 million children under 5 fail to reach their cognitive development due to poverty, poor health, and malnutrition (Engle et al., 2007). Significant association has been found between

65 stunting and poor psychomotor development among the children in Guatemala, Chile, Jamaica and Kenya because of malnutrition in early childhood (Lasky et al., 1981, Monckeberg, 1972, Sigman,1989). The prevalence of malnutrition has declined in some developing countries across the world through introducing school feeding program. Adequate nutrition is the cornerstone for survival, health and holistic development of children under 5 years of age. Evidence suggests that improving nutrition in pre-school in developing countries is a long term investment (Hoddinnott et al., 2008). Early childhood development is related to nutrition, healthcare, and socialization that contribute to emotional development, physical growth and intellectual ability. School Feeding has a positive impact on nutrition for participating children. In some instances, parents of poorer sections of community may provide less food at home, and the school meal simply replaces a home meal rather than adding food to the child‘s diet. In other words, the food provided by the school feeding program may not adequately address the complex nutritional deficiencies in the children‘s diet. The main merit of this program is to supplement diet for the children who come from poor families. The impact of School Feeding Program on education is to create a link between hunger and learning. There is evidence that children who are hungry or malnourished are less able to learn because of less attention in the classes. It has been found that the children in school feeding and food for education programs are better able to learn. The School Feeding Programs can contribute to increase attendance rates, especially for the girls as well as reduce the drop out rates. School Feeding Program helps building literate society and spur economic growth. Educated individuals earn higher wages and earn more through self-employment. Investment in education yields high returns both for the individual and the society. So this program also facilitates addressing gender equality, encouraging parents to send their daughters and sons to school. Therefore, a consistent flow of funding is very important to sustain the School Feeding Program for the poor primary school children in Bangladesh. Under the circumstances, if the goal of the Government of Bangladesh is education for all, there is no alternative without School Feeding to reach this goal. Moreover, if the mission and vision of the government is to convert the

66 country‘s huge population into asset rather than liability and at the same time if the nation wants to export skilled labor force to developed countries to earn foreign currency for economic and social development for the quality of life and well being of the people of Bangladesh, the School Feeding Program can be one of the contributing factors for human resource development through primary education.

Objectives of the Program The school feeding (SF) programs have been designed and implemented to reduce hunger of the primary-school going children as well as to improve education. The main thrust of this program is to provide biscuits to improve students‘ dietary intake, mitigate short-term hunger and micronutrient deficiencies which contribute to improve children‘s cognition and ability to learn and concentrate. The long term objective of this program is to contribute to the government policy of universal primary education by improving access to basic education of school age children, particularly those living in poverty prone areas. The short term objectives are to promote development of cognitive capacities and community participation in the management of school. The specific objectives are 1. To increase school enrolment and improve attendance among school-age children; 2. To reduce drop-out rates particularly among children from food insecure areas; 3. To improve attention span and learning capacity of children by reducing short-term hunger and micronutrients deficiency; 4. To improve the nutritional status of children and to reduce their morbidity and mortality; and 5. To sensitize and build capacity of local communities to operate school feeding by their own initiative

School Feeding Program in Bangladesh Bangladesh is a country in Asia that is struggling with poverty and hunger. According to the United Nations World Food Program (WFP),

"Approximately half of the population i.e.63 million people live below the food poverty line" and "dietary intakes of both children and adults are severely deficient in vitamins and minerals in particular iron, vitamin A.‖ "Natural disaster is a regular feature which occur with such frequency in Bangladesh so as to deeply worsen the cycle of poverty. School feeding programs are critical to Bangladesh and its quest to end hunger. WFP Bangladesh is currently assisting 600,000 children, which include 30,000 pre-primary and 570,000 primary schoolchildren in more than 4,000 formal and non-formal government and non government schools through the School Feeding. The present coverage is inadequate compared to the total countrywide need of 20 million primary schoolchildren. School Feeding Program started in Bangladesh in 2001 with the initiative of WFP on a pilot basis with a caseload of about 350,000 primary school children (WFP, 2003) in order to reduce hunger in the class room as well as promote school enrollment and retention rates in food insecure areas. Given its positive result and cooperation of the donors, this program is implemented under the country program of Bangladesh especially in food insecure areas. School Feeding Program is the first effort in Bangladesh to provide incentives directly to primary-school children, as opposed to provide cash or food to parents to send their children to school (Ahmed, 2004). The School Feeding Program provides a mid-morning snack consisting of eight fortified wheat biscuits to some 1 million children through 6000 primary schools in high food insecure rural areas including 4 slums of Dhaka city. It provides a 75 gm packet of biscuits to primary and 50 gm biscuits to pre-primary school children in targeted areas, on daily basis (6 days per week). The essential learning services in the area of education, health, nutrition are being provided through community mobilization in a coordinated manner. There are de-worming, school vegetable gardening, promotion of women leadership in the school management committee, awareness on disaster risk reduction and impact of climate disruption, awareness of health, hygiene, sanitation and nutrition education, and awareness of HIV/AIDS for teachers and school management committees.

The Bangladesh School Nutrition Program (BNSP) was also stated in 2002. The program has delivered 200 ml of ultra high temperature treated milk in a Tetra Pa Fino Aseptic with printed educational message, and 40 grams wheat biscuits fortified with iron to each child six days per week for 262,869 primary school children in 967 schools. The program is completed with semiannual de-worming tablets, reducing illness which affect learning capacity and impair physical growth. The children were benefited from awareness of hygiene and sanitation through monitoring evaluation of BRAC. Model school feeding program of BSNP was successful in raising enrollment and reducing absenteeism in primary school in spite of economic hardship. It was a partnership project with the team of Land O‘Lkes, Tetra Pak and BRAC. This program has significant impact on the health and nutritional status of the most vulnerable population and the economic and social development of the country.

Impact of School Feeding Program The School Feeding project has demonstrated sustained result over the years (IFPRI, 2003).School Feeding Program has raised gross school enrollment rates of 16 percent, reduced the probability of dropping out by 10 percent and increased school attendance by 14 percent and improved academic achievement by 16 percent. On the other hand, it has been found that the average energy intake and energy adequacy ratios were considerably higher for the participating students compared to non participating students (ibid).The overall result is that the School Feeding Program has already improved children‘s diets and learning capacity. It should be noted that after rice, School Feeding Program‘s biscuits are the most important source of energy, protein, and iron in the diet program participants (ibid). Moreover, it has been reported by the mothers of the children and the school teachers individually that the interests of the children in attending school and their concentration on studies especially in the class room have increased and the incidence of their illness has declined. It has been found that the children in school feeding assisted schools are five times more likely not to suffer from anemia than children who are not assisted by school feeding.

Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) GAIN was created at a especial UN session for children in 2002. Established as a Swiss foundation, GAIN is currently receiving funds from the Bill and Malina Gates Foundation, the US Agency for International Development (USAID) AND THE Canadian International Agency (CIDA). The World Bank is a key partner, managing Trust Funds and active partnerships with business, governments and civil society and works closely with a range of international agencies. The vision of GAIN is for all people, every where, to have the nutrition they need to lead healthy and productive lives. On the other hand, GAIN‘S mission is to reduce malnutrition through the use of food fortification and other strategies aimed at providing health and nutrition to population at risk. GAIN has a key alliance-building function, bringing together both public and private partners around common objectives, and provides financial support and technical expertise. A distinctive and essential feature of GAIN‘s approach is its work with private sector, applying innovative business models to make markets work sustainable for the benefit of those suffering from malnutrition. GAIN is currently funding 15 food fortification projects in 14 countries. Gain also funds targeted projects to address particular issues along with technical assistance to ensure the projects it funds. GAIN has business alliances worldwide exploring ways to bring high quality, affordable fortified foods to those in dire need and enter into partnership efforts in order to achieve the goal through a comprehensive communication, measurement and monitoring. Nearly one-third of the one billion people GAIN aims to reach through its programs in Asia. The projects in Asia are in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Philippines, Uzbekistan and Vietnam. GAIN is working with UNICEF, Bangladesh Vegetable Oil Refiner‘s Association and privately-owned large refineries to increase vitamin and mineral intake among the populations vulnerable to malnutrition in Bangladesh through fortifying vegetable oil with vitamin A. Gain supported the Social Marketing Company (SMC) one of the largest

70 distributors of oral salts and condoms in Bangladesh to reduce iron deficiency anemia among the children under 5 years of age. The project engaged private distribution channels to establish a sustainable model of marketing single sachets of vitamin and mineral powder to be added to complementary foods. GAIN is working with Renata Limited one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in Bangladesh, BRAC and the Sprinkles Global Health Initiative to reduce anemia due to iron deficiency among the children 6-24 months. GAIN has completed a fact –finding mission in Bangladesh, one of the target countries of the GAIN-UNICEF Salt Iodization Program, and is preparing a strategic plan in collaboration with national partners. GAIN launched the GAIN Business Alliance in Bangladesh in 2007 involving 150 representatives from leading local companies, Government, UN organizations, and civil society to learn how they can contribute to the fight against malnutrition in Bangladesh. The GAIN BA offers member companies and event participants access to knowledge and networks as they explore business opportunities at the base of the pyramid; BA mobilizes the private sector to fortify foods as part of the global fight against malnutrition.

Conclusion In conclusion it can be said that the School Feeding Program (SFP) has already improved children‘s diets and learning capability. The main beauty of school feeding program is to fight against malnutrition to improve the quality of learning for the disadvantaged children. The school feeding program should continue and it should be expanded especially for the children in disaster affected areas of Bangladesh. On the other hand, GAIN is a platform to fight against malnutrition in global perspective to improve the quality of life and well being of the people who are malnourished. The philosophy of GAIN is to reduce malnutrition to promote partnership efforts involving GOs, NGOs, POs as stake holders along with the involvement of civil society. The main thrust of GAIN is to create stakeholders at the local level involving civil society to institutionalize fighting against malnutrition through capacity building

71 for awareness and motivation in order to strengthen their self-reliance to promote self-help capacity using their local resources to overcome the problem of malnutrition by their own especially for the women and children who are living in difficult circumstances.

References BHDS (2009) Bangladesh Health Demographic Survey Report, Ministry of Health and Population, Government of Bangladesh Engle, P.L. et al. (2007) Strategies to avoid the Loss of Developmental Potential among the 200 Million Children in Developing World. The Lancet. Vol.369, No.9557. pp.229-242. FAO (1983) Food Security: A Reappraisal of the Concepts and Approaches. Director General‘s Report. FAO, Rome. GAIN (2004) Gain Funded Project in Asia. Geneva. Hoddinott, J., Mauccio, J.A., Relrma, J.R., Flores, R. and Martorell, R.(2008) Effects of a Nutrition Intervention during Early Childhood on Economic Productivity in Guatamalan Adult. The vLancet. Vol.311, No.9610 pp. 411-416. Lasky, R.E., Klein. R.E., Yarbrough, C., Engle, P.L., Lechtig, A., and Martorell, R. (1981) The Relationship between Physical Growth and Infant Behavioral Development in Rural Guatemala. Child Development. Vol. 52. pp.219-26. Maxwell, S. and Smith, M.(1992) Household Food Security: A Conceptual Review. In Maxwell and Frankenberger (eds.) Household Food Security Concepts, Indicators, Measurement. International Fund for Agriculture Development and United Nation‘s Children Fund, Rome and NewYork, pp. 24-28 Monckeberg, P.(1972) Malnutrition and Mental Capacity. In Nutrition. The Nervous System and Behavior. Scientific Publication. Pan American Health Organization, Washinton. pp 48-54 Sen, Amartya K. (1981) Poverty and Fmines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Clareudan Press, Oxford. Sigman, M., Nerumann, C,. Baksh, M., Bwibo, N., and McDONALD, m.a. (1989) Relatinship between Nutrition and Development in Kenyan Toddlers. J. Pediatrp. Vol. 115. pp 357-64 World Bank(1946) Poverty and Hunger: Issues and Options. World Bank, Washington, DC. World Food Program (2004) World Food Program Assisted Food for Education Program in Bangladesh, Dhaka.

EMPLOYMENT, EDUCATION, HEALTH AND HOUSING SCENARIO OF BRITISH BANGLADESHIS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM: AN OVERVIEW

M. Abul Hossain Sikder 1 and Jakia Nusrat Mithila2

Keywords: Employment. Education. Health. Housing. British. Bangladeshis. Abstract: A Large number of Bangladeshis immigrated to the UK, primarily from Sylhet; located in the north-east of the country, mainly during the 1970s. Their largest concentration is in the East London boroughs, of which Tower Hamlet has the highest proportion, making up approximately 33% of the borough's total population (Hamlets, 2008). This large Diaspora in London leads people in Bangladesh to refer to British Bangladeshis as "Londonis" (Gillan, 2002). A significant community of Bangladeshi people also exists in Birmingham, Oldham, Luton, and Bradford, with smaller clusters in Manchester, New Castle upon Tyne, Cardiff and Sunderlan (BBC, London, 2005). As a result socio-cultural assimilation among the British and Bangladeshi people has already happened as a natural process. This article is an attempt to discuss the employment, education, health and housing scenario of British Bangladeshi in UK in Historical perspective.

Introduction Bangladeshis form one of the UK's largest immigrant groups, and are also one of its youngest and fastest-growing communities. The population of Bangladeshis in Britain has grown steadily over the years. At the time of the U.K Census, 2002, 154,362 Bangladeshi-born people were resident in the U.K (Country of Data Base, 2010) and there were a total of 283,063

1 Professor and Vice Chancellor (Acting), Atish Dipankar University of Science and Technology (ADUST), Dhaka, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Lecturer, Department of Business Administration, Atish Dipankar University of Science and Technology (ADUST), Dhaka, Bangladesh.

73 residents of Bangladeshi ethnicity (National Statistics, 2010). By 2007, the ethnic Bangladeshi population in Britain only was estimated to be 353,900 (Ibid). Current estimates suggest that there are about 500,000 Bangladeshis residing in the UK. Bangladeshis form a largely homogeneous community. Rates of unemployment are typically high; there is overcrowding, and also some health problems have been observed (Garbin, 2005). The latest generation of Bangladeshis, however, form a thriving community who are beginning to establish themselves in the mainstream of commerce and politics (BBC). Despite, the most recently settled of the major South Asian communities in Britain, the Bangladeshis are well established (Jeffery and Basu, 1998). The Bangladeshis in U.K contribute a significant role in our economic and national development. Especially, during our liberation war, this community played a vital role. Therefore, it requires to investigate their socio-cultural, political and economic and other associated conditions of the British-Bangladeshis.

Methodology This study has been conducted in U.K during the period from January to December 2011. Both primary and secondary data has been used to conduct the study. For primary data 40 respondents were interviewed to get the information from different parts of London, Essex, Kent, Luton and Gloucestershire cities. They were interviewed through open ended question to assemble more relevant information. It may be mentioned here that the sample was drawn through a purposive method to ensure that the respondent would be able to provide relevant information. Senior citizens, educated businessmen and professionals were only selected for this purpose. On the other hand, observation method was followed by the researchers to watch the social, religious and other cultural activities of the communities. Informal focus group discussion was followed for the purpose of collecting the information. For secondary data, relevant articles, periodicals, reports were reviewed.

History of British Bangladeshis Bengalis had been present in Britain in the early 19th century. The records of first arrivals from the region what is known today as Bangladesh (was

British India), were Sylheti cooks in London, during 1873, part of the East India Company, who arrived in the UK as lascars in ships to work in restaurants followed by a Royal Order to engage East Bengal Lascars in British ships . Author Caroline Adams records that in 1925 a lost Bengali man was searching for other Bengali settlers in London (New Age, 2008) These first few arrivals started the process of "chain migration" mainly from one region of Bangladesh—Sylhet, which led to substantial numbers of people migrating from rural areas of the region, creating links between relatives in Britain and the region They mainly immigrated to the United Kingdom to find work, achieve a better living standard, and to escape conflict. (Thapan, 2005). During the pre-state years, the 1950s and 1960s, Bengali men emigrated to London in search of employments (Sandhu,2003) Most settled in Tower Hamlets, particularly around Spitalfields and Brick Lane . During 1971 Bangladesh, (known until then as "East Pakistan) ―fought for its independence from Pakistan what was known as the Bangladesh Liberation War. In the region of Sylhet, this led some people to join the Mukti Bahini or Liberation Army. (Baglapedia,2008). However, the war also caused large numbers of Sylhetis to flee, mainly to Britain. In the 1970s, changes in Immigration Laws encouraged a new wave of Bangladeshis to come to the UK and settle. Job opportunities were initially limited to low paid sectors, with unskilled work in small factories the textile trade being common. When the "Indian' restaurant" concept became popular, some Sylhetis started to open cafes. From these small beginnings a network of Bangladeshi restaurants, shops and banks became established in Brick Lane and surrounding areas. The influence of Bangladeshi culture and diversity began to develop across the East London boroughs (Ibid). The early immigrants lived and worked mainly in cramped basements and attics overlooking Hamlets area. The men were often illiterate, poorly educated, and spoke little English and so could not interact with the English- speaking population and could not enter higher education (Sandhu, 2003) Some became targets for English businessmen, who sold their properties to other Sylhetis, even though they had no legal claim to the buildings (Hossain,2010). A decline in business throughout East London, including

75 textiles and the garment industry, led to widespread unemployment; the Bangladeshis, however, became cooks, waiters and mechanics.

Large numbers of Bangladeshis settled and established themselves in Brick Lane By the late 1970s the Brick Lane area had become predominantly Bengali, replacing the former Jewish community which had declined. Following the increase in the number of Bengalis in the area, the Jews migrated to outlying suburbs of London, as they integrated with the majority British population. Jewish bakeries were turned into curry houses, jewellery shops became shari stores, and synagogues became dress factories. The synagogue at the corner of Fournier Street and Brick Lane became the Jamme Masjid or 'Great London Mosque', which continues to serve the Bangladeshi community till today . This building represents the history of successive communities of immigrants in this part of London. It was built in 1743 as a French Protestant church; in 1819 it became a Methodist chapel, and in 1898 was designated as the Spitalfields Great Synagogue. It was finally sold, to become the Jamme Masjid (Tames, 2006).

The period also however saw a rise in the number of attacks on Bangladeshis in the area, in a reprise of the racial tensions of the 1930s, when Oswald Mosley‘s Blackshirts had marched against the Jewish communities. In nearby Bethnal Green the anti-immigrant National Front became active, distributing leaflets on the streets and holding meetings. White youths known as ―Skinheads‖ appeared in the Brick Lane area, vandalising property and reportedly spitting at Bengali children and assaulting women. Bengali children were allowed out of school early; women walked to work in groups to shield them from potential violence. Parents began to impose curfews on their children, for their own safety; flats were protected against racially motivated arson by the installation of fire-proof letterboxes (Ibid).

Protest March by Bangladeshis to Downing Street with murdered Altab Ali's coffin, 1978 On 4 May 1978, Altab Ali, a 25-year-old Bangladeshi clothing worker, was murdered by three teenage boys as he walked home from work, in an apparently racially motivated attack (Barry and Carrington, 1990). The

77 murder took place near the corner of Adler Street and Whitechapel Road, near the East London mosque and St Mary's Churchyard . This murder mobilised the Bangladeshi community. Demonstrations were held in the area of Brick Lane against the National Front (Michael, 2005) and groups such as the Bangladesh Youth Movement were formed. On 14 May over 7,000 people, mostly Bangladeshis took part in a demonstration against racial violence, marching behind Altab Ali‘s coffin to Hyde Park (Panikos,1996). Some youths formed local gangs and carried out reprisal attacks on their skinhead opponents. The name Altab Ali became associated with a movement of resistance against racist attacks, and remains linked with this struggle for human rights. His murder was the trigger for the first significant political organisation against racism by local Bangladeshis. Today‘s identification and association of British Bangladeshis with Tower Hamlets owes much to this campaign. A park has been named after Altab Ali, at the street where he was murdered (Ibid). In 1993 racial violence was incited by the anti-immigration British National Party (BNP); several Bangladeshi students were severely injured, but the BNP's attempted inroads were stopped after demonstrations of Bangladeshi resolve . In 1988, a "friendship link" between the city of St Albans in Hertfordshire and the region of Sylhet was created by the district council. This link between the two cities was established when the council supported housing project in the city as part of the International Year of Shelter for the Homeless initiative. It was also created because; Sylhet is the area of origin for the largest ethnic minority group in St Albans . In April 2001, the London Borough of Tower Hamlets council officially renamed the 'Spitalfields' electoral ward Spitalfields and Banglatown. Surrounding streets were redecorated, with lamp posts painted in green and red, the colours of the Bangladesh National Flag . By this stage the majority living in the ward were of Bangladeshi origin—nearly 60% of the population .

Some Eminent British Bangladeshis

Anwar Choudhury · Baroness Uddin · Muhammad Bari · Rushanara Ali · Mumzy · Konnie Huq · Kia Abdullah · Wali Uddin · Syed Ahmed · Anwar Uddin · Ajmal Masroor · Ed Husain

Total population 283,063 (2001 Census UK) 0.5% of the UK's population 353,900 (2007 – England only) 0.6% of England total population Estimated 500,000 0.8% of the UK's population

Regions with Significant Populations

Resident population estimates (Office for National Statistics 2007)

London 174,900 Birmingham 23,700 Oldham 11,200 Luton 8,700 Bedford 5,900

Languages

Sylheti/Bengali · English

Religion

Predominantly Islam

Related ethnic groups

Bengali People. British Asian Census Population Year Pop. %± 1961 6,000 — 1971 22,000 266.7% 1981 64,561 193.5% 1991 162,835 152.2% 2001 283,063 73.8%

1961/71/81/91/01: Census data (Welfare and Overseas Employment, 2006)

Bangladeshis in the UK are largely a youthful population, heavily concentrated in London‘s inner boroughs. According to the 2001 Census 283,063 Bangladeshis lived in the United Kingdom, forming 0.5% of the total population mechanics. Based on latest statistics by the Office for National Statistics, there were 338,300 Bangladeshis living in England and Wales as of 2006, (Office for National Statistis, 2006) it is however estimated that there are around 500,000 Bangladeshis in the UK (International Organization for Migration,2006). London's Bangladeshi population was 153,893, representing 54.37% of the UK Bangladeshi population (2001).(Census Profiles,2001). The highest concentrations were found in Tower Hamlets, where Bangladeshis constituted 33.5% of the borough population (22.8% of the UK Bangladeshi population) (Census,2001) and in Newham, accounting for 9% of the borough population (Garbin,2005). The largest Bangladeshi population outside London is in Birmingham (23,200), (Birmingham City Council, 2008) there are 11,000 Bangladeshis in Oldham, Lancashire, (Oldham, Neighbourhood Statistics, 2006) 60% of Bangladeshis in Oldham lived in Westwood, the highest concentration outside London,(Habited UK National Report, 2001) and in Luton, Bedfordshire with a population of 7,641 (Census, 2001 Profiles). More than half of the United Kingdom's Bangladeshis—approximately 53%—were born in Bangladesh (Macmillian,2006) Bangladesh ranks third in the list of countries of birth for Londoners born outside the United Kingdom (Data Management and Analysis Group, 2008). Bangladeshis are one of the youngest of the UK's ethnic populations; 38% under the age of 16, 59% aged between 16–64, and only 3% aged 65 and over. The census also revealed a heavy predominance in the male population, which was 64% of the total (Ibid).

The Origins British Bangladeshis predominantly originate from the north-eastern region of Sylhet (95%) (Gardner, 1995, Kershen, 2005 and Naila, 2000). Many families originate from different upazilas or thanas across Sylhet, which includes the districts of Sylhet, Sunamganj, Habiganj and Maulvibazar. The largest places of origin are in the upazilas of, Jagannathpur, Beanibazar and Bishwanth (Smith et al, 2008 and The Daily

Star, 2008). Other places within the Sylhet region which also have large numbers of expatriates include, Moulvibazar, Golapganj, Nabiganj and many others across the region (Katy, 1995). The minorities from outside Sylhet are mainly from Noakhali, Chittagong and Khulna, very few are from other divisions. The majority of Bangladeshis speak Sylheti( Judith et al, 1996). The language is sometimes considered as a dialect of Bengali, and does not have written form (Jones et al., 2000) (Gregory et al., 2000) Although many Sylheti speakers say they speak Bengali, this is because they do not expect outsiders to be well informed about dialects (Schott,1996). Bengali/Sylheti is the second largest language spoken after English in London (Mayor of London, 2006) 97% of Bangladeshi students speak English as a second language, after Sylheti (BBC, 2006). In recent years, there has been a slight increase in the numbers of Bangladeshi students arriving in the United Kingdom, majority of them are from Dhaka and other regions. Many of them are on student Visas, living in the East London areas among the Bangladeshi communities (British Council, 2007).

Employment and Education Bangladeshis are now mainly employed in the distribution, hotel and restaurant industries (National Statistics, 2008). In 2001 and 2002, Bangladeshis had the highest unemployment] rate in Britain, at 20% for men and 24% for women; over 40% of Bangladeshi men under 25 were unemployed (Ibid). In Tower Hamlets 32% of people aged between 18–25 years was unemployed. The average earnings of the Bangladeshis were £150 per week.(New Statesman, 2007 and The Daily Star Forum, 2007). New generation Bangladeshis, however, aspire to professional careers, becoming doctors, IT management specialists, and teachers and in business.(BBC News, 2004). In education, Bangladeshi pupils have registered below the average national academic achievement levels, but these results have steadily improved, particularly among Bangladeshi girls; this applies both to Key stage levels and GCSE (Ofsted, 2008). Ofsted reports from secondary schools have shown that many Bangladeshi pupils are making significant progress, compared with other ethnic minority groups (BBC,2004). Girls are more likely to do better in

82 education than boys; 55% of girls are achieving 5 or more A*-C at GCSE, compared to 41% boys. The overall achievement rate for Bangladeshi pupils is 48%, compared with 53% for all UK pupils.(Ofsted, 2004). In Tower Hamlets, two-thirds of all pupils who receive free school meals are Bangladeshi (BBC,2006)

Health and Housing

Bangladeshis mainly occupy flats Bangladeshis had the highest rates of illness in the UK, in 2001. Bangladeshi men were three times as likely to visit their doctor as men in the general population. Bangladeshis also had the highest rates of people with disabilities,(National Statistics, 2001) and were more likely to smoke than any other ethnic group, at a rate of 44% in 1999 in England. Smoking was very common amongst the men, but very few women smoked, perhaps due to cultural customs (Channel S, 2010). The average number of people living in each Bangladeshi household is 4.8, larger than all other ethnic groups. Households which contained a single person were 9%; houses containing a married couple were 54%, pensioner households were 2%. Bangladeshis living in London were 40 times more likely to be living in cramped and poor housing types of housing than anyone else in the country. There were twice as many people per room as white households, with 43% living in homes with insufficient bedroom space. For these reasons many are moving out of Tower Hamlets to larger housing estates.

(BBC News). A third of Bangladeshi homes contain more than one family—64% of all overcrowded households in Tower Hamlets are Bangladeshi (BBC,2006). In England and Wales, only 37% of Bangladeshis owned households compared to 69% of the population, those with social rented tenure is 48%, the largest of which in Tower Hamlets (82%) and Camden (81%).

Conclusion It is mentionworthy that although Bagladeshis started immigration to Great Britain during the mid-eighteenth century as lascars of East India Company in a small scale, however, in course of time, over half a million people are now settled in U.K as immigrant. During last three years, the rate of temporary immigration in England has increased to a great extent as a result of providing with the opportunity of High Skilled Migration Visa and Post Study Work Permit by the British Government. The opportunity of higher education in U.K. also facilitated the temporary migration process. It has been observed that a good number of students got Permanent Residency based on keeping 10 years of valid visa status as students. The British Bangladeshis have successfully established their social and cultural heritage and maintaining their own social values, customs and systems. They have been able to prove their excellent contribution to the British society and mainstream culture. Indigenous Political Identity and practices lead them to be involved in the mainstream British politics which in turn opened up the opportunity in sharing the national and local level political power. This has happened because the Bangladeshis are the single majority in minority ethnic groups in Britain, especially in London. British Bangladeshis are comparatively low income group of people as they have an average weekly wage of £150. Due to the low income, they are living in crowded area and comparatively low cost flat mostly allocated from the council. Average education level is lower than other immigrants of the sub-continent. Health access is mostly depending on the GPs and Walk in Canters and tertiary care solely depends on the opinion of the GPs. Private health facilities are rarely accessible to them.

It is, however, greatly recognized that the British Bangladeshis are playing a vital role in sending the remittance to the country which enriches our reserve of foreign currencies. The Bangladeshis involved in politics have earned un paralleled honour for the country. Finally, they have contributed to enrich our culture and social system by providing with a cross cultural image between east and west which is very significant in Bangladeshi cuisines, spices and dresses. Different Bangladeshi festivals are also attended and enjoyed by the multinational cross section of peoples.

References Banglapedia (2008) Mukti Bahini. Barry, T., Carrington, B. (1990) Education, Racism, and Reform. Taylor & Francis. BBC (2005) BBC London: Faith — Bangladeshi London. BBC News — BBC (2004) Bangladeshi pupils can improve. Bangladeshi pupils can improve. BBC (2006) BBC London Local — Bridging the gap.. Birmingham City Council (2008) A Brief History of the Bangladesh Community. British Council data on Bangladeshi higher education market (2007). Census (2001) Census 2001 Profiles — Tower Hamlets. National Statistics Online. Census (2001) Census 2001 Profiles — Luton UA. National Statistics Online. Channel S (2010) Audience numbers. Country-of-birth database (2010) Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Data Management and Analysis Group (2008) ONS Population Estimates by Ethnic Group (PDF). Gillan, A. (2002) From Bangladesh to Brick Lane. London: The Guardian. Greater London Authority (Mayor of London) (2006) Muslims in London (PDF). Habitat UK National Report (2001). Hamlets, T. (2008) Discover Tower Hamlets ,Borough Profile. International Organization for Migration (2006) Migration for Development: Within and Beyond Frontiers. International Org. for Migration. Jeffery, P., Basu, A. (1998) Appropriating Gender: Women's Activism and Politicized Religion in South Asia.

Jones, Marilyn M.; Jones K. (2000). Multilingual Literacies: Reading and Writing Different Worlds. Judith, S., Alix, H. (1996) Culture, Religion, and Childbearing in a Multiracial Society: A Handbook for Health Professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences. Katy, G. (1995) International migration and the rural context in Sylhet. New Community. Kershen, J. Anne (2005) Strangers, Aliens and Asians: Huguenots, Jews and Bangladeshis in Spitalfields. Macmillian Palgrave (2006) Focus On — Ethnicity and Religion (PDF). National Statistics. Michael, K. (2005) After the Cosmopolitan. Naila, K. (2000) The power to choose: Bangladeshi women and labour market decisions in London and Dhaka. National Statistics (2001) Ethnicity & Identity: Health. National Statistics (2008) Employment Patterns. National Statistics (2008)Labour Market. New Statesman (2007) Forced out, looking inwards: Britain's Bangladeshis. New Age (2008) A glimpse of the UK Bangladeshi community. Office for National Statistics (2006) Resident Population Estimates by Ethnic Group (Bangladeshi) Neighborhood Statistics. Oldham (2006) Resident Population Estimates by Ethnic Group (Bangladeshi), Office for National Statistics Neighborhood Statistics. Ofsted (2008) Achievement of Bangladeshi heritage pupils (PDF). Achievement of Bangladeshi heritage pupils. Sandhu, S. (2003) Come hungry, leave edgy, Brick Lane by Ali Monica London. Schott, J., Alix, H. (1996) Culture, Religion, and Childbearing in a Multiracial Society: A Handbook for Health Professionals. Smith, M., John, E. (2008) Transnational Ties: Cities, Migrations, and Identities. Transaction Publishers. Tames, R. (2006) London: A Cultural History. Oxford University Press US. Thapan, M. (2005) Transnational migration and the politics of identity. SAGE. The Daily Star — FORUM (2007) Bangladeshis: Moving with the times. The Daily Star (2008) Web Edition Vol.5 Num. 404.

SILVER RECOVERY FROM WASTE PLASMA TV MONITORS THROUGH LEACHING AND COAGULATING PRECIPITATION TECHNIQUE

Biplob Kumar Biswas1, Katsutoshi Inoue2 and Atsushi Hoshino3

Keywords: Silver. Thiourea Leaching. Coagulation. Recovery.

Abstract: The present investigation focuses on the recovery of silver from waste plasma TV monitors (PTVMs) through leaching with noncyanide reagents followed by coagulation-precipitation. Although a quantitative leaching of silver from waste PTVMs was not obtained using nitric acid and sodium thiosulphate solutions, a complete silver dissolution was achieved by a dilute acidothiourea solution (0.05 M thiourea + 0.05 M sulfuric acid) at 30°C and liquid/solid (L/S) ratio 100 ml/g. Persimmon tannin solution, a natural and nonconventional coagulant containing polyphenolic groups, recovered silver completely from silver-containing acidothiourea leach solutions through coagulating precipitation with concomitant reduction of silver.

Introduction Similar to other precious metals silver has a special economic value compared to other metals. The majority of silver is consumed in film processing (40-50%), electrical and electronic industries (20-30%) and ornament and jewelry (10%) (Öncel et al., 2005). Such a broad application and growing demand for this metal are the two main reasons for its

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jessore Science and Technology University, Jessore- 7408, Bangladesh. E-mail : [email protected] 2 Emeritus Professor, Department of Applied Chemistry, Saga University, Honjo 1, Saga 840-8502, Japan. 3 Nishinihon Kaden Recycle Corporation, 1-62 Hibikimachi, Wakamatsu-ku, Kitakyushu 808-0021, Japan.

87 recovery. Silver is mostly recovered from scraps such as X-ray films and jewelry. Very recently personal computers were examined to estimate the amount of potentially recoverable precious metals e.g. silver, gold and palladium (Kida et al., 2009). Conventional cyanidation has been considered as the mainstream method for the leaching of silver from ores over the years. The cyanidation process is often combined with precipitation of silver from solutions by zinc powder or by electrolysis followed by adsorption (Kononova et al., 2007). Despite its great success in hydrometallurgical processes, there have been increasing arguments against the use of cyanide because of its acute toxicity. Considering a deadly environmental impact of using cyanide, it seems to be indispensable to establish an economic and environmentally viable option for the recovery of silver by using non-toxic reagents. A suitable alternative to cyanide may be thiosulfate due to the fact that thiosulphate is substantially less expensive than cyanide, and it facilitates the leaching of complex materials through matrix degradation (Ficeriová et al., 2005; Grosse et al., 2003). Another potential candidate as a lixiviant is thiourea because thiourea in an acidic media can readily dissolve precious metals as a stable complex, which facilitates leaching of metals from complex ores, concentrates and other potential sources of precious metals (Baláz et al., 1996; Whitehead et al., 2009). Waste PTVMs is thought to create an environmental problem due to its massive disposal. Owing to rapid developments in technology as well as customers‘ demand to accept new commodities, electronic products are being replaced by newer models at a much faster rate. The continuous replacements of cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors by LCD displays and/or plasma monitors and the recent introduction of high definition TV sets are some common examples of growing nature of electronic equipment as well as its waste. Predictions indicate that a huge numbers of televisions will need to be disposed of in the coming years (Poon, 2008). Thus e- waste in the form of waste PTVMs is thought to be huge in quantity. The waste PTVMs is one of the potential sources of silver and there is no reason the recovery of this element should be impeded. The ability to extract silver from such scrap demands innovation to achieve efficient and low-cost recovery while assuring a green environment. Therefore, the

88 purpose of this work is to investigate an effective hydrometallurgical method to recover silver from waste PTVMs. Materials and Methods 1.Materials and Chemicals The sample of crushed PTVMs waste was supplied by Nishinihon Kaden Recycle Corporation (NKRC), Kitakyushu, Japan and stored in desiccators. All chemicals used in this study were of analytical grade and used without further purifications. Persimmon tannin solution was prepared by dissolving persimmon tannin extract at different pH. The persimmon tannin extract was donated by Persimmon-Kaki Technology Development Co. Ltd., Jincheng, China.

2. Total Dissolution of Waste PTVMs Powder One gram waste PTVMs powder was mixed with 30 ml of either concentrated HCl or aqua regia in a 100 ml beaker and stirred at boiling temperature for about 30 min. The insoluble residue was again digested for complete dissolution. The digested liquid was diluted with deionized water to 100 ml and filtered. Finally, the metal content in the filtrate was measured by a Shimadzu model ICPS-8100 ICP/AES spectrometer.

3. Leaching Tests Batchwise leaching was carried out using either nitric acid, thiosulphate or thiourea-H2SO4 mixed solutions as leaching agents. A definite amount of waste PTVMs powder was taken into a 50 ml Erlenmeyer flask containing the leaching agents. The flasks were then placed in a thermostated shaker (THOMAS thermostatic shaking incubator AT24R) at constant temperature and shaken at 150 rpm for 4 h (for acidothiourea leaching) or 24 h (for thiosulphate leaching) to allow for complete reaction. After shaking, the slurry was filtered and the filtrate was analyzed for silver concentration by ICP/AES spectrometry.

4. Silver Recovery from the Leach Liquor by means of Coagulation- Precipitation Technique

The acidothiourea leach solution was tested for coagulation-precipitation by mixing with persimmon tannin solution (PTS). Persimmon tannin solutions were prepared by dissolving a measured amount of persimmon tannin extract, which contains 19.5% tannin, at pH 7 (PTS-1) and 13.8 (PTS-2). These solutions were mixed with 10 ml acidothiourea leach liquor at various ratios. The mixture was incubated at room temperature for 24 h and then filtered. The formation of silver particles during the coagulation was confirmed by digital microscopy (KEYENCE VHX-1000).

Results and Discussion 1. Characteristics of the Scrap of Spent PTVMs The average moisture content present in the as-received waste PTVMs sample was found to be 7 wt. % while the specific gravity was determined picrometrically to be 1.88. From the particle size distribution it was found that 53-75 μm and <53 μm fractions possess 74% of the sample. Hence, experiments were carried out by mixing these two fractions. Since silver- bearing by-products are reported to be leached by Cl- media, the determination of metal content has been performed by digestion with HCl and aqua regia (Almeida and Amarante, 1995; Sandberg and Huiatt, 1986). The elemental composition of the sample is shown in Table 1, which demonstrates that the scrap contains a considerable amount of silver that should be selectively recovered.

Table-1: Metal Contents (mg/g) in the Waste PTVMs Powder Digesting reagents Elements HCl Aqua regia Na 2.60 2.96 K 4.08 6.12 Ca 8.16 6.63 Fe 1.79 1.43 Ni 0.12 0.16 Cu 0.20 0.37 Zn 7.14 7.14 Ag 2.29 2.35 Al 0.37 0.27

Si 5.61 3.21 Pb 4.49 4.23 Au 0.15 0.18 2. Leaching of Silver with Nitric Acid Silver compounds are reported to react with nitric acid to yield a silver complex (Abdel-Aal and Farghaly, 2007). A series of experiments has been carried out to extract silver from the waste PTVMs powder by using of nitric acid of different concentrations at various L/S ratio as shown in Fig. 1. The results reveal that the extent of silver extraction is not significantly improved by using even a high concentration of nitric acid and so it is concluded that nitric acid is unable to leach silver quantitatively from the powder.

Figure-1. Leaching of Silver from Waste PTVMs Powder by Nitric Acid of Various Concentrations at Varying Liquid/Solid Ratio. Conditions: T = 30°C, Shaking Time = 24 h, Shaking Speed = 150 rpm 2.4

2.0 5 M 1 M 1.6 0.5 M 0.1 M 1.2

0.8

0.4 Silver extracted extracted (mg/g) Silver 0.0 0 50 100 150 200 L/S ratio (ml/g)

3. Thiosulphate Leaching of Waste PTVMs Powder Silver ion is known to form complexes with thiosulfate (Flett and Wilson, 1983). Since the main parameters for such dissolution process are the

91 concentration of thiosulphate and pH, the effects of pH on leaching at various thiosulfate concentration at L/S ratio of 150 ml/g have been investigated and the results are shown in Figure-2. Figure-2. Leaching of Silver from Waste PTVMs Powder by Thiosulphate Solutions at Varying pH. Conditions: Liquid/Solid Ratio = 150 ml/g, T = 30°C, Shaking Time = 24 h.

1.5

1.2

0.9

0.6 1.0 mol/l thiosulphate 0.3 0.5 mol/l thiosulphate 0.25 mol/l thiosulphate Silver extracted extracted (mg/g) Silver 0 1 2 3 4 5 pH

The pH was adjusted by using CH3COOH/CH3COONa buffer with a buffering capacity of 0.01 M. It is seen from Fig. 2, it can be seen that maximum extraction (0.91 mg/g) occurs at pH 3. At pH higher than 3, the decrease in silver extraction with the increase in pH is obtained which is attributed to the decomposition of thiosulphate. However, to obtain a clear view on the system, further experiments are performed at pH 3 with various L/S ratios and concentration of thiosulphate and the results are depicted in Fig 3. It is evident that the silver extraction increases from 0.48 mg/g (for 0.25 M thiosulphate) to 0.78 mg/g (for 1.0 M thiosulphate) at L/S ratio of 25 ml/g but a further increase in the extent of extraction is not achieved so much at a higher L/S ratio. It is therefore concluded that the thiosulphate leaching is suitable to leach silver quantitatively from waste PTVMs powder.

Figure-3. Leaching of Silver from Waste PTVMs Powder at pH 3 with Various Concentrations of Thiosulphate. Conditions: T = 30°C, Shaking Time = 24 h.

1.5

1.2

0.9

0.6 1.0 mol/l thiosulphate 0.5 mol/l thiosulphate

0.3 0.25 mol/l thiosulphate Silver extracted (mg/g) extracted Silver 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 L/S ratio (ml/g) 4. Thiourea Leaching Tests Since thiourea is known to form a strong cationic complex with silver, + [Ag[CS(NH2)2]3] , it represents a very attractive leaching alternative (Baláz et al., 1996; Li and Miller, 2006). Very high extent of silver leaching is achieved by thiourea mixed with dilute sulfuric acid solution. Silver in the sample is found to be leached to the extent of 100% by using a mixture of 0.05 M thiourea and 0.05 M H2SO4. Results are shown in Fig. 4 and it is observed that the effective leaching (~100%) is achieved with a combination of low concentrations of acid and thiourea; though dilute sulfuric acid alone has a very little effect on silver extraction. This is because low concentration of sulfuric acid facilitates complexation between silver and thiourea; whilst high acid concentration impedes the complexation by protonation of thiourea.

Figure-4. Leaching of Silver from Waste PTVMs Powder at Various Concentrations of Acidic Thiourea. Conditions: Liquid/Solid Ratio = 250 ml/g, T = 30°C, Shaking Time = 4 h.

2.4

2.0

1.6

1.2 5.0 M sulfuric acid 1.0 M sulfuric acid 0.8 0.5 M sulfuric acid 0.05 M sulfuric acid

Silver extracted extracted (mg/g) Silver 0.4

0.0 0.05 0.1 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 Thiourea (M)

5. Coagulating-Precipitation of Silver from Silver-Containing Leach Liquor by Persimmon Tannin Solution (PTS) In our previous study, persimmon extract was reported to be an effective coagulant for gold recovery from hydrochloric acid media where gold was selectively precipitated with a solution of persimmon extract (Kawakita et al., 2008). Persimmon tannin contained in persimmon extract has a large number of functional groups of catechol and pyrogallol, which act as strong reducing agents. Being inspired from the success of gold recovery through coagulation-precipitation, persimmon tannin solution (PTS) has been used, in this study, for the recovery of silver. Coagulating-precipitation is well-known as a useful tool for the recovery of metals from a solution after leaching. In the present work, astringent persimmon tannin extract (a nonconventional coagulant) has been tested for silver recovery. Figure 5 shows the % recovery of silver at various dosages of coagulant. Silver recovery increases with the increase in coagulant dose in both cases of PTS-1 and PTS-2. However, it is evident that PTS-2 is very efficient in the recovery of silver since 100% recovery is achieved at a coagulant dose higher than 0.3 ml/ml; whilst for PTS-1 the recovery is only 50% even at a high coagulant dose (0.8 ml/ml). This is attributed to the fact that powdery persimmon tannin extract, which dissolved completely at pH 13.8 (PTS-2), allowed all polyphenolic groups to be dissolved in the solution, thus enabling coagulation with silver- thiourea complex. In contrast, persimmon tannin extract was only partially

94 dissolved at pH 7 (PTS-1) and did not enhance silver recovery through coagulation beyond 50%. Persimmon tannin contains a large number of functional groups of catechol and pyrogallol, which have strong reductive power for metal ions such as gold, palladium and chromium (Kawakita et al., 2008; Kim and Nakano, 2005; Nakajima and Baba, 2004).

Fig. 5. Recovery of Silver from Silver-Containing Acidothiourea Solution by Coagulation-Precipitation Method using various Dosages of PTS. Conditions: Silver-Containing Acidothiourea Leach Solution = 10 ml, Shaking Time = 12 h, Settling Time = 24 h, T = 30°C

100

80 PTS - 2 PTS - 1 60

% Silver Silver recovery % 20

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Coagulant dose (ml/ml) In this study, a reduction of silver is postulated since metallic silver is found at the surface of the precipitation cake as shown in Fig. 6. This phenomenon is attributed to a strong reducing capability of polyphenolic functional groups of persimmon tannin extract as illustrated by Eqs. 2 and 3. Since the reduction mechanism involves many parameters and is complicated, a detailed study is necessary in the future to elucidate fully this phenomenon. R  OH  R  O  H   e  (1)

  0 Ag  e  Ag ( s ) (2)

Figure-6. Digital Microscopic Image (4000 times magnification) of Precipitation Cake and Observation of Metallic Silver

Conclusion Silver was recovered from waste PTVMs powder by means of leaching followed by coagulating-precipitation technique. Almost complete extraction of silver from the material is achieved by using dilute acidothiourea leach liquor (0.05 M thiourea + 0.05 M sulfuric acid) at 30°C and at a L/S ratio higher than 100 ml/g. Persimmon tannin extract dissolved in distilled water at pH 13.8 is a very efficient coagulant for silver recovery from acidothiourea leach solutions. 100 % silver recovery is achieved at coagulant dose higher than 0.3 ml/ml and metallic silver was found to be formed at the surface of the precipitation cake. The investigated process is suggested to be free of environmental problems as the spent acidothiourea leach solution will be nontoxic. References Abdel-Aal, E.A. and Farghaly, F.E. (2007) Preparation of silver powders in micron size from used photographic films via leaching-cementation technique. Powder Technology 178: 51 – 55. Almeida, M.F. and Amarante, M.A. (1995) Leaching of a silver bearing sulphide by-product with cyanide, thiourea and chloride solutions. Minerals Engineering 8: 257 – 271. Baláz, P., Ficeriová, J., Šepelák, V. and Kammel, R. (1996) Thiourea leaching of silver from mechanically activated tetrahedrite. Hydrometallurgy 43: 367 – 377. Ficeriová, J., Baláz, P. and Villachica, C.L. (2005) Thiosulphate leaching of silver, gold and bismuth from a complex sulfide concentrates. Hydrometallurgy 77: 35 – 39. Flett, D.S. and Wilson, J.C. (1983) Thiosulfate leaching of gold and silver ores. Transactions of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy 92: 216 – 222.

Grosse, A.C., Dicinoski, G.W., Shaw, M.J. and Haddad, P.R. (2003) Leaching and recovery of gold using ammoniacal thiosulfate leach liquors (a review). Hydrometallurgy 69: 1 – 21. Kawakita, H., Yamauchi, R., Parajuli, D., Ohto, K., Harada, H. and Inoue, K. (2008) Recovery of gold from hydrochloric acid by means of selective coagulation with persimmon extract. Separation Science and Technology 43: 2375 – 2385. Kida, A., Shirohase, T. and Kawaguchi, M. (2009) Metals contents including precious metals in waste personal computers. Japanese Society of Material Cycles Waste Management 20: 59 – 69. Kim, Y.H. and Nakano, Y. (2005) Adsorption mechanism of palladium by redox within condensed-tannin gel. Water Research 39: 1324 – 1330. Kononova, O.N., Kholmogorov, A.G., Danilenko, N.V., Goryaeva, N.G., Shatnykh, K.A. and Kachin, S.V. (2007) Recovery of silver from thiosulfate and thiocyanate leach solutions by adsorption on anion exchange resins and activated carbon. Hydrometallurgy 88: 189 – 195. Li, J. and Miller, J. (2006) A review of gold leaching in acid thiourea solutions. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review 27: 177 – 214. Nakajima, A. and Baba, Y. (2004) Mechanism of hexavalent chromium adsorption by persimmon tannin gel. Water Research 38: 2859 – 2864. Öncel, M.S., Ĭnce, M. and Bayramoğlu, M. (2005) Leaching of silver from solid waste using ultrasound assisted thiourea method. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry 12: 237 – 242. Poon, C.S. (2008) Management of CRT glass from discarded computer monitors and TV sets. Waste Management 28: 1499. Sandberg, R.G. and Huiatt, J.L. (1986) Ferric chloride, thiourea and brine leach recovery of Ag, Au and Pb from complex sulfides. Proceeding of TMS session ―Innovation in Precious Metals Processes‖ at the annual meeting in New Orleans, USA. Whitehead, J.A., Zhang, J., McCluskey, A. and Lawrance, G.A. (2009) Comparative leaching of sulfidic gold ore in ionic liquid and aqueous acid with thiourea and halides using - Fe(III) or HSO5 oxidant. Hydrometallurgy 98: 276 – 280.

ASSESSMENT OF VARIATION IN AMBIENT PM10 LEVELS IN URBAN-INDUSTRIAL GROUND LEVEL ATMOSPHERE OF BANEPA VALLEY, NEPAL

Ahmad Kamruzzaman Majumder1, V. Krishna Murthy2 and K. M. Nazmul Islam3

Keywords: Assessment. Ambient. PM10. Atmosphere. Nepal. Abstract: The study comprised of air quality monitoring during the day time at three municipalities of Banepa, Dhulikhel and Panauti in Kavre district of Nepal. In each of the municipalities three air monitoring stations were established representing industrial, commercial and residential areas.

Particulate Matter (PM10) have been estimated from air sampling programme which spanned 7 months and a total of 126 days reflecting all the three seasons. The study found that during winter season the

concentration of PM10 was more and among the areas commercial area noted highest level pollution. The mean, mimimum and maximum level of 3 3 3 PM10 was found to be 188.02µg/m , 56.31µg/m , 510.23µg/m . The seasonal trend in pollution levels show that winter > pre-monsoon > monsoon. The pollution concentration trend noted among the areas was commercial > industrial > residential on almost all the occasions except at pre- monsoon season between industrial and residential area in Banepa. This finding conclude that, commercial area of Banepa is more defined and is associated with higher particulate matter concentration compared to other areas.

Introduction Nepal, a relatively small country with 1,47,181 sq km area inhabited by 22 million people, is known for exquisite environment. However, the real

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Science, Stamford University Bangladesh, 744, Satmasjid Road, Dhanmondi Dhaka-1209, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] 2 Professor, Department of Chemistry, PES Institute of Technology, Bangalore. India. Email: [email protected] 3 Lecturer, Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

98 scenario is quite different because urban areas are environmentally degrading due to rapid unplanned urbanization and industrialization. Increasing number of human population, industries and automobiles, decreasing agricultural productivity, the frequent occurrence of floods in the lowlands, landslides in the midlands and forest fire are major environmental issues, and recent studies reveal that even the glorious mountain peaks of the high Himalayas have also undergone incipients pollution (Dokiya et al., 1992; Majumder et al., 2010; Shrestha et al., 1997). Air pollution is considered to be one of the serious and prominent types of environmental pollution that is prevalent in most industrial towns and cosmopolitan cities of the world. It had been a general impression in the past that air pollution is exclusively a problem of the industrially developed nations, however, recent studies have shown that air pollution is a growing problem in developing countries as well, and hence, attention should be paid to this evil before it is too late (Shrestha et al., 1997). Recently, problems caused by atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM) in urban air have received greater attention. Various health effects attributable to PM have been documented (Brunekreef and Holgate, 2002). The most conclusive evidence has been provided by cohort and time series studies indicate that elevated concentrations of PM has linked with increased morbidity and mortality (Dockery et al. 1993; Pope et al. 1995). The majority of these studies have assessed the health effects of particles expressed as the risk per unit mass/m3 of PM10 or PM2.5. Airborne particle associated problems, such as health problems like asthma problems (Anderson et al., 1992) and haze problems like visibility impairment (Pryor et al., 1997) are typical environmental issues in urban cities. The chemical composition (Hillamo et al., 1993) health impact (Majumder et al., 2010) and rate of deposition (Lin et al., 1993) of these particles vary significantly with the size of particles. Urban air quality management strategy in Asia (Kathmandu valley report) 3 reported that PM10 concentration is 800 µg/m in Kathmandu (URBAIR, 1997). Shrestha (2002) reports the prevalence of respiratory illness in Kathmandu valley due to particulate matter. Giri et al., (2004) observed that the pre-monsoon and winter seasons are vulnerable due to increased

99 level of particulates in the valley. Different studies found different concentrations of PM10 within Katmunu Valley, which was very high like 197-775 µg/m3 (RONAST, 1992), 59-127 µg/m3 (Karmacharya and 3 Shrestha,1993), 100-190 µg/m (ENPHO, 1999). PM10 was found to be 54-118 µg/m3 in low trrafic area in Dry season and 33.2-114.1 µg/m3 in

Rainy season. Annual PM10 in high traffic area was found to be: 261.4 ± 28.5 µg/m3 (Sapkota,2002). From the above discussion it can be said that most of the air pollution studies conducted in Nepal were focused on Kathmandu Valley only. Very few air pollution studies were done in semi urban areas of the country (ENPHO, 1999). The majority of the air pollution studies focused on traffic emissions, whereas industrial, domestic and other sources of air pollutants are not seriously undertaken in Nepal. There are several Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs), government offices and institutes working in the field of air pollution (Giri et al., 2004). However, their activities are scattered and limited within the city areas.

Objectives

The focal objective of this study was to determine the ambient PM10 concentrations in Banepa valley near Kathmandu, Nepal. The study also aimed to rank the industrial, commercial and residential area by comparing the pollution levels among them, along with the variation of pollution concentrations for different seasons and at different times of the day.

Materials And Methods Site Description Banepa, Dhulikhel and Panauti are geographically located in the same valley region known as the Banepa valley (Figure 1) with distances of not more than 7 to 8 km in between them (Table 1). Banepa and Dhulikhel are both situated on the Arniko Highway. This highway is Nepal's only road to the Tibetan border. It is an important trade route for goods coming from China into Nepal. Panauti is attainable from the Arniko Highway in

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Banepa over a seven kilometer long side street. The study comprised of air monitoring during the day time at three municipalities of Banepa, Dhulikhel and Panauti. In each of the Municipalities three air monitoring stations were established representing Industrial, Commercial and Residential areas. So there were altogether 9 air sampling stations selected in Banepa Valley, as given below:

Table-1: General Information about Study Area Municipalities Distance Population Number of Area from Monitoring (sq. km) Banepa Sites Banepa 0 km 15822 3 5.56 Dhulikhal 4 km 11521 3 8.22 Panauti 5.5 km 25563 3 19.71 Total - 53006 9 33.49

Air Sampling A known volume of air was taken through a filter paper where the contaminant is captured. The sampling was done using Envirotech APM 550 Fine Particulate Sampler. The result was expressed as microgram per cubic meter (µg/m3). The volume of airflow (m3) was calculated by multiplying the flow rate of air (liter/min) through the filter medium with the time (minutes) and by dividing with 1000 (to convert air volume into m3). The concentration (µg/m3) of pollutant was calculated by dividing the actual weight of contaminant (µg) by volume of airflow (m3). During the present study, air sampling was covered by a period of 7 months and a total of 63 days. The samples were collected once in a month for each of the nine sites. Every day two samples were collected in the morning and evening. So the total number of samples was 126. The total sampling time was 8 hours in a day. These 8 hours in a day were divided into 4 hours each covering pick hours of day 9am to 5pm.

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Banepa

Kathmandu Valley

Banepa Valley

1a. Banepa Valley along with 1b. Banepa Municipality Kathmandu Valley

Dhulikhel Panauti

1c. Dhulikhel Municipality d. Panauti Municipality

Figure-1: Showing Air Quality Monitoring Areas (Black dots indicate monitoring sites)

Pre-field Arrangement  47 mm diameter GF/A filter papers discs were stored in a controlled environment to equilibrate (such as desiccators) at 250 C and RH less than 35% for at least 24 hours.

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 After desiccation, the filter papers were pre-weighed for three times to obtain concurrent weight.  Filter-holder cassette assembly: The cap of filter paper holder was removed, freshly pre-weighed filter paper was assembled in the filter paper holder cassette of APM 550 Fine Particulate Sampler and cap was carefully closed.

Setting up the Envirotech APM 550 Fine Particulate Sampler The steps given below were followed to set up the system:

 The Air Inlet and PM10 impactor assembly mounted at the top of the APM 550 sampler was gently removed.  The sampler door was opened and the down-tube mounted on top of the WINS Impactor was removed.  The WINS Impactor assembly was loosened and removed with a firm upward thrust.  The spare (longer) down tube was directly mounted over the cover unit of the filter holder.

 The air Inlet and PM10 Impactor assembly was placed on top of the down tube.

 APM 550 system was configured for sampling PM10 Particulates in ambient air. Installation at the site: The vacuum pump of the APM 550 Fine Particulate sampler was kept on a flat platform and the Filter-holder cassette (Cone) was fixed 5 to 30 meter above the ground level.  The pump worked on, flow of air measured from gas flow meter and the time of starting the sampler was noted down in the air sampling data sheet. The entire processes of air sampling were closely observed and ensured that equipment worked well through out the sampling time.

Results and Discussion

Mean Concentration of PM10 in Banepa Municipality The seasonal mean values according to commercial, industrial and residential areas at Banepa municipality are presented in table 2 and figure

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2. The findings suggest that during winter season the PM10 was more and among areas Banepa Industrial area noted highest PM10 level. In fact, at Industrial area a maximum level of 510.23 µg/m3 has been recorded on one occasion which was not very much deviant to the mean level indicating persistently higher levels of PM10 in this area. The seasonal trend in PM10 levels showed that Winter > Pre-monsoon > Monsoon. The trend noted among the areas was Commercial > Industrial > Residential on almost all the occasions excepting the picture at winter season between Commercial and industrial area. The overall mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum level of PM10 in Banepa were respectively 224.33 µg/m3, 94.66 µg/m3, 82.55 µg/m3 and 510.23 µg/m3(Table 2 and Figure 2). 3 Table-2: Mean concentration of PM10 (µg/m ) in Banepa Municipality. 3 Area PM10 (µg/m ) N Winter N Pre-monsoon N Monsoon Sites Mean Banepa 4 344.04±111.82 6 247.03±50.92 4 150.46±12.48 247.16±98.41 Commerci (225.64-444.45) (206.43-325.67) (134.65-165.09) (134.65-444.45) al Banepa 4 363.70±121.29 6 198.86±37.57 4 139.39±12.61 228.96±111.57 Industrial (260.87-510.23) (154.48-257.32) (121.79-151.57) (121.79-510.23) Banepa 4 268.03±47.77 6 205.00±28.41 4 113.53±27.39 196.87± 68.82 Residential (221.80-331.67) (167.00-232.59) (82.55-140.09) (82.55-331.67) Seasonal 12 325.26±99.50 18 216.96±43.59 12 134.46±23.48 224.33±94.66 Mean (221.80-510.23) (154.48-325.67) (82.55-165.09) (82.55-510.23)

*Figures in brackets indicates the range of the concentration of the pollutant .

Mean Seasonal Concentration and Standard Deviation of Airborne 600 3 PM10 (µg/m ) in Different Areas of Banepa Municipality

500

) ) 3

400 Winter 300 Pre-monsoon Monsoon 200

Concentration (µg/m Concentration 100

0 Banepa Banepa Industrial Banepa Residential Commercial Figure-2: Mean Seasonal Concentration and Standard Deviation of 3 Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in different Areas of Banepa Municipality

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The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in Nepal for PM10 had been set as 120 µg/m3 which is 24 hourly values (MOPE, 2005). From the table 2, it is evident that the concentration of mean PM10 pollution in all three season in all the three land use areas of Banepa had crossed the NAAQS level except Banepa Industrial area and Banepa Residential area in monsoon season. In Nepal, Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE), has categorized five different types of air quality categories 3 based on levels of PM10. The categories prescribed are range 0-60g/m as ―Good‖, 60-120g/m3 as ―Moderate‖, 121-350g/m3 as ―Unhealthy‖, 351- 425g/m3 as ―Very Unhealthy‖, and >425g/m3 as ―Hazardous‖. This finding suggests that industrial area of Banepa is more distinct and is associated with higher PM10 concentration compared to commercial area. In Banepa, most of the observations were under Unhealthy category (121- 350g/m3). During the present study, in Banepa a few observations even exceeded very unhealthy category (351- 425 g/m3).

Mean Concentration of PM10 in Dhulikhel Municipality

From the study, it was found that during winter season the mean PM10 concentration was more and among the areas Industrial area in Dhulikhel noted the highest mean PM10 concentration. In the commercial area a maximal level of 399.27µg/m3 has been recorded on one occasion, which was the highest within the areas. The seasonal trend in mean PM10 levels showed that Winter > Pre-monsoon > Monsoon. Among the areas the trend noted Commercial > Residential > Industrial on almost all the occasions excepting the picture at pre-monsoon season where the scenario is Commercial > Industrial > Residential. The over all mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum level of PM10 in Dhulikhel Municipality‘s was 170.61µg/m3, 76.43 µg/m3, 68.36 µg/m3 and 399.275 µg/m3 respectively (Table 3 and Figure 3). From the table 3, it was also seen that the concentration of mean PM10 pollution in all three season in all the three land-use areas of Dhulikhel Municipality had crossed the NAAQS level of 120 µg/m3 except Dhulikhel Industrial area and Dhulikhel Residential area in monsoon season.

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These findings conclude that, commercial area of Dhulikhel is more distinct and is associated with higher PM10 concentration compared to industrial area. It is evident that monsoon had a washing effect of particulates from the atmosphere and hence the particulates restrictively get airborne.

3 Table-3: Mean Concentration of PM10 (µg/m ) in Dhulikhel Municipality

3 Area PM10 (µg/m ) N Winter N Pre-monsoon N Monsoon Sites Mean Dhulikhel 4 312.61±94.13 6 201.24±46.35 4 200.66±90.76 232.89±86.66 Commercial (221.38-399.27) (146.03-250.83) (114.99-282.24) (114.99-399.27) Dhulikhel 4 184.98±12.88 6 139.52±13.42 4 76.46±8.15 134.49±44.21 Industrial (175.69-203.91) (124.37-158.48) (68.36-86.37) (68.36-203.91) Dhulikhel 4 209.91±34.92 6 137.27±12.54 4 89.78±12.28 144.46±51.37 Residential (173.50-246.33) (121.75-156.80) (77.79-103.00) (77.79-246.33)

Seasonal 12 235.83±78.25 18 159.34±40.76 12 122.30±75.41 170.61±76.43 Mean (173.50-399.27) (121.75-250.83) (68.36-282.24) (68.36-399.27) *Figures in brackets indicates the range of the concentration of the pollutant.

Mean Seasonal Concentration and Standard Deviation of Airborne PM10 (µg/m3) in Different Areas of Dhulikhel Municipality 450 400

) 350 3 300 250 Winter 200 Pre-monsoon Monsoon 150

Concentration(µg/m 100 50 0 Dhulikhel Commercial Dhulikhel Industrial Dhulikhel Residential

Figure-3: Mean Seasonal Concentration and Standard Deviation of 3 Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in Different Areas of Dhulikhel Municipality

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Mean Concentration of PM10 in Panauti Municipality

The study found that during winter season the PM10 concentration was more and among the areas Commercial area in Panauti noted the highest mean PM10 concentration but in Panauti Industrial location a maximum level of 364.57µg/m3 has been recorded on one occasion, which was also highest within the areas as well as in all seasons. The seasonal trend in

PM10 levels show that Winter > Pre-monsoon > Monsoon. The trend noted among the areas was Commercial > Industrial > Residential in all the occasions. The over all mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum 3 3 level of PM10 in Panauti Municipality‘s was 169.11µg/m , 79.72µg/m , 56.31µg/m3 and 364.57µg/m3, respectively (Table 4 and Figure 4). From the table 4, it was seen that the concentration of mean PM10 pollution in all three season in all the three land use areas of Panauti had crossed the NAAQS level of 120 µg/m3 except Panauti Industrial area in monsoon season and Panauti Residential area in pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons.

3 Table-4: Mean Concentration of PM10 (µg/m ) in Panauti Municipality

3 Areas PM10 (µg/m )

N Winter N Pre-monsoon N Monsoon Sites Mean

Panauti 4 293.54±15.24 6 230.68±43.35 4 155.75±23.03 227.23±61.88 Commercial (274.76-312.08) (167.23-278.43) (135.33-187.72) (135.33-312.08)

Panauti 4 279.49±77.46 6 160.10±27.00 4 93.45±15.29 175.17±85.01 Industrial (199.89-364.57) (123.96-196.84) (76.12-112.00) (76.12-364.57)

Panauti 4 128.67±11.49 6 115.04±18.90 4 65.99±8.29 104.92±29.51 Residential (112.58-139.38) (88.77-145.54) (56.31-76.53) (56.31-145.54)

Seasonal 12 233.90±88.38 18 168.61±57.19 12 105.07±42.02 169.11±79.72 Mean 112.58--364.57) (88.77-278.43) (56.31-187.72) (56.31-364.57)

*Figures in brackets indicates the range of the concentration of the pollutant.

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Mean Seasonal Concentration and Standard Deviation of 3 Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in Different Areas of Panauti 400 Municipality

350 )

3 300

250 Winter 200 Pre-monsoon 150 Monsoon

Concentration(µg/m 100

0 Panauti Commercial Panauti Industrial Panauti Residential Figure-4: Mean Seasonal Concentration and Standard Deviation of 3 Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in Different Areas of Panauti Municipality.

This finding suggests that monsoon has a washing effect of particulates from the atmosphere and therefore the particulates restrictively get airborne in Panauti municipal area. Commercial area of Panauti is more defined and is associated with higher PM10 concentration compared to industrial and residential areas.

PM10 Concentration in Sites in respect to Seasons

Banepa Commercial area has the highest seasonal mean PM10 concentration with mean concentration of 247.18µg/m3 among all the 9 sites of 3 municipalities. It was recorded that second highest level of mean PM10 concentration was in winter and highest in pre-monsoon season. In winter Banepa Industrial area had highest concentration with a mean level of 228.96 µg/m3. In monsoon, Dhulikhel Commercial area had highest concentration with a mean concentration of 232.89 µg/m3. It is a matter of note that the reason behind the high concentration of PM10 in Dhulikhel Commercial area in monsoon season was the cutting effect of hill near the Bus Park to build the new bus park during the month of June and July (Table 5 and Figure 5).

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The chronology of the highest to lowest pollutant area in all three municipalities was as Banepa Commercial>Dhulikhel Commercial >Banepa Industrial>Panauti Commercial>Banepa Residential>Panauti Industrial>Dhulikhel Residential >Dhulikhel Industrial >Panauti Residential.

3 Table-5: Mean Seasonal Concentration of Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in all the Study Areas Sites Winter Pre- Monsoon Seasonal Rank monsoon Mean Banepa Commercial 344.04 247.03 150.46 247.18 1 Banepa Industrial 363.70 198.86 139.39 228.96 3 Banepa Residential 268.03 205.00 113.53 196.87 5 Dhulikhel Commercial 312.61 201.24 200.66 232.89 2 Dhulikhel Industrial 184.98 139.52 76.46 134.49 8 Dhulikhel Residential 209.91 137.27 89.78 144.46 7 Panauti Commercial 293.54 230.68 155.75 227.23 4 Panauti Industrial 279.49 160.10 93.45 175.17 6 Panauti Residential 128.67 115.04 65.99 104.92 9 Over all mean 265.00 181.64 120.61 188.08 -

3 Mean Seasonal Concentration of Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in all the Study Areas 400 350

) ) Banepa Commercial 3 300 Banepa Industrial 250 Banepa Residential Dhulikhel Commercial 200 Dhulikhel Industrial 150 Dhulikhel Residential Panauti Commercial 100

Panauti Industrial Concentration (µg/m 50 Panauti Residential 0 Winter Pre-monsoon Monsoon

3 Figure-5: Mean Seasonal Concentration of Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in all the Study Areas

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PM10 Concentration in Morning VS Evening Period

From figure 6 it can be seen that the concentration of PM10 was higher in evening period in Banepa and in morning period in Dhulikhel and Panauti municipality

Morning VS Evening by Municipalities

250

200

150 Morning Evening

100 Concentration 50

0 Banepa Dhulikhel Panauti Municipalities 3 Figure-6: Concentration of Mean Airborne PM10 (µg/m ) in Morning and Evening Period

Conclusion

The study provided base line data on air quality in terms of PM10 concentration that provided in representative semi urban areas of Nepal. The contemporary Acts and Regulations dealing to abate air pollution is not only very superficial but also comprehensive coordination among concerned ministries. Environmental legislation and regulations for pollution control are weak along with their implementation. Both Nepal Standard Act and Environment Protection Regulation are seeking to control air pollution by means of command and control approaches. But further working modalities are yet to be published. So this study will certainly initiate more comprehensive air pollution studies in the semi urban areas of Nepal other than Kathmandu.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Dr. Roshan Man Bajracharya, Professor who provided useful suggestion throughout the research. Grateful thanks to

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Department of Environmental Science and Engineering of Kathmandu University for providing the equipments.

References Anderson, K. R., Avol, E. L. and Edwards, S. A. (1992) Controlled exposures of volunteers to respirable carbon and sulphuric acid aerosols, JAWMA, 42,71-77. Brunekreef, B. and Holgate, S. T. (2002). Air Pollution and Health , Lancet. Dockery, D., Pope, C. A., Xu, X., Spengler, J., Ware, J., Fay, M., Ferris, B., and Speizer, F. (1993) An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities, New England Journal of Medicine, 329, 1753-1759. Dokiya, Y.,Maruta, E., Yoshikawa, T., Ishimori, H., and Tsurumi, M. (1992) Chemical Species in the Deposition at Some Peaks of the Himalaya, Environ. Sci, 5(2), 109-114. ENPHO (1999) Reduction of Pollution and Waste in the Himal Cement Company Limited, Kathmandu, Nepal, Project Report by Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO), Kathmandu, 52 pp. Giri, D, Murthy, V.K., Adhikary, P.R., Chhetri, R. B., Khanal, S.N., Sharma, C.K.,

(2004) Descriptive Statistical Analysis of PM10 Values in Selected Air Monitoring Sites in Kathmandu Valley, Paper Presented in RONAST, Nepal. Hillamo. R.E., Kerminen, V.M., Maenhaut, W., Jaffrezo, J.L., Balachandran, S., Davidson, C.I. (1993) Size distributions of atmospheric trace elements at Dye 3, Greenland. I. Distribution characteristics and dry deposition velocities, Atmos Environ, 27A,2787-2802. Karmacharya, A.P. and Shrestha, R.K. (1993) Air Quality Assessment in Kathmandu Valley, Environment and Public Health Organization Report, Kathmandu. 28 pp. Lin, J.M., Fang, G.C., Holsen, T.M., Noll, K.E. (1993) A comparison of dry deposition modelled from size distribution data and measured with a smooth surface for total particle mass, lead and calcium in Chicago, Atmos. Environ., 27A, 1131- 1138. Majumder, A.K, Bajracharya, R. M., Khanal, S.N., Kandel, P., Acharya,S., Carter, W.S., and Pant, P. (2010) Assessing Vehicular Air Pollution and Respiratory Imparement of Traffic Policeman in Kathmundu Valley, Nepal, J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 3(1), 215-219. Majumder A.K, Carter, W.S., Bajracharya, R. M., Khanal, S.N, Acharya,S., Kandel, P., Koju, R., Tuladhar, N.R. and Akter, J. (2010) Study of the Pathogenic Micro- Organisms Prevalence in Respiratory Tract of the Traffic Police Personnel Due

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to Heavy Air Pollution in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, J. Environ. Sci. & Natural Resources, 3(1), 211-214. Pope CA, Thun MJ, Namboodiri MM, Dockery DW, Evans JS, Speizer FE, Heath CW. (1995) Particulate Air-Pollution as a Predictor of Mortality in a Prospective- Study of us Adults. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 151: pp.669-674. Pope, C. A., Thun, M., Namboodiri, M., Dockery, D., Evans, J., Speizer, F., and Heath, C. (1995) Particulate air pollution as a predictor of mortality in a prospective study of U.S. adults. American Journal Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, 151, 669-674. Pryor, S.C., Simpson, R.W., Guise-Bagley, L., Hoff, R., Saklyama, S., Steyn, D. (1997). Visibility and aerosol composition in the Fraser Valley, JAWMA, 41, 147-156. RONAST (1992) A Study on Traffic Volume in Busy Streets of Kathmandu Valley, Report submitted by Royal Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (RONAST) to MEIP/URBAIR, 13 pp. Sapkota, B.K. (1996) Study of visibility and particulate pollution over Kathmandu Valley, Project Report, Institute of Engineering, Pulchowk Campus. Shrestha, P. (2002) Study of Prevalence of Respiratory Illness in Kathmandu Valley due to Suspended Particulate Matter, B.Sc. Dissertation, Environmental Science, St. Xavier college, Nepal. Shrestha, A. B., Wake, C. P., and Dibb, J. E. (1997) Chemical Composition of Aerosol and Snow in the High Himalaya during the Summer Monsoon Season, Atmos. Environ., 31, 2815-2826. Thapa Aun, (2001) Study of Indoor vs. Outdoor Air Microflora and its Relation to PM 7.07, B Sc. Dissertation, Department of Microbiology, Tribhuwan University, Nepal. URBAIR (1997) Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia: Kathmandu Valley, The World Bank Technical Paper No. 378, Washington D.C., USA, 155 pp.

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SOLUTION OF UNIT COMMITMENT PROBLEM OF ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM USING GA

M. A. Barik 1, A. B. M. Nasiruzzaman2 and M. F. Zaman3

Keywords: Unit. Problem. Electric. Power. System.

Abstract: Fuel cost is the major cost of overall generation cost. Fuel costs of different types of generators are different. We must select unit for lowest generation cost. Unit commitment Problem (UCP) is one which supports economy and secures operation of power system. One system is that the power system operates under continuous variation of consumer load. This demand for electrical power exhibits large variation between hours. The unit commitment problems have nonlinear objective function having many variables. This paper is concerned with the solution of unit commitment problem as it completely replaces classical mathematical programming methods by applying Genetic Algorithm (GA).

Introduction Because human activity follows cycles, most systems supplying services to large population experience cycles. This includes transportation systems, communication systems, as well as electric power systems. In case of an electric power system, the total load on the system generally is higher during the day time and early evening when industrial loads are high, lights are on, and so forth, and lower during the late night and early morning when most of the people are in sleep. In addition, the use of electric power has a weekly cycle, the load being lower on weekend days

1 Lecturer, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science & Technology, Dhaka, Bangladesh. E-mail: [email protected] 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh. 3 Lecturer, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Rajshahi University of Engineering & Technology, Rajshahi, Bangladesh.

113 than weekdays. This poses a problem in the operation of an electric power system. We cannot just simply commit enough units to cover the maximum system load and leave them running. To commit a generating unit is to turn it on, that is, to bring the unit up to speed, synchronize it to the system, and connect it so it can deliver power to the network (Grainger et al., 2008). The problem to commit enough units and leave them online is one of economics. UCP is a phenomenon which commits the generating unit whether ON or OFF at a certain load in a large interconnected power system for maximum profit. In the past classical mathematical model used to solve this problem. In that case there are some problems such as execution time required was high, calculation was very complex etc (Arthur et al., 1987). By applying GA we can overcome those problems. GA is the most recognized form of evolutionary algorithm. GA is a family of computational models inspired by evaluation. These algorithms encode a potential solution to a specific problem on a simple chromosome like data structure and apply recombination operators to these structures so as to preserve critical information. GA is a multiple point probabilistic search technique and characterized by the mechanism of natural selection and natural genetics. GA consists of three basic operators, namely reproduction, crossover and mutation. So GA is used in UCP to optimize the total generating cost of the generating units of the large interconnected power system.

Literature Review To solve the unit commitment problem researchers first considered diesel power station, hydrothermal power station, gas turbine etc and solved UCP by classical mathematical model (such as priority list method, integer programming, dynamic programming, mixed integer programming, branch and bound and Lagrangian relaxation method etc) (Chang et al., 2000). The priority list method is simple and fast but the quality of final solution is not guaranteed to be good. Dynamic programming methods which are based on priority lists are flexible but are computationally expensive. The drawback with the branch and bound method is the exponential growth in the execution time with the increase in size of the UC problem. Those problems are overcome by applying GA to solve UCP

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(Rudolf et al., 1999). Since renewable energy (i.e. wind energy, solar energy etc) is naturally replenished, it can be used as a generating unit to minimize the generation cost (Tuohy et al., 2009).

1. Genetic Algorithm (GA) GA is an optimization technique. The Genetic Local Search technique (GLS) hybridizes GA. GA is adaptive method which may be used to solve search & optimization problems (Bodenhofar et al., 2003-2004). Over many generations, natural populations evolve according to the principles of natural selections. By mimicking the process, GA is able to evolve solutions to real world problems, if they have been suitably encoded. The working principle of GA includes coding, fitness function. GA operates with selection, crossover, mutation and convergence. GA works with a population of strings that represents different potential solutions (Pai et al., 2003). Therefore, GA has implicit parallelism that enables it to search the problem space globally & the optima can be located more quickly when applied to complex optimization problem (Nasiruzzaman et al., 2008). General structure of GA is given in figure 1.

Chromosomes

Initiate Selection Encoding 1101001100011011 populati 1110011001110010 on

Mutation Crossover

Evaluate 1101001100011011 Decoding 1101001101110010 Output Fitness 1110011001110010

1101001101010010 1101001101110010

Figure-1: General structure of GA In GA first initiate some random number for each variable as a population within the range. Then evaluate fitness value for each set. If fitness value of any of them is accepted then stop & take output of that set. Otherwise choose some higher fitness set for next iteration. Then convert these numbers to binary digit or suitable form. After taking crossover and mutation get new population. After all, decode these numbers & evaluate

115 fitness value and continue this process until convergence (Manabu et al., 2003).

2. Unit Commitment Problem UCP is a critical issue in the economic operation of a large interconnected power system. Cost minimization or profit maximization is the main goal of UCP (Spall, 1990). Because the total load of the power system varies throughout the day and reaches a different peak value from one day to another, the electric utility has to decide in advance which generators to start-up and when to connect them to the network and sequence in which the operating units should be shut down and for how long. The computational procedure for making such decisions is called unit commitment (Wood et al., 2007), and a unit when scheduled for connection to the system is said to be committed. Here we consider the commitment of fossil fuel units which have different production cost because of their dissimilar efficiencies, designs, and fuel types. Although there are many other factors of practical significance which determine when units are scheduled on and off to satisfy the operating needs of the system, economics of operation is of major importance. Unlike online economic dispatch which economically distributes the actual system load as it arises to the various units already online, unit commitment plans for the best set of units to be available to supply the predicted or forecast load of the system over a future time period. UCP involves some basic steps such as properly choosing the objective function and variable bounds of the generating units in the interconnected power system. UCP determines the unit generation schedule for minimizing the operating cost of each generating unit within the scheduling period (Kothari et al., 2005). The generic UCP is formulated so as to minimize the total operational cost considering some operational constraints and line loses.

1 Operational Cost The UCP activity is used to find the feasible combination of a set of units in a large interconnected power system and the operating policy minimizes the total operating cost of the generating units of that

116 interconnected system. Hence, the total cost is the sum of total fuel cost, total start-up cost, the total shutdown cost (Kirchmayer, 1958).

2 Operation Constraints Many constraints can be specified in the UCP. Each individual power system, power pool, reliability council and so forth, may impose different rules on the generator scheduling problem. Operational constraints are mainly of two types. They are: System constraints and Unit constraints (Jha, 2005).

2.1 System Constraints System constraint is the constraint which depends on the whole system. Such as system power balance, system spinning reserve etc. In an interconnected power system power must be balanced (i.e. generation & load are equal). Also some spinning reserve is required for continuity of supply.

2.2 Unit Constraint The constraints which depend on the individual unit are called unit constraints, such as unit initial conditions, unit status restriction, unit high and low MW limits, unit minimum up & down rates etc. Unit initial condition means whether a unit gets ON/OFF initially. Unit restriction means restriction to generate. There are some units which have some restrictions, such as required to be on line at certain time intervals (must run) or may become unavailable due to planned maintenance or forced outage (must not run), operating constraints, reliability requirements or economic reasons. Each of unit must have generation limit. Generation is possible within the range. Also each unit takes some time to ON/OFF.

3 Transmission Line Losses When the power is transmitted through a transmission line, some transmission loss exists on the line and it depends upon the transmission line length and the amount of power to be transmitted. If the transmission line length or line resistance occurs, the amount of transmitted power and

117 the line loss per unit length per unit power to be transmitted is known as transmission loss ( in MW) which can be calculated by the following equations 1 or 2 : 2 2 I = V /P, Loss = I  R … … … … … (1) 2 Or Loss = I r L … … … … … (2)

Where, I = Line current, V = Line Voltage, P = Transmitted power, L = Transmission line length & R = Line Resistance (r = Resistance per km).

Application of GA in UCP GA is used for optimization purpose. Here, GA is used to minimize the generation cost. In this case, primarily consider several set of random generators to meet the required load. After that, check the total costs of generation and transmission for all sets of data and choose the optimum sets for considering low cost. Among these sets by applying GA operator (such as Crossover, Mutation), it can get more data around the best points. Again choose another optimum sets for considering low cost. The process is being continued up to satisfactory result (Minimum cost point).

1 Fitness Function In UCP main goal is cost minimization (i.e. maximum profit). Cost can be calculated by the equation 3:

Total cost = TFC + TSUC + TSDC + LC … … … … … (3) Where, TFC = Fuel cost, TSUC = Start-up cost, TSDC = Shut-down cost and LC = Cost for line loss.

2 Diagram of the Interconnected System An interconnected system which is used in UCP is shown in figure 2:

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Figure-2: Interconnected System of PGCB (Western Grid)

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3 Data Input 3.1 Load (forecasted load) Daily load can be obtained by load forecasting. Load (in MW) for 24 hour is given below in table 1 (Annual Report BPDB, 2000-2001):

Table-1(a): Load (area 1-9) in MW Area 1a 1b 2 3 4a 4b 5 6a 6b 7 8a 8b 8c 9

code

Area ari

name

Bogra

Natore

Saidpur

Naogaon

Rangpur Rajshahi

Palasbari

Serajgonj

Baghab

Shajadpur

Thakurgaon

Barapukuria

Purbasadipur Chapai Nawabgonj 00 hr 14 15 14 15 15 14 16 15 15 17 14 18 15 15 01 14 15 15 16 14 15 15 16 14 15 16 15 14 14 02 14 13 16 17 15 16 15 17 14 17 15 16 16 14 03 15 14 16 16 17 15 16 17 16 18 15 19 16 16 04 20 20 22 22 22 20 22 24 20 23 22 24 23 21 05 19 18 24 25 25 22 26 25 22 24 20 25 22 20 06 21 19 25 26 25 24 26 27 23 25 22 26 24 22 07 21 20 25 25 25 25 25 27 24 25 22 27 25 24 08 24 24 25 24 25 24 22 25 24 24 22 24 23 23 09 23 22 24 23 23 22 24 23 23 20 23 21 20 20 10 21 21 24 24 24 22 25 24 22 25 21 25 21 20 11 20 21 24 24 25 21 25 25 21 24 22 26 21 20 12 20 20 23 24 23 22 24 24 22 23 22 24 21 19 13 20 20 23 24 22 22 23 23 22 23 22 24 22 19 14 19 19 22 22 22 22 23 22 21 22 21 23 22 19 15 19 20 26 23 23 23 24 23 21 24 23 24 24 20 16 22 22 24 24 25 22 24 25 23 24 23 24 23 22 17 24 23 27 26 27 23 26 27 25 27 25 27 25 24 18 27 26 29 28 28 23 28 29 28 29 27 28 27 27 19 29 29 30 30 31 25 29 30 29 29 30 29 30 29 20 29 29 30 29 31 28 28 29 30 27 29 29 30 28 21 25 24 28 27 27 30 27 27 25 22 25 22 24 23 22 21 18 24 24 24 29 24 24 22 25 21 25 21 20 23 16 17 19 19 19 18 20 19 17 20 18 20 18 17

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Table-1(b): Load (area 10-15) in MW Area 10a 10b 11a 11b 12a 12b 12c 13a 13b 13c 14a 14b 14c 15a 15b

code

Area

name

Botail

Pabna

Barisal

Jessore

Ishurdi

Khulna

Mongla

Noapara

Bagerhat Faridpur

Jhenaidah

Bhandaria

Potuakhali

Madaripur Bheramara

00 hr 14 16 15 14 15 18 15 16 16 14 15 16 14 15 16 01 15 15 15 14 15 14 15 16 15 14 15 15 14 16 15 02 16 15 15 14 15 16 15 16 16 13 15 16 14 16 15 03 15 17 16 15 17 18 17 18 17 15 16 15 15 17 16 04 22 20 21 20 19 24 22 23 21 20 20 21 20 21 20 05 23 22 24 20 22 24 24 23 24 20 22 22 22 19 20 06 24 23 25 22 24 25 25 24 25 22 23 23 23 20 22 07 24 23 24 22 23 25 25 24 25 22 23 24 24 21 23 08 24 22 23 20 23 25 22 24 22 22 24 24 24 22 24 09 23 20 23 19 23 25 22 23 20 21 24 23 24 23 23 10 22 21 22 19 21 25 21 24 21 19 21 22 21 22 23 11 21 21 21 20 20 25 21 23 23 20 21 22 21 21 23 12 21 21 21 18 20 24 20 21 21 17 21 23 22 23 24 13 21 22 22 19 20 24 20 20 21 18 22 24 23 24 23 14 21 21 21 19 20 23 20 19 21 17 21 23 22 23 23 15 21 22 22 20 21 24 21 20 22 18 21 23 23 24 23 16 22 21 22 20 20 25 20 23 21 20 22 22 21 22 23 17 25 23 25 19 23 27 25 26 25 26 27 28 25 27 26 18 26 24 27 23 28 29 27 29 28 24 27 26 27 28 28 19 30 29 29 26 29 31 28 31 29 25 27 27 28 29 29 20 28 29 28 29 29 29 28 29 28 26 27 27 28 29 29 21 25 24 25 22 25 29 22 27 24 22 25 24 25 25 27 22 22 21 22 19 21 25 21 24 21 19 21 22 21 19 23 23 18 17 17 16 17 20 17 17 17 16 17 17 17 17 16

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3.2 Initial Condition of Machines Initial condition of machines is whether machine is ON/OFF initially. If machine is OFF, then calculate time for off period of that machine. These two data used in GA are given below in table 2: (1 means ON & 0 means OFF)

Table-2: Initial condition of machines

Machine No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ON/OFF status 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 OFF period (hour) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1

3.3 Unit Restrictions There are some machines which need to be on at all time and also need to be off due to maintenance or other reasons. These two data which are used in GA are given below table 3: (1 means needed to be ON/OFF & 0 means not needed to be ON/OFF)

Table-3: Unit restrictions Machine No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 ON 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 OFF 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3.4 Spinning Reserve Spinning reserve is the term used to describe the total amount of generation available from all units synchronized (i.e., spinning) on the system, minus the present load and losses being supplied (Wood et al., 2007). Spinning reserve must be carried so that the loss of one or more units do not cause too far a drop in system frequency. Quite simply, if one unit is lost there must be ample reserve on the other units to make up the loss in a specified time period. Spinning reserve means extra power generation to ensure continuity of power supply. Spinning reserve which is used in GA is 20MW.

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4. Other Data Some extra data are required for UCP solution. These are given below:

4.1. Machine Ratings Machine type, Maximum Generation Capacity, Minimum Generation Capacity, Starting time, Shutdown time, Cold start cost, Hot start cost, Cold start hour, Shutdown cost, Heat rate data etc.

4.2. Line Data and Transformer Ratings Line length, KV ratings of each line, Current caring capacity of each line, Line Resistance, Number of Circuit of each line and Transformer ratings in MVA.

5. Algorithm Algorithm of GA program for UCP is given below: 1. Read input data.

2. Take hour hr=1.

3. Take iteration i=1. 4. Initiate some set of random population (MW generation) for each generator. 5. Check for all set: Total demand < Max. generation. If not , cancelled

out that set. 6. Check: Number of set cancelled out = Number of checking set. If

yes go to step 4, otherwise go to step 7.

7. Calculate line loss. 8. Check for all set: (Total demand +line loss) < Total generation. If

not, cancelled out that set. 9. Check: Number of set cancelled out = Number of checking set. If yes go to step 4, otherwise go to step 10. 10. Calculate fuel cost, start-up cost.

11. Sum all cost (Total cost = fuel cost + start-up cost + shut-down cost).

12. Select some low cost set. And calculate Load shedding, Line flow. 13. Apply GA operators (Encoding, Crossover, Mutation and Decoding)

on selected sets.

14. Take i = i+1.

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15. Check: Acceptance of fitness value of selected population. If Accepted go to step 16, otherwise go to step 5. 16. Update ON-OFF status & OFF period of generator for next hour. 17. Take hr = hr+1. 18. Check hr > 24. If yes go to step 19, otherwise go to step 4. 19. Print output.

6. Result and Discussion 6.1. ON/OFF Schedule ON/OFF schedule of generators is given below table 4. In this table, 1 means generator is ON and 0 means Generator OFF. Here generator 1 is all time OFF, because generator 1 is restricted for generation. Since generator 7 is needed to ON all time, generator 7 is all time ON. Here generation schedule is given for each hour. Suppose for hour 2pm all generators are ON except generator 1 & 8.

Table-4: ON/OFF Schedule of Generators <= = = = am = = = => G. N. 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 14 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 15 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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<= = = = = pm = = => G. N. 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

8 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

10 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

13 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

14 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

15 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

6.2. Generation Schedule of each Generator Generation schedule of each generator at each hour is given below in table 5. MW generation of all generators of each hour are mentioned in this table. Suppose for hour 2am generator 1 is OFF, generator 2 generate 17 MW, generator 3 generate 10 MW, generator 4 generate 66 MW, generator 5 generate 72 MW, generator 6 generate 69 MW, generator 7 generate 71 MW, generator 8 is OFF, generator 9 generate 20 MW, generator 10 is OFF, generator 11 generate 72 MW, generator 12 generate

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59 MW, generator 13 generate 29 MW, generator 14 is OFF, generator 15 is OFF.

Table 5: Generation schedule of each generator G. N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 12 0 10 10 67 63 62 56 14 0 0 100 55 22 0 12 1 0 9 10 71 79 80 70 0 0 0 110 35 0 0 0 2 0 17 10 66 72 69 71 0 20 0 72 59 29 0 0 3 0 20 10 67 79 76 64 0 20 0 105 39 26 0 0 4 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 5 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 am 6 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 7 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 8 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 9 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 10 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 11 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 12 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 1 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 2 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 0 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 3 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 4 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 5 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 pm 6 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 7 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 8 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 9 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 10 0 20 20 71 80 80 80 20 20 20 110 60 40 20 20 11 0 20 10 71 80 80 80 0 20 0 110 60 40 0 0

6.3. Comparison between Load and Generation

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Load (in MW), Generation (in MW), Line loss (MW), Spinning reserve (in MW), Load shedding (in MW), Cost in taka (thousand) in each hour is given in table 6. Table 6: Comparison Between Load and Demand Load Spinning Load Generation Loss Cost in Time Shedding reserve thousand in MW in MW in MW in MW in MW Taka 12 441 477 3.92 0 32.08 1.52 1 431 463 4.18 0 27.82 1.48 2 442 476 3.83 0 30.17 1.52 3 470 511 3.91 0 37.09 1.61 4 619 647 4.31 0 23.69 2.05 5 646 667 4 0 17 2.12 am 6 685 667 4.20 22.20 0 2.12 7 694 667 4.18 31.18 0 2.13 8 681 667 4.18 18.18 0 2.12 9 645 667 4.17 0 17.83 2.14 10 642 667 4.19 0 20.81 2.13 11 642 667 4.17 0 33.83 2.12 12 629 667 4.17 0 33.83 2.12 1 633 667 4.17 0 29.83 2.12 2 613 647 4.15 0 29.85 2.11 3 639 667 4.18 0 23.82 2.12 4 651 667 4.18 0 11.82 2.12 pm 5 740 667 4.19 77.19 0 2.13 6 793 667 4.19 130.19 0 2.12 7 844 667 4.17 181.17 0 2.12 8 830 667 4.18 167.18 0 2.13 9 722 667 4.18 59.18 0 2.12

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10 636 667 4.18 0 26.82 2.12 11 513 561 4.11 0 43.89 1.78 Here we seen that 6 am to 8 am and 5 pm to 9 pm load is higher than maximum generation. Hence at that time load shedding occurs. Transmission line loss is almost same. In this analysis per unit cost for generation was not the exact figure. So the total cost for generation is not exact value. Although the spinning reserve is considered 20MW it is sometimes 1.5 times or higher because of the unavailability of suitable generators to commit, but it optimizes cost constraints.

Conclusion Load of different areas of an interconnected system during 24 hour is analyzed. The location of the various generators of each area is specified, and the ON-OFF states of each generator at time of starting in a day are also specified. UCP involves these data requirement and optimized (minimized cost) by the application of GA. From the simulation (MATLAB output) ON-OFF schedule, total cost and the number of MW generation of each generating unit per hour in a day, load shedding and line losses are obtained. We can solve this problem without GA where the total cost for generation and transmission is more comparing with GA based approach. The main advantages of using GA are less computational time, ease of calculation, less prone to error etc.

References Allen J. Wood, Bruce F. Wollenberg (2007) Power Generation, Operation and Control: John Wiley & Sons. Inc. Annual Report BPDB: 2000-2001. Bodenhofar, U. (2003-2004) Genetic Algorithm Theory and Application: Third Edition, Software Competence Center Hagenberg. Chang, C. P.LIU, C. W.liu, C. C. (2000) Unit commitment by LR and GA. IEEE transaction on Power systems 15 no. 2, 707–714. Cohen, Arthur I., Wan, S. H. (1987) A Method for Solving the Fuel Constrained Unit Commitment Problem. Power systems, IEEE Transactions on, Volume: 2, Issue: 3, Page(s): 608 – 614.

128 http://www.obitko.com/tutorials/genetic-algorithms/ (October 2008) Ishii Manabu, Bulgarian, Teodor Gig (2003) Introduction to GAs with JAVA Applets. Jha, R.C. (2005) Unit Commitment Problem, M. Sc. Thesis paper, Birla institute of technology. John G. Grainger, William D. Stevenson, Jr (2008) Power System Analysis: Tata McGraw Hill. Kothari, D.P., Dhilolon, J. S. (2005) Power System Optimization: Third Edition. Leon, K. Kirchmayer (1958) Economic Operation of Power System: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Nasiruzzaman, A. B. M., Rabbani, M.G., Seikh, M.R.I., Anower, M.S., Shil, K. Shubhashis, Haque, Md. Ashraful (2008) A Genetic Algorithm Based Approach for Solving Optimal Power Flow Solution. International Conference on Electronics, Computer and Communications. Pai, G.A. Vijayalakshmi and Rajasekaram, S. (2003) Neural Networks, Fuzzy Logic and Genetic Algorithm Synthesisz and application: Prentice Hall of India Private Limited. Rudolf, A., Bayrleithner, R. (1999) A Genetic Algorithm for Solving The Unit Commitment Problem of a Hydro Thermal Power System. IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, vol.14, no.4, pp.1460-1468. Spall, J.C. (1990) Power System Optimization: second edition. Tuohy, A. meibom, Denny, P. E. o'malley, M. (2009) Unit Commitment for System with Wind Penetration. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 24(2): 592 – 601.

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NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF INDIAN POPULATION: EASTERN REGION By K. K. Bhattacharya (ed.). pp. viii + 242, tables, epilogue, 2009. Anthropological Survey of India: Kolkata. Hard cover. Price Rs. 410/-

The project on the nutritional status of Indian population was conceived by the Anthropological Survey of India in the Seventh Five Year Plan (1987-92). The fieldwork under this project started in the year 1991. Initially 70 reference points were identified for the study but later only 61 reference points were covered during the project period which had to be extended up to the Ninth Plan period, for its completion. The fieldwork under this project was completed in the year 2001. The results of this project study conducted in the eastern region of India finally appeared in print in June 2009, under hard cover. The present volume, third in the series, contains sixteen articles on nutritional status of some castes (3), scheduled castes (7) and scheduled tribes (6) population of eastern region of India, covering four states, namely Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal. The total number of individuals covered under this project in eastern region is 4902, out which 2648 are males and the rest are females The study on the nutritional status of sixteen communities was conducted by eight research personnel of the Survey. In the ‗Preface‘ the editor, Dr K. K. Bhattacharya writes, ―For the selection of the location, the method followed by All India Bio-Anthropological Survey (AIBAS) was adopted with slight modification. … Here in this project the mid point of the area formed by consecutive two degree latitude and longitude was taken as a reference point. Thus the meeting point of each degree latitude and longitude was taken as reference point. From each reference point two ethnic groups were to be studied, one from upper strata and other lower strata‖. (p. iii-iv) The communities covered under this project on nutritional status study in different blocks/districts are, Brhmakalpit Brahman of Gaya (town), Pasi of Gaya, Chamar of Banka, Bhumihar of Banka, Ghasi of Mandar and Burmu, Gorait of Mandar and Burmu and Chanho, Chasa of Dhenkanal,

130

Pano of Dhenkanal, Dombo of Koraput, Kuikhond of Koraput, Ganda of Sambalpur, Saora of Padampukur (Sambalpur), Bauri of Bankura, Kora of Bankura, Munda of Jalpaiguri and Oraon of Jalpaiguri. The present study on nutritional status is more like a sample survey study based on the reference points identified through latitude and longitude, and not on the basis of the available socio-economic survey earlier carried out by researchers. Generally 50-52 households from each community were considered for the study of food habits and consumption patterns, and nutritional assessment through anthropometric and haemoglobin level measurements. At the end of the sixteen articles the editor has presented an epilogue containing 11 tables which summarizes his findings. His study reveals that consumption of calories ranges in Eastern region (p.225) from 1995 (Ghasi of Jharkhand) to 3273 calorie (Bhumihar) with an average of 2486 calories. It is lower than the recommended (ICMR 1993) energy requirement of 2875 kcal for an adult normal Indian male with 60 kg body weight. On an average the population of Eastern India is getting 58 gm of protein per consumption per day, a much lower protein intake. Vitamin deficiency in these populations are also alarming. In the studied populations the average vitamin A intake is 856 microgramme, which is very much lower than the required amount of 2400 microgramme of vitamin A as suggested by ICMR. Through the value of Pignet Index the project officers of this study have evaluated the health status of male adults, and have found that 78.26 percent of the studied population possesses weak to very poor body built. The haemoglobin concentration in blood was also estimated in this project. And the study revealed that on an average, the males have 11.27 gm/dl, and 9.54 gm/dl of haemoglobin concentration level in the studied population, indicating the prevalence of anaemia. Thus this study on the nutritional status of some of the population groups of Eastern India gives an unhealthy picture of the health condition of the scheduled population groups of the region. The Anthropological Survey of India, which is under the Ministry of Culture, Government of India, would do a great service to the people of

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India if it takes initiative to bring the results of this study (and similar studies) to the attention of the Ministries of Health, Rural Development, Welfare Departments, Planning Commission, and to the persons who are at the helm of the affairs, and others who are concerned with the welfare of the poor people in the health sector in India. It needs an extended discussion. These studies would simply remain stereotype, directionless, and non-beneficial projects, unless, it helps us to elevate our status at the Human Development Index rank, where we are far behind many developing countries. The Survey, I hope, would bring this to the attention of the concerned authorities.

P. Dash Sharma Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University Ranchi, India

132

MUSLIMS BARADARIES, OCCUPATIONS AND EDUCATIONS By Abdul Waheed. pp. x + 103, tables. maps, annexure, 2011. Serials Publications: New Delhi. Hard cover. Price 495/-

This hard cover slim volume with photographs on the jacket showing the fortress Koil, of 14th century, is a baseline household survey report on the socio-economic condition of Muslims in Tehsil Koil, district Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh. This volume has been developed by the Centre for Promotion of Educational and Cultural Advancement of Muslims of India (CEPECAMI) of Aligarh Muslim University. The report of the survey contains six chapter apart from ‗preface‘ and ‗summary and suggestions‘. The chapters are: Setting and the Design of the Survey; Population and Household Amenities; Baraderies and Administrative Classification; Workers and Occupations; Literacy and Education; and lastly Schools and Madaris. The content titles have been presented in a simple report style, reflecting a descriptive account of the community under study in Tehsil Koil. The survey was conducted in May-June 2007 to examine the socio- economic condition of 2500 Muslims of nine villages and three urban agglomeration of the study area concerned. Unlike popular perception, Muslims are not homogenous community. They are internally divided into various Baradaries (caste-like hierarchical status groups) and classes (economic groups). Muslims Baradaries are administratively classified into General and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) by the Central and State Governments. ―Sociologically, Muslims are divided into three broad categories, i.e. Ashraf, Ajlaf and Arzal.‖ (p.26) In 1931 Census 35 Baradaries were categorized in Aligarh district. Some of the findings of the survey as reported in the volume are as follows. ―Of the total sampled households sampled 66% were found simple and the remaining complex. Nearly 9.8% households were headed by females while remainig were male-headed. Nearly half of the households had pucca houses and 29.24% lived in mixed houses whereas 21% resided in kuchcha houses and Jhopris. Basic household amenities such as safe

133 drinking water, electricity, and toilets were not available in all households. Twenty-seven per cent households did not have facility of drinking water within their houses while 66 per cent were deprived of electricity connection. Toilets were available to 58 per cent households and remaining used to go to open fields for defecation. Average household size was of 7.0 persons, one point more than district average (6.0). Sixty- three percent of workers had annual income up to rupees 2000/-. Most of the workers were found to be associated with menial and irregular occupations which did not promise them regular and stable income. A survey of 89 schools showed educational condition very bad, only 47 per cent were found having merely Primary level education. Rural households appeared more deprived than urban households on all indicators of development.‖ (pp. 88-89) At the end the author has given some suggestions, which is normally the practice, for such survey report.

Asesh K. Haldar Sarat Chandra Roy Institute of Anthropological Studies, Ranchi

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MICRO-FINANCE AND WOMEN EMPOWERMENT

By B. Malleswari. pp. xvii + 252, abbreviations, tables, diagram, figures, bibliography, 2010. Serials Publications: New Delhi. Hard cover. Price 895/-

The book under review comprises both theoretical and empirical blend. It tries to explore the role of microfinance in women empowerment on a wide canvass covering the policies and programmes of the government related to women with special reference to the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. This hard bound volume is broadly divided into seven chapters and begins with the chapter on ‗Research Design and Methodology‘, breaking the conventional mode of presentation. However the author initiates the chapter with brief introduction to microfinance followed by literature review, need for the study, objectives and the last few pages specifically seeming compatible with the title of the chapter. The second chapter concentrates on the concepts of microfinance, women empowerment, different policies and programmes related to women empowerment, progress of microfinance initiatives in India followed by the growth of microfinance in Andhra Pradesh. It has been highlighted that the microfinance initiative in the form of SHG had started in Andhra Pradesh through the implementation of IRDP. Throughout the chapter, the author explains only the SHG model of microfinance but the other types of microfinancing forms are absent. The third chapter covers the study area – Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh with reference to history, geography, topography, demography and agricultural aspects. The chapter gives a glimpse of performance and status of SHGs functioning in the districts. The study shows that the SHG promoting agencies are either banks or NGOs and at present 56138 SHGs are operating in the districts. The chapter also illustrates the financial status, community wise distribution and bank wise distribution of SHGs in the districts. The fourth chapter concentrates on the empirical findings from the sample SHGs of three selected mandals viz. Chandragiri, Puttur and Chowdepalli. Besides socio-economic features of the sample respondents, the progress made by the SHGs in the selected mandals are also spelt out. The analysis of the figures (No.1 to 6) seems unjust to the actual figures since it does

135 not reflect the comparative assessment of investment in pre and post SHG periods. The fifth chapter entails the impact of micro-credit on employment creation, income generation, expenditure savings and assets holding among the SHG members of three selected mandals. The data has been collected through field survey and analysed with the help of different statistical tests. The chapter is highly informative and is supported by rich empirical data but the author again creates confusion in transferring tabular data into figures. Besides some error, the chapter is of enormous importance for any scholar, researcher, academician or development professionals to learn the process of data tabulation and analysis. The sixth chapter explicates the social dimension of empowerment with the help of three selected parameters viz. Repayment behaviour, decision making and perceptions of the SHGs members. The analysis has been made by before-after approach to assess the social impact of SHGs over the members. It is highlighted that the awareness regarding different development programmes and participation in decision making has been significantly improved among the women in post-SHG period. Improvement has also been highlighted in the other dimensions of life that reflects the role of SHG in women empowerment. The seventh chapter ponders on summary of findings, conclusions and suggestions. Several policy recommendations have been made on the basis of the findings like inter-departmental co-ordination, adoption of PPP model, dovetailing of SHG programme with different literacy programmes etc. This book, though a stereotype presentation, however, would be helpful to the post graduate students, researchers, social scientists and development practitioners of the State of Andhra Pradesh, who are engaged in the area of empowerment through microfinance specially SHG.

Dipankar Chatterjee Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda University, Faculty of Integrated Rural and Tribal Development & Management, Ranchi

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INVITATION TO CONTRIBUTORS

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Instruction for Submission of Papers: Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest is an interdisciplinary journal used to publish in January and July of each calendar year and is registered with National Serials Data Program, Library of Congress (ISSN. 1995-5332).The journal contains research- based articles on Social Science, Law, Education, Business, Arts, Science and Technology. Contributors are requested to submit articles for publication in the Journal. The following may kindly be treated as broad guidelines for submission of the articles.

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References References should be placed alphabetically by author or authorship, regardless of the format, i.e. whether books, websites or journal articles etc.

Examples of Correct Forms of References for Numerical Style Book 1. Slovic, P. (2000) The Perception of Risk. London: Earthscan Publications.

Edited Volume

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2. Nye Jr, J.S., Zelikow, P.D. and King D.C. (eds.) (1997) Why People Don‘t Trust Government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Chapter in Book 3. Flora, P. and Alber, J. (1981) Modernization, democratization, and the development of the welfare state. In: P. Flora and A.J. Heidenheimer (eds.) The Development of Welfare States in Europe and America. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Books, pp. 17–34.

Article in Journal 4. Thompson, K., Griffith, E. and Leaf, P. (1990) A historical review of the Madison model of community care. Hospital and Community Psychiatry 41(6): 21–35.

Article in Newspaper 5. Webster, B. (2008) Record bonus for Network Rail chief, despite Christmas chaos. The Times, 6 June: p1.

Newspaper or Magazine Article (Without a Named Author) 6. Economist (2005) The mountain man and the surgeon. 24 December, pp. 24–26.

Article Online 7. http.www...... com (April 29:15:30) Gardener, T. and Moffatt, J. (2007) Changing behaviours in defence acquisition: a game theory approach. Journal of the Operational Research Society, advance online publication 28 November, doi: 10.1057/ palgrave.jors.2602476.

Conference Proceedings

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8. Sapin, A. (ed.) (1985) Health and the Environment. Proceeding of the Conference on Biological Monitoring Methods for Industrial Chemiscals; 30-31 March 1984, Chicago, IL. Chicago: American Toxological Association.

Conference Paper 9. Harley, N.H. (1981) Radon risk models. In: A.R. Knight and B. Harrad, (eds) Indoor Air and Human Helath. Proceedings of the Seventh Life Sciences Symposium; 29-31 October, Knoxville, TN. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp.69-78.

Papers/Talks Presented at a Conference but Not Published 10. Martin, S. (2003) An exploration of factors which have an impact on the vocal performance and vocal effectiveness of newly qualified teachers and lectures. Paper presented at the Pan European Voice Conference; 31 August, Graz, Austria.

Dissertation/Thesis 11. Young, W.R. (1981) Effects of different tree During Democratic Transition: The Malawi Social Action Fund 1996-2001. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies. IDS Research Report no. 5.

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