PUJMQ Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest

Prime University

Editor Profulla C. Sarker Prime University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Associate Editor M. Abul Hossain Sikder Atish Dipankar University Dhaka, Bangladesh

Book Review Editor P. Dash Sharma Ranchi University Ranchi, India

Managing Editor Mohammad Arshad Ali Prime University Dhaka, Bangladesh

Published by Centre for Research, Human Resource Development and Publications Prime University 2A/1 North East of Darus Salam Road Section-1, Mirpur, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Cover Design Amal Das

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Price : Tk. 250.00 / US $ 5.00

Editorial Board

Bong Joo Lee Gareth Davey Seoul National University University of Chester South Korea United Kingdom

Sarah Safdar Durga Das Bhattacharjee Peshwar University Dhaka University Pakistan Bangladesh

Ajit Kumar Singh A. Renaweera Ranchi University Colombo University India Sri Lanka

Antonio Fiori Tiong Tan University of Bolonga Singapore National University Italy Singapore

Manohar Pawar Margarita Frederico Charles Sturt University Latrobe University New South Wales, Australia Australia

Santi Kinduka, Washington University Desa Shankwan United States of America Thamasat University Thailand Cecillia Chan Hongkong University Paul Olson China Toronto University Canada M.A. Sobhan Independent University Sarker Ali Akkas Bangladesh Jagannath University Bangladesh M. Shahidullah Rajshahi University Ramesh Chandra Devnath Bangladesh Rajshahi University Bangladesh Nazir M. Hossain York University Heinz Theisen Canada Catholic University of Köln Germany

Editorial Note

Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest (PUJMQ) is an international journal published twice a year (January and July). It is a refereed journal designed to promote multidisciplinary inquiry on research, education and development. PUJMQ encompasses all scientific academic fields dealing with life, society, culture, business, law, science and technology. The main mission and vision of PUJMQ is to make multidisciplinary linkages that promote to inter-lock the different disciplines in a single platform. Prime University Journal of Multidisciplinary Quest (PUJMQ) has an international editorial board involving the scholars of different disciplines across the East and the West and as a result it helps to mitigate cross- cultural issues across the globe. It is a multidisciplinary and international forum which acts as a catalyst to promote and exchange ideas, views, and knowledge of different disciplines that encourage scholars to enhance their creative and innovative ideas and knowledge in global perspective. It helps to contribute to the knowledge of the academics, researchers, policy makers, planners, practitioners and development workers to take appropriate policy in order to chalk out effective planning for formulating pragmatic policies. Eight research papers have been selected in the current volume on different issues viz. aging and mental health in Chinese society due to declination of filial relationship, legislative reform for the protection of the rights of the Hindu Community in Bangladesh, health policy of India through five year plans emphasizing the maternal and child health issues, viscosity affects velocity and as a result it helps to determine the parameters of temperature profiles, sensitivity study of the cumulus parameterization scheme with planetary boundary layer options for estimating the rainfall in Bangladesh, the health scenario of rural Bhutan which examined the infant morbidity and mortality through SWOT

6 analysis, trend and development of advertisement through television in order to enhance the scope of market for industrial production in Bangladesh, and seasonal food insecurity and coping mechanisms applied by the poor to overcome the crisis in the north western part of Bangladesh.

Profulla C. Sarker Editor

Contents

Changing Attitudes toward Filial Piety and Its Impact on Mental Health of Elderly People in Chinese Society 9 Kam Ping Kathy Leung Yui Huen Alex Kwan Kai Wai Kennis Leung

The Hindu Community in need of Legislative Protection 27 Sadia Afroz Binte Siraj Tanvhir Ahmad

The five year plans in India: Overview of Public Health Policies 41 Sethuramalingam V. Selwyn Stanley Sathia S.

MHD Natural Convection Flow of Fluid with Variable Viscosity from a Porous Vertical Plate 55 Amena Ferdousi Mohammad Salek Parvez M. A. Alim

Sensitivity Study of the Cumulus Parameterization Schemes with Planetary Boundary Layer Options in Estimating Rainfall in Bangladesh using MM5 74 Md. A. E. Akhter Md. M. Alam M. A. Hossain

Rural Health Scenario in Bhutan: The Social and Institutional Experiences 85 Komol Singha Lingchen

Trends and Development of Television Advertisement in Bangladesh 103 Md. Towhidul Islam

‘Monga’- A Seasonal Food Insecurity and Its Impact on Poverty in Bangladesh: A Local Issue in National Perspective 124 Profulla C. Sarker M. Abul Hossain Sikder

CHANGING ATTITUDES TOWARD FILIAL PIETY AND ITS IMPACT ON MENTAL HEALTH OF ELDERLY PEOPLE IN CHINESE SOCIETY

Kam Ping Kathy Leung1, Yui Huen Alex Kwan2 & Kai Wai Kennis Leung 3

Keywords: Attitude. Filial. Mental Health. Elderly.

Abstract: This paper is an attempt to discuss the changing attitude of the young people of China towards elderly people and its impact on their mental health. Filial Piety is rooted from the instinct of the Confucianism that implies loyalty, respect and obligation among the family members to make harmonious relationship. With the advancement of science and technology in the age of globalization and modernization, the attitude towards filial piety is indicative of wider cultural change in Chinese society and thus affects the family support to the elderly and as a result the elderly people become the victims of mental health. This paper suggests to chalk out awareness program to make the young people to take care of the elderly.

Introduction Filial piety is a distinctive concept in Confucianism that implies deep loyalty, respect, and devotion of children toward their parents (Ng, Philips & Lee, 2002, Tao, 2010). As a social norm, filial piety values family honor and harmony more than individual interests (Yang, 1995). However, among the Chinese in countries in the Southeast and East Asia, including Hong Kong, mainland China, South Korea, and Singapore, attitudes toward filial piety, particularly with respect to elderly parents, have changed in recent decades (Ikels, 2010). Rapid sociodemographic

1 Instructor, Department of Applied Social Studies, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong 2 Professor, Department of Applied Social Studies, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong 3 Professor, Department of Applied Social Studies, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong

10 changes, a rapidly aging elderly population, and changes in economic status and intergenerational expectations have all influenced filial commitments (Caregivershome, 2007, Sung, 2008, Quah, 2010, Yi, 2010). However, many elderly parents now understand their adult children in terms of their individuality, rather than their obligations (Ng, Philips & Lee, 2002, Ng, 2010), and in Hong Kong filial orientation is viewed only as a frame of reference (Wong & Chau, 2006, Ting, 2010). In urban China, both young and old people rank respect as the most important aspect of filial piety and obedience as the least important (Yue & Ng, 2002, Yang, 2010). Some Koreans have modified the practice of filial piety with respect to the constraints associated with the family context, work situations, and social environment (Sung, 2008, Koreatimes, 2008). In Singapore, families, welfare organizations, and governments share the responsibility for establishing effective practices of elderly care within families (Verbrugge & Chan, 2008). The contemporary version of filial piety is characterized by gratitude, respect, and reciprocal support, rather than obligation, obedience, and one- way responsibility (Ting, 2009). Filial piety is significant to Chinese people, but its significance is in transition, not necessarily in decline. As stated by Ng, Philips, and Lee (2002), adult children in Hong Kong, for example, have created acceptable substitutes for co-residency, such as living near or maintaining close contact with elderly relatives out of respect for filial piety. Yue and Ng (2002) showed that both younger and older generations in Beijing and Guangzhou continue to endorse strong filial commitment (Kwan, Cheung & Ng, 2010). Mehta and Ko (2004) revealed that the majority (88%) of elderly people over 65 years old in Singapore live with adult children, showing that filial obligation is still treasured by family members. In modern Chinese families, filial piety may serve as a buffer from the stress of being a caregiver (Lai, 2010), and may also provide benefits by encouraging intimate relationships of equal exchange (Kim & Kim, 2003). To better understand these sociodemographic changes and the significance of filial commitment in the Chinese population, this study examines the perspective of adult children to illustrate the strain encountered by caregivers and adult children with respect to filial piety in Southeast Asia. Some adult children face the dilemma of fulfilling traditional values (i.e.,

11 filial piety) and actualizing their individuality (i.e., high demands at work and at home). As such, they are not quick to accept the role of caregiver, especially for elderly relatives who suffer from dementia or other chronic illnesses (Knight et al., 2002, Lam, 2006). The opinions of these adults reveal that the strain of familial obligations arises from the anticipative, immediate, residual, and chronic stages of long-term caregiving commitment (Kwan, Chan & Leung, 2004). Stress reactions by adult children may include physical and psychological fatigue, self-blame, or the disturbance of normal life patterns, and some family tragedies, such as abuse, murder, or suicide, have occurred in recent decades (Hong Kong Council of Social Services, 2010). In light of this trend, this study presents a new conceptualization of filial piety that emphasizes the balancing of societal and individual challenges to mitigate the strain on adult children. This conceptualization should be useful in crafting government policy. This article is organized into four parts. The first part reviews previous studies on the meaning of filial piety in East and Southeast Asian countries. Two perspectives on the decline of and changes in filial piety are offered to suggest how policy-makers might assist adult children and caregivers with respect to filial piety. The third part explains the qualitative case study method used to conduct the study, in which two Chinese adult children shared their experiences of interacting with their parents. The final part presents three implications of the new reality of elderly care outside of traditional family networks for the concept of filial piety.

Literature review Roots and Meanings of Filial Piety Filial piety is a central and distinctive concept of Confucianism that emphasizes authoritarian, family-centered care practices and the maintenance of family harmony and cohesiveness (Hwang, 1999). According to the doctrine of filial piety, children are expected to be loyal to their families, mutually assist family members, sacrifice themselves for the group, and maintain harmony with the family (Yang, 1995). The cultural meanings of filial piety include the deep loyalty, respect, and devotion of children toward their parents (Ng, Philips & Lee, 2002). Chow

(2001) classified filial piety into three levels, namely, caring for the material needs of parents, paying attention to the wishes and preferences of parents, and honoring parents by one‘s behavior. From a social psychological perspective, the two essential components of value and behavior constitute filial piety. Sung (2008) indicated that young adult children focus on ―repayment, responsibility and sacrifice‖ as behavioral practices and ―love/affection, harmony and respect‖ as emotional needs. Hwang (1999) stated there are two different kinds of filial piety: passive (e.g., obedience to authority) and active (e.g., concern for elderly parents). Some scholars have advised that people avoid mixing the concept of filial behavior with filial attitude because the two factors only show a moderate correlation (Ho, 1996 & Yu, 1983). Thus, classification schemes for filial piety often include behavior-emotional, passive-active, and authoritarian-reciprocal binaries. Modern filial piety is both an ideology and a practice of societal behavior that takes the form of an individual lifestyle, an affective relationship, and reciprocal support (Thomas, 1990).

Implications of Changes in Filial Piety for Policy-Makers Policy-makers throughout East and Southeast Asian countries are aware of the changing significance of filial piety, and that it must evolve to address care that ensures the well-being of elderly parents. Implied in this approach is a balance among private and public responsibility for elder care and the commitment from the government (Chow, 2007, Sung, 2008), in addition to the provision of moral education that will benefit individuals, families, and the community (Thomas, 1990). In this regard, there are two dimensions in which policy-makers should focus their efforts. First, community support networks for elderly care are in great demand but are underdeveloped in East and Southeast Asian societies (Ng, Philips & Lee, 2002, Lam, 2006). Suggestions for remedying this situation include a voucher system as a long-term policy for elderly care (Chou, Chow, & Chi, 2005, Lam, 2006), the provision of elderly care services at the community level, and public education, such as a ―Respect for Elders Day‖ (Sung, 2008). Second, policy-makers must be

13 aware that the pressures on adult children who adopt a caregiving role cause physical exhaustion, psychological difficulties, and conflicts within families. Addressing the mental health of adult children and the social support assistance available to them would be the first step to resolving the dilemma of individuality versus cultural pressure to display filial piety (Chan & Leong, 1994). Our societies are measured not only by the level of affluence, but also by core values such as civic-mindedness, mental fitness, and human rights (Policy Address, 2009).

Two Perspectives: The Decline of Filial Piety and Changes in Filial Piety The Decline of Filial Piety The decline of filial piety is usually evaluated by comparing current practices with the cultural norms of filial piety and examining the immigrant experience, particularly with respect to the dilemma between traditional and modern values (Ting, 2009). Modernization has caused many sociodemographic changes in East and Southeast Asia, such as an increase in nuclear families, a decrease in extended families, better employment opportunities for women, and better education for the younger generations (Mehta & Ko, 2004; Census & Statistics Department, 2006; Sung, 2008). These changes are suggested to have resulted in a decline in filial piety, as demonstrated by fewer elderly people living with their adult children or receiving informal support from them (Lee & Kwok, 2005, Cheung & Kwan, 2009). In Hong Kong, there has been an increase in the number of cases of abuse of the elderly (Kwan, 1995). The level of filial piety has decreased in the educated population in China (Cheung & Kwan, 2009), the social position of elderly people has been undermined in Korea (Choi, 1996), and the increasingly large aging population is putting strain on adult children who have adopted a caregiving role in Singapore (Mehta & Ko, 2004), all of which may have contributed to a decline in filial piety. Filial piety is also challenged by the cultural values and practices of Western countries (Chan & Leong, 1994). Western scholars studying Chinese, such as those in the United States, find that the belief and practices surrounding filial piety are not consistent, and that belief in filial piety does not increase as children reached

14 adulthood. It has also been noted that at present there is a higher percentage of adult daughters taking care of their elderly parents than adult sons (Yu, 1983, Yan, 2001).

Changes in Filial Piety Due to modernization and Westernization, people in East and Southeast Asia express filial piety in a distinct way in response to their societal environment and the challenges to caregiving. Hence, it can be argued that traditional filial piety coexists with modern practice (Thomas, 1990, Ng, Philips & Lee, 2002, Yue & Ng, 2002, Sung, 2008). As such, filial piety is becoming about ―gratitude rather than obligation, respect rather than obedience and reciprocal support rather than one-way responsibility in contemporary practice‖ (Ting, 2009, pp. 8). In Hong Kong, elderly parents and adult children express affection and responsibility for filial piety by living near or maintaining close contact with their parents (Ng, Philips & Lee, 2002). Some Chinese immigrants in the United States prefer to provide material objects to parents to enhance their happiness and regulate their development (Lin, 1985). Filial piety may also act as a buffer against the stress encountered by caregivers (Lai, 2010). In China, both young and old people rank respect as the most important aspect of filial piety, and obedience as the least important aspect (Yue & Ng, 2002, Cheung & Kwan, 2009a). In South Korea, the social meaning of filial piety is in transition (Sung, 2007 & 2008), with elderly parents experiencing reciprocal exchange in families that have achieved a higher quality of life (Kim & Kim, 2003). In Singapore, elderly people who depend on adult children often provide household and childcare assistance in exchange (Verbrugge & Chan, 2008). These examples of mutual support describe the changing expression of filial piety today (Thomas, 1990). A review of the relevant literature uncovers three main themes. First, the cultural ecology of filial piety is still valued by ethnic Chinese people. However, certain pressures, including a lack of decision-making power in patriarchal cultures, for example, where subordinates are expected to defer to superiors or males, make it difficult for adult children or caregivers to fulfill the demands of the family. Second, filial piety has evolved to mean

15 gratitude, respect, and reciprocal support. These new characteristics emphasize mutual understanding and acceptance between adult children and elderly parents, thus allowing for reciprocity in the context of filial piety. Third, rapid sociodemographic changes require the state or government to provide sufficient and adequate social support for elderly care in families under stress. Inevitably, a paid-care system must be developed in East and Southeast Asia as a form of need-based and person- focused support to encourage and support adult children to adopt the role of caregiver. Here two case studies are presented to illustrate these themes.

Case Study Method and Cases A qualitative case study method was chosen for this exploratory study. Case studies are best suited to studying complex phenomena within real- life contexts (Yin, 2009). Case studies are also particularly valuable for studies on topics that are sensitive, complicated, immeasurable, and concerned with interaction and processes in everyday life (Walker, 1995). Further, intensive case studies can be a means of acquiring practical knowledge (Millstein, 1993). As a social worker in Hong Kong, the author conducted a qualitative case study to investigate the influence of filial piety on mental stress and to understand the experiences of adult children who are caregivers for their parents. Using a confidentiality agreement, the author obtained consent from two respondents who voluntarily participated in the study. Their names and details have been changed to protect their identities. For counseling practice, the two respondents, who were also clinical subjects, reviewed the interview transcripts and provided valuable feedback on the final write-up. These case studies thus provide a glimpse into the complicated process of honoring traditional values while following one‘s individuality in a drastically changing society.

Case Study One Wendy, a 32-year-old, unmarried, Catholic, primary school teacher, sought assistance from a social worker in November 2008 because she felt emotionally unstable after suddenly bursting into tears at work. She was aware that she was losing emotional control, and thus took the initiative to seek assistance. In April 2000, Wendy was preparing for final

16 examinations, and was frustrated because her boyfriend seemed to be on very close terms with another girl. These factors almost pushed her to breaking point. Frustrated by these occurrences, Wendy had a serious quarrel with her father for the first time in her life, which brought her long-suppressed discontentment to the surface. In addition, Wendy‘s father had just purchased a new flat that was a long way from Wendy‘s workplace but close to where her father‘s friends with whom he played mah-jong lived. Wendy was extremely unhappy about her lack of decision-making power in her father‘s choice of home. Adopting the cultural stance that opposes unmarried daughters living alone, Wendy‘s parents did not allow her to rent a flat near her work. Faced with these multiple blows, Wendy began to consider suicide. Afraid that Wendy might kill herself, her parents finally allowed her to move out, but her mother never told her relatives and worked hard to keep it a secret. Looking back, Wendy felt that these experiences encapsulated the phrase ―nice to see each other, but hard to live together.‖ Nevertheless, the family negotiated a new way to fulfill the demands of filial piety. After moving out, Wendy spent less time with her parents but continued to visit them every Sunday. Wendy began to play the role of helper, rather than dependent child needing her parents‘ care. Her parents in turn showed their care for her in simple ways such as ―preparing more dishes‖ and ―worrying if I [she] had enough money to spend.‖ Here, physical distance produced positive results by easing Wendy‘s tense relationship with her parents. When Wendy was separated from her parents temporarily, it allowed both parties time to calm their violent emotions and their anger to dissipate. Eventually, Wendy was able to treasure the intimate relationship she enjoyed with her family, and planned to move back home after graduation. The conflict that Wendy experienced between meeting the demands of filial piety (e.g., maintaining a harmonious relationship) and pursuing her individual ambitions (e.g., advancing her career) was resolved. In this case, Wendy found that the limited space she had in the family home interfered with her attempts to gain independence from her parents, but she felt guilty for not fulfilling her filial responsibility. To balance the filial daughter‘s role with the attainment of her own goals, Wendy chose

17 to live apart from her parents. Physical distance eased Wendy‘s psychological stress and also resulted in positive changes in her parents. Wendy enjoyed greater freedom in living alone, but still missed her family. Wendy‘s parents learned to cherish their relationship with her, and showed their concern for her in small ways after Wendy moved out. When they saw one another again, they were affectionate toward each other. Clearly, in practicing filial piety, adult children and their parents can negotiate the meanings of that value and construct mutually acceptable behavior, which creates a positive and supportive attitude between adult children and their parents.

Case Study Two Ah Ming, a 49-year-old, unmarried hairdresser, suffered from a mild depressive disorder that included symptoms of insomnia and the loss of 25% of her body weight within three months. Once, Ming screamed loudly at work for no particular reason. Ming‘s colleagues encouraged her to seek psychological counseling to stabilize her mood, and she thus sought counseling in September 2007. As a single child, Ming had taken sole responsibility for the care of her mother following the death of her father in 2005, and lacked support from relatives. Ming‘s mother had suffered from diabetes and hypertension, and was hospitalized three times due to accidents, including falling and breaking her ribs. Ming‘s mother insisted on living at home and refused to be sent to a nursing home. Ming went through three domestic helpers in 13 months, because her mother found it difficult to get along with them. Ming responded to these problems with feelings of stress, helplessness, and guilt. After the fourth hospitalization, Ming decided to seek community support for her elderly mother. She arranged for her mother to live in a nursing home as she felt that she was no longer able to take care of her and be effective at work at the same time. However, Ming still had to balance meeting the demands of filial piety and the pursuit of personal freedom. She lied to her mother, telling her that she was going to have surgery and would thus be admitted to hospital for a while. Ming‘s mother moved into a nursing home after accepting this explanation. The rent and service charges for the nursing home accounted for 70% of Ming‘s monthly

18 income, and Ming was obliged to seek financial assistance from a medical social worker. However, she was rejected as being ineligible for government subsidy. Ming then took on another part-time job to ease the financial burden, which caused her further physical strain and psychological stress. This also resulted in her having less time to visit her mother, and she was often obliged to ignore her mother‘s requests for visits.

Summary: The Expected Caregiving Role These two case studies show that the caregiver role can result in strain and struggle for adult children and caregivers. According to traditional Chinese family values, children are expected to be loyal to their families, mutually assist family members, sacrifice themselves for the group, and maintain harmony within the family (Yang, 1996). These values impose certain rights and obligations. For example, when a family member is in trouble, other family members are expected to assist. Some academics have claimed that the traditional Chinese family suppresses individuality (Pau, 2000, pp. 196). Both Ming and Wendy contributed to their family in terms of money, time, and energy. They gave a portion of their monthly salary to their family although they had never been explicitly asked to do so. Ming also took on a caregiver role due to her mother‘s chronic illness. The dedication of Wendy and Ming reveals the culturally embedded value of filial piety. The majority of Chinese adult children never question that they should give care, even if they complain that the caregiver role induces stress that affects their mental health. For instance, some feel overloaded after weighing the costs and rewards of the role of caregiver, while others become stressed due to the tension between fulfilling their responsibilities to parents and achieving self-development. The caregivers in both case studies felt suffocated and internalized their reaction to the assigned role. The long-term commitment of the expected caregiver role undermines adult children‘s individual development because it makes demands on their time, emotional energy, and money. However, when parents and children negotiate the practice of filial piety and parents come to understand and accept the constraints faced by their adult children, the

19 situation can be improved. Caregivers with inadequate social support could also have some of the strain alleviated by financial assistance from the government. Providing more high-quality nursing homes and a more flexible financial means test for subsidies, for example, would help relieve the financial burden of caregivers, and would balance the provision of elderly care in East and Southeast Asia between the individual and community levels.

Discussion and Implications 1. Filial Piety in Transition: A Socially Constructed Discourse Filial piety remains significant to Chinese families today. At the same time, however, it is recognized that filial piety is changing into a socially constructed discourse due to the increasing influence of the West and the aging population in Southeast Asia (Ng, Philips & Lee, 2002, Yue & Ng, 2002). Adult children and caregivers face many challenges from urban living and their quest to assert their individuality, which tends to undermine the fulfillment of traditional filial commitments. This tension results in physical and psychological strain on adult children and caregivers that is forcing change in the meaning and practice of cultural filial piety. Changes in the practice of filial piety emerge through the social construction of reality, which is ―the process in which people creatively shape reality through social interaction‖ (Macionis, 2004, pp. 89). For instance, in Hong Kong, filial piety motivates adult children and elders to practice gratitude, reciprocal support, and respect (Ting, 2009). Zhan and Montgomery (2003) re-examined the caregiving behavior of adult children within the context of economic reform and the one-child policy in urban China. Sung (2008) noted that filial piety has become a public issue in South Korea, which has benefited both the individual and the family (Thomas, 1990). In this analysis, the transition of filial piety is placed within a broad social context. Social institutions, such as the government and communities, play an important role in socializing individuals to adopt acceptable patterns of behavior. For instance, elderly parents may seek social independence in old age based on mutual support from their family, and caregivers may balance conflicting demands by making a

20 socially acceptable arrangement based on a style of filial piety that is specific to their own family (Gigliotti & Huff, 1995).

2. Recognizing Stress in Adult Children: Changing Expectations The culture of filial piety in East and Southeast Asia pressures adult children to adopt a caregiver role. In 2006, around 74% of elderly people in Hong Kong lived with their families, and over 70% of them suffered from one or more chronic illnesses (Hong Kong Council of Social Services, 2010). However, adult children encounter difficulties in meeting filial demands, which often conflict with their personal goals (Wong, 2007, Kwok, Ho & Li, 2009). In the case studies presented here, Ming found it difficult to cope with caring for a mother with chronic illness and encountered financial difficulties as a result. Wendy was frustrated by the demands implied by both filial piety and the pursuit of individuality. Due to the one-child policy, in China there are now too few adult children to care for a rapidly aging population with chronic diseases (China Concern Over Population Aging & Health, 2006). Thus, adult children who care for their elderly parents experience many constraints associated with family, work, and their social environment (Sung, 2008, Liu & Kendig, 2000). The culture of filial commitment is still valued by the Chinese (Lai, 2010), but the culture must evolve, especially with respect to parents‘ understanding and acceptance of the constraints on their adult children. Such acceptance will facilitate positive and supportive change for both adult children and their elderly parents. In Hong Kong, for example, elderly parents now accept their adult children living near them or maintaining close contact with them as a substitute for co-residence (Ng, Phillips & Lee, 2002). In the case study, Wendy‘s relationship with her family improved with physical distance. As stated, both young and elderly people rank respect as the most important aspect of filial piety and obedience as the least important (Yue and Ng, 2002). Clearly, the adjustment and regulation of expectations of filial piety is becoming a new cultural focus in urban China. In Singapore, some elderly people like to provide childcare and household assistance to alleviate the strain on adult children arising from the norms of filial piety (Verbrugge & Chan, 2008). Changing expectations of filial piety can thus facilitate reciprocal

21 exchange within the family to encourage a better quality of life and more intimate relationships between adult children and their elderly parents (Kim & Kim, 2003).

3. Accessibility and Availability of Social Support: The Role of Policy- Makers Having explained the strain experienced by adult children and caregivers due to the norms of filial piety, the author suggests that policy-makers try to strike a balanced approach between private and public responsibility for elderly care in East and Southeast Asia (Chow, 2007; Sung, 2008). Governments need to provide adequate support for families under stress, while still valuing the filial orientation of the individual, family, and society (Thomas, 1990). A paid-care system, such as the provision of cash grants or vouchers for elderly care, is just such a means of fulfilling filial commitments. Chou, Chow, and Chi (2005) and Meagher (2006) suggest that a voucher system encourages family care, integrated services, mixed-mode financing, and a large-market approach by the government. A paid-care system also empowers the elderly to utilize community resources to enhance their self- esteem and self-reliance, while providing essential financial assistance. In the case studies, Ming shouldered a large financial burden due to being ineligible for government subsidies, which shows that caregivers are often given inadequate social support. Financial assistance from the government must thus include a more flexible means test to alleviate the stress on caregivers. However, a paid-care system must also be regularly reviewed to monitor resource allocation and the effectiveness of the system for the elderly and their adult children. At the community level, changes in the meaning of filial piety mean that co-residency is not the only option for adult children. Even when children and parents live apart, as in Wendy‘s situation, or are assisted by community services, such as in Ming‘s case, adult children can still fulfill their filial commitments by maintaining mutual affection within the family (Lan, 2002, Sung, 2008). It is suggested that improved accessibility and availability of high-quality elderly daycare centers or residential care

22 services would further help in this regard. Public education on the changes in filial piety practice should also be provided to raise awareness of the mental health risks for adult children and caregivers. This will help to ensure family prosperity and engender better civic-mindedness in East and Southeast Asia countries.

Conclusion This study reviews previous research into current practices of filial piety and presents two case studies of adult children trying to balance the traditional values of filial piety with the pursuit of individuality. The key objective of the study is to explore the changing attitudes toward filial piety and to present the perspective of adult children of their experiences as caregivers of elderly parents in East and Southeast Asia. This study situates filial piety as a socially constructed discourse, and reveals that Chinese people have evolved new meanings and practices of filial piety that are defined by gratitude, reciprocal support, and respect. It also highlights the strain faced by adult children in adopting a caregiving role, as manifested by physical and emotional fatigue, self-blaming, helplessness, guilt, and disturbance to the normal patterns of life. These difficulties prompt new attitudes and practices based on negotiation between adult children and their parents. For instance, parents can be more understanding of the constraints faced by their adult children, and adult children can be more understanding of the expectations of their parents. Such compromises can help maintain a harmonious relationship within the family. Government policy must also take serious account of the problem of elderly care in East and Southeast Asia. Policy initiatives should particularly aim to provide sufficient and adequate community support to disadvantaged families, such as by instituting a paid-care system, providing allowances to alleviate financial burdens, or helping individuals to identify appropriate community services. Given the changes in filial piety in East and Southeast Asia, the author (as a social worker) appreciates the unique way in which Chinese communities are finding ways of caring for the well-being of their elderly parents while at the same time pursuing their individuality so that the

Chinese social orientation toward the continuation of the family and family harmony is still valued (Yang, 1995, Cheung, Kwan & Ng, 2006). It may not be necessary to put much effort into developing the desired attitude toward filial piety. Instead, it will be more effective to raise awareness about or sensitivity to parents‘ need for care (Kwan & Cheung, 2010). Inevitably, the states and governments of East and Southeast Asia must seriously consider providing adequate community resources for elderly care and public education on filial commitments. The changing attitudes toward filial piety are indicative of wider cultural changes in Chinese societies from the humanistic and sociological perspectives. These new attitudes emphasize the uniqueness of individuals, the interactions and relationships among the various dimensions within each individual, and the socio-cultural aspects of filial piety. Timely changes in family support aimed at enhancing the quality of life of adult children and caregivers and their elderly parents should be developed as part of the modernization of Asian societies.

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THE HINDU COMMUNITY IN NEED OF LEGISLATIVE PROTECTION

Sadia Afroz Binte Siraj1 & Tanvhir Ahmad2

Keywords: Community. Reform. Inheritance. Custom. Maintenance. Adoption.

Abstract: Hindu community is the second largest community of Bangladesh. They are guided by the age old traditional law in their personal matters. Theses laws are very old and have not contemplated the socio-economic changes of the society. That is why it is very difficult to implement the laws, and because of this very fact the Hindu communities are reluctant to have recourse to law. This large portion is deprived of their basic right of ―protection of law‖. This article has tried to suggest several reforms mentioning the existing practice to show the huge gap. So that it gives an idea how old and almost impossible to implement this traditional law is.

Objectives The objective of the study is (a) to find out problems in the personal laws for the Hindu community and (b) to examine loopholes in the implementation of personal laws for Hindu community. Thus the community will get a law to establish their personal rights. Methodology: The method of the study is content analysis method .The article is prepared by studying many previous works of different authors published in many books and journals through the method of text analysis. The literature on this subject matter emphasized the shortcomings of Hindu Law because of its lacking regarding the legislative intervention, without which a law can not ensure its complete enforcement. Limitations: Hindu law is a vast area so this article has failed to cover each and every area of the subject matter. It is not an exhaustive work which left many areas untouched.

1 Lecturer, Department of Law and Justice, Southeast University 2 Lecturer, Department of Law, Prime University

Introduction According to Article 27 of the Constitution of People‘s Republic of Bangladesh all citizens are equal before law and are entitled to equal protection of law. According to 1991 census 15 per cent of the population of our country belong to the Hindu Community (World Directory of Minority and Indigenous Peoples Bangladesh: Hindus). The Hindu community is the second largest community of the State, yet they do not have a statutory law to protect their interest in the personal matters. They are governed by the age old traditional law in the significant subject matters like marriage and inheritance. The protection to a greater extent is dependant upon the accessibility to law and to get access, existence of law is must. Law is everywhere culture specific and that in tandem of globalization and uniformisation of laws there are everywhere local and national manifestation of law which are specific to particular jurisdictions (Menski). Here lies the lacking. The Hindu community of Bangladesh are completely guided rather by their culture than the law, taking recourse from the aged old sruti and smriti which can work as a guiding principle of law but not as the law itself. The society has changed, the lifestyle of the believer of the religion has changed and the law must change also. Now-a-days it is utterly impossible to believe that a male Hindu needs to pay his debt full fledged and that will only happen when his son will do the Shraddha Pravana. It is not demanded that they will not perform their own religious performances, but it is unfortunate when the right of inheritance (which is a legal right) is decided solely by that. Positive changes must be brought keeping the religious belief. This is the high time for a codified Hindu law. Law is manifest everywhere, it is in operation all over the world, but is certainly not the only, it is not some dead thing or a mater of past. Law is everywhere a living reality (The funeral ceremony according to the Hindu religion). In Bangladesh for the Hindu community Hindu Law have become such a dead thing and failed to become a living reality which is extremely a bare necessity.

Custom is considered as a very valuable source of law from the birth of the concept of law. The reason for taking custom as a source may be that when a rule comes from such ancestry that must have brought some positive effect in the life of a particular community that has been attached in the lifestyle and is not supposed to be severed. But sometimes modified severance is required, that is why it is often said that law must be changed keeping pace with the time. The Hindu community in Bangladesh is facing this truth from quite a long time as no legislative action has been taken so far. Most of the laws by which the Hindu community is guided by are the laws of the British era. They are the largest minority community of Bangladesh but yet there are very few reported cases regarding Hindu personal Law. Is it because they do not face any legal problem, or they do not have the opportunity to take assistance from the existing Hindu personal Law of Bangladesh? The second proposition is more appropriate. Even the Hindu community does not find it quite logical that just because a son is offering a bigger Pinda he is entitled to more right over the property of his father. It is almost impossible to believe that the woman of Hindu community does not have even the right of custody of her own son or daughter, she does not have any right over the property of her husband or her father.

Different Stages of Development of Hindu law 1 The Basic Concept of Hindu Law Hindu Law is considered as of divine origin. In earlier stage Hindu Jurisprudence did not make any distinction between legal, moral and religious rules. Moral rules have been so blended with legal rules that it becomes very difficult to separate them. Since the Hindu law is based on this religious belief, law is working as a branch of dharma not as a law (Gandhi, 2003).

2 Ancient Age of Hindu Law The Hindu law based on the religion started its application at the time of the Veda. Hindu dharma teaches that guidance to mankind came from God in the form of divine revelation. Divine revelation came to the people

30 through rishis, sages and saints during vedic period (3000 B.C.-1000B.C.) (Menski, 1979). These revelations are the foundation of Hindu law. As days passed by, these revelation were used in the form of usage and custom and in the later part written texts were formed depending upon these custom and usages (Jhavalah). Jhavalah has rightly pointed out that ―Hindu law was not static or staid but was empiric and progressive‖ (ibid). Hindu law in vedic period was reasonably progressive as there was no proved indication of caste system in this period. On the contrary, many jurists opined that the caste system practices in last two thousand years were non-existent in the vedic period (Alam).

3 Hindu Law at the Time of Sruti and Smriti The Hindu law practiced in Bangladesh is primarily dependant on Sruti and Smriti as there is no specific statutory law. Sruti and Smriti along with custom are considered as the most authoritative source. Sruti means what were heared. Sruti is the most authentic source of modern Hindu law because it is believed that sruti is the reflection of divine commands. Smriti is the second source of Hindu law, though this source contains more legal rules than sruti. They are also divine instructions which are remembered from ancient time. They are a combination of morals, ethics and body of rules. Later on commentaries on these Smriti form major part of Hindu law. Smriti was summed up for over 1500 years (ibid) Manu, Yajnavalka and Narada are the main smritikar who developed this source, which is still considered as a major guideline. Commentaries on smriti are the third source though many jurists do not agree it as an individual source as it has interpreted smriti, following the rule of equity, justice and good conscience. Though commentaries are explanation of smriti it has performed a great role in the reforming of Hindu law (Firoze and Rahman). Because commentaries are the interpretation which modified and supplemented the rules of Smriti by reasoning and keeping pace with the changing circumstances. Custom is the next important source, though Hindu law is not a customary law like common law, but it is a traditional law. So custom got due importance as they are the proof of a particular rule. Custom is defined by

31 the judicial committee in the case of Hurpurshad Vs Sheo Dayal as ―Custom is a rule, which in a particular family or in a particular district has from long usage obtained the force of law. It must be ancient, certain and reasonable, and being in derogation of the general rules of law, must be construed strictly‖ (Routh). So some commentaries viewed that if a Smriti is contradictory with custom, the Smriti should prevail, but some commentator holds exactly opposite view. But this problem was sorted out by the Privy Council in the case of The Collector of Madura Vs Mootoo (12 M.I.A 397 436) (ibid). It was held that ―Under the Hindu system of law clear proof of usage will out-weigh the written text of law.‖

4 The Legislative Development of Hindu Law There are very few legislative intervention over the customary Hindu law as it is emanated from the verses of Sruti and Smriti (Two basic sources of Hindu law) and later on practices by the customs. Whatever changes have been brought those are by the British rulers. There were a set of rules which were enacted to eradicate some social crisis, they are the ―Racial Inability Remission Act,1850‖, the ―Hindu Widow‘s Remarriage Act,1856", the ―Sati Regulation,1829‖, the ―Child Marriage Restraint Act,1929‖, the ―Earned Property Affairs Act,1930‖, the ―Inheritance Act,1925‖, (Aktar and Syead, 2007). The question of codification of Hindu law was first debated by the Central Law Implementation Committee of British Government in 1937. In the same year a non- government member proposed a bill to allot daughters right to her father‘s property. In 1937 The Hindu Women‘s Right to Property Act was passed (An Action Study on Proposed Reform of Hindu Law op.cit.). After that a committee was formed in 1941 to examine various aspects of Hindu law. The Committee recommended wide range of reforms and prepared a single uniform code. Accordingly a draft Bill was first placed before the Federal Legislative Assembly on April 11, 1947 and again placed in the Indian Parliament but not as a single Code (Parashar, 1992). Unfortunately very little effort was given after the partition. Even there is no trace of significant initiative after the independence of Bangladesh. The Hindu Law Hindu communities are applying is absolutely based on the shashtrik Hindu law.

The Existing Practice of Hindu Law in Personal Matters and Proposed Reforms Many jurists find it peculiar that in the Indian Subcontinent there are division in legal system as personal matters are guided by the respective personal law. If a citizen is Muslim his personal matters like marriage, dissolution of marriage, custody of child, maintenance etc are governed by the Muslim personal law, this is the reality for the significant subject matters like inheritance. Same is the case in Hindu Law. These personal laws govern the institution of marriage, adoption, inheritance, guardianship, maintenance, joint family, will, gift, partition, religious usages and institutions, etc. subject to alteration as done by British Legislation. (Statutes) (Mridulkanti, 2005). In this portion we will focus on the traditional Hindu law and will propose some reforms to make it compatible and more problem specific which can be easily enforced.

1. Marriage Hindu Marriage law is a Samskara or religious rights or sacrament. According to Vedas a marriage is ‗The union of flesh with flesh and bone with bone-to be continued even in the next world.‖ It is union which is indissoluble. One of the characteristics of a Hindu Marriage has been that it is more connected with the performance of religious duties and begetting of a son who enables a man to get deliverance from the sufferings of Hell. That‘s why concept of Divorce was not recognized by the ancient Hindu Law (Gandhi). The ancient Hindu law specified the following requirements of a valid marriage Firstly, it has provided that if both parties do not belong to the same caste then the marriage is invalid. But after the Hindu Marriage Validity Act validity of marriage does not solely dependant on this issue. If all the other requirements are fulfilled the marriage will not be invalid only because of the fact that the parties belong to different religious castes and sects (Routh).

Secondly, parties should be beyond the prohibited degrees. A man could not marry a girl of the same Gotra 1 and the parties should not be shapindas 2 of each other. Thirdly, as Hindu marriage is defined as religious sacrament, certain ceremonies are essential to perform for a valid marriage. Since this is a prerequisite for marriage validity was dependant upon the performance of these ceremonies but as there was no specific ceremony it was tough to prove. This particular problem was solved by judicial interpretation in the case of AMULYA CHANDRA VS THE STATE (1983) 35 DLR, P 160. It was held that two ceremonies are essential for a valid marriage under Hindu Law, they are (1) Vivah Homa Invocation before a sacred fire and (2) The taking of seven steps before the sacred fire by the bride and bridegroom, i.e. Saptapadi. The marriage becomes complete when the seventh step is taken. Until then the marriage is incomplete and not binding (Huda,1998). Fourthly, to have legal validity marriage should be performed by any of the approved manners. Fifthly, consent of the guardian is a must. There is no explicit prohibition regarding child marriage. Under Dayabhaga School a male who has attained the age of fifteen is considered as attained his age of marriage. The female‘s consent is not that important; guardian takes decision on her behalf. Certain persons are considered as the guardian of Hindu female. They are the father, the paternal grandfather, the brother, a sakulya or a member of the same family, the maternal grandfather, the maternal uncle, the mother. It was held in KC Chakraborty vs Emperor (1937) that if the marriage is otherwise valid it will not be considered as invalid only because it was brought about by misrepresentation to the guardians or without the consent of the guardians or in contravention of the express order of the court (Routh).

Sixthly, as the guardians play the main role in Hindu marriage, child marriage is permitted. Gurudas Banerji has described that children are not only eligible for marriage but are the fittest to be taken in marriage. Though the Child Marriage Restrained Act 1929 (amended in 1961 and 1984) however tried to stop child marriage this Act applies to all citizens of Bangladesh. So it applies to the Hindus also (ibid). In the case of a Hindu woman the consent of the bride is unnecessary.

1.1. Proposed Reforms in the Sector of Marriage Dissolution of Marriage The need for reform in marriage has become inevitable. Since other personal laws have made dissolution proper same should be incorporated in the Hindu marriage. No right of dissolution is itself a human rights violation where equal rights of men and women are guaranteed. Not giving the right of dissolution is making the position of the women more vulnerable. We can cite the example of changes brought in India by Marriages Act of 1955 applicable to Hindus permits divorce. Marriage Laws Act of 1976 brought a remarkable change. Section 13-B provides for divorce by mutual consent of the parties. This has been added because of growing influence of break down theory, which explains that when a marital bond is completely broken down parties should not be compelled to live together.

1.2. Registration of Marriage The second area where the law can be changed in a very simple way but has a grave effect is to make the registration of marriage mandatory. If registration is made mandatory it will work as the proof, which can ensure the rights of the husband and wife.

1.3. Other Reforms  Polygamy should be restricted. Hindu male should not be permitted to keep more than one wife which is allowed by the traditional Hindu law.

 The mother should also be considered as the legal guardian of the son and should be given equal rights in the matter of consent in marriage and adoption.  Provision of consent must be incorporated as a necessary condition both for male and female.

2 Maintenance According to the ancient Hindu law it is the duty of a Hindu to male to maintain his wife, minor children and aged parents. The wife can not demand for maintenance if she leaves her husband‘s residence without a lawful reason or if the husband is suffering from contagious diseases or if he is guilty of cruelty according to the Hindu Women‘s Right to Separate Residence and Maintenance Act 1946. Under this Act a Hindu wife can institute a suit in the Family Court for maintenance against the husband; it was decided in the case of Nirmal Kanti Das vs Sreemati Beeva Rani (47 DLR HCD pp.514) (Aktar and Syead, 2007) As there is no provision for dissolution of marriage the question of post divorce maintenance is absent here.

2.1 Proposed Reforms Firstly, since divorce is suggested the women should get maintenance until she remarries. Secondly, the children both male and female should get maintenance upto 18 years of age.

3 Inheritance In the matter of Hindu law the major lacuna lies in the share of women in her father‘s or husband‘s property, since the Hindu females do not have any absolute right. According to the Shashtric Hindu law, five female heirs have the right of inheritance : they are wife, daughter, mother, father‘s mother and father‘s father‘s mother. The right is restricted strictly to enjoy the property and the female heirs are not entitled to alienate the property. The female get only a right to enjoy the property during their lifetime.

3.1 Right of Widow The right of widow in their husband‘s property is limited. After the marriage the wife is considered as the family member of their husband‘s family. So after the death of the husband the father-in-law is responsible to give maintenance from the property of her husband. The widow does not have any specific absolute right. So she can not alienate or transfer any portion of the property unless there is a legal necessity. Legal necessity involves debt of the husband and religious purpose. So the widow can not alienate the property in her extreme sickness.

3.2. Right of Daughter Like widow, daughter gets a limited interest in her father‘s property. Maiden daughter has a right to enjoy the property until her marriage. A married daughter generally does not have any right but if she has a son and does not have a brother (son of a deceased) can only enjoy the right. A married daughter without a son or a barren widowed daughter does not get any right.

3.3. Proposed Reforms Firstly, it is strongly recommended that the female heir must be given an absolute share in the property of their father and husband, which should not be limited to enjoyment only. There should be specific share which will be considered to be their own property and which will pass to their heir after their death. There should not be any difference regarding married daughter and unmarried daughter. Secondly, both male and female must have equal share in the property of their father. It is proposed to give equal share of mother with the son and son should not exclude mother in the property of her husband, as it is practiced in traditional Hindu law. Thirdly, the doctrine of spiritual benefit should not be considered as the only mode of deciding the right of inheritance.

4 Adoption Adoption plays a significant role in Hindu law as by adoption a Hindu male can secure the spiritual benefit of his own and his ancestor in

37 absence of a natural son. It was decided in Anath Bandhu vs Shudhangsu Shekhar Dey (31 DLR 1979, pp.312) that an adopted son is considered as a natural born son for all practical purposes. The existing practice of adoption suggests that only the father can give a son into an adoption and same principle is followed in case of taking a son into adoption. Another requisite is that an adoption is only permitted in the absence of a son grandson and great grand son. The adopted son must belong to the same caste of his adoptive father and his mother must not be within the prohibited degrees to his adoptive father. Generally a wife can not take an adoption but she is permitted only if there is an expressed consent. A widow similarly is allowed to take an adoption with the expressed or implied permission given before the husband is dead.

4.1 Proposed Reforms Firstly, mother should be given the status of a legal guardian and she should have the right to give her opinion regarding the adoption. She must be given the power to take or give a son into an adoption. Secondly, both girls and boys should be permitted to taken in adoption. Thirdly, the shashtric rules regarding caste disability should be abolished.

An Obligation for Bangladesh under CEDAW Convention Bangladesh has been one of the state party to the Convention of the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and has also ratified the Optional Protocol to the Convention. Under the Convention and Protocol Bangladesh has undertaken the responsibility to ensure the implementation of necessary mechanism to eradicate discrimination. Thus to ensure equality between men and women, but existing law itself is discriminating. Article 2 of CEDAW provides that ―State Parties condemn discrimination against women in all its forms, agree to pursue by all appropriate means and without delay a policy of eliminating discrimination against women and to this end undertake: (a) To embody the principle of equality of men and women in their national constitution and other appropriate legislation.

(b) To adopt progressive legislative and other measure including sanctions where appropriate, prohibiting discrimination against women. (c) To establish legal protection of the rights of women on an equal basis with men and to ensure through competent national tribunals and other public institutions…….. (d) To take all appropriate measures including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women. Here the Convention has mentioned thrice to protect the rights of the women through legislative enactment and implementation of them. Because in absence of any legal protection vulnerable groups are always deprived of their rights. Article 3 has even broadened the scope to social, political, economic and cultural fields to take appropriate measures including legislation to ensure full development. So if we consider all these provisions it leads to only one path – that is to reform the traditional age old Hindu law.

Conclusion The article is a very little initiative with some major and specific suggestions. The Hindu community is in bare need of a codified law, in absence of which they are not getting the enforcement of their rights accorded by different existing Hindu law. That is a gross violation of our constitutional as well as human rights. The study on Hindu personal law conducted by BNWLA shows that 84% of female and76% of male respondents are not satisfied with the existing law. On the other hand, 15.33% of female respondents are satisfied because either they are ignorant of the legal norms or their will is dominated by the patriarchic view. Clear dissatisfaction had reflected in this study (Hindu Family Law: An Action Study on Proposed Reform of Hindu Law op.cit.).

This is the high time to modify the traditional Hindu law reflecting the human right thus equal rights of men and women in every aspect. It is not suggested to follow the modification brought by India where different Acts has dealt with different subject matters. We are suggesting a complete codified Act which will have sufficient provision to deal with every personal matter. If all the provisions exist in a single document it will be easy to implement. The community is suffering with this woe for a long time. There are not many reported cases decided in this particular area of law. Does that suggest that the Hindu community is reluctant to get legal assistance? On the contrary, the legislation has failed to safeguard their interest. So the age old traditional Hindu Law should be replaced by a self sufficient single codified Act.

References Agarwala R.K. (1996) Hindu Law. R.K. Sinha, (Ed) Central Law Agency, Allahabad. Aktar, S. and Syead, M. A. A. (2007) in a Comparative study on Hindu Law between Bangladesh and India, Asian Affairs, 29( 4): 61-95, October-December Alam, S. M (2004); Review of Hindu Personal Law in Bangladesh Search for Reforms Bangladesh Journal of Law (2004) , Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs: 6 (1 & 2). Chandra, D. D. (2009) Hindu Ain: Srimati Benu Debnath, Rajshshi Constitution of the Peoples‘ Republic of Bangladesh Dhar, N. (1996) Hindu Ain Resisi Publishers , Basur Bazar Lane, Dhaka – 1100 Diwan, Parash, (1996) Modern Hindu Law, Allahabad Law Agency, Allahabad Firoze, F. K. and Rahman, Z. (eds.) An Action Study on Proposed Reform of Hindu Law, conducted by Bangladesh National Women Lawyers Association. Gandhi, B.M (2003). Hindu Law, second edition, Lucknow, Eastern Book Company. pp.3 Gandhi B.M. op cit. pp. 207 Huda, S. (1998) Double Trouble – Hindu Women in Bangladesh A Comparative Study, Huda, S. Dhaka University Studies F, 9 (1): 111-138. Jhavalah, N.H. (1979) Principles of Hindu Law, C Jamnadas & Co. op. cit. p-2 Menski ,W. (2003) Public Interest Litigation Deliverance from all Evils Bangladesh Journal of Law, Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs 6 (1 & 2):03 Menski, Warner. F. (2003) Hindu Law – Beyond Tradition and Modernity, Oxford

University Press, op.cit., p 88-89 Jahabvlla N.H(1979). Principle of Hindu Law C. Jamnadas & Co., pp 1-3 in Alam, S. M; Review of Hindu Personal Law in Bangladesh Search for Reforms Bangladesh Journal of Law , Bangladesh Institute of Law and International Affairs: 6 (1 & 2):16 Mridulkanti, R. (2005) The principle of Hindu Law ,5th Ed.: Chittagong, Kamrul Book House, pp.27 Mulla. (1986) The principles of Hindu Law, 15th Edition with supplements. Parashar, A. (1992) Women and Family Law Reform in India New Delhi: Sages Publication pp.80 Routh S. K. (1974) Elements of Hindu Law Ideal Library, Dhaka pp-3 I.A.253-285 Routh S.K. op.cit.. pp.23-24 Routh S.K. op. cit. pp.24

THE FIVE YEAR PLANS IN INDIA: OVERVIEW OF PUBLIC HEALTH POLICIES

Sethuramalingam V1, Selwyn Stanley2 & Sathia S3

Keywords: Plans. Public Health. Policies.

Abstract: Health policy of India is associated with the provision of safe water and sanitation, malaria control, rural health care services through health units and mobile units, maternal and child health care services, skill development training for health educators, drug and equipment sufficiency along with family planning to control the population. The main objective of this paper is to examine how the health policy was implemented emphasising the different issues of health through the five year plans period of India.

Introduction Social sector development has been the raison-d’etre of planning in India. The Directive Principles of the State Policy, enshrined in the Constitution form the social premises of planning in India (Gupta, 2002) The basic objective of planning in India is ‗to initiate a process of development which will raise living standards and open out to the people to provide new opportunities to lead a good life‘. Keeping this objective, the public health policies in India were formulated through various five year plans. The public health policies in India have come a long way since 1950s. In 1946, the Health Survey and Development Committee, headed by Sir Joseph Bhore recommended the establishment of a well-structured and comprehensive health service with a sound primary health care infrastructure. This report not only provided a historical landmark in the development of the public health system but also laid down the blueprint

1 Assistant Professor, Department of Social Work, Bharathidasan University 2 Lecturer in Social Work, Faculty of Health & Social Work, School of Psychosocial Studies, University of Plymouth 3 PhD Scholar, Department of Social Work, Bharathidasan University

42 of subsequent health planning and development in independent India (Government of India, 1960).

First Plan (1951-1961) The core of the public health policy enunciated in the first five year plan was (i) provision of water-supply and sanitation; (ii) control of malaria; (iii) preventive health care of the rural population through health units and mobile units; (iv) health services for mothers and children; (v) education and training, and health education; (vi) self-sufficiency in drugs and equipment; and (vii) family planning and population control. The emphasis was also given to construction of hospitals and dispensaries, besides provision for medical education and training, prevention and treatment of venereal diseases, filariasis, tuberculosis, leprosy, cancer and up-gradation of mental hospitals (Government of India, 1952). At the beginning of the first Five Year Plan, the B.C.G. vaccination programme was launched in the country. A nation-wide family planning programme was started in the year 1953. The National Malaria Control Programme was also launched in the same year. National Water Supply and Sanitation Programme was started in 1954 and the National Filaria Control Programme was commenced in 1955 (Goodhealthnyou.com, 2000). The total investment on public health during this plan period was Rs.65.30 crores which is 3.32 per cent of the total budget expenditure. Priority was given to water supply, sanitation and health care institutions. A sum of Rs.65.20 crore (3.33%) was invested on public health, bedsides Rs. 0.1crore (0.01%) was invested towards family planning. For the first time in the world, family planning was adopted as a government programme in India.

Second Plan (1956-1961) The second plan laid more emphasis on expanding existing health services, to bring them increasingly within the reach of all the people and to promote a progressive improvement in the level of national health. The specific objectives of the health policies during this plan were (i) establishment of institutional facilities to serve as a base from which

43 services can be rendered to the people both locally and in surrounding territories; (ii) development of technical manpower through appropriate training programmes and employment of persons trained; (iii) improvement of public health and institutional measures to control communicable diseases; (iv) an active campaign for environmental hygiene; and (v) family planning and other supporting programmes for raising the standard of health of the people. International agencies like the W.H.O. and the U.N.I.C.E.F. also took part in the development of medical and public health schemes in various parts of the country (Government of India, 1956). The Central Health Education Bureau and the Indian Medical Council were established in the year 1956. The Demographic Research Centres were established in 1957. The Tuberculosis Institute was established in 1959 (Goodhealthnyou.com, 2000). A sum of Rs.146 crore was invested during this plan period which was 3.1 per cent of the total budget expenditure towards the health sector and was less than 0.19% of the previous plan period. During this plan, high priority was given to water supply, sanitation and control of communicable diseases (Rs.141 crores / 3.01%). A sum of Rs.5 crore (0.11%) was also invested on family planning

Third Plan (1961-1966) The Third Plan aimed at controlling and eradication of communicable diseases, providing curative and preventive health services in rural areas and to augment the training programmes of medical and paramedical personnel. Emphasis was also given to family planning. Nation-wide control campaigns were initiated against small pox and tuberculosis (Government of India, 1960). The Central Bureau of Health Intelligence was established in 1961. The Central Family Planning Institute was established in the year 1962. The National Smallpox eradication and the School Health and the District Tuberculosis Programmes were also launched in the same year. The Applied Nutrition Programme was launched in 1963 and the National Institute of Communicable Diseases was also inaugurated in the same year (Goodhealthnyou.com, 2000). The expenditure towards health sector during the third plan was Rs. 251 crores which is 2.9 per cent of the total budget. As in the second plan, priority

44 was given to water supply, sanitation, and control of communicable diseases (226 crores / 2.63%). A sum of Rs. 25 crore (0.29%) was invested towards family planning.

Annual Plan (1966-1969) The public health schemes, which had been introduced in the third plan and earlier, were continued during the annual plan period also. In 1966-67, the family planning programme was made target-oriented and time bound. In 1966 a new Family Planning department was created in the Ministry of Health. A sum of Rs 211 crore (3.2%) was invested in the health sector of which Rs. 140 crore (2.12%) was spent for health and 71 crore (1.06%) for family planning.

Fourth Plan (1969-1974) During this plan period, efforts were made to provide an effective base for health services in rural areas by strengthening the primary health centres. These centres rendered preventive and curative health services, took over the maintenance phase of communicable diseases control programmes. Sub divisional and district hospitals were strengthened to serve as referral centres for Primary Health Centres. Medical and nursing education and training of paramedical personnel were expanded to meet the minimum technical man power requirements. The programme of nutrition of growing children was extended and integrated in the Fourth Plan. Family Planning found its place in this Plan as a programme of the highest priority (Government of India, 1970). The Nutrition Research Laboratories were converted into the National Institute of Nutrition in 1969 and the Central Births and Deaths Registration Act was promulgated in the same year. The Central Council of Indian Medicine (Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha) was formed in 1971. The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Bill was also passed by the Parliament in the same year. The Central Council of Homeopathy was set up in 1973. A sum of Rs. 613.5 crore was invested in the health sector during this plan period which was 3.89 percentage of the total budget expenditure of which Rs 335.50 crore (2.13%) was allotted for health and Rs. 278 crore (1.76%) for family planning.

Fifth Plan (1974-1979) In this plan period, the focus had been placed on research into new methods of family planning, integrated system for delivery of health care services to infants, and control & prevention of communicable diseases including malaria, tuberculosis and cholera, besides provision of safe drinking water supply. The concept of family planning was changed into family welfare during this plan period. The country was declared free from smallpox in April, 1977 (Government of India, 1975). The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act and The Cigarettes Regulation (Production, Supply and Distribution) Act were enacted in 1974 and 1975 respectively. The Integrated Child Development scheme was launched in 1975. The Central Council for Yoga and Naturopathy was established in 1976. The National Institute of Health and Family Planning was formed and the Rural Health Scheme was launched in 1977. The Parliament approved the Child Marriage Restraint (Amendment) Bill fixing the minimum age of marriage of 21 years for boys and 18 years for girls in 1978. (Goodhealthnyou.com, 2000). The total budget expenditure on the health sector during this plan was Rs. 1252.6 crores which was 3.18 per cent of the total budget. As in the previous plan, a sum of Rs. 760.80 crore (1.93%) was invested on public health and Rs.491.80 crore (1.25%) on family welfare planning.

Annual Plan (1979-1980) The Janatha Government, which came to power in 1977, terminated the fifth plan at the end of the fourth year and formulated a draft five-year plan for 1978-83. The country adopted the policy of ―Health for All by 2000 AD‖ enunciated in the Alma Ata Declaration of 1977. The health care system in the country was restructured and reoriented towards these policy objectives. Next to rural health, control of communicable diseases was given priority. During this annual plan the total expenditure towards the Health sector was Rs.342 crores (2.91%). A sum of Rs. 223.10 crore (1.83%) was invested on public health and Rs. 118.50 crore (0.97%) on family welfare.

Sixth Plan (1980-1985) Sixth Five Year Plan is also referred to as the Janata Government Plan and it was revolutionary since it marked a change from the Nehruvian model of Five Year Plans. The government of India adopted the National Health Policy in 1983 which reiterated India's commitment to attain "Health for All by 2000 A.D", through the provision of comprehensive primary healthcare services. It stressed the creation of an infrastructure for primary healthcare; close co-ordination with health-related services and activities (like nutrition, drinking water supply and sanitation); active involvement and participation of voluntary organisations; provision of essential drugs and vaccines; qualitative improvement in health and family planning services; provision of adequate training; and medical research aimed at the common health problems of the people (W.H.O. 2006) Health Care Programmes were restructured and reoriented towards this policy. Priority was given to extension and expansion of the rural health infrastructure through a network of community health centres, primary health centres and sub- centres, on a liberalized population norm. Efforts were made to develop promotive and preventive services, along with curative facilities. High priority was given to the development of primary health care located as close to the people as possible. Improvements in living conditions of the rural poor through the provision of protected and assured water supply was also given priority. The family welfare programme was integrated with the Health programme, especially Maternal and Child Health (Government of India, 1981). The total investment in the health sector during the sixth plan was Rs. 3412.2 crores (which was 3.12% of the total budget expenditure) of which a sum of Rs. 2025 crores (1.9%) for health and Rs. 1387 crores (1.3%) for family planning was invested during the sixth plan period.

Seventh Plan (1985-1990) The Seventh Plan which covered a time span of another five years started in 1985 and went on till 1989. This Five Year Plan was the come back vehicle of the Indian National Congress Party into power. The core objective of health policy in the seventh plan was laid on preventive and

47 promotive aspects and on organising effective and efficient health services which were comprehensive in nature, easily and widely available, freely accessible, and generally affordable by the people. The following thrust areas were identified: (i) Promotion of primary health measures and improvement in quality health services; (ii) Effective coordination and coupling of health and health- related services and activities for achieving the goal of : ―Health for All by 2000 AD‖; (iii) Priority in community participation and massive health education movement; (iv) Qualitative improvements as required in Health and Family Planning services; (v) Efforts to ensure comprehensive coverage in urban and school health services and mental and dental health services; (vi) Control and eradication of communicable diseases; (vii) Control and containment of cancer, coronary heart diseases, hypertension, diabetes, and traffic and other accidents in the area of non-communicable diseases; (viii) Training and education of medical and paramedical personnel (ix) Medical research of special relevance and (x) Integration and wider application of the Indian systems of medicine particularly in the national health programme (Government of India, 1985). A worldwide "safe motherhood" campaign, National Diabetes Control, and the National AIDS Control Programmes were initiated in 1987 and the Mental Health Act was also passed in the same year. The total expenditure on Health Sector was Rs. 6809 (3.11%) crores. A sum of Rs.3689 crores (1.69%) on public health and Rs. 3120 crores (1.43 %) on family welfare was invested during the seventh plan period.

Annual Plan (1990-1992) This period was of political instability and hence no five year plan was implemented during the period; only annual plans were made for the period between 1990 and 1992 (Indiaonline,2010) The health schemes which had been introduced earlier were continued during this period also. In 1990, Control of Acute Respiratory Infection Programme was initiated as a pilot project. In 1991, the Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (regulation and prevention of misuse) Act was also enacted. During this annual plan, the total expenditure in the health sector was Rs.3644.5 crores (2.86%). A sum of Rs. 2003.10 crores (1.57%) and Rs. 1641.5 crores (1.29%) were invested on public health and family welfare respectively.

Eighth Plan (1992-1997) Health and population control were listed as two of the six priority objectives during the eighth plan period. Emphases were laid on provision of safe drinking water and primary health care facilities, including immunisation, accessibility to all the villages and the entire population, and complete elimination of scavenging (Government of India, 1992).The Transplantation of Human Organs Bill was passed in the year 1994 and The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act passed was in 1995. The total outlay for the health sector during this plan period was Rs. 14082.2 crores (3.24%). A sum of Rs. 7582.20 crore (1.75%) was allotted towards public health and Rs. 6500.00 crores (1.5%) towards family welfare.

Ninth Plan (1997-2002) The Ninth Five Year Plan was launched in the 50th year of India‘s Independence. During this plan, greater emphasis was provided on primary health care, and provision of safe drinking water. Emphasis was also given to provide integrated preventive, promotive, curative and rehabilitative services for communicable, non-communicable and nutrition related health problems, through appropriate strengthening of the existing health care institutions and ensuring that they are optimally utilised. Efforts were made to achieve substantial reduction in morbidity and mortality rates (Government of India, 1997). In 2002, Government of India introduced the National Health Policy (NHP). The main objective of the NHP-2002 was to achieve an acceptable standard of good health among the general population of the country and set goals to be achieved by the year 2015. The major policy prescriptions were as follows: (i) Increase of health sector expenditure to 6 percent of GDP by 2010. (ii) Increase of allocation of public health investment in the order of 55 percent for the primary health sector; 35 percent and 10 percent to secondary and tertiary sectors respectively; (iii) Gradual convergence of all health programmes under a single field administration, except the ones (such as TB, Malaria, HIV/AIDS and universal immunisation programmes), which need to be

49 continued till moderate levels of prevalence are reached; (iv) Need to levy user charges for certain secondary and tertiary public health services, for those who can afford to pay; (v) Mandatory two year rural posting before awarding the graduate medical degree; (vi) Decentralising the implementation of health programmes to local self governing bodies by 2005; (vii) Setting up of Medical Grants Commission for funding new Government Medical and Dental colleges; (viii) Promoting public health discipline; (ix) Establishing two-tier urban healthcare system - Primary Health Centre for a population of one lakh and Government General Hospital; (x) Increase in Government funded health research to a level of 2 percent of the total health spending by 2010; (xi) Appreciation of the role of private sector in health, and enactment of legislation by 2003 for regulating private clinical establishments; (xii) Formulation of procedures for accreditation of public and private health facilities; (xiii) Co-option of NGOs in national disease control programmes; (xiv) Promotion of tele medicine in tertiary healthcare sector; (xv) Full operationalisation of National Disease Surveillance Network by 2005; (xvi) Notification of contemporary code of medical ethics by Medical Council of India; (xvii) Encouraging setting up of private insurance instruments to bring secondary and tertiary sectors into its purview; (xviiii) Promotion of medical services for overseas users and (xix) Encouragement and promotion of Indian System of Medicine (W.H.O.,2006 & Government of India 2002). During this plan a total sum of Rs. 5314 crore (1%) was allotted towards public health and Rs. 15088 crore (2.8%) to family welfare. Thus, a sum of Rs. 20402 crore was allotted for the health sector which was 3.72 per cent of the total budget of ninth plan.

Tenth Plan (2002-2007) The major focus in the tenth plan was to improve the efficiency of the existing health care system, quality of care, logistics of supplies of drugs and diagnostics and promotion of the rational use of drugs. The focus was also on evolving, implementing and evaluating systems of health care financing so that essential health care based on need is available to all at

50 affordable cost. The reductions in fertility, mortality and population growth rate were also the major objectives during this period (Government of India, 2002a). The tenth plan also proposed three major initiatives in the health sector. They are: (i) redesigning the Universal Health Insurance scheme introduced in 2003 to make it exclusive for below poverty level people with a reduced premium, (ii) introduction of Group Health Insurance scheme for members of Self Help Groups and Credit Link Groups at a premium of Rs 120 per person for an insurance cover of Rs 10000, and (iii) exemption of income tax for hospitals working in rural areas (W.H.O., 2006). The total outlay of Rs. 10753 crores (1.2%) for public health and Rs. 27125 crores (3.0%) to family welfare and thus a total sum of Rs. 37878 crore (2.4%) was allotted towards the Health Sector during this plan period.

Eleventh Plan (2007-2012) The Eleventh Five Year Plan provides an opportunity to restructure policies to achieve a New Vision based on faster, broad-based, and inclusive growth. The objectives for health sector aims (i) to achieve good health for people, especially the poor and the underprivileged by focusing on individual health care, public health, sanitation, clean drinking water, access to food, and knowledge of hygiene, and feeding practices; (ii) to facilitate convergence and development of public health systems and services that are responsive to health needs and aspirations of people and (iii) to give special attention to the health of marginalized groups like adolescent girls, women of all ages, children below the age of three, older persons, disabled, and primitive tribal groups. This Plan also facilitates convergence and development of public health systems and services that are responsive to health needs and aspirations of people. During this plan major focus was given to reduce disparities in health across regions and communities by ensuring access to affordable health care. A Sum of Rs. Rs 136147.00 crore (3.74%) was earmarked for the health sector of which Rs. 45589 crores for public health and Rs. 90558 crores for family welfare were allotted during this plan (Government of India, 2007).

Chart 1 showing the proportion of investment on health sector to the total budget investment/outlay through various five-year plans in India

Chart 2 showing the Birth Rate, Death Rate, Infant Mortality Rate and Life Expectancy in India during 1951-2009

160 140 146 120 110 Birth Rate 100 Death Rate 80 64.6 60 40.8 IMR 54 50.8 40 36.7 Life Expct. 33.9 21.7 20 25 12.5 0 7.6 1951 1981 2009 Period

Chart 3 Comparative analysis of Life Expectancy, Birth and Death Rates and IMR with neighbouring countries

80 65.3 70 60.3 73.5 64.6 Life Expet. 60 Birth Rate 50 50.8 67.4 59 40 Death Rate 30 20.3 IMR 25.9 24.7 20 21.7 14 10 7.6 7.2 9.2 7.1 0 India Pakistan Bangladesh China Countries

Conclusion The review of the five year plans reveals that the average investment towards health sector in all the plans was 3.28 per cent of the total budget investment. The highest proportion (3.9%) of the public health investment was during the fourth plan and the lowest (2.4%) was in the tenth plan period (Chart 1). With regard to achievements (Chart 2), the crude birth rate was reduced from 40.8 in 1951 to 33.9 in 1981 and 21.7 in 2009 which was 25.29 in Pakistan, 24.68 in Bangladesh and 14 in China (Chart 3). The death rate declined from 25 in 1951 to 12.5 and 7.6 in 1981 and 2009 respectively. In 2009 the death rate in Pakistan was 7.21, in Bangladesh 9.23, and 7.06 in China. The infant mortality rate also decreased from 146 in 1951 to 110 in 1981 and 50.8 in 2009. In 2009 the IMR in Pakistan was 67.36, in Bangladesh it was 59.02, and 20.25 in China. The life expectancy increased from 36.7 years in 1951 to 54 years and 66.09 years in 1981 and 2009 respectively. In 2009, the life expectancy in Pakistan was 65.26, in Bangladesh it was 60.25 years and in China it was 73.47 years (Indexmuni.com, 2010). It was also found that the number of malaria cases was reduced from 75 million in 1951 to 2.7 million and 2.2 million in 1981 and 2000 respectively. Leprosy cases increased from 38.1 per 1000 population in 1951 to 57.3 in 1981 and fell to 3.7 in 2000. The number of polio cases was reduced to 265 in 2000 from 29709 in 1981. Small Pox was totally eradicated in 1977. The Government of India was able to increase the number of medical institutions from 0.09 lakh in 1951

53 to 0.62 lakh in 1981 and 2.06 lakhs in 2000 (Government of India, 2002b). Though there has been a marked improvement in the health status of the people in the country, India has to go a long way towards achieving its goal of ‗‗Health for All‖.

References Goodhealthnyou.com., (2000) Public health milestones in independent India in in http://good healthnyou.com/library/reading/vhai/mar_apr/mileston.asp. Government of India (1952) The First Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, New Delhi. Government of India (1956) The Second Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, New Delhi. Government of India (1960) Third Five-Year Plan: A draft outline, Planning Commission, New Delhi in http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/ fiveyr/welcome.html Government of India (1970) The Fourth Five-Year Plan, Planning commission, New Delhi. Government of India (1975) Draft Fifth Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, New Delhi. Government of India (1981) The Sixth Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, New Delhi. Government of India, (1985) The Seventh Five Year Plan (Vol-2), Planning Commission, New Delhi, in http://www.planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/ fiveyr/welcome.html Government of India, (1992) The Eighth Five Year Plan (Vol-2) in http://www.planning commission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/welcome.html Government of India, (1997) Ninth Five Year Plan 1997-2002, Vol.1&2, Planning Commission, New Delhi in http://planningcommission.nic.in/plans/planrel/fiveyr/ welcome.html Government of India, (2002) National Health Policy – 2002, Ministry of Health and family Welfare, New Delhi in http://mohfw.nic.in/np2002. htm Government of India, (2002a) Tenth Five Years Plan 2002-2007 (Vol.2), Planning Commission New Delhi, 89 & 95 Government of India (2002b) Annual Report 2001-2002, Ministry of health and family welfare, New Delhi in http://mohfw.nic.in/reports/Annual%20Report%202001- 02%20.pdf/Part%20I-2.pdf Government of India, (2007) Eleventh Five Year Plan, - 2007-2012 (Vol.2), Planning Commission, New Delhi, 58,107, 163 & 170

Gupta, V.S., (2002) Social Sector Development and the Tenth five year plan, Employment News, Vol. XXVII, No. 1, Publication Division, Government of India, New Delhi, 12 April. IndexMundi, (2010) India Demography in http://www.indexmundi.com/india/ infant_mortality_ rate.html Indiaonline, (2010) Five years plan in India in http://indiaonline.in/Profile/ Economy/ Planning Commission/five year Plans-Plans.aspx W.H.O., (2006) Country Health System Profiles World Health Organisation in http:// www.searo.who.int/en/Section313/Section1519_10855.htm

MHD NATURAL CONVECTION FLOW OF FLUID WITH VARIABLE VISCOSITY FROM A POROUS VERTICAL PLATE

Amena Ferdousi1, Mohammad Salek Parvez2 & M. A. Alim3

Keywords: Porous Plate. Magnetohydrodynamic. Natural Convection. Variable Viscosity.

Abstract: This paper presents an extension for MHD natural convection flow with variable viscosity from a porous vertical plate. The governing boundary layer equations are solved numerically using finite difference method together with Keller-Box scheme. The numerical results show that as the variable viscosity increases the surface shear stress increases and the rate of heat transfer decreases, which are here in terms of skin friction coefficient and local Nusselt number. It has been observed that the inclusion of variable viscosity affects velocity as well as temperature profiles. A comparison shows that the present result agrees well with the published results.

Introduction The study of the flow of electrically conducting fluid in presence of magnetic field is important from the technical point of view and such types of problems have received much attention by many researchers. The specific problem selected for research is the flow and heat transfer in an electrically conducting fluid adjacent to the surface over which the fluid flows. The interaction of the magnetic field and the moving electric charge carried by the flowing fluid induces a force, which tends to oppose the fluid motion. And near the leading edge of the surface the velocity is very small so that the magnetic force, which is proportional to the magnitude of

1 Assistant Professor, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Eastern University 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Daffodil International University 3 Associate Professor, Department of Mathematics, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology

56 the longitudinal velocity of fluid acts in the opposite direction is also very small. Consequently the influence of the magnetic field on the boundary layer is exerted only through induced forces within the boundary layer itself. MHD was originally applied to astrophysical and geophysical problems but more recently to the problem of fusion power, where the application is the creation and containment of hot plasmas by electromagnetic forces, since material wall be destroyed. Astrophysical problems include solar structure, especially in the outer layers, the solar wind bathing the earth and other planets and interstellar magnetic fields.

MHD free convection flow with variable viscosity from porous vertical plate has been drawn forth not only for its fundamental aspects but also for its significance in the contexts of space technology and processes involving high temperature. In the presence of variable viscosity on MHD free convection boundary layer flow from a porous vertical plate of a steady two dimensional viscous incompressible fluid has been considered. The physical property, variable viscosity may change significantly with temperature. Merkin (1972) concluded free convection with blowing and suction. Lin and Yu (1988) studied free convection on a horizontal plate with blowing and suction. Hossain et al. (2001) studied the effect of radiation on free convection flow with variable viscosity from a porous vertical plate. Hossain et al (2000) performed flow of viscous incompressible fluid with temperature dependent viscosity and thermal conductivity past a permeable wedge with variable heat flux. Hossain and Takhar (2001) studied radiation effect on mixed convection along a vertical plate with uniform surface temperature. Molla et al. (2004)studied natural convection flow along a vertical wavy surface with uniform surface temperature in presence of heat generation/absorption. Akhter (2007) studied the effect of radiations on free convection flow on sphere with isothermal surface and uniform heat flux. Ali (2007) studied the effect of radiation on free convection flow on sphere with heat generation. Hossain et al. (1999)studied the effect of radiation on free convection flow from a porous vertical plate. They (1999) analyzed a full numerical solution and found an increase in Radiation parameter Rd causes to thin the boundary layer and an increase in surface temperature parameter causes to thicken

57 the boundary layer. The presence of suction ensures that its ultimate fate if vertically increased is a layer of constant thickness. Molla et al. (August 2006) studied the Magnetohydrodynamic natural convection flow on a sphere with uniform heat flux in presence of heat generation. Gary et al. (1982) and Mehta and Sood (1992) have concluded that when this effect is included, the flow characteristics substantially change compared to the constant viscosity case. Recently, Kafoussius and Williams (1995) and Kafoussias and Rees (1998) have investigated the effect of the temperature-dependent viscosity on the mixed convection flow past a vertical flat plate in the region near the leading edge using the local non- similarity method. In these studies, they concluded that when the viscosity of a fluid is sensitive to temperature variations, the effect of temperature- dependent viscosity has to be taken into consideration, otherwise considerable errors may occur in the characteristics of the heat transfer process. Hossain et al. (2002) have investigated the natural convection of fluid with variable viscosity from a heated vertical wavy surface. Hossain and Munir (2000) investigated the mixed convection flow from a vertical flat plate for a temperature dependent viscosity. In above studies (Hossain et al., 2002, Hossain & Munir, 2000) the viscosity of the fluid has been considered to be inversely proportional to a linear function of temperature. None of the aforementioned studies, considered variable viscosity and MHD effects on laminar boundary layer flow of the fluids along porous plate. In the present study, we have investigated the variable viscosity on MHD natural convection flow from a porous vertical plate numerically. The results will be obtained for different values of relevant physical parameters and will be shown in graphs as well as in tables. The governing partial differential equations are reduced to locally non- similar partial differential forms by adopting some appropriate transformations. The transformed boundary layer equations are solved numerically using implicit finite difference scheme together with the Keller Box technique (Carey & Mollendorf, 1978). Here, we have focused our attention on the evolution of the surface shear stress in terms of local skin friction and the rate of heat transfer in terms of local Nusselt number, velocity profiles as well as temperature profiles for selected values of parameters consisting of MHD M, variable viscosity , Prandtl number Pr.

Nomenclatures  Coefficient of thermal expansion  Similarity variable Cfx Local skin friction coefficient in the direction of x-axis  Dimensionless temperature

Cp Specific heat at constant pressure function f Dimensionless stream function  w Surface temperature parameter g Acceleration due to gravity  Viscosity of the fluid k Thermal conductivity  Kinematic viscosity Nu Local Nusselt number in x  Similarity variable the direction of x-axis Pr Prandtl number  Density of the fluid M Magnetohydrodynamic parameter  Stefan-Boltzmann constant  Scattering co-efficient qw Heat flux at the surface s  q c Conduction heat flux 0 Electric conduction

T Temperature of the fluid in the f absolute Viscosity at the film boundary layer temperature

T Temperature of the ambient fluid  Coefficient of skin friction

Tw Temperature at the surface w Shearing stress (,)uv Dimensionless velocity  Non-dimensional stream function

components along the  0 Strength of magnetic field  x , y  axes γ Viscosity parameter V Wall suction velocity Subscripts (x, y) Axis in the direction along and w wall conditions normal to the surface ∞ Ambient temperature respectively

Problem Description and Mathematical Model We have investigated MHD free convection flow from a porous plate with variable viscosity. The fluid is assumed to be a grey, emitting and absorbing but non scattering medium. Over the work it is assumed that the surface temperature of the porous vertical plate, Tw, is constant, whereT w  T  . The physical configuration considered is as shown in Figure 1(a):

x Tw Thermal boundary Momentum T layer boundary 0 layer

0

u V u

g v

Figure 1.a: The coordinate system and the physical model

The conservation equations for the flow characterized with steady, laminar and two dimensional boundary layer, under the usual Boussinesq approximation, the continuity, momentum and energy equations can be written as: uv 0 (1) xy

u  u   u ()()u v     g  T  T    2 u   00 (2) x  y  y  y TTT   2  cp () u v k (3) x  y  y 2 With the boundary conditions x0 , y  0 , u  0 , T  T  . (4) y0, x  0, u  0, v   V , T  T w y , x  0 , u  0 , T  T 

60 where  is the density, 0 is the strength of magnetic field, 0 is the electrical conduction, k is the thermal conductivity,  is the coefficient of thermal expansion,  is the reference kinematic viscosity  = / ,  is the viscosity of the fluid, Cp is the specific heat at constant pressure. The absolute viscosity μ is assumed to be vary with temperature according to a general functional form μ = μf s(T), where μf is the absolute viscosity at the film temperature Tf and s(Tf) = 1. This form is chosen to allow definition of the stream function based on the absolute viscosity at the film temperature. For liquids, all transport properties vary with temperature. However, for many liquids, petroleum oils, glycerin, glycol, silicon fluids and some molten salt, the percent variation of absolute viscosity with temperature is much more than that of the other properties. Under the above conditions an analysis incorporating the above assumptions and describing the momentum and thermal transport within the flow field are more accurate than the usual assumption of constant properties evaluated at some reference temperature. It should be mentioned here that there are some fluids for which properties other than μ vary strongly with temperature. In particular, water and methyl alcohol exhibit strong variation of both μ and β. The analysis presented here is not applicable to these liquids since we are considering only the variation of the absolute viscosity as a function of temperature. However, for the case of an isothermal surface (in an unstratified ambient fluid), the variation of the absolute viscosity with temperature takes the form μ = μfS(θ), where θ is the dimensionless temperature in the boundary layer defined in equation (4), such that S(1/2) = 1. A wide variety of functional forms of S(θ) satisfying this requirement was investigated in the literature such as algebraic expressions, power series, exponential forms, etc. Carey and Mollendorf (1978), the simplest form of the absolute viscosity is used in this investigation as follows: μ = μf[1+1/μf (dμ/dT)f (T − T∞)] (5a) This simple form amounts to a linear variation of the absolute viscosity with temperature, with the slope dμ/dT , evaluated at film temperature. The assumed linear variation of viscosity with temperature gives rise to a new parameter γ defined by γ = 1/μf (dμ/dT) f (Tw − T∞) (5b)

Now introduce the following non-dimensional variables: 1 4 Vy 4 x  3 2 3    ,  V ,V  g   T  f  (6) 2   gT 4

TT  T w   ,  w  TTw   T 

Where,  is the non-dimensional temperature function, w is the surface temperature parameter. Substituting (6) into Equations (1), (2) and (3) leads to the following non- dimensional equations

2 1 ff  2  00  2 2  (7) 1  f    2 f  3 ff   f   f f  v  f 2    1       f      3ff        (8) Pr           2 Where Pr = μCp/k is the Prandtl number and M=0 0/ is the hydromagnetic parameter .The boundary conditions (4) become f 0 , f  0,  1 at  0 (9) f  0,  0 as   The solution of equations (6), (8) enable us to calculate the nondimensional velocity components u,v from the following expressions  2 u u2 f (,)   V g () T T w  (10)   f v  1 (3 f     f    ) V   In practical applications, the physical quantities of principle interest are the shearing stress w and the rate of heat transfer in terms of the skin- friction coefficients Cfx and Nusselt number Nux respectively, which can be written as  V (11) N ux( q c )  0 , C fx   V T g T   0

  u    T  where      and q   k   (12) w   c    y  y     0     0 62 qc is the conduction heat flux. Using the Equations (6) and the boundary condition (9) into (11) and (12), we get  C 1 f x , 0 fx   2 (13)  1  N ux   x ,0 The values of the velocity and temperature distribution are calculated respectively from the following relations: u2 f(  ,  ),    x , y  (14)

Numerical Procedure Solution of the local non similar partial differential equation (7) to (8) subjected to the boundary condition (9) are obtained by using implicit finite difference method with Keller-Box Scheme, which has been described in details by Cebeci and Bradshaw (1984) . The solution methodology of equations (7) and (8) with the boundary condition given in eqn. (9) for the entire ξ values based on Keller – box scheme is proposed here . The scheme specifically incorporated a nodal distribution favoring the vicinity of the plate, enabling accuracy to be maintained in this region of steep gradient. In detail equations (7) and (8) are solved as a set of five simultaneous equations.  1 ff  22 (15) 1  f  3 ff   2 ( f  )     f   M f     f   f  2  and 1       f  (16) 3 ff          Pr           To apply the aforementioned method, we first convert Equations (15)-(16) into the following system of first order equations with dependent variables u ( , ) , v ( , ) , p ( , ) and g ( , ) as f = u, u= v, g =, and = p (17)  1 uf 1 pg  v  pfvpugvpu 22       u  v (18) 5 1 2 4  2 

1 gf p  p  p fp  u  p (19)   1  Pr  where p1 =3, p2 = 2, p4 = M and p5 = γ (20) The corresponding boundary conditions are f( ,0) 0, u (  ,0)  0and g (  ,0)  0 (21) ug( , )  0 , ( ,  )  0

We now consider the net rectangle on the (,) plane and denote the net point by

010,, j   j h j j  1, 2 , J

01nn 0,,    kn n  1, 2, N kn

A B ηj

hj ηj-1/2

ηj-1 D C

n-1 n ξ ξn-1/2 ξ

Figure 1. b: Net rectangle for difference approximations for the Box scheme Here ‘n’ and ‘j’ are just sequence of numbers on the ( , ) plane, kn and hj are the variable mesh widths. n We approximate the quantities (f, u, v, p) at the points ( , j ) of the net

n n n n by ( f j , u j , v j , p j ) which we call net function.

1 ()   j1 / 22 j j 1 (22) n1 / 21 ()  n  n 1 2 64

n 1 / 2 nn1 g1 () g g j2 j j

n gnn1 () g g j1 / 22 j j 1 Now we write the difference equations that are to approximate Equations (17) - (19) by considering one mesh rectangle for the mid point ( n , n ) to obtain j  1 2 ffnn jj1 n  u j 1 / 2 (23) h j

u n  u n j j 1 n  v j 1 / 2 (24) h j

g n  g n j j 1 n  p j 1 / 2 (25) h j Similarly Equations (18) – (19) are approximate by centering about the

n  1 midpoint ( 2 , n ) . Centering the Equations (22) about the point j  1 2

n  1 ( 2 , n ) without specifying η to obtain the algebraic equations. The difference approximation to Equations (18)-(19) become h  1 j n n n11 n 1pgv5 0.5   1 pgv 5 0.5   1 pgv 5 0.5   1 pgv 5  0.5   2 j j11 j j

1 n  {()}(){()}()()pn  f v n  p n   u22 n  g n  p u  2 1j 1nn j  1 2 j  1 j  1 j  1 4 1 2 2 2 2 2 j  2 (){}vn  f n v n1  v n f n  1  R n  1 j1n j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 2 2 2 2 2 2 w h e re

nn1 n 1 nn1  1n1 n  1 n  1 2  1 Lhpg1   0 .5  1  pg  0 .5  pfvpug1 1  1 1  1j  5   5   1 j  j  2 j    1 jjjj1 j  2 2 2 222

n 1 1n  1 n  1 2 n  1 p1  h v  v  () p u   j  1 j j j1 4 j 1 2 A n d

 n1 n  1 2 n  1 n 1 R  L  () u  fv 1 1 1n  1   j  j j  j  2 2 2 2

1 [hpphppg1 (n  n )  1 { { (1   ) 3 } n  { ppg (1   ) 3 } n } ]  n p n  j j j1 j 3 j 3 j 1jj 1 1 Pr 22 ()()[()()]pn f p n   M n1  n  u g n  1  f p n  1  1j 1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 2 2 2 2 2  [()()}u gn f p n  u n g n1  u n  1 g n  p n f n  1  pfnn1 ] n j1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 jj11 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 1 [()](){()}()h 12 pn  p n  n p n  p  n g n  p n   f p n j j j1j 1 j  1 4 j  1 j  1 1 j  1 n j  1 Pr 2 2 2 2 2 2  [{()()}}]ugn  ug n1  ug n n  1  ug n  1 n  pf n n  1  pf n  1 n n j1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 j  1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2  T n 1 j  1 2 w h e r e 1 Mn1[()][()()] h  1 p n  1  p n  1  n  1 p n  1  p n  1 f p n  1 j1j j j  1 j  1 j  1 1 j  1 j  1 2Pr 2 2 2 2 Tn1  M n  1  [()()] f p n  1  u g n  1 j1 j  1n j  1 j  1 2 2 2 2 The corresponding boundary conditions (21) become n n n f00,, u 0  0 g 0  1

nn ugJJ00, which just express the requirement for the boundary conditions to remain during the iteration process. Now we will convert the momentum and energy equations into system of linear Equations and together with the boundary conditions can be written in matrix or vector form, where the coefficient matrix has a block tri-diagonal structure. The whole procedure, namely reduction to first order followed by central difference approximations, Newton‘s quasi-linearization method and the block Thomas algorithm, is well known as the Keller- box method.

Results and Discussion In this exertion MHD natural convection flow from a porous vertical plate with variable viscosity is investigated. Numerical values of local rate of heat transfer are calculated in terms of Nusselt number Nux for the surface of the porous vertical plate from lower stagnation point to upper stagnation point, for different values of the aforementioned parameters and these are shown in tabular form in Table 1 and Graphically in Figure 5-7. The effect for different values viscosity  on local skin friction coefficient 66

Cfx and the local Nusselt number Nux, as well as velocity and temperature profiles are displayed in Figure 2 to 7. The aim of these figures are to display how the profiles vary in  , the selected streetwise co-ordinate.

0 .4             1 .0     0 .3     s

e         l 0 .2 i f

0 .2          o r 0 .8      p 0 .1

e P r = 1 .0 , M = 1 .0 r     u 

1 2 t

a 0 .5 r M = 1 .0 , P r = 1 .0 0 .1 e

    p



m e

0 .3 T

0 .0 0 .0 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3  

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a) Velocity and (b) temperature profiles for different values of viscosity parameter γ with others fixed parameters.

Figures 2(a)-2(b) display results for the velocity and temperature profiles, for different values of viscosity parameter  = -1.0, 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.9

while Prandtl number Pr = 1.0, surface temperature parameter w = 1.1 and magnetohydrodynamic parameter M = 1.0. It has been seen from Figures 2(a)-2(b) that as the viscosity parameter  increases, the velocity profiles decreases and the temperature profiles increase. This is due to the fact that the effect of the viscosity is totake away the warm fluid and thereby decreasing the maximum velocity with a decreasing in the intensity of the natural convection rate as depicted be figure 2 (a). The velocity is zero at the boundary wall then the velocity increases to the peak value as  increases and from 1 to 1.8 it is reverse and after  = 1.8 it is decreasing, finally the velocity approaches to zero (the asymptotic value).

However, in figures 3(a)-3(b) it has been shown that when the Prandtl

number Pr = 0.7, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 increases with w = 1.0, M = 1.0 and  = 0.5 both the velocity and temperature profiles decrease. As Pr increases, viscosity increases so the velocity decreases.

1 .0

P r = 4 .0 P r = 4 .0 P r = 3 .0 P r = 3 .0 P r = 2 .0 s P r = 2 .0 P r = 1 .0 e

l 0 .8 i s 0 .2 P r = 1 .0 P r = 0 .7 f

l o

i P r = 0 .7

f p o          r           

e 

p r M = 1 .0 , 0 .5

u M = 1 .0

t i

e o

l 0 .1 p

e m

V 0 .3 e

0 .0 0 .0 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3   (a) (b) Figure 3. (a) Velocity and (b) temperature profiles for different values of prandtl number Pr with others fixed parameters.

Figure 4(a) displays results for the velocity profiles for different values of MHD parameter M with Prandtl number Pr = 1.0, viscosity parameter  = 1.0 and surface temperature parameter w = 1.1. It has been seen from figure 4(a) that as the MHD parameter increases the velocity profiles decrease. Electrically conducting fluid affects the flow so the velocity decreases. It is also observed from figure 4(a) that the changes of velocity profiles in the  direction reveals the typical velocity profile for natural convection boundary layer flow, i.e., the velocity is zero at the boundary wall then the velocity increases to the peak value as  increases and finally the velocity approaches to zero (the asymptotic value). The maximum values of velocity are recorded to be 0.11934 and 0.14053  = 0.88811 , 0.16893, 0.18645, 0.20630 at  = 0.94233 for M =.30.0, 20.0,10.0, 5.0 and 0.0. The velocity is 0.20630 at = 0.94233 for M = 0.0. Here, it is observed that at  = 0.88811, the velocity decreases by 73.40% as the MHD parameter M changes from 0 to 30.0. Figure 4(b) displays results for the temperature profiles, for different values of MHD parameter M while Prandtl number Pr = 1.0, viscosity parameter  = 1.0 and surface temperature parameter w = 1.1. From figure 4(b), as the MHD parameter M increases, the temperature profiles increase. We observed that the temperature profile is 1.0 (one) at the boundary wall then the temperature profile decreases gradually along  direction to the asymptotic value. But for M = 30.0, 20.0, 10.0, 5.0, 0.0 the temperature

68 profile increases, at  = 0.88811 it is 0.52579, 0.50164, 0.47181, 0.45488 and 0.43689 then it decrease. And for other values it is gradually increasing.

1 .0

M = 3 0 .0 M = 3 0 .0 M = 2 0 .0 M = 2 0 .0

0 .2 s

M = 1 0 .0 M = 1 0 .0 e

M = 0 5 .0 l 0 .8 i s M = 0 5 .0 f

e M = 0 0 .0

l o

i M = 0 0 .0

f p o                  

r  

p r

P r = 1 .0 , 0 .5 P r = 1 .0

t i

a c

0 .1 r

l p

e m

V 0 .3 e T

0 .0 0 .0 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4   (a) (b)

Figure 4. (a) Velocity and (b) temperature profiles for different values of MHD parameter M with others fixed parameters.

    0 .3     8    

    r

e         f

s    

    n n 6

a     

o r

i      t

t 0 .2 t c

i P r = 1 .0 , M = 1 .0 a

r P r = 1 .0 , M = 1 .0 f e    

     h

n  4

o S

0 .1 e

t a 2 R

0 .0 0 0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4   (a) (b) Figure 5.(a) Skin friction and (b) rate of heat transfer for different values of viscosity parameter γ with others fixed parameters.

Figure 5(a) shows that skin friction coefficient Cfx increases for increasing values of viscosity parameter  with Prandtl number Pr = 1.0, surface temperature parameter w = 1.1 and MHD parameter M = 1.0. It is observed from Figure 5(a) that the skin friction increases gradually from zero value at lower stagnation point along the  direction and from Figure 5(b); it reveals that the rate of heat transfer decreases along the  direction for  = -1.0, 0.0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.9 Nux are along  axis. A hot fluid layer is created adjacent to the interface of the wall due to the viscosity

69 mechanism and ultimately the resultant temperature of the fluid exceeds the surface temperature. Accordingly, the heat transfer rate from the surface decreases as shown in Figure 5(b).

The variation of the local skin friction coefficient Cfx and local rate of heat transfer Nux for different values of Prandtl number Pr while w = 1.0, M = 1.0 and  = 1.0 are shown in Figures 6(a)-6(b). We can observe from these figures that as the Prandtl number Pr increases, the skin friction coefficient decreases and rate of heat transfer increases.

0 .3 5 0 P r = 4 .0 P r = 4 .0 P r = 3 .0 P r = 3 .0 r P r = 2 .0

P r = 2 .0 e f 4 0 P r = 1 .0 P r = 1 .0 s

n P r = 0 .7 n

P r = 0 .7 a

o 0 .2

r i

t         

t           t

c  3 0 i

a M = 1 .0 r

f M = 1 .0

h n

f k

o 2 0

S 0 .1

e t

a R 1 0

0 .0 0 0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4   (a) (b)

Figure 6. (a) Skin friction and (b) rate of heat transfer for different values of prandtl number Pr with others fixed parameters .

M = 3 0 .0 M = 3 0 .0 4 M = 2 0 .0 M = 2 0 .0

r M = 1 0 .0 M = 1 0 .0 e f M = 0 5 .0 0 .2 M = 0 5 .0 s

n 3 M = 0 0 .0 n

M = 0 0 .0 a

i t

t          

c         

i 

a P r = 1 .0

r f P r = 1 .0 e

h 2

f k

0 .1 o S

t a 1 R

0 .0 0 0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4 0 .0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8   (a) (b)

Figure 7.(a) Skin friction and (b) rate of heat transfer for different values of MHD parameter Q with others fixed parameters.

Figures 7(a)-7(b) show that skin friction coefficient Cfx and heat transfer coefficient Nux decrease for increasing values of MHD parameter M while viscosity parameter  = 1.0,.Prandtl number Pr = 1.0, and surface temperature parameter w = 1.1. The values of skin friction coefficient Cfx and Nusselt number Nux are recorded to be 0.25646, 0.30238, 0.39508, 0.50394. 0.87147and 1.00382, 1.00463, 1.00414, 1.00463 and 1.04285 for M = 30.0, 20.0, 10.0.5.0, 0.0 and respectively which occur at the same point  = 1.5. Here, it observed that at  = 1.5, the skin friction decreases by 70.57% and Nusselt number Nux decreases by 3.74% as the MHD parameter M changes from 0.0 to 30.0. It is observed from figure 7(a) that the skin friction increases gradually from zero value at lower stagnation point along the  direction and from Figure 7(b); it reveals that the rate of heat transfer decreases along the  direction.

Numerical values of rate of heat transfer Nux and skin friction coefficient Cfx are calculated from Equations (13) from the surface of the vertical porous plate. Numerical values of Cfx and Nux are shown in Table 1.

Table-1: Skin friction coefficient and rate of heat transfer against  for different values of MHD parameter M with other controlling parameters

Pr = 1.0, w =1.1.and  = 1.0. M = 30.0 M = 20.0 M = 10.0 M = 0.0  Cfx Nux Cfx Nux Cfx Nux Cfx Nux 0.01 0.00720 55.24526 0.00720 55.25031 0.00720 55.25537 0.00720 55.26042 0.05 0.03579 11.37380 0.03586 11.38889 0.03593 11.40399 0.03600 11.41913 0.10 0.07033 5.86455 0.07081 5.89219 0.07130 5.92000 0.07180 5.94800 0.50 0.23492 1.34271 0.26201 1.41711 0.29917 1.51681 0.35101 1.64306 1.00 0.25731 1.01311 0.30335 1.01638 0.39248 1.03533 0.65607 1.16318 1.50 0.25646 1.00382 0.30238 1.00463 0.39508 1.00414 0.87147 1.04285

In the above table the values of skin friction coefficient Cfx and Nusselt number Nux are recorded to be 0.25646, 0.30238, 0.39508, 0.87147and 1.00382, 1.00463, 1.00414, and 1.04285 for M = 30.0, 20.0, 10.0, 5.0, 0.0 and respectively which occur at the same point  = 1.5. Here, it is observed that at  = 1.5, the skin friction decreases by 70.57% and Nusselt number Nux decreases by 3.74% as the MHD parameter M changes from 0.0 to 30.

Comparison of the Results In order to verify the accuracy of the present work, the values of Nusselt number and skin friction for Rd = 0.05. Pr = 1.0,  = 0, M = 0 and various surface temperature parameter  w = 1.1, = 2.5 at different position of are compared with Hossain et al. (1999) as presented in Table 2. The results are found to be in excellent agreement.

Comparison of present numerical results of Cfx and Nux for the values of prandtl number Pr = 1.0, radiation parameter Rd = 0.05, for surface temperature w= 1.1 and w = 2.5 without the effect of magnetohydridynamic and heat generation parameter with Hossain et al. (1999).

Table-2: Comparison of the present table with Hossain et al. (1999)

w= 1.1 w = 2.5  Hossain Present Hossain Present

Cfx Nux Cfx Nux Cfx Nux Cfx Nux 0.1 0.0655 6.4627 0.06535 6.48306 0.0709 8.0844 0.07078 8.10360 0.2 0.1316 3.4928 0.13138 3.50282 0.1433 4.2858 0.14313 4.29682 0.4 0.2647 2.0229 0.26408 2.03018 0.2917 2.4003 0.29120 2.40669 0.6 0.3963 1.5439 0.39519 1.55522 0.4423 1.7863 0.44145 1.78912 0.8 0.5235 1.3247 0.52166 1.32959 0.5922 1.4860 0.59080 1.48991 1.0 0.6429 1.1995 0.64024 1.20347 0.7379 1.1098 0.73590 1.31822 1.5 0.8874 1.0574 0.88192 1.06109 1.0613 1.1098 1.05693 1.11262

Conclusion For different values of relevant physical parameters including the viscosity parameter  , MHD natural convection with variable viscosity flow from a porous vertical plate has been investigated. The governing boundary layer equations of motion are transformed into a non-dimensional form and the resulting non-linear systems of partial differential equations are reduced to local non-similarity boundary layer equations, which are solved

72 numerically by using implicit finite difference method together with the Keller-box scheme. From the present investigation the following conclusions may be drawn:  Significant effects of MHD parameter M and viscosity parameter  on velocity and temperature profiles as well as on skin friction coefficient Cfx and the rate of heat transfer Nux have been found in this investigation but the effect of MHD parameter M and viscosity parameter  on rate of heat transfer is more significant. An increase in the values of viscosity parameter  leads to the velocity decrease and the temperature profiles increase, the local skin friction coefficient Cfx increase and the local rate of heat transfer Nux decreases at different position of  for Pr =1.0.  For increasing values of Prandtl number Pr leads to decrease the velocity profile, the temperature profile and the local skin friction coefficient Cfx but the local rate of heat transfer Nux increases.  An increase in the values of M leads to increase the temperature profiles and the velocity profiles, the local skin friction coefficient Cfx and the local rate of heat transfer Nux decreases.

References Akhter, T. (2007) Effect of Radiation on Natural Convection Flow on a Sphere with Isothermal surface and uniform Heat Flux, M.Phil Thesis, Department of Mathematics, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh. Ali, M. M. (2007) Numerical Study of Radiation on Natural Convection Flow on a Sphere with Heat Generation, M.Phil Thesis, Department of Mathematics, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh. Carey, V.P., Mollendorf, J.C. (1978) Natural convection in liquid with temperature dependent viscosity, in: Proc. 6th Int. Heat Transfer Conference, Toronto, 2: 211–217. Cebeci, T., Bradshaw (1984) Physical and Computational Aspects of Convective Heat Transfer, Springer, New York. Gary, J., Kassory, D.R., Tadjeran, H., Zebib, A., (1982) The effect of significant viscosity variation on convective heat transport in water-saturated porous media, J. Fluid Mech.117: 233–249.

Hossain, M. A., Khanafer, K. and Khafai, K. (2001) The effect of radiation on free convection flow with variable viscosity from a porous vertical plate, International Journal of Thermal science 40(2): 115-124. Hossain, M. A., Munir, M. S. and Rees, D. A. S. (2000) Flow of viscous incompressible fluid with temperature dependent viscosity and thermal conductivity past a permeable wedge with variable heat flux. International Journal of Thermal science 39(6): 635-644. Hossain, M. A., Takhar, H.S.(2001) Radiation effect on mixed convection along a vertical plate with uniform surface temperature. Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 31(4): 243-248. Hossain, M. A., Alim, M. A. and Rees, D. A. S. (1999) The effect of radiation on free convection flow from a porous vertical plate, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 42(1):181-191. Hossain, M.A., Kabir, S. and Rees, D.A.S. (2002) Natural convection flow from vertical wavy surface with variable viscosity, Angew, Z. Math. Phys. 53: 48-52. Hossain, M.A., Munir, M.S. (2000) Mixed convection flow from a vertical flat plate with temperature dependent viscosity, Int. J. Thermal Sci. 39 (2): 173-183. Kafoussius, N.G., Williams, E.W. (1995) The effect of temperature-dependent viscosity on the free convective laminar boundary layer flow past a vertical isothermal flat plate, Acta Mech. 110: 123–137. Kafoussius, N.G., Rees, D.A.S. (1998) Numerical study of the combined free and forced convective laminar boundary layer flow past a vertical isothermal flat plate with temperature dependent viscosity, Acta Mech. 127: 39–50. Keller, H.B. (1978) Numerical methods in boundary layer theory, Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 417-433. Lin,H. T., Yu,W. S. (1988) Free convection on horizontal plate with blowing and suction. Transactions on ASME journal of Heat Transfer 110(3): 793-796. Merkin, J. H. (1972) Free convection with blowing and suction, International journal of heat and mass transfer 15(1): 989-999. Molla, M. M., Hossain, M. A. and Yao, L .S. (2004)Natural convection flow along a vertical wavy surface with uniform surface temperature in presence of heat generation/ absorption, International Journal of Thermal Science 43(2):157–163. Molla, M. M., Hossain, M. A. and Taher, M. A. (August 2006) Magnetohydrodynamic natural convection flow on a sphere with uniform heat flux in presence of heat generation. Acta Mechanica 186: 75-86. Mehta, K.N., Sood, S. (1992) Transient free convection flow with temperature dependent viscosity in a fluid saturated porous medium, Int. J. Engrg. Sci. 30: 1083–1087.

SENSITIVITY STUDY OF THE CUMULUS PARAMETERIZATION SCHEMES WITH PLANETARY BOUNDARY LAYER OPTIONS IN ESTIMATING RAINFALL IN BANGLADESH USING MM5

Md. A. E. Akhter1, Md. M. Alam2 & M. A. Hossain3

Keywords: Sensitivity. Planetary. Cumulus. Rainfall.

Abstract: The sensitivity of the cumulus parameterization schemes with PBL options in estimating rainfall in Bangladesh has been studied using MM5v3. Two step domains, mother domain (49 x 49) taken between 11.890-29.590N, 80.490- 99.510E and nested one (79 x 79) between 18.010- 27.570N, 85.21-95.600E, along with 23 sigma levels for vertical layers are taken. The grid distances for coarse and nested domain became 45 km and 15 km respectively. We have run the model from 00 UTC of May 01 to 00 UTC of May 04, 2009 using 5 cumulus parameterization scheme Grell, Anthe-Kuo, Kain-Fritisch, Betts-Miller and Kain-Fritisch-2 with MRF and Blackadar PBL for both the domains and observed their effect on the predicted rain. The predicted accumulated rainfalls are compared with the observed rain gauge data of BMD at five different meteorological stations over Bangladesh. It is observed that some schemes have overestimated the rainfall and someone has underestimated that.

Introduction Rain has always been valued by mankind, because good corps and abundant water supplies are possible only by timely and plentiful rainfall. Rainfall amounts generally vary from place to place and from time to time. Predictability of weather phenomena like rainfalls, cyclones etc. through numerical weather prediction (NWP) are very much dependent on their physical processes. A good number of NWP models are in operation world wide, like The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather

1 Associate Professor, Department of Physics, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology 2 Professor, Department of Physics, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology 3 Professor, Department of Mathematics, Khulna University of Engineering & Technology 75

Forecast (ECMWF), Bureau of Meteorology (BOM), Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS), Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL), Florida State University (FSU), United Kingdom Meteorological Office (UKMO), National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), National Meteorological Centre (NMC), Mesoscale Model (MM5), Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) etc. Of them the 5th generation mesoscale model (MM5) developed by Pennsylvania State University and National Centre for Atmospheric Research is an open source model and we have used its version three release seven (MM5V3R7) in this study. A number of cumulus parameterization (CP) schemes have been developed over the years but all of them have certain limitations (Frank, 1983, Malinari et al., 1992, Emanuel & Raymond 1993, Zhang et al., 1994, Kuo et al., 1997). Convection has long been recognized as a process of central importance in the development of many weather events. The scale of convective clouds is too small to be resolved by numerical models and hence needs to be parameterized in terms of variables defined at the grid points. With increasing computer resources, in the last half decade, many of these NWP centers started using higher resolution models for prediction of cyclone and cold front to reduce errors associated with finite differencing (Dudhia, 1993) and for better representation of topographical features and sub-grid scale physical processes. Convective activities in the tropic play an important role. The Asian monsoon, in particular, is composed of diurnal cycle (Nita & Sekine, 1994) and intraseasonal variation (Madden & Julian, 1972, Yasunar, 1979). During summer, the Bay of Bengal is characterized as cloudiest oceanic area (Kodama, 2005). The monsoon wind carries water vapor from the Bay of Bengal to the inland and produces convective systems in and around Bangladesh and about 6000 mm rainfall occurred during summer monsoon (Matsumoto, 1996). There are variation of rainfall with respect to place and time (Islam, 2005). So it will be useful if we can estimate the amount of rainfall at different places of Bangladesh. Kataoka (2005) has used MM5 to study the diurnal variation of precipitation. Akhter et al. (2007) has tried to select a suitable combination of PBL and CP scheme to simulate rainfalls over Bangladesh.

MM5 uses many physical processes like radiation, surface layer processes, PBL processes and precipitation (this includes CP and resolvable–scale microphysics). In this study, Blackadar (BKD) and Medium Range Forecast (MRF) PBL processes are combined with Anthes-Kuo (AK), Grell, Kain-Fritsch (KF), Kain-Fritsch-2 (KF-2) and Betts-Miller (BM) CP schemes to make ten different combinations of PBL and CP schemes and those are used to test the sensitivity in estimating rainfall over Bangladesh using MM5 for the rainfall during May 01 to May 04, 2009.The purpose of this study is to select the best combination of CP scheme and PBL process to estimate rainfall of different regions of Bangladesh. AK CP scheme with MRF PBL is found to perform better than other combinations.

Methodology and Description of MM5 Model To test how well CP schemes with PBL could predict precipitation during a rainfall event, the MM5 model was selected for several reasons. MM5V3R7 is the most recent version of a model first developed in the 1970s by Anthes and Warner (1978). MM5 is probably one of the most studied mesoscale atmospheric models in recent years. It features multi- nest capability, non-hydrostatic dynamics, four-dimensional data assimilation (FDDA), several physics options, and the ability to be run on most UNIX platforms. A detailed description of MM5 can be found in Grell et al. (1995) and Dudhia et al. (2004). MM5 includes several CP schemes, five of which were used in this study: AK, Grell, KF, KF-2, and BM and those are documented in Anthes (1977), Grell (1993), Kain and Fritsch (1990), Kain (2002) and Betts and Miller (1986). Among the PBL options, two PBL schemes, MRF and BKD, are taken with five CP schemes, AK, Grell, KF, KF-2 and BM, for ten independent runs. The common physics options which are used, other than CP and PBL, includes: i) Dudhia Simple Ice microphysical Scheme for moisture anticipation, ii) Cloud Radiation Schemes for radiation calculation and iii) 5- Layer Soil model to predict soil temperature. MM5 includes the option of using nested sub-grids that can use different parameterizations to take advantage of resolution differences. The sub- grids can be either one way (from the coarser parent grid to the finer 77 nested grid) or two ways (feedback from the nested grid to the parent grid). The parent and nested grids must have a 3: 1 resolution ratio. This ensures that every point in the parent grid has a corresponding point in the nested grid. In the model i) the governing equations are in the terrain following sigma co-ordinate and are written in flux form and solved in Arakawa B grid ii) Leapfrog time integration scheme with time splitting technique is used in model integration. In time splitting technique, the slowly varying terms are integrated with longer time step and the terms giving rise to fast moving waves are integrated with shorter time step. For our present study, we have used two step domains. All the options stated earlier have been applied for both the domains. The mother domain is taken between 11.89 – 29.590 N, 80.49-99.510 E and the nested one between 18.01 -27.570 N, 85.21-95.600 E. The dimension of the coarse domain, which is the mother domain, is taken as 49 x 49 and that for the nested one as 79 x 79, thus the grid distances for coarse and nested domain became as 45 km and 15 km respectively. 23 vertical sigma levels with model top at 100 hPa have been used. 6 hourly and 1x1 degree resolutions data from the national Centre for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) are used as atmospheric initial and lateral boundary conditions data. The model is run for 72 hours from 00 UTC of 01 May to 00 UTC of 04 May 2009. Model predicted rain is taken as output to observe the effect of physical parameterization schemes on it. Outputs of all ten options have been produced at three hours interval and processed through Grid Analysis and Display system (GrADS) and Microsoft Excel. The accumulated rainfalls at five selected meteorological stations viz Dinajpur, Sylhet, Satkhira, Teknaf and Dhaka are taken for the plotting purpose. Using GrADS and Microsoft Excel, the model predicted rainfall is compared with the observed rainfall as reported by Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD).

Results The rainfalls predicted by different combinations of schemes at different stations are different. Also it is seen that maximum accumulated rainfalls predicted at different stations are not made by the same scheme. Some combination has overestimated and some has underestimated the rain in 78 terms of the observed and details of these are discussed in the following section.

Discussion The model is run for 72 hours from 00 UTC of 01 May to 00 UTC of 04 May 2009. The accumulated rainfalls, up to different times, predicted by different parameterization schemes, are shown in Figure 1.a to Figure 1.j. The rainfalls predicted by different schemes are different. Also it is seen that maximum accumulated rainfalls predicted at different positions are not done by the same scheme. For Dinajpur it is done by AK with BKD, for Sylhet it is done by KF-2 with MRF, for Dhaka it is done by KF with MRF, for Satkhira it is done by KF with BKD and for Teknaf it is done by KF2 with MRF. It may be due to the non-coincidence of grid center with the station center. This problem may be solved using higher resolution grid size.

1(a) 1(b)

Figure 1 continue

1(c) 1(d)

1(e) 1(f)

Figure 1. continue

1(g) 1(h)

1(i) 1(j)

Figure 1.a: Accumulated rainfalls at different stations with different parameterization schemes (cross, open circle, closed circle, open square and closed square are for Grell, AK, KF, BM and KF-2 convection scheme respectively).

Comparisons between the predicted accumulated rainfalls with the observed rain gauge data of Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) at five different meteorological stations over Bangladesh are shown in Figure 2.

100

60 Grell+MRF Kuo+MRF 50 KF+MRF

40 BM+MRF Rainfall(mm) KF2+MRF 30 RAINGAUGE

20 Grell+BKD Kuo+BKD 10 KF+BKD BM+BKD 0 KF2+BKD Dinajpur Sylhet Dhaka Satkhira Teknaf

Figure 2: Comparisons between the predicted accumulated rainfalls with observed rain gauge data (figure identified with different color for different parameterization schemes) It is clear that some schemes have overestimated the rainfall and someone has underestimated that. Also the ratio of the predicted to the observed is not same at different stations. AK cumulus scheme with MRF PBL performs better in Dinajpur and Sylhet, BM cumulus scheme with BKD PBL performs better in Dhaka and Teknaf, and KF cumulus scheme with MRF PBL performs better in Satkhira station. So AK, BM and KF cumulus scheme performs better in 2, 2 and 1 station respectively out of 5 stations. Again, MRF and BKD PBL scheme performs better in 3 and 2 stations respectively out of 5 stations. Considering the above, AK cumulus scheme with MRF PBL or BM cumulus scheme with BKD PBL may be better than other combinations.

Comparison between the five station average of observed and the ten predicted rainfalls are shown in Figure 3. It is clear that except two situations the predicted average is comparable to the observed. The exceptions are observed due to Gell+MRF and Grell+ BKD combinations.

Grell+MRF 40 Kuo+MRF 35 KF+MRF BM+MRF 30 KF2+MRF 25 RAINGAUGE Grell+BKD 20 Kuo+BKD

15 KF+BKD Average Rainfall (mm) Average BM+BKD 10 KF2+BKD

0 Parameterization Schemes Different parameterization Schemes

Figure 3: Comparisons between the average of all five stations rainfalls with that of observed rain gauge data (figure identified with different color for different parameterization schemes).

Conclusion In this study we have investigated the sensitivity of the cumulus parameterization schemes with planetary boundary layer options in estimating rainfall over Bangladesh using the non-hydrostatic fifth generation Pennsylvania State University – National Center for Atmospheric Research (Penn State - NCAR) Mesoscale Model version 3 (MM5v3). We have used two step domains for this purpose. The grid distances for coarse and nested domain became 45 km and 15 km respectively. We have used 5 cumulus parameterization scheme Grell, AK, KF, BM and KF-2 with 2 planetary boundary layers (PBL) MRF and BKD for both the domains.

It is observed that some schemes have overestimated the rainfall and someone has underestimated that. The ratios of the estimated to the observed rain are not equal for a particular physical parameterization schemes at all stations. Simulated pattern of rainfall for individual option agrees with observable evidences. Point to be noted that the options for simulation rainfall with MM5 has been found dependable on resolution and location of the area. According to our study, no single option may be considered as the most suitable among the 10 options for the assessment of rainfall over Bangladesh but AK CP with MRF PBL may be considered as a better one. However, further study is required to draw the final conclusion in choosing the best option of MM5.

References Akhter, N., Islam, N. M., Teru, T. and Hayashi, T. (2007) Selection of Parameterization in MM5 for the Estimation of Rainfall in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Physics 3: 75-83. Anthes RA. (1977) A cumulus parameterization scheme utilizing a one-dimensional cloud model. Monthly Weather Review 105: 270–286. Anthes R.A., Warner T.T. (1978) Development of hydrodynamic models suitable for air pollution and other mesometeorological studies. Monthly Weather Review 106: 1045-1078. Betts A.K., Miller M.J. (1986) A new convective adjustment scheme: part II: single column tests using GATE wave, BOMEX, ATEX and Arctic air-mass data sets. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 112: 693–709. Dudhia, J. (1993) A nonhydrostatic version of the Penn State- NCAR mesoscale model, Validation tests and simulation of an Atlantic cyclone and cold front. Mon, Wea. Rev. 121: 1493-1513. Dudhia, J., Gill D, Manning K,Wang W, Bruyere C. (2004) PSU/NCAR mesoscale modelling system tutorial class notes and users‘ guide (MM5modelling system version 3). National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO. http://www.mmm.ucar.edu/mm5/documents/ ( September 27, 2004). Emanuel, K. A. and Raymond, D. J. (1993) The representation of cumulus convection in numerical models. Meteorol. Monogr. Ser., Am. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, MA 46: 246. Frank, W. M. (1983) The cumulus parameterization problem. Mon, Wea. Rev. 111: 1859-1871. Grell, G.A. (1993) Prognostic evaluation of assumptions used by cumulus parameterizations. Monthly Weather Review 121:765–787.

Grell, G.A, Dudhia J., Stauffer, D. R. (1995) A description of the fifth-generation Penn State/NCAR mesoscale model (MM5). NCAR Technical Note 398. National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO. Islam, M. N., Terao, T., Uyeda, H., Hayashi, T. and Kikuchi, K. (2005) Spatial and temporal variation of the precipitation in and around Bangladesh. Journal of Meteorological Society of Japan 83: 21-39. Kain, J.S., Fritsch, J.M. (1990) A one dimensional entraining/detraining plume model and its application in cumulus parameterization. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 47: 2784–2802. Kain, J.S. (2002) The kain-Fritsch convective parameterization: An update. http://www.mmm.ucar.edu/mm5/mm5-papers.html, to be submitted to J. Appl. Meteor. Kataoka, A. and Satomura, T. (2005) Numerical Simulation on the Diurnal Variation of Precipitation over Northeastern Bangladesh, A case study of an Active Period 14-21 June 1995. Sola 1: 205-208 Kodama, Y. M., Ohta, A., Katsumata, M., Satoh, S. and Udeda, H. (2005) Seasonal transition of predominant precipitation type and lightning activity over tropical monsoon area derived from TRMM observations. Geophysical Research Letter, Vol, 32, L14710. DOI: 10.1029/2005GL022986. Kuo, Y. H., Bresch,J. F., Cheng, M. -D., Kain, J., Parsons, D. B., tao, W. K. and Zhang, D.-L.(1997) Summary of miniworkshop on cumulus parameterization for mesoscale models. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 78: 475-491. Madden, R.A. and Julian, P. R. (1972) Description of global –scale circulation cells in the tropics with a 40-50 day period. Journal of Atmospheric Society 29: 1109-1123. Matsumoto, J., Rahman, M. R., Hayashi, T., and Monji, N. (1996) Rainfall distribution over the India Subcontinent during the 1987 and 1988 severe floods in Bangladesh. Bulletin of Department of Geography University of Tokyo 28: 25-44. Molinari, J., Vollaro, D., Dudek, M. and Skubis, M. (1992) Parameterization of the convective precipitation in mesoscale numerical models, A critical review. Mon, Wea. Rev.120: 326-344. Nitta, T. and Sekine, S. (1994) Diurnal variation of convection activity over the tropical western Pacific. Journal of Meteorological Society of Japan 72: 672-641. Yasunar, T. (1979) Cloudness fluctuations associated with the Northern Hemisphere summer monsoon. Journal of Meteorolgy Society of Japan 57: 227-242. Zhang, D. L., Kain, J.S., Fritisch, J. M. and Gao, K. (1994) Comments on parameterization of convective precipitation in mesoscale numerical models, A critical review. Mon, Wea. Rev. 122: 2222-2231.

RURAL HEALTH SCENARIO IN BHUTAN: THE SOCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL EXPERIENCE

Komol Singha1 & Lingchen2

Keywords: Health. Scenario. Institutional. Bhutan.

Abstract: This paper is an attempt to discuss the health scenario of rural Bhutan in relation to reproductive health emphasizing the infant morbidity and mortality along with the access to safe drinking water and sanitation coverage. SWOT analysis method has been applied in order to find out the strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats of health scenario of rural Bhutan. The findings of this research reveal the honesty and sincerity in the health care services, poor infrastructure, and social dogma among the people of Bhutan. Despite the problems of physical infrastructure and limited resources, the health sector has made progress in Bhutan.

Introduction Despite Bhutan being one of the least developed nations (HDR 2006) in the world with difficult terrains and scattered population, health sector has made remarkable development and spread to every nook and corner of the country, covering approximately 90% of the total population since its establishment in 1962 (MoH 2008, NSB 2008). Development of health sector is accorded the government‘s top priority in Bhutan and the growth of this sector is one of the indicators of economic development. The quality of health sector is basically population of a country; the main indicators being morbidity and mortality (NSB 2008). However, more factors and determinants of the country‘s health status are being discussed in section. The World Health Organisation (2009) places a strong emphasis on health sector in its Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the achievement of

1 Sr. Lecturer, Department of Economics, Royal University of Bhutan, Gaeddu College of Business Studies, Gedu 2 Chief Librarian, Royal University of Bhutan, Gaeddu College of Business Studies, Gedu 86 which will not be possible without progress on food security, gender equality, the empowerment of women, wider access to education and better stewardship of the environment. With this view, the present paper is the modest attempt to portray the health status of Bhutan, particularly in the rural areas. It tries to identify the social and institutional role in fostering the developing of health sector in the country. And finally, the researchers provide some possible recommendations to strengthen the sector.

The researchers collected primary data from two adjacent villages called Pakshikha and Alikha under Chukha Dzongkhag (district), which are approximately 160-170 km away from the capital city Thimphu and approximately 12 km from the Gedu town which is on the National Highway (Thimphu-Phuentsholing highway) of Bhutan. The researchers used SWOT analysis to determine the health status and scenario of the country. To substantiate the study and to assess the patient‘s satisfaction and the quality of service delivery of the country‘s health sector, 100 patients (bed-ridden) from the Jigme Dorji Wangchuk National Referral Hospital (JDWNRH) in Thimphu were interviewed and the information collected were analysed accordingly.

Determinants of Health Status According to the findings of Lantz et al (1998), income or wealth is the strongest and most robust predictor of health sector. Tshering and Sithey (2009) claimed that ―adverse climate change is the major threat to health sector in Bhutan‖. As South Asian Conference on Sanitation (2008) recommended that the safe, adequate and accessible supplies of water with proper sanitation are the foundation and essential component of primary healthcare. Insufficient provision the communicable diseases, poor health and environmental pollution. Others (like, Mahapatra 1997, Nagda 2004, Dhargupta et al. 2009) opined that education is the main factor which influences health condition of a country. Some other scholars like Carloyn and Harphan (1992) observed that health status of a nation is influenced by environmental conditions, socio-economic conditions, and characteristics of the people. Similarly, Kumar et al. (2009) also found that the health problems of any community 87 were influenced by the interplay of various factors including social, economic and political which include people‘s beliefs, customs and practices. Findings by Selvaraj and Lalitha (2007) reveal that better health status is determined by many factors like: a) Literacy or education‘ b) Economic Status; c) Environement; d) Lifestyle; e) Food habits and diet system; and f) Size of the family etc. By and large, the development of health sector basically depends on its infrastructure, policy and effective delivery system in the country.

SWOT Analysis Development of any sector needs a thorough understanding of the sector. Therefore, to initiate development policy of health sector in rural Bhutan, it is imperative that a clear picture and scenario of the Bhutanese health sector is assessed first. Bhutan‘s health sector, as often portrayed in the print and visual media, is far from the truth of the actual health scenario prevalent in the country. A clear picture of health sector in Bhutan can be seen with the help of SWOT analysis given below, supported by the primary and secondary data.

SWOT Analysis of Health Sector in Bhutan

Strengths Weaknesses

Strength Law of the Country; Weak Physical Health Sincerity and Honesty of the People Infrastructure; and the functionaries; Health as Top Less Health Expertise; Priority Policy including high budget Social system and Food habits on Health Opportunities Threats

Sound Environment and Eco- Social Dogma; systems; Emergence of Dreaded Less Population; Diseases; External Aid for Health Rural-urban Migration

88 a. Strengths Bhutan is known for its stringent law and obedient citizens. Even if there is limited manpower, the functionaries of health sector are obedient and honest to the rule and policy of the country. For instance, 96 patients were attended timely or medicated on time by the doctors out of 100 patients interviewed in JDWNRH in the month of March 2010 and the overall satisfaction level of the patients were also very significant. The effective health delivery and the patients‘ satisfaction are the result of dutiful functionaries. On the other hand, people of the country are also found to be obedient and have great reverence to the rule of the country. Citizens of the country especially the villagers hardly ignore the policy instructions given by the government. It is observed from the primary survey by the researchers. For instance, the RGoB ordered the villagers to keep their villages/surrounding clean through proper drainage, separate livestock place (in the traditional rural Bhutan, livestock are kept under the dwelling house, refer to Figure 1), maintaining sanitary latrine etc. The dictate is obeyed by the people positively. As per the survey result of the two villages, due to the government‘s notification recently, 73% of the households have maintained sanitary latrine (irrespective of income level); 36% maintained drainage and 89% have done away with the keeping of livestock under the house. This obedient attitude of the villagers helps the state functionaries to deliver effective health services to the rural areas (even if the nation faces limited health resources).

Figure 1: A typical Bhutanese rural dwelling house with livestock place under the house (Livestock are kept in the gap between the terrace and surface of the earth) 89

As a result of this, despite difficult hilly terrain, around 90% of the population have access to proper health facilities in the country with 52.3% of women are attended by trained personnel during child birth. Maternal mortality ratio and infant mortality rate have decreased from 560 and 90 in 1990 to 2.55 (in 2005) and 53.9 in 2009 respectively. Life expectancy at birth has increased from 45.8 for males and 49.1 for females in 1985 to 65.9 and 66.1 respectively in 2003 (Bhutan 2007-13). The access to safe drinking water for the rural population has increased from about 70% to 84% and the latrine coverage has increased to 91%. Diarrhoea and dysentery used to be the most common cause of morbidity; it now ranks third. Improvements in the quality of drinking water in rural areas have led to a significant decrease in the caseload of water borne diseases in the rural community. Morbidity associated with childbirth has significantly diminished, as a testament to the success of the reproductive health initiatives (Nirola et al. 2006).The following tables provide clear picture about the health indicator along with health facilities, knowledge and use of contraceptives and infrastructure facilities related physical health in rural Bhutan.

Table-1: Health Indicators in Bhutan

Indicators 1994 2000 2008 Infant Mortality Rate per 1000 live births 70.7 60.5 53.9 Under five Mortality Rate per 1000 live births 96.9 84.0 81 Maternal Mortality Rate per 100 live births 3.8 2.55 2.55 * Crude Birth Rate per 1000 population 39.9 34.09 20.56 Crude Death Rate per 1000 population 9.0 8.64 7.12 Contraceptive Prevalence Rate % 18.8 30.7 35.4 Access to Safe Drinking Water % NA 77.8 83 Sanitation Coverage % NA 88.0 91 Average Life Expectancy at Birth 66 NA 65.53 Population Growth Rate % 3.1 2.5 1.3 Source: IMF (2004); UNICEF (2009); World Bank (2009) * Population and Housing Census of Bhutan 2005

Table-2: Summary of the Health Facilities in Bhutan (2003-07)

Facilities 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

No. of Hospitals 29 29 29 29 29

No. of BHUs 172 176 176 176 178

No. of dispensaries/outreach clinic 440 476 485 514 519

No. of indigenous hospitals 1 1 1 1 1

No. of indigenous dispensaries 19 21 21 21 26

No. of doctors 140 144 145 150 157

Persons per doctor 5,245 5,227 4,379 4,312 4,197

No. of hospital beds 1,093 1,113 1,078 1,133 1,159

Persons per hospitals bed 672 676 589 571 568

Doctors per 10,000 persons 1.9 1.9 2.3 2.3 2.4

Hospital bed per 10,000 persons 15 15 17 18 18

Population covered by health care (%) 90 90 90 90 90

Population access to safe drinking water (%) 71.0 - 84.0 81.4 82.3

Women attended by trained personal during 46.7 53. 52.3 57.1 53.6 delivery (%) Source: NSB (2008) page 19

Table-3: Knowledge and Use of Contraceptives in the Urban and Rural Areas, by Poverty Status

Contraceptive Urban Rural Bhutan

Non- Poor Non- Poor Non- Poor poor Poor poor

Knowledge 75.56 80.89 62.51 59.51 66.27 60.05

Use 43.83 44.78 45.51 43.11 44.96 43.16 Source: NSB (2004)

Table-4: Physical Health Related Infrastructure in Two Villages (Pakshikha and Alikha) Indicator Number Households 78 Access to Latrine 57 (73) Water Supply 42 (92) Drainage 29 (36) No separate Kitchen 66 (85) No separate place for Livestock 69 (89) Source: Tsewang Sithar, Asstt. Clinical Officer (Gedu Hospital) and Note: Figures in the parenthesis are the percentages of the total households of the two villages b. Opportunities The status of human sector in Bhutan is also enhanced by the country‘s small population (658,888 people in 2007 as per the NSB 2008) and its clean environment. Small population helps in implementing and effective delivery of health services in the country. Bhutan is known for its clean and pristine environment. In Bhutanese society, the co-existence between environment and development is manifested in people‘s beliefs that high mountains and deep ravines, ancient trees and rocks are the abode of spirits, gods and demons. Disturbing these elements would enrage these spirits and bring ill luck, sickness and health to families. This supports the health status and longevity of the people in the country. Besides, the development partners who financed about 45% of the health sector budget have all played a part in the progress. The Government of India (GoI) has been the largest partner closely followed by Denmark and UN systems. GoI has been providing both programme wide and project- tied grants and loans of which the health sector has been a major beneficiary. As of June 2007, GoI contributed more than 20% of the health 92 sector expenditures, mainly focusing on construction of the 350 beds JDW National Referral Hospital, the 150 bed Eastern Regional Referral Hospital, malaria control programme and the construction of a public health laboratory. Denmark as of June 2007 contributed about 14% of the health sector budget and has since 2008 switched over to providing sector budget grant support to social sector with DKK 107 million up to 2013 in support of the 10th FYP policies and objectives. The UN systems, mainly comprising UNICEF, UNFPA and WHO, have provided earmarked support of 14% to various activities with focus on their respective UN mandates. Together it has agreed to provide Bhutan US$9.6 million during 2008–2012 with the aim to improve the accessibility, quality and sustainability of the health care delivery system. Since 2005m GFATM has been providing substantial support ($3.5) to addressing malaria, tuberculoss and HIV/AIDS. The World Bank is supporting to halt and reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS with a total of US$ 5.77 from 2004 to 2009. Also, the bank is providing US$ 2.5 for avian flue. Furthermore, it has provided US$ 27 million (DPG 1 for US$ 15 and DPG 2 for US$ 12) as Development Policy Grant in support of government wide policy and institutional reform. c. Weaknesses As far as the weaknesses of health sector in Bhutan are concerned, manpower in this sector is very limited (only 157 doctors as of 2007 including hired doctors form India) (refer to Table 1 and 2). Most of the health expertise are hired from India. Presently, most cancer cases are referred outside the country which currently drains a large proportion of the health budget (WHO 2003). Topographical condition (mountainous region) and sparsely settlement of the country, made the health sector function with a big hurdle. While the battle will continue against HIV/AIDS, TB, malaria, etc., the problem of emerging non-communicable diseases will require the strengthening of surveillance systems, developing and following strategies for prevention and control of non-communicable diseases and expanding the capacity of tertiary care facilities. Bhutan imports 100% of its health supplies such as medical equipment, essential drugs and vaccines. Although the quality of drugs and vaccines can be 93 assured by purchasing them from WHO authenticated suppliers in the region, hospital equipments and other supplies are other problems (WHO 2003). Besides, there is no training facility for medical doctors (medical college) in Bhutan, and basically the poor health status of this country is due to the factors given below (Jha et al 2008): 1. Food habit of the people, especially eating more chilli 2. More consumption of alcohol by male and female 3. Drugs and other substances are used by the youths 4. A kind of pan/tobacco item, fermented beetle-nut (doma) is used by majority of the people. 5. Some weaknesses in the culture of the society like living together without legal marriage. Social system and food habit are also important factors for weakening the status of this sector. Bhutanese are very much fond of chilli (emma dashi), alcohol and tobacco products. More consumption of alcohol and tobacco both by male and female (as it is permitted by the society) leads to a number of dreaded diseases. More importantly, the physical infrastructure of health sector in this country is very weak (refer to Table-2). d. Threats Besides the limited expertise and weak physical infrastructures of the health sector, the Royal Government of Bhutan is struggling to prevent a number of dreaded and communicable diseases like HIV/AIDS, bird flue and hepatitis which are basically brought about by globalisation. Sex related disease is also one of the serious diseases in the country now. As the country embraces modernization and globalization, people‘s needs and wants are becoming increasingly diversified. As a fall out of this, peoples economic activities and behaviour have also diversified and deviated from the traditional culturist values to a modern materialistic one, bringing drug and sexual transmitted diseases in the country. 94

Nonetheless, it has to be acknowledged that the Bhutanese society is in the transitional stage and hence it can neither totally ignore the traditional system nor marry to western culture completely. Social dogma has led to further exacerbation of dreaded diseases like HIV/AIDS and other sexual transmitted diseases. The number of HIV cases is expected to be much higher than the current ascertained figure in the country. Despite the government‘s concerted effort, people are found to be less cooperative in this context. Number of drug abuse among the young generation is increasing rapidly (even if government cannot ascertain exact number). It is also clear that using Marijuana1 plant as a drug is very common among the Bhutanese youths. Even though the country has small population, rural-urban migration is another factor that poses a great threat to the health sector in Bhutan. UNDP‘s HDR (2009) report states that the rural-urban migration in Bhutan is the highest in South Asia. This is because many people move from rural to urban areas in search of better lives. This again leads to various unwanted diseases. Major challenges are faced mostly by young male and female migrants who encounter difficulties of findings employment, housing and educational opportunities as well meeting the higher cost of living in urban areas. Those who fail to overcome these urban challenges often resort to drugs and alcohol, and become unproductive members of the society. The most vulnerable are the young women who are at higher risk of exploitation and domestic violence because of the lack of social safety (in urban areas) which otherwise is present in their villages in the form of extended family. Of late, the country has seen an alarming rise in the number of commercial sex workers in towns and cities. This is one of the major factors of HIV/AIDS problem in Bhutan.

Organism of Health Services and Delivery System The Bhutan Medical and Health Council (BMHC) Act has been passed by the National Assembly in 2002. The BMHC secretariat was established in 2003 with council members appointed. Health care is a public good and completely free in Bhutan (Selvaraj and Lalitha 2007, SACOSAN 2008, GNHC 2009). There is no private hospital or private medical practitioner 95 in the country (Nirola et al. 2006). While in neighbouring nations like India and Pakistan, the healthcare costs, especially that of the private healthcare services, are believed to be one of the main causes of impoverishment (Berman et al 2010) , health care service in Bhutan, delivered by two composite integrated systems-Modern and Traditional medicines is free and comparatively cheaper. The history of health services delivery in Bhutan is the introduction of modern Allopathic system in early part of the twentieth century with the arrival of the first batch of Indian-trained physicians and paramedics, but its traditional Medicare was introduced in the system from Tibet in the seventeenth century (Nirola et al. 2006). Traditional practitioners received formal training in Tibet and apprenticed in Bhutan, despite the introduction of western allopathic provision of health services in Bhutan. As the traditional medicine practiced in Bhutan, Sowa Rigpa2, is a systematic field of knowledge, traditional medical care is provided side by side with modern allopathic health care (Nirola et al. 2006.) It was recognised as the official medical tradition and included in the national health system in 1967. The indigenous medical facility established in the country is run under the Institute of Traditional Medical Services, and it has basically three functions-medical services for out-patients; collection and manufacturing of indigenous medicines; and research and training of the Physicians (Drungtso) and Compounders (Menpas) (NSB 2008). Till date, the country has one indigenous hospital (National Institute of Traditional Medicine) and 21 indigenous dispensaries (Bhutan 2007-13). Modern health services in Bhutan are delivered through a four-tiered network consisting of the national Referral Hospital, the Regional Referral Hospitals, District Hospitals and Basic Health Units to outreach clinics at the community level. Health care is delivered in an integrated system, with community-level basic health units (BHU) representing the initial point of encounter for most patients. BHUs serve basically remote areas of the country, and extended health centres- Out Reach Clinics (ORCs) and Mobile Health Units (MHUs) support BHUs. Increasingly complicated cases are referred to the Dzongkhag (District), Regional and National hospitals, sequentially (Nirola et al. 2006‘ NSB 2008). The patients at the BHU level are referred to their respective district hospitals for secondary 96 or tertiary health care. The district hospitals likewise refer to their respective Referral Hospitals (RRHs). As it is not yet possible to have very requiring such health care in the country, a good number of cases requiring such health care are referred outside the country, especially in India. As of 2007, there were 29 hospitals, 178 BHUs and over 519 ORCs spread over 205 Gewogs (blocks) providing primary health care services in Bhutan (NSB 2008). In order to bridge the gap between the organised health service and the community, the Government trains village health workers who are chosen by the communities themselves. The Village Health Workers (VHW) Programme was thus initiated in 1978. The VHWs are considered to be the important link between the community and the Government in improving basic hygiene and sanitation, prevention of vaccine preventable diseases, family planning, nutrition, control of diarrhoeal diseases and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, especially for communities that do not have easy access to health facilities. As of 2009, there are 1500 village health workers, who advocate health to the people and help in bringing the health problem of the people in the communities to the government health workers. They are also taught and allowed to dispense a few basic allopathic medicines. There are also the traditional faith healers, astrologers and religious leaders in the community. The Ministry also takes the support of these respected people in imparting specific health messages-ranging from the need to take iodized salt to family planning to the people in the communities along with their routine work. The communities also look after the development schemes like those for drinking water supplies in their own areas. The programme assists the communities by providing them necessary training.

Health Policy of Bhutan In keeping with the principles of primary health care, it was seen necessary to extend universal coverage of health services to the rural population and encourage community participation in health activities and awareness. To meet the need of ever increasing health care services, the 97

Royal Governments of Bhutan has announced a five year tax holiday for the newly established pharmaceutical shops in the rural areas form 1st January 2010 to 31st December 2015. Newly established high-end private health services shall be eligible for 10 years tax holiday (EDP 2010). Public health problems in rural areas have traditionally been associated with poor hygienic conditions and a shortage of accessible health services. Both of these root causes are currently being effectively addressed in Bhutan with the establishment of well distributed health facilities in rural areas, along with increasing numbers of health workers. Most of the leading causes of death in Bhutan in the past were infectious diseases such as diarrhoea, respiratory infections, tuberculosis and malaria (HDR 2005). Realising the grave dangers and damaging effects of tobacco use on health, longevity and quality of life, Bhutan has actively promoted anti- tobacco campaigns at both national and international levels. The country has won numerous commendations and awards for its efforts and was among the first to sign the global Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. On 17 December 2004, Bhutan became the world‘s first nation to introduce a complete ban on tobacco also is now restricted to private areas in many other countries of the world (HDR 2005). The Royal Decree issued by His Majesty the 4th King of Bhutan in 1992 declares water and sanitation as a basic right of all people of the country. The Decree points out that every household in the rural areas should construct sanitary latrine or at least a basic pit latrine, which does not have major cost implication for the rural households (SACOSAN 2008). In total government expenditure, health sector was carrying 12.2% in 2000. The Bhutan‘s health system as described by the WHO is ―one of the best programs in South-East Asia,‖ and the country has won WHO 50th anniversary awards for primary health care in 1998. Bhutan has limited financial resources as per capita gross national product is about $ 875. The main financial supporters to Bhutan are Denmark, India, UNICEF, the UNPF, the World Bank and WHO. In 2004, the country spent 4.6% of its GDP on health care with the government providing for 64.2% of that amount according to the WHO. By comparison, India spent 5.0% of its GDP on health while the government provided a far smaller share of that 98 amount (17.3%). The recent UNDP‘s Human Development Report (2006) shows a life expectancy of 63.4 years, in India at 63.6 years, and fractionally above compared to Bangladesh and Nepal. The percentage of underweight children under 5 years of age is 19%; India‘s is 47%, with Bangladesh and Nepal at 48%. According to UNICEF, the mortality under 5 years in Bhutan has been reduced by 55% from 166 deaths per 1000 in 1990 to 75 deaths per 1000 in 2005, and the numbers continue to drop. Maternal mortality also dropped down to 400 per 1,00,000 live births in 1994 from 77 per 1,00,000 in 1984. India‘s maternal mortality ratio is still floating around 400. According to UNCIF‘s State of the World‘s Children 2007, 95% of the households use iodized salt, compared with 57% in India. Bhutan has the rate of immunization/vaccination of 93% for tuberculosis, DPT, polio, hepatitis, and this rate is slightly better than Bangladesh and well above the rate of India. In South Asia, only Sri Lanka tops Bhutanese figures with near 100% immunization. According to WHO figures, malnutrition in Bhutan is proportionately much lower than in India and approaching the levels of Thailand. The household incomes of Bhutan still remain the world lowest, but life expectancy rose to 63.6 years from 46 years in 1984 to 20063. Globally in 2006, expenditure on health was about 8.7% of gross domestic product, with the highest level in the Americas at 12.8% and the lowest in the South-East Asia Region at 3.4% (WHO 2009). In the finding of Wagstaff (2005), Japan spends highest share of its GDP on health in East Asia from 1998 to 2001, and Korea emerges as having a higher incidence of catastrophic out-of-payments in the region. While Bhutan allocated 8% of its 2008-09 budget for health services (SACOSAN 2008). The Tenth Five Year Plan (2008-13) of country‘s indicative total capital outlay for the health sector is Nu. 4394.336 million, excluding Dzongkhag outlay for health programmes (GNHC 2009). The main thrust of the health programs over the Ninth Plan period (2002- 07) was on the provision of primary health care services. Due attention was also given to the relevant integration of traditional medicine services with modern health services. Within the context of the Tenth Plan‘s (2008- 13) strategic framework, in addition to contributing to GNH and the well- being of Bhutanese society, health is also viewed as an important 99 dimension of human capital. Health expenditures therefore are deemed to be long term investments that are expected to provide both tangible and intangible socio-economic returns. Additionally, continued reinvestments into the health sector will also help protect other long term human capital investments from erosion and enhance their impact considerably. Reflecting this high priority, extending free basic health care has been enshrined as a constitutional obligation. The Constitution mandates that the Royal Government ―provide free access to basic public health services in both modern and traditional medicines‖ and ―endeavour to provide security in the event of sickness...‖ This constitutional commitment to provide free basic health care for all Bhutanese has considerable positive ramifications for the prospects of reducing both income and human poverty in Bhutan. There is growing evidence in many countries that health factors are closely linked to labour productivity and that productivity gains are most prominent for those population groups with the weakest health and nutritional status, which invariably constitute the poorer sections of society. As such, health investments have the greatest productivity benefits for and impact on the poor and low income groups. Under the Tenth Plan, the Royal Government will continue to attach high priority to maintain universal access to basic health services and ensure that basic health services are distributed more widely throughout the country, including the more vulnerable and isolated communities. In the TFYP, efforts will be made to accelerate institutional as well as human resource capacity to improve quality of service delivery, manage some of the illness for which services are availed outside the country so far and work in close collaboration with the Royal University of Bhutan and other relevant agencies to increase the pool of trained health workers.4

The Policy Objectives of TFYP (2008-13) The Constitution Mandates : Ensure all Bhutanese have access to free basic health services for both allopathic and traditional medicine; Ensure efficient and effective management of the national health system based on the tenets of quality , professionalism and equity; Develop adequate and competent human resources to manage health programs in line with global and national health targets and strategies; 100

Provide each Dzongkhag with at least three doctors; Promote evidence based health planning and cost-effective interventions; Prevent and control prevailing health problems through promotive, preventive and rehabilitative public health services while ensuring access, equity and quality; Promote and enhance institutional delivery to reduce maternal mortality; Provide each Dzongkhag with at least three doctors; Advocate healthy lifestyle among the population; Ensure quality delivery of primary, secondary and tertiary health care services.

Conclusion Despite the nation‘s weak physical infrastructure and limited manpower, the health sector has made remarkable progress in all areas of health developments over the last few decades since the modern health service was introduced in the country. The Infant Mortality Rate has reduced from 102.8 in 1984 to 53.9 in 2008, and Maternal Mortality Rate has reduced from 7.7 in 1984 to 2.55 in 2005. Population Growth Rate also has seen a marked decrease from 3.1 in 1994 to 1.3 in 2008. The life expectancy at birth has increased remarkably from 47.5 in 1985 to 65.53 in 2008. These vital indicators speak well of the rapid development of health sector in the country. How is delivery of health care organised in rural Bhutan? With the limited resources, a total of 90% of the population covered by effective health services in the country is not an easy task. The secret of this achievement in the health sector despite its limited resources in Bhutan is basically due to the government‘s policy and the honest state functionaries on the one hand and the people‘s support and reverence to the country‘s law on the other. These two factors help in effective delivery of health services in the country, while the achievement of this sector is comparatively lower in the neighbouring nations like India. Keeping health sector in the government‘s top priority agenda, the total expenditures on health per capita was around 30 USD in 2004-05 rising to around 50 USD in 2007-08 and as high as 70 USD per capita in the 2008/09 budget. This number, however, is inflated by the capital budget

101 that most likely will not be fully utilized. The corresponding numbers for the recurrent expenditures are from roughly 20 USD to 35 USD. Comparing the above figures to other developing countries of similar income level, the level of health expenditure in Bhutan is definitely above average, clearly showing the RGoB‘s willingness to invest in health. Looking into the allocations to health in the 10th FYP this trend continues (RGoB 2009). Nevertheless, the nation has to go a long way ahead in this sector. As on the priority basis, Bhutan has to strengthen physical infrastructure and manpower of this sector at the earliest possible time. Setting up of a training institute, medical college is also an urgent need of this country.

References Bhutan (2007-13) Bhutan Country Strategy Paper. http://ec. europa.eu/ external_relations/bhutan/csp/07_13_en.pdf (March 24, 2010) Berman, P. et al. (2010) The Impoverishing Effect of Healthcare Payments in India- New Methodology and Findings. Economic and Political Weekly, XLV (16): 65-71 Carolyn, S. and Harphan, T. (1992) The Measurement of Health in Household Environmental Studies in Urban Areas of Developing Countries: Factors to be Considered in the Design of Surveys. Urban Health Proramme. London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Dhargupta, A. et. al. (2009) Study on the Effect of Socio-economic Parameters on Health Status of the Toto, Santal, Sabar and Lodha Tribes of West Bengal, India. Studies of Tribes and Tribals 7 (1): 31-38 Economic Developing Policy (2010) Economic Development Policy of the Kingdm of Bhutan. Royal Government of Bhutan. http://www.mti.gov.bt/Tender/edp-2010.pdf (April 12, 2010) HDR (2005) Bhutan National Human Development report, Royal Government of Bhutan. IMF (2004) Bhutan- Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. IMF Country Report No. 04/246/ (August) Jha, N. K. et al (2008) Analysis o fIndo-Bhutan Socio-Political, Health and Economic Situations. Sherub Doenme 8 (1 & 2): 78-91 Kumar, T. S. et al (2009) Oral Health Status and Practices of Dentate Bhil Adult Tribes of Southern Rajasthan-India. International Dental Journal 59(30): 133-140. Lantz, P. M. (1988) Socio-economic factors, Health Behaviours, and Mortality. Journal of the American Medical Association (279): 1703-1708. Mahapatra, L. K. (1997) Social change in Tribal Society in Eastern India- Supplement of Professor Tarak Chandra Das‘ Analysis 1961. Journal o fIndian Anthropological Society 32 (4): 201. 102

Ministry of Health (2008) Bhutan Health Information System- Review and Assessment. Health Information and Research Unit- Policy and Planning Division, Royal Government of Bhutan. NSB (2004) Poverty and Inequality in Bhutan. Department of Planning (Ministry of Finance), Royal Government of Bhutan. NSB (2008) Statistical handbook of Bhutan. National Statistical Bureau, Royal Government of Bhutan. Nagda, B.L. (2004) Tribal Population and Health in Rajasthan. Studies of Tribes and Tribals 2(1): 1-8. Nirola, D. K. et al. (2006) The Impact of Community-oriented Primary Care in Trongsa Dzongkhag, Kingdom of Bhutan. Indian Journal of Community Medicine (31): 18- 23. and Available from: http://www.ijcm.org.in/text.asp?2006/31/1/18/54925 (April 7,2010) Royal Government of Bhutan (2009) Bhutan Joint Health Sector Review 2009. Ministry of Health (Thimphu). http://www.health.gov.bt/reports/BhtJointSerctrReview 2009Rept. pdf. (April 08, 2010) Selvaraj, M. and Lalitha, R. (2007) Environment, Demand for Health and Economic Situation of Bhutan. Environment Informatics Archives, Vol 5, No. P002, page 700- 708 http://www.iseis.org/eia/pdfstart.asp?no=07074 (April 08, 2010) SACOSAN (2008) Country Paper for South Asian Conference on Sanitation (Bhutan III), 18-21 November. New Delhi. Tshering, D. and Sithey, G. (2009) Climate and Health in Bhutan. Tiempo, Issue 71 (April): 24-26. Wagstaff, A. (2005) Health Systems in East Asia-What Can Developing Countries Learn form Japan and the Asian Tigers?, World Bank Policy Research working Paper 3790 (December). The World Bank, Washington DC. World Health Organisation (2003) WHO Country Cooperation Strategy-Bhutan (January), WHO Country Office, Thimphu World Health Organisation (2009) World Health Statistics. WHO, http://www.who.int/ whosis/whostat/2009/en/index.html (April 10, 2010)

Notes 1. The nature and usage of Marijuana plant can be studies more form the story of pop star Bob Marley 2. The system of medicine referred to as Sowa Rigpa is practiced in many countries today, but owing origins and development to ancient Tibet. Sowa Rigpa is known nowadays as Tibetan medicine. 3. This section is excerpted from ―GNH, Health and Economic Status of Bhutan‖ [accessed on 08/04/10 and available at http: //www.gnhmovement.org/ papers/selvaraj.pdf] 4. See GNGC (2009) Tenth Five Year Plan (2008-13) Tenth Plan Document-Volume 1, GNHC, RGoB. 103

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENT IN BANGLADESH

Md Towhidul Islam1

Keywords: Advertisement. Abstraction. Subliminality. Pseudo- News. Attractiveness.

Abstract: The advertising industry has already passed four decades of institutionalization in Bangladesh. At the advent of information and telecommunications technology, the industry has experienced drastic heave in all its vicinities such as the number of advertising agencies, client firms, research organizations, models, production houses and boutiques. By the way, the industry has influenced its surrounding situations as well as adjusted to cope with the changed situation. Now it is time to reconcile the progress and find out what it has achieved and what yet to achieve. So far researches have concentrated on the quantitative aspects of the industry but the qualitative appreciation yet needs to be made. The academic and more esoteric developments have remained less cared. This paper concentrates on the qualitative aspects of the industry and marks the trends underway the advertising industry while focusing on the future possibilities. Finally, it provides some guidelines leading to an environment auguring well for the advertising industry of Bangladesh.

Introduction With continuous development of the size of the national economy of Bangladesh, revolutionary ease of information and communication systems, immense growth in the number and types of media and the passage of time, the advertising industry here is also flourishing and gathering multi thronged experiences. More and more ad firms of different scopes and capabilities are joining the industry adding to the level of competition. Genii from diverse areas of creativity are approaching the industry with fresh talents befitting this informative and clever age.

1 Lecturer, School of Business Studies, Southeast University 104

Deeper penetration into the field along with greater mastery in the technical fringes of the subject is adding to the proficiency of the industry. In this small country, advertising has gone too far to create an example of a folk singer-cum-model becoming a woman member of the parliament (Bangladesh National Parliament Secretariat, 2009). All these facts congeal to accentuate novel trends posing immense influence on the culture of the nation. Some trends obviously pledge positive outcomes while some others indicate a seizure of decadence. The growth and potential of the industry places it in the interest list of scholars from business studies and other fields. Business or monetary consideration of the industry is already widespread while sparing a scope to view it from the perspective of the art of advertising. Advertising is a kind of collage art that makes scope for everything possible. So, it must not be considered from monetary or structural perspectives only; rather it should be evaluated from the perspectives of its internal aesthetics and apropism, its adorable and abhorable effects on various segments of the population, its ingenuity and ingeniousness, its distinctive nuances and detested nuisances, its amity and enmity with societal forces. Above all, a holistic evaluation should be made which is the motto of this paper. The paper starts with a glimpse on the present state of the industry and concentrates on the television advertisements as they create vicarious appeals to the most of the sensory receptors of the audience and is putatively the most effective advertising media since its inception (UTalkMarketing, 2010). It takes into consideration advertisements from other media as well to buttress the claims on trends underway.

Literature Review Structure of the Industry In Bangladesh, the size of the advertising industry is assumed to be Tk.1200 crore (Rahman, 2010). Print media leads the industry with 43% market share while TV stands second at 36% of the advertising market of the country. The industry is growing at a rate of 10% per annum mainly due to the heightened competition among the major mobile operators (Rahman, 2010).

Before the independence, there were only a few advertisement firms in Bangladesh, the erstwhile East Pakistan, due to inadequate industrialization 105 and limited demand for ads. The pioneers were the firm like Bitopi, Asiatic, and Interspan who served the multinational firms like the Lever Brothers (Anwar, 2009).

The advertisement sector is so vast in terms of nature of the firms, scope of operation, registration status and other dimensions that it is so tough to formally bring them into a database. Bangladesh Television shows a total of 150 agencies in the country registered with them but the number exceeds 500 when both the formal and informal sectors are considered (Anwar, 2009). On the other hand, Bangladesh Yellow Pages registers a total of 293 advertising and counseling agencies and firms today (Bangladesh Yellow Pages, 2010).

Top nine advertising firms in descending order of market share- Adcomm, Asiatic, Bitopi, Unitrend, Grey, Interspeed, Popular, Madona, and Matra hold more than 70% of the formal market share while another 13% share is held by other firms and the rest remains the domain of in-house advertisements of business firms (Anwar, 2009).

Farhat Anwar classifies the advertisement media into two categories namely- Above the Line and Below the Line. He includes in Above the Line category the newspapers, magazines, radio, television, and satellite and cable television while the Below the Line category includes event management, in-house advertisement (company performing own advertisement) at point of purchase, outdoor advertisement (billboards, hoarding, neon signs, and bell signs), innovative activities (jatra, street drama) and advertisement on vehicle bodies or fliers. The market size of the formal advertising agencies accounted for about Tk.2 billion in 1999, while, in- house and outdoor advertisements by manufacturing or service providing companies and the informal agencies (non-registered agencies and individuals) accounted for about another Tk1 billion.

The advertising agencies primarily serve the private national companies (PNC), multinational companies (MNC) and non-government organizations (NGO). The MNCs constitute more than 60% of the media share followed by the PNCs constitute 25%. The major client of the print media is the government (Anwar, 2009).

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Monetary Performance Bangladesh Brand Forum (BBF) studies and publishes quantitative data on advertising spending by the companies or industries. It shows how the industry is enlarging, how the spending shifts from one media to another, one company to the other etc. In 2007, BBF showed the percentage of advertisement placed in different types of media (The Daily Star, 02 March, 2008). It showed that the highest portion (43%) of advertising went to the print media; TV covered only 36%, radio 4% and the rest by outdoor, cinema and the Internet. They calculated a 7% increase of ad- spending by major brands in 2007. They found out highest spending companies in ten categories namely- telecom, bank, real-estate, education, soft-drink, mobile-handset, personal-wash, electronics, shampoo and snacks. It estimated that the top ten categories of industries comprised almost 80% of total media spending that year.

Frequency of Exposure In Bangladesh, institutions like ‗Dhaka News‘ and ‗Ryan‘s Archive‘ and many others are doing some important work on capturing and analyzing the advertisements and news on both news-papers and TV channels. Dhaka News disseminates news on advertising expenditures of different mobile phone companies of Bangladesh in 2010. It claims TV commercials to be the most expensive form of advertising in the country (Rahman, 2010). It finds out that ‗Robi‘ surpasses Grameen Phone in July, 2010. It also analyses the plausible reason behind the substantial increase in the company‘s ad expense.

Ryan‘s Archive provides information on rate, time, and composition of advertisements in different print and digital media in Bangladesh. This archive makes available information on program rating, audience rating, data on TV commercial monitoring and other services.

Rationale for the Research Prior to this paper, others have ventured to analyze the background and structure of the industry and to spot the monetary matters like expenditure, income, market share, growth rate and the like. Yet others have been 107 trying to interpret the frequency of exposure, program rating, number of audience etc. All these efforts serve to reveal the overt factors of advertisements. But some of the softer, non-monetary and more esoteric affairs of advertisements have gone unrevealed. Certainly, there is a research gap in that the academic areas such as the factors related to source attractiveness and credibility, abstraction of message, subliminality, advertising influence on culture etc still remain unrevealed and unevaluated. However, the evaluation cannot reach fulfillment until a total appraisal is made. This paper attempts to bridge the gap.

Objectives of the Study This paper aims to mark the recent trends in the advertisement in Bangladesh. More specifically, it wants to spot the academic distinctions made in the advertising arena of Bangladesh. Depending on the recent trends and distinctions, the paper intends to project future possibilities with caution. It intends to discern out a career path taken by the advertising personalities. Finally, the paper undertakes to suggest some guidelines to further upgrade the level of advertising of the country and to promote the entire marketing environment by ensuring that all the stakeholders of the industry can be benefited.

Methodology At first, the ad clips from various TV channels are recorded with the help of an internal TV card installed onto a personal computer. Then only those clips with some considerable distinctions are spotted for analyzing. The distinctions, either drastic or not, are enumerated under the headings such as nuances, subliminality, shortcomings etc. Alongside, the whole range of advertisements on the billboards and newspapers throughout the year 2008 and 2009 are observed and analyzed for distinctions. Important trends are spotted and afterwards more ad-clips are recorded and analyzed to highlight and accentuate the trends. No hard and fast calculations are carried out. All is considered from a holistic, all encompassing view.

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Findings and Discussions

Attractiveness Prevails over Credibility of Sources Majority of the advertisements cast beautiful and attractive models rather than the knowledgeable and experts. In fact, there are shortages of celebrity experts in the fields of sports, culinary or engineering. Famous culinary experts like Siddika Kabir, Keka Ferdousi, royal cook Tomy Miah, hair expert Jawed Habib, cricketer Sakib Al Hasan, Masrafee, are but a few. There is dearth of celebrity experts in most other fields. The areas of health, sports other than cricket, news anchors, professionals in teaching, dentistry or cardiology, organizational heads and others have remained uncared and unexplored. Consequently, the ad-agencies are to resort to the attractive models. These models in turn enjoy some sort of transcendence and secularity with respect to the variety of product they endorse for.

Abstraction of the Content from the Intended Message Among the nuances in the Bangladeshi advertisements is the abstraction of the content from the intended message. There come some advertisements where logical claims or claims on products‘ superiority that the ads intend to communicate never get voiced. Rather, there is an effort to create an impression only. These ad-clips are relatively longer and relates to the deep-set human feelings like patriotism, fraternal longing and affection, freedom etc. For example, an ad-clip shows some children stealing flowers from a garden early in the morning. The owner of the garden chases them out of the garden. Later, to his utter astonishment the garden owner discovers that they are making a replica of the Shahid Minar, the monument resembling the martyrs of the great language movement, on which they yearned to put the garlands of flowers as a mark of tribute to the martyrs. Then he felt sympathetic and he himself brought garlands to them. The scene with its serene morning panorama creates patriotic feelings in the audience. At this very last moment the name of Grameen Phone is just pronounced once; nothing is said about the product nor is anything claimed. Many other clips fall in the category as in a piece where a middle aged woman laments over the faded memory of her younger 109 brother, with his photograph in her hand, whom she left beyond a river bank, in a dark night, in the rush days of the Independence War in 1971. A message of condolence goes for all such aggrieved souls losing their dear ones in the liberation war. At the very end of the scene, the company name is quietly but clearly pronounced. Again, nothing is said about the product nor anything claimed. There is a notable effort from the ad-maker to apply classical learning by casting before the audience a series of such abstract advertisements so that they can learn to relate the advertisements to the sponsor company. All companies cannot afford to air this type of long advertisements. Grameen Phone, Bangla Link and other large revenue companies only step into such ventures.

Subliminality Introduced to Advertisements The concept of subliminal effect was first introduced in marketing by market researcher James Vicary back in 1957. It is a proof of advancement in advertising in Bangladesh that advertisers successfully use the concept to create deeper imprints on audience psychology. Take for example the advertisement claiming ―Alo ashbey‖, that is, ―light will come‖. The advertisement re-iterates the only claim-―light will come‖ with an elusive and deep tone redolent of something vital, more than ordinary. In coherence to the profound tone, blurred and sublime arabesques of female figures go on eloquently dancing and whirling with the indicative mode of liberty of women power. Other subliminal effects like subdued voice, songs for arousal, hypnotic poses are also in practice today.

Over-practice of Colloquialism The advertising industry is not beyond the ambit of linguistic decadence observed in Bangladesh. Almost all the media are using aberrant forms of Bangla language. Vernaculars from the districts of Barisal, Noakhali, Magura, Pabna and those from the older part of Dhaka city are endemic in advertisements for different products. Almost invariably, these colloquies assume some sense of humor that amuses people but the practice veritably 110 mars the linguistic knowledge base of some sects of people. Specially, the youngsters are the most vulnerable to this malpractice. Even the students are speaking the nonstandard forms of Bangla.

Use of Direct vs. Indirect Source/Spokesperson Many of the advertisements exhibit the use of models who do not convey any verbal message; rather they just appear to embellish the ad ie as indirect sources. Female models are more frequent as indirect sources. Appearances of pairs are also common as indirect source. The castings of indirect sources in couple to adventurous or romantic settings are often irrelevant to the products of interest.

Career Path of Modeling Interwoven With other Industries The artistes have been seen to beat an apparent path consisting of some sequential footsteps in their career. A close observation of the creative thinkers, copy-writers, illustrators, models, producers, media planners and others of the like may reveal a clear course of expected positions motivating and leading these professionals at different stages of their career. However, the path is woven into other industries in Bangladesh. The career track has become conspicuous starting with a model and continuing up to a film producer and beyond, to some self-actualizing position in the state mechanism. Lately, it has become a frequently observed phenomenon that novices start career as models in an advertisement clips. Then they are promoted to play a role of minor characters in some TV plays and upon rendition of several successful episodes, get established as professional/affiliated models in advertisements as well as characters in TV plays. Then they wait for the auspicious moment to do something legendary in advertisements or in short films. Afterwards, they aspire to produce ad-clips on their own and yet later, to become a film producer or director.

Obviously, the younger performers are meticulously pursuing the course, though not all. They seriously strive to take modeling as sole profession but small and irregular pay makes it necessary to take it as part-time

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(Shehreen and Karim, 2010). The following table summarizes the present status of the media personalities in their career.

Table: Career Paths of Ad Personalities

Afjal Hossen: Character in TV play → Ad Producer → Character in move Afsana Mimi: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play Api Karim: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play Apurbo: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play Asaduzzaman Noor: Cultural worker → Character in TV play → Producer → an MP Bipasha Hayat: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play → Co-producer of TV play Dighi: Child model in ad clip → Character in cinema Ferdous: Ramp model → Hero in movies → Intends to produce films in future Mahfuj: Character in TV play → Intending to produce films Masud Hassan: BBC reporter → Actor in short film and TV play → Ad modeling Mim: Child model in ad clip → Character in TV play Momotaj: Folk singer → Model in ad clips → Member of Parliament Mou: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play Romana: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play Tania Ahmed: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play → Producer Tinni: Model in ad clips → Character in TV play → Affiliated model Source: Websites, TV channels and newspapers of Bangladesh in 2008, 2009 Directing or producing films earns them much renown and almost all the times it becomes their life passion. At the same time, they make ad-clips on commercial basis now and again. Models in advertisements promoting their career to TV play to short films to cinema; then directing a piece of ad then play then film industry and so on.

A simple diagram as follows may depict the trend-

Child Model in ad- Model Film model in clips, or Ad-clip or Positions affiliated producer radio or → actress in → → short film → → in the State with a or TV ads short film or producer mechanism commercial director etc TV plays Figure: Career trend of ad models 112

A Sense of National and Individual Freedom Very recently, it has become vividly conspicuous that the advertisements are rich with a sense of independence. The most noticeable is that, ‗Jagoroner Gann‘ (reviving songs) is a buzz in the entire environment of advertising. The telecommunications companies of Bangladesh are doing a good thing to promote an environment auguring well for the sense of independence. Individual freedom and self-establishment is also expressed through recent advertisements. As already said, personal achievement, self-consciousness and other individualistic attributes in advertisements express a sense of personal freedom.

Exchange Relationship of Advertising with the TV, Cinema and Choreography There have been noticeable exchange relationships of the advertisement industry with TV, short film and cinema in Bangladesh. As the artistes in TV, cinema and short films are to play vital roles in creative works, expressiveness, production, and presentation along with linguistic and literary levels a bit similar to those necessary for advertising, they naturally acquire the essential qualities required in the advertising industry. The exchange relationship among these industries is easily observed in the practices like use of common models in advertisements, TV plays, short films and cinemas; the evolution of models to ad- producers to film developers, and so on. Most of the famous people in the arena are common assets to all these industries. Mostofa Sarwar Farooki is not only a successful ad-producer but also a producer of TV plays and the trendsetter in the present day Bangla telefilm. Tinni is not only a super model of Bangladeshi advertisement but also a star of TV plays. Mou was not merely an affiliated model with Keya beauty soap; she is a master dancer indeed.

Affiliation with the Journalism Industry The advertising industry in Bangladesh gets sincere cooperation from journalism as an industry. All the daily newspapers along with many other periodicals have daily or weekly pages dedicated to anchor the news and 113 pictures of advertising industry. They employ reporters and photojournalists to that end, who are experts in reporting on such an industry. They feel the pulse of the audience and tailor the stories to the audiences‘ psyche. Many of the budding models get introduced to the audience and readers through these pages.

Innovativeness The audience has already noticed that advertisers have gone far to search for space for ads not only physical but also digital. However, some innovative efforts attract amazement like the TV or radio news headings named after a commercial; the advertisers even buy TV news intervals for promotion. It was quite novel in Bangladesh that a newspaper can use a cover page for advertisement. The daily Prothom Alo introduced special cover page advertisement for the City Bank when it fetched American Express back to Bangladesh again. Advertising in the coming days may easily enter in line with and fitted within the daily soap or mega serials. The artistes of the daily soap or serials will suddenly start acting ads without any type of notice to the audience. The customers will cope themselves to the new situation and take it for granted as they did with the intervention of the ads previously.

Not only Communicative but also Recreational Now the advertisements not only communicate a piece of product information but also provide the audience with much amusement and fun. Mahfuz Ahmed, a famed actor turned director of TV play and producer of TV ads evaluates the works of his predecessors in this way- ―Amitav Reza and Mostofa Sarwar Farooki have heralded a distinctive dimension to the ad-clips; now the audience even enjoys the ads. They do not seem to be merely 30-40 second ad-clips, rather resemble complete cinemas‖ (Prothom Alo, 2009). The claim appears correct when we see the ―Nana-nati advertisements‖ (the grand father and his grand son). They are really humorous and witty. A Keya Ball soap advertisement cast in a setting of an election campaign depicts a candidate to the chairmanship of Union Council feels 114 embarrassed at the brighter presence of an aide clad in a shirt whiter than his one. Incidentally, the shirt was washed with Keya Ball soap. The facial expression and comical threat by the candidate to his aide in the ad-piece create much fun and enjoyment among the audience.

Motive of Making ads The interest in making ads emanates from diverse drives. Some make ad out of passion while others want to have a tap on creativity and production before trying something greater. Mahfuz Ahmed says on his launching of first TV advertisement, ―My ultimate goal is film-making. Preparing for that, I am regularly making plays and this time I have made some advertisements to that end.‖ (Daily Prothom Alo, Friday 6 March 2009). On the other hand, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki is a reputed TV play and short-film maker who produces ads often on passion.

Influence on Culture Cultural elements put forward by advertisements today are confidence, competition, individualism, freedom of women, self expression, self establishment, hedonism (the eat-drink-and-enjoy stance of life), beauty- consciousness, loquaciousness, romance etc. In the heart of today‘s advertising industry infests greed, selfishness, ostentatiousness and voracity. Actually, the desired qualities like fellow feeling, caring and sharing, donating etc are nearly absent in today‘s advertisements; and though visible ever, swallowed up and overwhelmed by the aforesaid maladies.

In addition, there are some advertisements promoting bohemian and vagabond lifestyles. Grameen Phone promotes the urge- ‗Harie Jao‘ by the juvenile models with abnormal lifestyles and bizarre dress-ups, which seems to be a sinister call for the juveniles to a disastrous loss in an ominous future. The dream of a future generation full of innocence, responsibility, respect, study, knowledge and patience is totally disappearing.

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A Shift in Sponsorship Advertising has remodeled the form of patronization today. At present, commercial undertakings have replaced the royal patronizing authorities. There was a time when ancient kings in Bangladesh patronized the contemporary cultural and literary works with expense from the public exchequer. They enthusiastically commissioned considerable amounts to keep ‗shwabha kobis‘ (poets of the royal court) and bhars (the comedians) in the royal palaces. Biddapoti embellished the position of ‗the poet of Royal court of Mithila‘ under the reign of King Shibsing who awarded Biddapoti the soubriquet ―Kobikonthahar.‖ Zamidar Roghunath patronized the poet Mukundaram who wrote ―Chandimongol‖. Raja Krishna Chandra Majumder patronized the poet Bharotchandra who wrote ―Biddasundor‖ and the poet was entitled ‗Raygunakor‘. Magan Thakur, the prime minister of Arakan, placed poet Alaol at a highly respected seat in the palace of Arakan and thus he could cotribute to the rich translated literatute of Bangla in the middle ages. The ruler Rokonuddin Borboksha, Ashraf Khan and many others also patronized our ancient poets and kabials (bards). The ancient rulers Paragal Khan and Chuti Khan patronized the great literary work Mahabharat by Kobindra Poromeshwar and Srikor Nondi respectively in the middle ages. Now, in the changed circumstances, national and multinational companies are sponsoring various cultural programs. Everyday numerous concerts, musical soirees, exhibitions, model hunting competitions, sport events etc are taking place, backed by the sponsorships of companies. ‗Jui‘, a brand of coconut oil, presents the recently released romantic cinema ‗Monpura‘. Among the talent hunting programs, the Lux-Channel-i Superstar, ATN Bangla Trokader Taroka, and Close-up-One on the ntv are some examples. Managers of all the cricket, football, tennis and hockey matches take special efforts to collect sponsorships.

Advertisements Turned Pseudo News It is a very common experience to see pieces of news on the TV and come up to features in the newspapers that bear no news value on their own merit. They are technically placed in the flow of other news items on the

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TV, radio or newspapers with the same natural tone of news so that the audience takes it as news. Consider a news item on the TV that informs that a private commercial bank opened a new branch somewhere in the country and Mr X or Y of the management was present in the occasion. The piece takes considerable time, far more than usual, to show the video footage of the occasion and broadcast the recorded part of the speech by the top management personnel. The fact is that, in Bangladesh branch opening of different banks is a commonplace event that does not deserve so long airtime. The same news comes in the newspapers on the following day with sizeable space for photographic and text description. Nevertheless, the audience cannot imagine that the entire story is paid for. The situation resembles what the theorist and historian Daniel J. Boorstin calls ―pseudo event‖ in one of his famous books (Boorstin,1992). Therefore, the same news turned advertisement can easily be labeled ―pseudo-news‖.

Month and Time Based Surfeit The industry exhibits a glut of fresh advertisements on some occasions round the year. December, the month of victory in the fight for national freedom, brings a row of advertisements marking victory and frenzy; March, the month of independence, provokes an array of ads colored with freedom and national appreciation. February, the month of language, prompts free music and advertisements redolent of the Language Movement. Two Eids, Puja ceremonies, sultry summers, bleak winters, festive parliamentary elections etc turn to be good reasons to induce streams of theme-based advertisements.

Nuisance of Advertising Advertising also creates nuisance today. It encroaches all the openness of the city, pollutes sound by new video display units placed at the shopping- hubs. Some below-the-line advertisements are rampant, creating public nuisance. They are not in the least fact-checked. Handouts and slips likely to promote the sex pills, herbals etc are often thrown into buses through the windows to the annoyance of the passengers.

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Distinctive Nuances Many of the advertisements exhibit constructive nuances contributing to the body of Bangladeshi advertisements. ‗Fair & Lovely‘ empowers their customers with the ability to become ‗fairness experts‘ themselves. Advertisement of ‗Doctor Milk Candy‘ embraces characters from ‗Ek Dui Tin Sisimpur‘, a popular TV-serial for children. ‗Wheel‘ introduces a ‗whiteness scale‘ to enable the customers to compare whiteness with. ‗Asian City‘, a construction firm, metes out fresh humor amid the customers by incorporating a Bengali proverb ‗Nake tel die ghumao‘ tapping linguistic resources of Bangla literature. Many of the recently released advertisements by the phone companies like Grameen Phone and Banglalink do exhibit excellence in emancipating people from prejudice, ignorance and lack of information. They empower their customers through information.

Flaws and Faults The advertisements recorded and analyzed revealed some flaws and faults. Even the lay audience can sense them with common sense. In addition, some are subjects to esoteric interest and deep understanding of the subject. ‗Aktel‘ associates a picture of a huge elephant to convey the message that ―patronizing ‗Aktel‘ is not as costly as tending an elephant‖. However, it clearly violates the general norm of positive/direct communication for good news. The billboard advertisement prompts to the customer at first sight that ―the product is as costly as tending an elephant‖; which is contrary to the intended message. Here, nonverbal message (the picture) contradicts the written message. ‗Brittle Biscuits‘ intends to introduce a buzz ‗khaite khaite jai bela‘, that is, ‗time passed on munching (biscuits)‘. However, in Bangladeshi culture, it hears odd if one speaks of passing time on biscuits. It exemplifies an inappropriate association. The expression seems appropriate to items like chewing gum, chanachur, baked dals and peas etc. ‗Surf Excel‘ influences children to deliberately get sullied or to draw, scratch or stain onto the interiors of their home in order to do ‗darun kichu‘, indicating some thing excellent in future. In reality, children can and do many excellent things in cleaner ways. There is little need to filthify or tarnish the clean ways of learning and living.

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Impact on Children Television advertisements teach children many bad habits that are contrary to the sense of sound life. Our school texts teach children to have all types of food items with due zeal whereas television advertisements influences them to be choosy and problematic for the parents. ‗Eldomilk‘ shows a boy child thrust out his mouthful of rice awkwardly and claim ‗khabo na‘, meaning ‗I will not eat‘. It categorically violates the norms promoted in the school texts. Another ad shows a mother who claims in a ‗Pran Orange Juice‘ advertisement that oranges are sour and her child does not eat natural oranges. Rather she is happy that her child drinks ‗Pran Orange Juice‘. The reality is that the juice is packed with much preservative dangerously harmful for the kidneys of the children. At the same time Bangladeshi market environment is infested with unbridled adulteration (Khan M. A. 2010). Children are sometimes depicted as greedy and selfish. An ad for a potato-cracker encourages them to lock the door to enjoy it alone. On the other hand a girl child model increases her friends by distributing her chips and crackers. Clearly, one promotes selfishness and the other openheartedness.

Prospects of Advertising in Bangladesh

Learning From More Mature Cultures The industry is going on learning many things from more mature markets and nations with long heritage of rich culture as Mostofa Sarwar Farooki gets inspiration from the famous Iranian film producer Abbas Kiarostami. The trend to follow Indian advertisements in Bangladesh will continue as is true in the case of TV serials.

Digitization of Advertising Media The industry will gradually shift its base to more digital communications. Mobile, broadcast TV and Internet advertising will mar the growth of mass media based advertising on TV, radio, newspaper, and magazine as evident in western countries.

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Increase in Niche Advertising Niche advertising swells at the presence of well-defined and well- distinguished social groups. Social media and social networking sites as these networks usually connect smaller groups of people but clearly defined and similar in nature as customers. Networks like ‗facebook‘ are very popular and pools friend groups who interchange almost all thoughts and share practical problems of daily life. Therefore, marketers will try to knock such cost-effective, self-motivated niches. Members of the group generally greet information from these sites more cordially and without any business mentality.

Emergence of Freelancers Companies will arrange competitions for the business students and creative people of different fields to conceive innovative ideas and buy them with instant cash and thus reduce their agency cost. Already, a group of business students from different private universities have mastered some technological skills to use sophisticated instruments to make advertisements. Some of them have learnt how to conceive the innovative ideas that get noticed. So it can be avowed with some assurance that freelancers will boom.

A Bulging Industry At present, the Tk.1200-crore-industry is booming at the rate of 10% per year; the credit goes to the intense battle among the major phone companies over winning customers (Rahman, 2010). The trend says there will be more academic excellence in advertisements, more application of psychological methods and conditioning. Advertisements will be still more of fun and enjoyment. Number and types of advertising will bulge in the coming days. Customers will gain pleasure from them but will remember only those with greater psychological impact.

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Demand for Full Service Agencies In the face of heightened competition, companies will spend more on promotion. They will make binding relations with the full service agencies, not only for advertisements but also for other forms of promotions, especially online promotions. As the trend of publicity is already on, some portion of the advertising budget will be allocated to the favorable depiction of the marketer or the products through indirect methods like coverage in reports, magazines, films, TV plays, sponsorship of events etc.

A Complete but Interwoven Career Path The careers of majority advertisement personalities will follow the path portrayed earlier in this article whereas experts from other fields will fetch breakthroughs to the industry. Therefore, advertising will always be a career interwoven with other highly expressive areas. The industry will next search for experts in all walks of life. The transcendence of the attractive models will be affected once experts in other fields realize their potentials in advertisement just as the case of Bangladeshi cricketers today. Competition will ease out much of today‘s inequities and irregularities of payments and honorariums to the artists and models.

Advertising in education Media and advertisement courses will open a door to private universities just in the same way as journalism has given an opportunity to them in Bangladesh. As already stated, business students of this digital age are very alert and creative. They are very much eager to take the challenge of creativity. The universities also will come forward to satiate the demand of the day.

Conclusions and Policy Implications Pursue Academic Depth Advertisers should explore deeper in academic areas like sources from different new fields, novel dimensions of credibility, trustworthiness and attractiveness, message formats, new aspect rational and emotional appeal, 121 various execution styles, subliminaity, refutation, sidedness, contrast, comparative advertisement etc. in this way they can easily avoid the humdrums of traditional ads and attract audience more efficiently.

Reduce the Use of Indirect Sources Advertisements in the country have long been under the spell of beauty girls and fashion forward males. It seems that the people involved here considered only the ‗likability‘ feature of the models. Actually, the use of indirect models in ads is somewhat akin to the use of passive sentences in a piece of business writing; both being boring to the audience. However, recent advertisements have shown that persons severely lacking beauty or likability may well prove apt/attractive to the audience by dint of ‗familiarity‘ to and more specifically ‗similarity‘ with the audience. The use of an unfamiliar and undersized young male model in the role of varsity-admission seeking student in a Grameen Phone ad made the clip the most attractive. Similar other pieces prove that the industry, today, can replace the use of indirect models for attractiveness with other models apt for the situation.

Digitally Tap the Untapped Talents Advertisers should utilize information technology to tap the creative power of unfamiliar but genuine talents who are less cared and unevaluated. These people may remain unexplored in all walks of life. Students often do not find any scope to vent their creative ideas generated in their course works. This digital age provides them much opportunity to be creative but their ideas do not see the auguring face of fruition in practical field due to the absence of opportunity.

Regularize Remuneration The models and creative personnel work under pressure, as they do not have regularly salaried jobs. If they have permanent jobs, modeling is secondary. Therefore, they cannot give full concentration to their creative work. Advertisers must ensure their regular remuneration to ensure quality work.

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Fetch Inter-disciplinary Cooperation Inter-disciplinary cooperation must be encouraged to enhance advertising. In fact advertising is like a form of collage art that makes room for almost everything real, unreal or surreal. It offers an ample opportunity to intermingle literary lucidity, historical evidence, fictional fantasy, scientific precision or universal truth. Creative people from all academic areas should be fetched to enhance the industry.

References Akter, S. (2008) Telecom operators‘ battle fuels increase in advertising spend. The Daily Star, 02 March, Business Page Boorstin, D. J. (1992). The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-events in America. Vintage. ISBN:0679741801 Bangladesh National Parliament Secretariat. (2009). List of MPs in 9th National Parliament of Bangladesh. http://www.parliament.gov.bd/9th_Parliament_MP%20List.pdf (January 23, 2010) http://www.bdyellowbook.com/catalog/Business___Services/Advertising_Agencies___C ounselors/ (February19, 2010) Bangladesh Yellow Pages. http://www.dhakanews.info/share-of-television-advertisement-robi-crosses-grameen- phone%E2%80%99s-cost-on-tvc/ (August 20, 2010) Rahman, M. (2010). Share of television advertisement: Robi crosses Grameen Phone‘s cost on TVC. Dhaka News (July 26, 2010). http://www.utalkmarketing.com/Pages/Article.aspx?ArticleID=14500&Title=TV_is_mos t_effective_advertising_medium_ (January 20, 2010) UTalkMarketing. (2010). ―TV is most effective advertising medium‖. Industry Research. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/A_0049.htm (March 09, 2010). Anwar S. F. (2006). Advertising. Banglapedia. Prothom Alo (2009) Bigyaponchitro Nirmata, 06 March: pp 22. Shehreen, I. K., Karim, E. (2009) ―Facing the Spotlight‖. Stories Behind the News. The Daily Star, 25 December Khan, M. A. (2007) Inverse Relationship Between Price and Adulteration. The New Nation, 20 November

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Appendix

Advertisements of Academic Interest

Renowned/ Length Identification Theme used Affiliated Target group Sponsor Subliminality Nuances Lacking (sec) model Aktel uddakta 30 Self N Entrepreneurs Aktel N ------dependence Mayer trisna 60 Filial love Service holder ------bojhe Anwar cement 30 Patriotism Y Builders Anwar Y ------cement Kache thakun 30 Pastoral N Villagers GP N ------Testa 30 Confidence Y Young Pepsi N ------1952, 69, 71 20 Fiery N Mass BL Y ------Khaite khaite jai 30 Y Young Brittle N Inconsistent ------bela biscuits Aktel means 20 N U Aktel N Associating Inverse --- economy elephant communiqué Dag theke darun 40 N Children Surf Excel N Malpractice ------kichu Sorry dosto 30 Embarrassment N U Citycell N FnF party --- Manush bache 45 Social N Mass DBBL N Unrelated --- ashai commitment Fairness expert 30 Y Fair & N Customer ------Lovely power Gol gol shocti 30 Y Child Doctor milk N Sisimpur ------candy Character Truthfulness 40 Truthfulness N Child Pepsodent N ? --- Dhobdhobe 40 Comparison Y Mass Wheel N White scale --- shadar proman Pran Milk Candy 30 Excel Child Pran False ------communiqué Taja hoe jao 60 Achievement Y Mass Unilever N Assimilating to Miss-association Bidrohi Nake tel die 30 Relief Y Asian city Bangla ------ghumao expression Black horse 40 Energy Y Young Black Associating ------horse band music Women discuss 40 N House-wife Unilever N Social ------wheel conversation Chawalta vary 30 Power of N Students GP Information ------badob hoheche information window Amar baba tar 60 Power of N Mass BL Information ------baba information window Harie jao GP Destructive to ------the society Khabona Parents of Eldomilk Teaches bad ------children habit Tok je beshi ------Children Pran juice ------Health hazard

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‗MONGA’- A SEASONAL FOOD INSECURITY AND ITS IMPACT ON POVERTY IN BANGLADESH: A LOCAL ISSUE IN NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE

Profulla C. Sarker1 & M. Abul Hossain Sikder2

Key Words: Monga. Food Insecurity. Mechanism. Poverty.

Abstract: This paper discusses the concept of ‗monga‘ and identification of location of ‘monga’ in geo-social settings. This paper also discusses the incidence of ‘monga’ in an analytical framework along with the main victims of ‘monga’ and how it affects the life and society of the people in relation to poverty. The main objectives of this paper is to examine the mechanisms that have already been applied by the poor to exist in this crisis situation and the services available by the GOs and NGOs to prevent as well as to reduce poverty as a local issue in national perspective.

Introduction The economy of Bangladesh is largely dependent on agriculture. About 21 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP) and 23 per cent exports of the country come from agriculture. It provides employment for about 60 per cent of the total labor force and it seems to have managed to feed 160 million people of the country. Access to land and livelihood is a crucial factor for survival of the rural poor (BBS 2009). Hartman and James (1979) emphasize the importance of land ownership in Bangladesh and rightly point out that land determines who eats and who does not. Land is a crucial asset for food production and a means for food, shelter and many other economic activities including guarantor of employment opportunity. Land ownership is, thus, an important contributor to food insecurity and restricted livelihood opportunities leading to an ultimate cause of poverty (Barkat et al. 2007). Historically, the ‘monga’ affected region was never a food-deficit. Now this region is considered food deficit, because it is

1 Professor & Vice Chancellor, Prime University 2 Professor and Vice Chancellor (Acting), Atish Dipankar University of Science and Technology 125 within the vulnerable grip of the mighty rivers viz. Padma, Jamuna, Teesta, Jamunashwari, Dud Kumar, Darla etc. and as a result agricultural production largely depends upon the adverse effect of climate change and natural disasters. The term ‗monga‘ is used during the food crisis in northern Bangladesh which covers five districts viz. Rangpur, Lalmonirhat, Nilphamarri, Kurigram, and Gaibandha of Rangpur Division in Bangladesh. The concept of ‘monga’ is used in the other parts of Bangladesh in different terms such as ‗akal’ or ‗ovab‘ which express scarcity. The real connotation of those terms is poverty. ‘Monga’ is caused by natural disasters like floods, river bank erosion, draughts, tropical storms, cyclones, sediment of sand on cultivable land and tornadoes. Natural disasters are causing extensive damage to crops, lives, and properties. Consequently, people in that area face seasonal food insecurity due to unemployment. Work determines who eats and who does not during ‗monga’. A map is stated here to get clear perception on the locations of ‗monga‘. Poverty in this region with other poverty stricken areas show significant co-relation where people could not afford to eat more than 1,805 kcal per day (Zug,2006:10). Due to the character of the river Jamuna, Teesta and Padma, people of those areas are being affected by natural disasters which are putting them in poverty. Natural disasters limit the agricultural activities and other employment opportunities. The geographical, ecological, socio-economic phenomenon fueled the prevalence of ‘monga’. This paper discusses the concept of ‗monga‘ and identification of location of ‘monga’ in geo-social settings. This paper also discusses the incidence of ‘monga’, in an analytical framework along with the main victims of ‘monga’ and how it affects the life and society of the 126 people in relation to poverty. The main objectives of this paper is to examine the mechanisms that have already been applied by the poor to exist in this crisis situation and the services available by the GOs and NGOs to prevent as well as to reduce poverty as a local issue in national perspective.

Conceptual Issues The word, ‘monga’ has been derived from Hindi language ‗mehenga’ meaning ‗expensive‘ which indicates high food price, poverty and hunger. ‗Monga’ is a word which means scarcity of food due to natural calamities in lean season. It has been observed twice in a year in northern region of Bangladesh when agricultural activities become off just before the seasonal harvesting. During this period the landless agricultural laborers become unemployed and their food stocks exhausted and job opportunities declined and the poorer section of people fall in serious food crisis. This situation is called ‘monga’ in local term. It indicates acute deprivation due to erosion of purchasing capacity of the poor because of their unemployment. As viewed by Zug (2006) ‘monga’ is a cyclical food insecurity which occurs during the lean season that directly affects the people who are involved in agricultural activities. The concept of ‗monga’ is restricted in lean season (mid September to mid November) which reduces the people‘s access to income to support the hungry mouths. It is a seasonal deprivation of poor and they are involved in poverty. Poverty means lack of resources, underemployment, low income, food insecurity and hunger, lack of shelter, poor health and lack of social security and dignity. In conventional economic sense, poverty might be defined as lack of employment and income resulting in incapability of providing a minimum standard of living with reference to food, housing, cloth, health, water and sanitation, education and social safety.

Research Methodology This paper is based on secondary data, primarily through literature review and targeted interviews with the key informants from cross-section of people and experts. Focus Group Discussion (FGD) method has been 127 applied to collect information on ‗manga‘ situation. In addition, case study method is used to collect in depth information on this issue . The key informants were the local leaders, professionals, and the people of civil society. The data are fairly consistent and reliable, although there are some discrepancies between government and non-government sources. The emphasis has been given on qualitative analysis but some quantitative data has been used to supplement the qualitative analysis.

The Victims of ‘Monga’ The main victims of ‘monga’ are the people whose incomes mainly depend on agricultural labor and marginal farming e.g. landless and land poor people. ‗Monga’ is a seasonal employment shortage associated with lower intake of food. It has been observed that the people have to reduce the number of meals during ‗monga‘. Similar findings are also found by Ahmed (2005) in his research works of other regions of Bangladesh. The different data shows that the ‗monga‘ affected districts are generally poor compared to other districts. The people are largely the agricultural labor and their wage rate is lower compared to outside of ‘monga’ area. For an example, Kurigram is the only district across Bangladesh, where 50 percent of the total population is day laborer. It is found that the primary group of ‗monga‘ affected people consists of those, who have to rely on agricultural labor as their major source of income. It has been observed that they have only income according to agricultural seasonality which is determined by paddy cultivation. Many of them live from hand to mouth, if they are not able to earn especially in lean season, they have to face food insecurity. The marginal farmers possess some amount of land and they are identified as ‗land poor‘ people. This land is not able to provide food as required by the owners, because of natural calamities like draughts, floods, river bank erosion and sediment of sand. The small business men like hawkers who sell crockery, clothes, food grains, etc. do not get customers during ‗monga’ because of less purchasing capacity and as a result their income goes down. The female headed families are the worst sufferers of ‗monga‘ because they do not have source of income and as a result they have to live on charity and relief. Many males migrate in search of employment as day

128 laborer and rickshaw puller. It has been reported by the van pullers that their income reduces in lean season because they use this transport for agricultural goods. Basket is used for storing the paddy. The basket makers do not get consumers to sell their products during the lean season. ‗Monga’ may differ in severity within the households. There is a gender dimension concerning the intra-household allocation of food in Bangladesh. Haddad et al. (1996) found that a pro-male bias in food allocation appears to be most prevalent at the household level in South Asia, including Bangladesh. It has been found that the children and the pregnant women and mothers during the lactation period face the greatest nutritional risks within the household during ‘monga’ (WFP, 2005). The mothers and the children are the main victims of ‘monga’ due to discrimination of food allocation in patriarchal social system.

Incidence of ‘Monga’ The incidence of ‘monga’ involves an interplay or interface of so many diverse elements, such as institutional aspects in the form or structure of economic, social, political and natural systems of a particular society or region. All these interacting forces have a direct relationship with asset ownership of the suffering people of the community wherein monga takes place. Thus the most important assets, among others, are land, labor, services and resources, employment and income opportunities, natural forces including climate change and environmental issues of natural disasters like floods, river bank erosion, excessive rainfall, flash Source: Research Report, North Bengal Institute, RDRS, floods, high temperature, Bangladesh, 2009. 129 droughts, cyclones, typhoons, water surges, severe cold, hailstorms that directly inflict upon the community in connection with crop loss, and asset loss which putting the community in pauperization in terms of landless, homeless, rootless and ultimately forcing them to migrate from one place to another. Thus the combined effects of all these factors cause deprivation of food which leads to what is called ‘monga’ – a seasonal insecurity of food in a lean season of a particular period of the year (see the analytical framework of incidence of ‗monga‘). The crucial issues of ‗monga’ are the seasonal deprivation of food due to absence of agricultural activities for the farm labors and thus leaving no scope of income earning for them. To a question, ‗why ‘monga’ occurs in five districts in Rangpur division only and not in other areas, about 23 percent respondents from focus group opined that no work opportunity is there in the lean season of ‘Ashwin- Kartick’ (mid- September to mid- November) prior to harvesting of amon paddy since the region is absolutely dependent on agriculture, followed by 21 percent as river erosion and floods, another 12 percent as perennial floods destroy crops and make the victims paupers, more than 14 percent reported as no industrial enterprises or mills and factories as an alternate source of income and still a significant number of FGD informants viewed it as most of the poor people are illiterate as they are unemployed, idle, inarticulate and no scope for overseas employment. Some also expressed resentment against the local political leaders and well-off neighbors who do not support them in times of crisis nor do they take care of the poor community by extending their helping hands (Bhuiyan, 2009). No opportunities are available for skills development training making them eligible for gainful employment either at home or abroad. Two things now come to the fore: one is lack of work opportunity in agriculture sector, and the other is illiteracy making them unemployed compounded with no industrial establishment. The affluent neighbors are also not supportive to them in times of needs and crisis thus terming them of lacking social responsibility towards their poor neighbor (ibid).

Impact on Poverty ‘Monga’ creates disruption in the normal economic and social life and puts the people in chaos, destroys economy and social structure and contributes to replace social order. The breeding ground of poverty in

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‗monga’ affected areas is lost of seasonal crops due to floods, river bank erosion and draught. The victims are subject to absolute poverty as well as culture of poverty. The land less agricultural laborers and the land poor cultivators could not meet minimum requirement to survive due to seasonal crop failure and they are considered as absolute poor. On the other hand, women are subject to gender discrimination due to traditional customs, beliefs and value system. They need to be satisfied with little whatever it is food, health care, clothing and education. The culture of feminization of poverty has great impacts on different phases of life cycle of women and as a result the women are inborn poor. For an example, culture of allocation of food at household level in gender perspective indicates that the women need to be satisfied with the rest of food after taking by male members. During ‘monga’, the poor households suffer greater losses in terms of physical and social assets, resulting in aggravating their poverty further. Such losses of assets trap households in chronic poverty and affect economic progress and social development. ‗Monga‘ affects the food and nutrition insecurity from pediatrics to geriatrics and as a result the women and children are the main victims. ‘Monga’ is defined as the situation created by nature that makes people vulnerable and poor to buy adequate quantity and quality of food. Under the circumstances, people consume cheap and sometimes unhygienic food along with wild plants. ‗Monga‘ is a popular expression for a severe food crisis in the lean season when most of the people do not get employment opportunity to access adequate food in terms of quantity, quality, safety and socio-cultural acceptablity. It should be noted that Bangladesh has achieved much progress in production of food grain including ‗monga‘ affected areas, but still a significant number of people remain half-fed or ill-fed every day, because of their extreme poverty situation, social inequality, and deprivation. A study was conducted by RDRS Bangladesh (2004) in ‗monga’ affected areas and found that most of the poor take inadequate amount of food having low calorie which was less than1600 kcal per day per person compared to minimum requirement of food for an active life is 2122 kcal. It has been found that about 2.5 percent households went on hungry without a single meal throughout the day, followed by 48.5 percent with 131 only one meal a day, 46 percent two meals a day, while 3 percent had three meals a day. This indicates that more than one-half of the households were either without meal or one meal a day affecting them to lead a life of occasional starvation either everyday or alternate day (Bhuiyan, 2009). About fifty percent people live under poverty line in ‗monga’ affected areas. The number of hungry mouth is increasing at alarming rate, because daily average income is less than one dollar. More than 56 percent people suffer from food insecurity. About 78 percent people are illiterate and 88 percent people have no scope to get training to stand by their own. The progress of universal primary education for all is not satisfactory and as a result 50 percent children under 10 years of age are out of school (Action Aid, 2010). Gender dichotomization in relation to education and health care facilities is another important issue of poverty in ‗monga‘ affected areas. The rate of growth of fertility is high, because 50.9% are children (RDRS, 2004). About 74 percent poor families have single earning member and the rest of 26 percent of them have two members. About 45 percent people are engaged in wage labor followed by 15 percent in begging, 12 domestic work, 4 percent van pulling, 3 percent fishing, 2 percent small trading and 19 percent are engaged in share cropping, handicraft making, boatmanship, and so on (ibid). About 97 percent people have no land for agriculture and 68 percent have homestead. Only 5 percent people have sanitary latrine and the rest of them have hang latrine, use dug-well and open air for defecation. The prevalence of diseases is high at times of flood. Especially when the flood water recedes, many water borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and other skin diseases are common. Among others, women and children have a high prevalence of water borne diseases.

Coping Mechanisms of the Poor Coping refers to the thoughts and actions people use to deal with the crisis situation. More specifically it is a process of managing to overcome the crisis through adaptation with the resources that are available. The coping mechanism means methods and techniques applied by the poor with limited available resources to get rid of this crisis situation in the ‘monga’

132 affected areas. It has already been mentioned that ‗monga‘ is a cyclical food insecurity which occurs during the lean season and directly affects those who are involved in agricultural activities as laborers or marginal farmers. This disadvantaged people search money in different ways for their daily consumption during the crisis period. There are some comparatively rich people and most of the time they take advantage from the poor during the crisis situation. The ‗quasi-economic‘ interest is observed behind the scenario of ‗monga’ in between the poor and the rich. The poor people sell their assets like livestock, poultry, land, and other movable assets cheaper than far below the market price in order to overcome this crisis. On the other hand, the rich people take the advantage to buy those things at cheaper prices. The main parameter of quasi-economic interest is that the poor people want to exist by selling their properties and the rich people are benefited by buying this property at cheaper rate. The poor people always try to minimize the ‗monga‘ on their livelihood using the different coping strategies. These are preventive, resource- opening, expenditure reduction and safety-net coping strategies. Many people take loans from money-lender with high interest during the crisis situation. The poor people sell their yield and labor in advance at low rate to the better-off. The better-off people use the worse situation of the rural poor for their personal profit. Bhattacharya (2005) pointed out that some poor, people sold one mound of paddy for 175-200 taka in advance during ‗monga‘ 2004, which was worth about 350 taka during the following harvest period. All mechanisms of lending money and selling labor and crops in advance bring certain mitigation for the people during crisis period as a temporary coping mechanism. The selling of assets like livestock, trees, bamboo, jewellery, and furniture is not the permanent mechanism to mitigate crisis. It has been reported that the assets that have been built up by the poor with the intention to sell them in times of need can be sold during ‗monga’ and these are considered as a security source to mitigate the crisis. It has been found that many people rely on cheaper or less preferred food. Even they depend on wild food to eat. To quote a mother:

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I am 42 years old widow. I have 3 young children; one is a son and others are daughters. I don’t have any land. I have a small hut beside the road and the land owned by the government which is called khas land. I am a day laborer and my two daughters were working as maid servant with little money ($ 2.00 per month along with food and accommodation) at the residence of better off people in the same village. My son is 8 years old and he is living with me. He is a student of grade two of a NGO school. He is also working in a tea stall as a part time worker without money. Just he gets two times meal. Now both the owner of the tea stall and one of the employers of my daughter refused to provide their employment, because of financial crisis. Under the circumstances, I could not find out any alternative what I should to do. Many poor people reported that they borrow food or take help from their relatives or friend to mitigate the crisis. Even some of the household members eat meals at the residence of relatives or friends by rotation. Many of them purchase food on credit. Many adult members of the family reduce consumption to provide food for the children. It has been reported by the law enforcement organizations that crime increases significantly during the crisis situation. To quote a thief: I am 38 years old and my name is Harun. I am a land less day laborer and live from hand to mouth. My family consists of five members. They are my father, wife, and one son and one daughter. My father could not work, because he is elderly and my wife is involved in house hold activities and my children are studying at secondary level. I am the only earning member of my family. Last two moths I did not get work and as a result I could not earn any money. My wife has managed because she borrowed money from my brother-in-law but this money has exhausted, so I don’t have any scope to buy food grain. My elderly father and the children are starving. I have tried to borrow money from my friends but I could not. Even I wanted to sell my labor in advance but no one has come forward to help me. Under the circumstances, I decided to be involved in stealing, otherwise I could not find out any alternative. I am not a professional thief but I have been compelled to involve myself in stealing due to extreme poverty and to provide food to the hungry mouths of children and elderly father.

It is found that some of the extreme poor people skip entire day without eating and many of their young children are working in bidi (tobacco stick) factories as bonded labor. It is very difficult for the poor to cross the boundary of poverty, because most of them are in poverty trap in different dimensions.

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Services for the ‘Monga’ Affected Poor The Local Government always plays an important role as the first responder during disaster situations as well as mitigating the local people‘s sufferings through Vulnerable Groups Development (VGD) program. This program combines food assistance with training and credit package keeping in view to enabling the victim women to improve their economic and social conditions. This project is divided into four sub-projects: (1) The Union Parishad VGD Centers; (2) The Women Training Centers; (3) The Institutional Feeding and Development Centers; and (4) The Group Leader/Extension Pilot Scheme. 1. The UPVGD sub-project aims to increase earning capacity of poor and distressed women, through skill development training and access to credit; to develop a savings habit and to increase functional knowledge of women through training and participation in the group activities; and to increase food intake of women and their families. This project is implemented by the Ministry of Relief and Rehabilitation and the local government structure at Upazila (sub-district) and Union Parishad (lowest administrative unit) in close cooperation of the World Food Program (WFP). The thrust of this project is to implement the Income Generation for Vulnerable Groups Development Program (IGVGD). It is a collaborative effort between the Directorate of Relief and Rehabilitation (DRR), Directorate of Livestock Services (DLS) and Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC). The program covers poorest of the poor and most disadvantaged group in ‘monga’ areas as well as Bangladesh. 2. The IGVGD program aims to develop poultry training as well as income earning activity for the VGD women, enabling them to earn cash income. For a two year period, they are provided with 31.25 kg. of wheat per month as an income transfer. In addition, they participate in a saving scheme. The VGD women who participate in the IGVGD program also receive loans through the DRR/BRAC Credit Scheme. The BRAC is providing motivation, training, group organization and the delivery of inputs and services to the VGD women. 135

Conclusion The term “Monga‖ is, nowadays, a widely used concept in Bangladesh. It is, in fact, a seasonal insecurity of food or in other words, it can be said as a seasonal deprivation of food due to lack of employment in farm sector and income earning opportunities in the monga-prone districts of greater Rangpur region. The inner thought, insights and explanation of Monga are embodied mainly in the agricultural arena where rural poor people cannot find any employment opportunities and income earning, whatsoever, between transplantation and harvesting of Amon paddy in the Bangla months of ‗Ashwin and Kartick’ (mid September-mid November). As a result, they used to face cash shortage to buy food items although these are abundantly available in the market. Here lies the difference between the concept of ‘monga’ and ‗famine‘ when money is available but not food due to its scarcity. Monga is therefore obviously a seasonal problem of access to food but not an analogy to famine or near-famine situation. An attempt is thus made to address the issue with more details empirically.

References Ali, Ahmed (2005) ― Livelihood and Food Insecurity in Rural Bangladesh-The Role of Social Capital‖. An Unpublished Ph. D Dissertation, Washington University. Bhuiyan, Abdul Hannan,AKM (2009) Agricultural Perspectives in terms of Access to Land and Livelihood Patterns of Monga affected Food and Ultra Poor People. Research Report, North Bengal Institute, RDRS, Bangladesh. Hadded, L., J., Hoddinott and Alderson, H. (1994) Choice of Indicators for Food Security and Nutrition Monitoring. Food Policy. 19(3): 329-343. Hartman, Betsy and James, Boyce K. (1979) Needless Hunger, Voice from a Bangladesh Village. Institute of Food and Development Policy, San Francisco. Mahmuda, K. (2006) Monga in North Bengal: Causes and Remedies. An Unpublished Research Paper. RDRS Bangladesh (2004) Survey on Food Security and Hunger. Brot fur die Welt. WFP (2006) Socio-Economic Profiles of WFP Operational Areas &Beneficiaries in Rural Banglasdesh. Tango International. Zug, Sebastian (2006) ‗Monga‘-Seasonal Food Insecurity in Bangladesh: Understanding the Problem and Strategies to Combat it. Research Report, NETZ Partnership for Development and Justice, Dhaka.

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Edited volume 2. Nye Jr, J.S., Zelikow, P.D. and King D.C. (eds.) (1997) Why People Don‘t Trust Government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Chapter in book 3. Flora, P. and Alber, J. (1981) Modernization, democratization, and the development of the welfare state. In: P. Flora and A.J. Heidenheimer 139

(eds.) The Development of Welfare States in Europe and America. New Brunswick and London: Transaction Books, pp. 17–34.

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Article in newspaper 5. Webster, B. (2008) Record bonus for Network Rail chief, despite Christmas chaos. The Times, 6 June: p1.

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Conference proceedings 8. Sapin, A. (ed.) (1985) Health and the Environment. Proceeding of the Conference on Biological Monitoring Methods for Industrial Chemiscals; 30-31 March 1984, Chicago, IL. Chicago: American Toxological Association.

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Dissertation/thesis 11. Young, W.R. (1981) Effects of different tree During Democratic Transition: The Malawi Social Action Fund 1996-2001. Brighton, UK: Institute of Development Studies. IDS Research Report no. 5.

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