Charcoal Usage in Medieval and Modern Times in the Harz Mountains Area, Central Germany: Wood Selection and Fast Overexploitation of the Woodlands

Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

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Charcoal usage in medieval and modern times in the Harz Mountains Area, Central Germany: Wood selection and fast overexploitation of the woodlands

* Hannes Knapp a, b, , Oliver Nelle c, Wiebke Kirleis a, b a Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology, Johanna-Mestorf-Strasse 2-6, Christian-Albrechts-University, D-24118 Kiel, Germany b Graduate School Human Development in Landscapes, Olshausenstrasse 40, Christian-Albrechts-University, D-24118 Kiel, Germany c Landesamt für Denkmalpflege Baden-Württemberg im Regierungsprasidium€ Stuttgart, Ref. 85, Dendrochronologisches Labor, Fischersteig 9, 78343 Hemmenhofen, Germany article info abstract

Article history: Anthracological analysis is increasingly used to reconstruct natural and anthropogenic woodland dy- Available online 26 February 2015 namics. Here, we combine macro-charcoal records from charcoal production sites (kiln sites) with such from archaeological sites to elucidate past forest composition and its dependency on past fuel economy Keywords: and human resource management. Archaeo-anthracology The anthracological investigations of seven medieval smelting sites in the Harz Mountains provide Kiln-anthracology detailed information about past fuel and woodland usage. First, the charcoal records allow for separation Medieval charcoal usage of chronological phases within the archaeological sites. Second, a selection of distinct wood species is Woodland development identified for the different smelting activities (silverecopper-production). Third, in addition to recon- structing the human activities related to ore smelting, it remains possible to reconstruct the local vegetation in the surroundings of the former smelting sites. The new anthracological investigations of kiln sites in the Harz Mountains focus on higher elevations (>600 mNN) and date to (early) modern times, showing a temporal and spatial shift of woodland exploitation to more remote, higher elevated areas. As expected, all typical taxa of the natural montane woodlands were used. Thus, local topographical conditions and natural woodland composition mainly regulate wood usage rather than human selection. Picea abies is the dominant species in all the records. However, surprisingly, local scale expansion of the montane beech woodland (Calamagrostio villosae- Fagetum) was identified, which reaches areas that today are fully covered by spruce woodland. Thus, the new results contradict the previously accepted assumption that the Harz Mountains above 750 mNN were covered by pure, natural stands of spruce until the 17th century. A recommendation for the woodland conservancy concept of the Harz national park, which includes tree planting to push woodland renaturalization is to add the planting of Fagus and Acer in elevations above 600 m. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction intensive smelting activity before the introduction of coal in the 19th century. The high wood demand for ore processing led to an For thousands of years, human economy, particularly mining as intensive alteration of woodland over time, often resulting in a well as ore processing has relied on wood and charcoal as the main completely transformation of the natural woodland into a silvi- source of fuel (Ludemann, 2010a,b). Besides the availability of ore, culture. Especially, charcoal production on kiln sites plays an continuous charcoal supply was one of the preconditions for important role and is one of the key activities for woodland usage in the central European low mountain ranges. Therefore, kiln sites can be found in high density in central European low mountain ranges (Hillebrecht, 1982; Ludemann and Nelle, 2002; Nolken,€ 2005; * Corresponding author. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology, Ludemann, 2010c; Knapp et al., 2013). The anthracological ana- Johanna-Mestorf-Strasse 2-6, Christian-Albrechts-University, D-24118 Kiel, Germany. lyses of such kiln sites combined with charcoal analyses on E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Knapp). smelting sites and mining settlements provides detailed http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.01.053 1040-6182/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 52 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 information about usage of the most important resource wood and sandstone, shale and basaltic spilite as well as biotite granite. allows insight into woodland exploitation by humans on a multi- Around the Brocken pluton diorite-granodiorite occurs. Its highest century temporal scale. mountain is Mt Brocken at 1142 m a.s.l. On the siliciclastics, nutrient Beside human resource management, kiln sites are additionally poor soils developed (Karste et al., 2005). Furthermore, a great a valuable archive for woodland reconstruction (Bonhote and variety of ore deposits are found in the mountains and its foreland Vernet, 1988; Davasse, 1992; Ludemann, 1996; Ludemann and (Mohr, 1993). Besides the deposit of Rammelsberg with its sulphi- Britsch, 1997; Nelle, 2001). The common and long term vegeta- dic microcrystalline copper and lead/zinc ores, there are coarse tion history of central Europe (e.g. Firbas, 1949, 1952; Lang, 1994; sulphidic lead/silver ores from the ore dykes in the Upper Harz. A Kalis et al., 2003) is well investigated by palynology, albeit due to third kind of deposit are the red iron ores from the diabase range as the limitation of palynology (Gaillard et al., 2008a,b; Nelle et al., well as the iron/manganese ores from the deposit at the Iberg. Due 2010) mostly with regional spatial resolution. Kiln site anthracol- to its exposed northern position above the North German Plain, the ogy, however, offers additional information because it mirrors climate of the Harz Mountains is markedly humid. Moreover, the woodland composition on a local scale with special regard to site low mountain range is characterized by a pronounced climate condition as well as stand structure (Ludemann, 2003; Nelle, 2003). gradient between the colder western and the warmer eastern part From a methodological point of view when analysing charcoal from (Glasser,€ 1994). Mean annual temperature increase from 4- archaeological sites, there is generally the risk of a human filter due 5 Ce8.5 C, while mean annual precipitation decrease from to potential wood selection for different purposes, sampling stra- 1000 mm to 500 mm from west to east. Before the onset of mining tegies or a natural filter by e.g. different taphonomic processes, activity, the vegetation of the Harz Mountains was mainly charac- which have to be considered when interpreting such charcoal as- terized by broad-leaved woodlands (Aceri-Fagetum and Luzulo- semblages (Nelle et al., 2010; Thery-Parisot et al., 2010). Moreover Fagetum) up to 700e800 m a.s.l., while above Picea abies became reconstruction of past usage of wood can rely on different sampling the dominant tree species. Today, the vegetation composition strategies as well as different purposes (Shackleton and Prins, 1992; consists mostly of different anthropogenic Picea-forest and more Marston, 2009; Stollner,€ 2010). Nevertheless, in the kiln site char- natural Picea-woodland, depending on the soil conditions as well as coal record from several low mountain ranges in western Europe the altitude (e.g. Calamagrostio villosea-Piceetum, Bazzanio- only minor indications for species selection in terms of woodland Piceetum, Piceo-Sorbetum). Overall, 85% of the Harz national park resource availability were found (Bonhote and Vernet, 1988; is covered by spruce, of which 60% stocks are on potentially natural Davasse, 1992, 2000; Ludemann, 1996; Ludemann and Britsch, deciduous forest sites (Karste et al., 2006). 1997; Nelle, 2001; Ludemann and Nelle, 2002). The low Harz Mountains were under the pronounced influence 1.2. Archaeological background by humans since Roman times, mainly by mining activity and charcoal production for smelting purposes. More than 30,000 kiln The various and comprehensive ore deposits of the Harz sites and 2500 smelting sites are expected for the entire Harz Mountains caused a long lasting human activity in terms of min- reflecting the long and intensive mining history of the area (von ing, ore smelting as well as charcoal production. Settlement his- Kortzfleisch, 2008). Thus, the Harz is ideal to investigate past tory of the Harz foreland is dated to Neolithic times. In the Harz wood and charcoal usage as a key resource for mining as well as to Mountains itself, human activity, with simple use of transit tracks, elucidate possible human bias in archaeological charcoal may start during the Bronze Age but is still questionable. In- assemblages. dications for Bronze Age and Iron Age mining activity were found Due to the huge mining activity, the pre-mining woodland in peat and sediment cores from the Harz foreland (Matschullat composition of the Harz cannot be reconstructed from the vege- et al., 1997; Hettwer, 1999). Recently, Lehmann (2011) and Knapp tation today. Especially, the distribution range of Fagus sylvatica and et al. (2013) found indications for mining as well as landscape Acer sp. as well as the local scale interlocking between Fagus and opening during the late Bronze Age. First archaeological evidence Picea dominated woodland is of increased significance for the na- for smelting in the Harz foreland dates to 300 AD (Klappauf, 1985, tional park. Thus, further aims are a) to reconstruct medieval and 2003; Hettwer et al., 2003), while during the Migration period no Modern Times woodland composition to pursue basic information signs for smelting activity can be found. Up to the 8th/9th century for woodland restoration as well as conservation policy on a local AD, no huge changes in the mining technology occurred, and scale and b) to elucidate the extent of past woodland usage. smelting places operated close to the settlement areas in the Harz Therefore, we analysed charcoal from different archives (kiln sites, foreland avoiding the Upper Harz (Bartels et al., 2001; Alper, 2008). smelting and settlement sites) from different timescales as well as The year 968 AD marks the historic beginning of mining of the altitudes in the Harz Mountains. This combined approach for the Rammelsberg ores, and the 13th century represented first inten- first time allows for a comparison between sites of charcoal pro- sive mining activities of the Upper Harz hydrothermal cop- duction (kiln sites) and sites of charcoal consumption (e.g. smelting perezincelead dykes (Liessmann, 2011). The extensive mining and sites). Thus, we can follow two steps in the “chaîne operatoire ” of smelting activities during the Middle Ages culminated from 1050 past mining activities and their socio-environmental implications. to 1250 AD in all parts of the Lower and Upper Harz (Klappauf, 2000; Bartels et al., 2007). With the increase of the mining activ- 1.1. Study area and regional setting ity during the 12th and 13th century, the first permanent settle- ments in the Upper Harz were established (Hauptmeyer, 1992)and The investigation area is the northwest part of the Harz an increasing number of smelting sites up to 700 m a.s.l. can be Mountains (Fig. 1). The Harz is the northernmost low mountain found as well (Klappauf et al., 2008). While during the early range in Germany with an extension of approximately 30 90 km Middle Ages smelting places were used seasonally, during the 12th and towers above the North German lowland plain. Geographically, and 13th century there was atransformation towards multi-phase the Harz is subdivided into the Upper Harz (up to 700 m a.s.l), the smelting places. High Harz (parts of the Upper Harz above 700 m a.s.l.) and the During the 14th century, mining felt into a huge crisis leading to eastern Lower Harz (sloping area below 500 m a.s.l.). a nearly complete collapse of the first mining period (Hauptmayer, The Harz is part of the Variscan orogen belt, and the northwest 1992; Steuer, 2000). After 1520, mining activity slightly increased, part consists mainly of Carboniferous greywacke, Devonian leading to the second mining period (Beug et al., 1999) with huge H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 53

Fig. 1. Investigation area (Harz Mountains) in central Germany with the location of the six excavation sites (left: Koetental, Hahnental, Johanneser Kurhaus, Rabental, Huneberg) and the different transects for kiln-anthracology. BTM ¼ Blumentopfmoor, BR ¼ Brocken, BBM ¼ Brockenbettmoor, KB ¼ Konigsberg,€ HO ¼ Hohneklippe, DA ¼ Drei-Annen-Hohne, TR ¼ Torfhaus, SI ¼ Sieber, MAE ¼ Marchenwald,€ SK ¼ Schwarze Kohlstelle.

multi-phase smelting sites in the vicinity of streams. In the 16th Excavations were carried out following natural layers. All soil and 17th century, mining deceased (Niemann, 1991). The last samples were taken from features related to smelting and ore mining phase started in the 18th century leading to a massive processing activity either from copper or silver production sites overexploitation of the resources. In 2007 AD, the last mine while handpicked charcoal samples are collected from visible “Wolkehügel” finally closed. Until now more than 1000 smelting charcoal accumulation during excavation. The six archaeological sites have been found (Alper, 2008) in the western Harz, which sites are dated to the Middle Ages (10the13th century; Table 1). mainly operated only for short times. Mining and smelting was Four of the sites were used for copper production (Schnapsweg, accompanied by huge charcoal production. Thus, up to 30,000 kiln Koetental, Hahnental, Huneberg) and two for silver and lead pro- sites are expected in the Harz (von Kortzfleisch, 2008) dating back duction (Rabental, Johanneser Kurhaus). Beside the Johannerser to the early Middle Ages in the lower parts of the Harz (Hillebrecht, Kurhaus, all sites are simple smelting places with a basic shelter, ore 1982). In contrast, settlement activity was limited to the plateaus of processing areas and up to three furnaces. These small working the upper Harz and the Harz foreland. sites were used only for a short time period (Knapp, 2012 and literature within). Hence, the soil samples most probably represent 2. Material and methods layers directly linked to the ore processing and smelting. Only the Johanneser Kurhaus is different and enables a more specific anal- 2.1. Archaeological excavation sites in the upper Harz ysis of the anthracological assemblages (compare Knapp, 2012). During early medieval times, the Johanneser Kurhaus was a basic From the western Upper Harz (<700 m a.s.l.) samples from six smelting site like the five other sites. During the 13th century the archaeological excavation sites were anthracologically analysed site evolved to a permanent settlement before it was abandoned in (Fig. 1). Soil samples and handpicked charcoal samples were the late 13th century (Alper, 2003). Prior to the anthracological collected by archaeologists from the State office of Archaeology in analyses, the existing soil samples were floated and wet sieved Lower Saxony during excavations between 1987 and 2001. through a 1 mm sieve in the laboratory. 54 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

Table 1 Overview of the anthracological investigated excavations sites in the Upper Harz (below 700 m a.s.l.) with information about the location a.s.l., the age as well as the data set (number of samples and analysed charcoal).

Site Type Altitude [m] Age AD Soil samples Handpicked samples Analysed charcoal

Schnapsweg Smelting site. copper 490 10th 79 13 404 Kotental€ Smelting site. copper 480 10th 11 20 398 Hahnetal Smelting site. copper 490 10th 4 33 Rabental Smelting site. silver 570 11th 12 86 Huneberg Smelting site. copper 630 12th 158 28 2963 Johannes Kurhaus Smelting/settlement site. silver 570 10e13th 156 84 1978

S 480e630 10e13th 408 157 5862

2.2. Kiln sites in the upper and high Harz Whee wood anatomical structure of different tree species is too similar, only types were identified (Picea-Larix-type or Populus- From the western part of the Harz, 58 kiln sites were sampled Salix-type). However, in the Harz Larix was not established natu- for further anthracological analyses (Fig. 1). The kiln sites are rally before modern forest cultivation (Stocker,€ 1990) and thus, it is combined into six transects complemented by single kiln sites in most likely to have had only Picea abies. the periphery of the low mountain range (Table 2). Most of the sites Besides taxonomical identification for every charcoal fragment, are situated around Mt Brocken in the High Harz (>700 m a.s.l.) the minimum size diameter of the used wood/charcoal was esti- while two additional transects are placed in lower areas (Fig. 1). The mated by using the size diameter stencil from Ludemann and Nelle sites are chosen concerning exposition, relief and altitude. All kiln (2002). Based on the growth ring curvature and the angle of the sites are located in a Picea-forest within an altitudinal gradient wood rays the charcoal pieces were classified into one of the five between 600 and 940 m a.s.l. different size/diameter classes (Fig. 2). For a better comparison of Charcoal samples were taken according to Ludemann and Nelle the samples and the tree taxa the mean diameter was calculated for (2002). To avoid local accumulation of taxa, subsamples from five each taxon by applying the following formula: different holes (40 40 cm) were taken. The pits are uniformly distributed over the kiln. Three pits are located at the periphery, while two samples are from the centre of the kiln plateau. From each subsample, 30 charcoal pieces larger than 5 mm were mD½cm¼½nð0 2cmÞ1 þ nð2 3cmÞ2:5 þ nð3 5cmÞ collected by handpicking. Additionally, about 1 L of soil was taken þ ð Þ : þ ð > Þ : to obtain an adequate amount of smaller charcoal pieces. In the 4 n 5 10 7 5 n 10 cm 15 =n total centre of the kiln, the depth of the charcoal layer was measured via a Pürckhauer soil corer and possible stratification was examined by By comparison of the mD-value of the charcoal assemblages the used of the sediment profiles gained with the Pürckhauer soil with modern experimental charcoal spectra the mD-value further corer. For stratified kiln sites, each distinct charcoal layer was allows interpretation about the wood gathered for charcoal pro- sampled separately (soil samples). For each kiln site, at least 100 duction (Nelle, 2002). Moreover, for comparability of the frag- charcoal fragments were analysed to get reliable information about mentation of the charcoal in the different samples the weight (w) the main taxa composition (Hillebrecht, 1982; Davasse, 2000; was divided by the number of fragments (n). In the text percentage Bonhote et al., 2002; Ludemann and Nelle, 2002; Nelle, 2002). values are rounded.

2.3. Anthracology

Charcoal fragments were taxonomically analysed by using an episcopic microscope (Olympus BX51) at 100 to 500 magnifica- tions. For identification, microscopic wood atlases (Schweingruber, 1990a,b) and a reference collection of modern charred wood were used. After identification, the total weight was measured for each wood taxon. The results are presented as percentage of number and weight for the different wood taxa.

Table 2 Transects for kiln-anthracology with number of investigated kiln sites and analysed charcoal. MAE ¼ Marchenwald;€ SK ¼ Schwarze Kohlstelle.

Transect No. Kiln sites Altitude [m] Analysed charcoal

Blumentopfmoor (BTM) 14 702e900 1433 Brocken (BR) 4 895e900 598 Brockenbettmoor (BBM) 3 870e890 243 Drei-Annen-Hohne (DA) 5 677e817 600 Hohneklippen (HO) 7 636e750 878 Sieber (SI) 6 595e702 613 Torfhaus (TR) 5 721e800 736 Konigsberg€ (KB) 10 677e932 1454 Exclaves (MAE. SK) 4 300e500 315 Fig. 2. Size classes (1e5) and mean diameter (2 cm; 2e3 cm, 3e5 cm, S 58 300e932 6870 5e10 cm > 10 cm) of the used wood after Ludemann and Nelle (2002). H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 55

2.4. Dating and chronology

Radiocarbon dating of 11 kiln site charcoal samples (Table 3) were carried out by the Leibniz-Laboratory for Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research, University of Kiel (Knapp et al., 2013). Radiocarbon ages were calibrated according to Reimer et al. (2004) and are shown with the two sigma range (95.4% probability).

3. Results

3.1. Charcoal record of the archaeological excavation sites

From the six archaeological excavation sites, 408 soil and 157 handpicked charcoal samples were investigated, from which a total of 5862 charcoal pieces were taxonomically identified (Table 4). In the charcoal record, significant differences are visible. The charcoal assemblage of the sites Schnapsweg, Hahnental und Koetental is dominated by Fagus, while the sites Huneberg, Rabental and Johanneser Kurhaus are characterized by the occurrence of the Picea-Larix-type as well as a higher diversity of tree taxa.

3.1.1. Schnapsweg Fig. 4. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal A total of 23 samples were available from the site Schnapsweg pieces from the lead smelting site Rabental, with the mD-value below the taxa and the and 404 charcoal pieces were identified. The charcoal assemblages total number of analyzed charcoal (n). contain two wood taxa: Fagus with 99.5% and Acer with 0.5%. The mean Diameter (mD) is 11, reflecting the mD-value of Fagus (Fig. 3; Table 4). 3.1.4. Rabental A total of 86 charcoal pieces of 86 g were taxonomically iden- tified. In total, five different genera were found, from which the Picea-Larix-type is the dominant one, followed by Fagus with 26% 3.1.2. Koetental and Betula (6%, Table 4 and Fig. 4). Regarding the mass of wood taxa, From 24 samples, 398 charcoal pieces were gathered and wood the Picea-Larix-type dominates the assemblage with 97% of the fi anatomically identi ed. The main taxon in the charcoal spectrum is overall mass. The mD-values are between 4 (Corylus) and 14 (Picea- Fagus with 97%. All other wood taxa are quantitatively unimpor- Larix-type). tant, reaching overall 3%. The mD-value indicates the dominance of the size classes 4 and 5 (Fig. 3; Table 4). 3.1.5. Huneberg For Huneberg, 158 soil samples and 28 handpicked charcoal 3.1.3. Hahnental samples were available for anthracological analysis. A total of 2963 From the excavation site Hahnental, only 33 pieces were iden- charcoal pieces with a mass ~1.6 kg were taxonomically identified, tified, which all belong to the genus Fagus. Most of the pieces were and 20 wood genera/types were found. The dominant taxon in the classified to the size class 4 and 5 (Fig. 3; Table 4). assemblage is Fagus (67%), followed by the Picea-Larix-type (8%). All

Fig. 3. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces from the three copper smelting sites Schnapsweg, Hahnental and Koetental, with the mD-value below the site name and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). Other ¼ Picea-Larix-type, Alnus, Betula, Fraxinus, Salix-Populus-type, Carpinus, indet. 56 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

Table 3 Radiocarbon dates from kiln sites in the Harz. Calibration in cal. BC/AD at 2s confidence interval, based on the IntCal09 data set.

Lab. ref. Archive/Feature Depth (cm) of sampling Dated material Identified taxa Age conv.BP Age cal. BC/AD

KIA 40657 BR1 15 Charcoal Alnus 145 ± 20 1669e1953 AD KIA 40658 BR1 20 Charcoal Picea 200 ± 20 1652e1951 AD KIA 40659 HO3 25 Charcoal Populus 300 ± 20 1518e1594 AD KIA 40660 HO3 15 Charcoal Picea >1954 AD KIA 40661 HO5 25 Charcoal Fagus 370 ± 20 1450e1630 AD KIA 40662 HO5 5 Charcoal Picea 205 ± 20 1650e1954 AD KIA 41039 DA3 15 Charcoal Picea 165 ± 15 1667e1954 AD KIA 41040 T2 25 Charcoal Sorbus 160 ± 20 1667e1955 AD KIA 41041 BR3 15 Charcoal Picea 185 ± 20 1661e1954 AD KIA 45229 SK 50 Charcoal Betula 150 ± 20 1667e1953 AD KIA 43922 BTM K8 10 Charcoal Fagus 305 ± 20 1516e1596 AD other taxa are below 5% or were represented only with a few pieces preservation and the depth of the charcoal layer. The size of the kiln in the charcoal assemblage (Fig. 5). The overall mD-value of the site sites is large (average 100 m2) and varies between 20 and 260 m2 is 7.8. Charcoal from Fagus und Ulmus can be classified mostly to (Table 5) while the depth of the charcoal layer is in average between size classes 4 and 5. (Table 4), while for the Picea-Larix-type, Acer, 15 and 20 cm. Most of the kiln sites are characterized by more or Betula and Alnus a balanced distribution to the five size classes is less poor preservation (Table 5) and only four stratified kilns were visible. In contrast, Corylus, Sorbus and the Salix-Populus-type are detected. characterized by small mD-values. From the 58 kiln sites 6628 charcoal pieces with a total of 805 g were analyzed (Table 6). In total 14 different wood taxa were 3.1.6. Johanneser Kurhaus distinguished. Most frequent is the Picea-Larix-type (88%) followed Overall,1978 charcoal pieces with a mass of 686 g were analyzed by Fagus (8%), Acer (2%) and Alnus (1%). All other identified wood from 156 soil and 84 handpicked charcoal samples. In the assem- taxa are below 1%. In general the pieces were very small with a low blage 19 taxa were wood anatomically identified (Fig. 6). With 28%, w/n-value (Table 6). The mean size diameter vary between 1.5 Fagus is the most frequent taxon in the charcoal assemblage, while (Corylus) and 15 (Quercus) with an average of 7. the Picea-Larix-type (20%) is co-dominant, followed with decreasing values (12e7%) by Betula, Acer, Corylus, Carpinus, Alnus, Quercus and Salix-Populus-type. All other wood taxa have values 3.2.1. Transect Konigsberg€ below 1%. The mD-value is between 2.5 (Corylus and Carpinus) and From the transect Konigsberg€ (677e932 m a.s.l.; KB) 10 kiln sites 12.9 (Fraxinus) with an average of 5.6 for the whole charcoal record were sampled (average size 84 m2), from which 1454 charcoal (Table 4). Regarding the mass, Fagus is the dominant taxon in the pieces were extracted for analyzing (Fig. 7). Within the charcoal record, while Betula is co-dominant, followed by Corylus, Carpinus assemblage the Picea-Larix-type is the dominant wood taxon (94%). and Acer. In contrast to the number of pieces, the Picea-Larix-type is Only in three kiln sites Fagus was found, reaching a total amount of less important (5%). 4%. All other wood taxa are less than 1%. The mD-value is 8 while the mD-value of Fagus and the Picea-Larix-type is 10 and 6 3.2. Charcoal record of the kiln sites respectively. Kiln KB5 (677 m a.s.l.) is characterized by a complex stratification with four different charcoal layers (Fig. 7). The char- In total, 58 kiln sites were investigated by anthracology, addi- coal assemblage of the two upper layer (SB and SD) consist solely of tionally 54 of the kiln sites were classified regarding the size, the Picea-Larix-type, while in the layers SF and SH Fagus reach

Table 4 Taxonomically identified charcoal (n), the weight per taxon (w) and the mean diameter according to Ludemann and Nelle 2002 (mD) from six investigated excavation sites below 700 m a.s.l. in the Harz Mountains.

Taxa Schnapsweg Hahnental Koetental Rabental Huneberg Johanneser Kurhaus

n w [g] mD n w [g] mD n w [g] mD n w [g] mD n w [g] mD n w [g] mD

Fagus 402 99.5 11 33 9.4 10 384 202.4 10 22 2.2 9 1994 1186.6 9 543 142.3 8 Picea-Larix-type 1 0.0 1 56 83.3 14 229 95.3 7 393 28.4 6 Acer 2 0.0 5 5 0.1 6 146 57.4 7 199 82.1 8 Alnus 1 0.0 1 119 76.3 6 76 29.8 4 Betula 3 0.0 5 5 0.5 8 105 43.8 6 230 154.2 3 Corylus 2 0.1 4 101 13.2 3 174 84.4 2 Fraxinus 1 0.0 15 73 48.5 4 7 0.1 13 Salix-Populus-type 1 0.0 8 59 10.3 3 119 55.1 4 Tilia 27 6.5 7 Ulmus 27 60.1 11 1 1.9 3 Salix 23 2.6 5 Sorbus 20 5.3 4 3 4.2 4 Quercus 8 0.1 9 72 18.6 7 Rosaceae 1 0.1 8 6 1.0 7 13 0.8 9 Taxus 4 0.3 3 Carpinus 1 0.3 4 3 0.1 3 143 83.8 3 Populus 3 0.3 7 Frangula 3 3.1 8 indet 1 0.3 1 13 0.5 3 5 0.0 9 Sum 404 99.5 11 33 9.4 10 398 203.1 10 86 86.1 8 2963 1611.3 8 1978 685.6 6 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 57

Fig. 5. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces from the copper smelting site Huneberg, with the mD-value below the taxa and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). values of 19 and 31%, respectively. The mD-values decrease from total weight of 21 g were analyzed. The Picea-Larix-type is the most layer SH (10) to the uppermost layer (4.5). frequent wood taxon in the charcoal assemblage, followed by the Salix-Populus-type (4%) and Betula (2%; Fig. 9). The mean Diameter 3.2.2. Transects Brocken and Brockenbettmoor of Betula and the Salix-Populus-type is 4 and 1, while the Picea- The four kiln sites of the transect Brocken (840e900 m a.s.l.; BR) Larix-type has a slightly higher mD-value (6). are generally large in diameter (average 157 m2) with a thick charcoal layers (20e37 cm). In 598 charcoal pieces seven wood taxa 3.2.3. Transect Blumentopfmoor were found. The charcoal assemblage is dominated by the Picea- Fourteen kiln sites were sampled from the transect Blu- Larix-type (88%). Fagus, Alnus and Betula are present with low fre- mentopfmoor (702e900 m a.s.l.; BTM). The kiln sites have an quency (Fig. 8). The mD-value is between 6.5 (Picea-Larix-type) and average size of 90 m2 and the thickness of the charcoal layer varies 2.5 (Sorbus) with an average of 6.3. Kiln BR1 is marked by two between 0 and 40 cm. In total, 1433 charcoal pieces were taxo- distinct charcoal layers (S1 and S2). In the upper layer S1, only nomically identified. The Picea-Larix-type is the most frequent Picea-Larix-type was found, whereas, in the second layer (S2) charcoal type followed by Fagus, Acer, Sorbus and Betula (Fig. 10). broadleaf trees (e.g. Fagus, Alnus, Acer) occur with values up to 20% Percentage of deciduous tree taxa varies significantly between the (Fig. 8). kiln sites. Acer appears with up to 35% in four kiln sites while Fagus In the adjacent transect Brockbettmoor (870e890 m a.s.l.; BBM) was found in all kilns beside kiln 1 and 13 reaching a maximum three kiln sites were found and sampled. The kiln sites are large value in kiln 3 (25%). In contrast, Betula is quantitatively less with an average diameter of 131 m2, while the thickness of the important. The mD of the main tree taxa is between 7 and 9, with charcoal layer is 18e20 cm. A total of 243 charcoal pieces with a an average of 8.

Fig. 6. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces from the lead smelting site Johanneser Kurhaus, with the mD-value below the taxa and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). 58 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

Table 5 In the transect Sieber (595e702 m a.s.l.; SIE) 613 pieces of Size, depth of the charcoal layer and conservation of 54 anthracological investigated charcoal were analyzed from six kiln sites. The size of the kiln sites kiln sites above 700 m a.s.l. in the Harz Mountains. n ¼ total number of kiln sites. varies between 70 and 165 m2 and the average thickness of the Size [m2]10e40 40e80 80e120 120e140 140e180 180e260 charcoal layer is 24 cm. In the charcoal record only two tree taxa n 3 13 15 10 11 2 were found: Fagus (16%) and the Picea-Larix-type (84%; Fig. 14). Charcoal layer [cm] 0e510e15 20e25 30e35 40e45 Fagus has an mD of 8.9 while the mD of the Picea-Larix-type is 5.2. n 2 11 22 14 5 Conservation Perfect Good Middle Poor n 3 14 23 14 3.2.6. Other kiln site ensembles The Marchenwald€ (MAE) kiln site ensemble is located between 300 and 500 m a.s.l. on the northern rim of the Harz Mountains. Three kiln sites with 215 charcoal pieces were investigated. Nine 3.2.4. Transects Drei-Annen-Hohne and Hohneklippe wood taxa were found (Fig. 15), with Fagus (66%) being the domi- Within the transect Drei-Annen-Hohne (677e817 m a.s.l.; DA) nant taxon, followed by the Picea-Larix-type (17%). The mean five kiln sites were sampled and anthracologically analyzed. The diameter is between 15 (Quercus) and 1.3 (Corylus). The kiln depth of the charcoal layer varies from 18 to 30 cm, while the kiln Schwarze Kohlstelle (SK) is located close to the transect sites are between 103 and 183 m2. From the 600 analyzed charcoal Marchenwald,€ of which 100 pieces of charcoal were analyzed. In pieces, 599 were identified as Picea-Larix-type and only one char- the charcoal assemblage Fagus (44%), the Picea-Larix-type (42%) coal piece of Betula was found (Fig. 11). The mD-value of the Picea- and Alnus (7%) are most frequent (Fig. 15). Larix-type is 5. In the adjacent transect Hohneklippe (636e750 m a.s.l.; HO), the seven kiln sites have an average area of 145 m2 and the thickness of 3.3. Chronology of the investigated sites the charcoal layer is between 16 and 25 cm. All in all 878 pieces of charcoal with 134 g were identified. The Picea-Larix-type domi- The Schnapsweg, Koetental, Rabental and Hahnental date fi nates the assemblage with 91% (Fig. 12). Beside Fagus (5%) and Alnus archaeologically to the 10th century and represent the rst inten- fi all other broad leaved tree taxa are below 1%. Fagus and the Picea- si cation of human activity in the area, followed by the Huneberg fl Larix-type are characterized by slightly higher mD-values, while which re ects the beginning of the multi-phase smelting sites e the average mD is 10. In Kiln HO3 two charcoal layers were found. (12th century). The Johanneser Kurhaus dates to the 10th 13th fl The lower layer S2 is characterized by higher proportions of char- century re ecting the time from the historical proven beginning of fi coal from deciduous trees. mining (968 AD) until the end of the rst mining phase (13th/14th century). The woodland usage in the second (15the16th century) and third mining phase (>17th/18th century) are reflected by the 3.2.5. Transects Torfhaus and Sieber kiln sites (see Chapter 4.2.1 and Table 3). From the transect Torfhaus (721e800 m a.s.l.; T) five kiln sites were selected for anthracological analyses. Most of the kiln sites 4. Discussion have large diameters (average area 137 m2) with a thick charcoal layer (average thickness 25 cm). Overall, 736 charcoal pieces were 4.1. Human impact and charcoal usage during Middle Ages in the taxonomically identified and the Picea-Larix-type is most frequent Upper Harz (Fig. 13). Sorbus, Betula and Fraxinus are also present, albeit only with few pieces. The mD is low, only Betula appears with higher 4.1.1. Charcoal usage during the 10th century mD-value. Kiln T2 shows two charcoal layers (S1 and S2). The During the 10th century, new innovations in ore processing charcoal assemblages of the upper layer S1 consist exclusively of induced an increase of mining activity (Klappauf, 2011a) resulting the Picea-Larix-type, while in the layer S2 more charcoal from in a shift of kiln and smelting sites from the surroundings of the low Betula and Sorbus was found (Fig. 13). mountain range into the mountains itself (Klappauf, 2011b). This is

Table 6 Results of the anthracological analyses of 58 kiln sites in the Harz Mountains. Distribution of the analysed charcoal to the size classes after Ludemann and Nelle (2002), the total number of identified pieces (n) and the weight (w) per taxon, followed by the percentage values for each taxon as well as the w/n (weight /pieces) and the mean diameter.

Taxa Size class n w [g] n [%] w [%] w/n mD

12345

Acer 6 8 14 17 32 77 15.44 1.16 1.92 0.20 9.0 Alnus 9 15 18 23 5 70 13.51 1.06 1.68 0.19 5.2 Angiospermae 1 1 0.01 0.02 0.00 0.01 2.5 Betula 5 6 14 12 2 39 10.31 0.59 1.28 0.26 5.0 Fraxinus 4 2 6 1.55 0.09 0.19 0.26 1.5 Sorbus 3 9 16 12 41 9.26 0.62 1.15 0.23 8.3 Salix-Populus-Type 3 1 4 8 0.87 0.12 0.11 0.11 5.2 Populus 5 3 8 0.48 0.12 0.06 0.06 5.3 Salix 2 5 7 1.28 0.11 0.16 0.18 6.1 Picea-Larix-Type 641 1090 1441 1184 1501 5857 656.19 88.37 81.53 0.11 6.9 Fagus 69 59 102 109 166 505 93.26 7.62 11.59 0.18 7.8 Corylus 3 1 1 5 1.06 0.08 0.13 0.21 1.9 Quercus 3 3 1.51 0.05 0.19 0.50 15.0 Carpinus 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.02 7.5 Tilia 1 1 0.07 0.01 P P [n] 740 1187 1605 1374 1722 6628 804.8 99.9 99.7 0.12 7.0 [%] 11.2 17.9 24.2 20.7 26.0 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 59

Fig. 7. Above: Results of the anthracological investigation of 10 kiln sites from the transect Konigsberg.€ Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). Below: Percentage values of taxonomically identified charcoal pieces of the four different charcoal layer of Kiln KB5 based on the total number of identified charcoal per layer (n). The mD-value per layer above n.

Fig. 8. Left: Results of the anthracological investigation of four kiln sites from the transect Brocken. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). Right: Percentage values of taxonomically identified charcoal pieces of the two different charcoal layer of kiln BR 1 based on the total number of identified charcoal per layer (n). The mD-value per layer above n. 60 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

two smelting sites from similar age with a dominance of Fagus as well, while in the kiln site Fagus reach usually values between 30 and 60%. The discrepancy between the expected woodland com- positions, the results of intensive kiln site anthracology (Hillebrecht, 1982) and the charcoal spectra from the smelting sites may point to a preference of beech in the context of copper pro- duction. However, the number of analyzed charcoal and sites is relatively low and, thus, we cannot exclude the possibility that the dominance of Fagus is the result of the low sample amount or missing kiln sites. Indications for charcoal or wood selection were found in different studies across central Europe. In the alpine region a selection of conifer trees for fire setting is detectable (Heiss and Oeggl, 2008; Py et al., 2013). Anthracological as well as archaeo- logical investigations on smelting and kiln sites in the Rhenish Fig. 9. Results of the anthracological investigation of three kiln sites from the transect Massif/Siegerland indicate a) the usage of smaller stems or Brockenbettmoor. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the iden- branches for smelting purposes and b) possible selection of Fagus tified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number for charcoal production/smelting usage (Pott, 1990; Garner, 2010). of analyzed charcoal (n). This is similar to investigations from smelting sites from France (Dunikowski and Cabboi, 1995). Smaller branches are also found in reflected in our charcoal record from the copper production sites the Black Forest and interpreted as human selection (Ludemann, Schnapsweg, Koetental and Hahnental which mirrors no in- 1996). dications for woodland overexploitation or a previously alteration In contrast to the Harz copper smelting places, the contempo- of the woodlands. Moreover, the high mD-values point to the usage raneous site Rabental was used for lead and silver production. The of trunks or larger branches. Interestingly, the high amount of Fagus charcoal record is characterized by the dominance of Picea with contradict the local site conditions, which hint at the existence of high mD-values, indicating the usage of trunks (Nelle, 2002). The mixed broadleaved forest with higher values of e.g. Acer sp. and low percentage of pioneer trees is in range with its natural occur- wetland trees in the surroundings. However, no significant amount rence in the climax vegetation and not necessarily the result of of charcoal from such trees was identified. Additionally, the char- early human overexploitation of the woodlands. The reasons for the coal spectra from contemporaneous kiln sites in the vicinity point Picea dominance in Rabental may be related to the wetter and to woodlands with significant proportion of Acer, Quercus, Alnus as colder local site conditions which enhanced the competition well as light demanding species, which fits with the local site strength of Picea against Fagus (Ellenberg, 1996; Quack, 2004). conditions (Hillebrecht, 1982; Fig. 16). Hillebrecht further found Thus, the high percentage of Picea in the charcoal assemblage

Fig. 10. Results of the anthracological investigation of 14 kiln sites from the transect Blumentopfmoor (Knapp et al., 2013). Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 61

Fig. 11. Results of the anthracological investigation of five kiln sites from the transect Drei-Annen-Hohne. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). in ¼ indet. reflects most likely the site conditions where humans used the smelting (Klappauf and Linke, 2000; Bartels et al., 2007). This most competitive tree species. intensification of ore production is reflected by an increasing amount of pioneer trees (Betula, Corylus, Populus) and wetland trees 4.1.2. Charcoal usage during the 12th and 13th century (Salix, Alnus, Ulmus) in the charcoal assemblage as well as by the While until the 10th century no sign of human overexploitation usage of smaller stems or branches (lower mD-values). This in- of the woodlands is detectable, during the 12th century a first dicates a first opening and morphological transformation of the opening of the woodlands is visible in our charcoal spectra, which is woodlands. The higher amount of light demanding trees coincides in accordance with palynological investigations from the High Harz with the occurrence of Picea, which does not grow in the sur- (Beug et al., 1999). The copper smelting site Huneberg is charac- roundings of the site. Picea abies naturally grows close to peat bogs terized by different wood taxa in the charcoal assemblage. During only at some distance. Thus, the usage of Picea points to exploita- the 11th and 12th century several new technological innovations tion of woodlands further away, and may reflect increasing over- took place, which led to more productive and intensive ore exploitation in the vicinity of the Huneberg.

Fig. 12. Above: Results of the anthracological investigation of six kiln sites from the transect Hohneklippe. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). Below: Percentage values of taxonomically identified charcoal pieces of the two different charcoal layer of Kiln HO3 based on the total number of identified charcoal per layer (n). The mD-value per layer above n. 62 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

Fig. 13. Results of the anthracological investigation of five kiln sites from the transect Torfhaus. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). T2 S1 ¼ taxonomically identified charcoal from charcoal layer 1; T2 S2 ¼ taxonomical identified charcoal from charcoal layer 2.

Fig. 14. Results of the anthracological investigation of six kiln sites from the transect Sieber. Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n).

Unlike the previous smelting sites, the archaeological record for within the 13th century it became a permanent mining settlement the Johanneser Kurhaus describes three development phases (phase 3). The charcoal assemblage of the three different phases (Alper, 2003). During the 10th century the site is a simple smelting differs significantly and allows the reconstruction of woodland site like the Schnapsweg and Koetental (phase 1), while during the usage with high temporal resolution (Fig. 17). During phase 1, the 11th/12th century the Johanneser Kurhaus is similar to the Hune- surroundings seems to be mostly unaffected by human activity. For berg, with a technically more complex furnace (phase 2). Finally, ore smelting mainly trunks and big branches are used. In phase 2,

Fig. 15. Results of the anthracological investigation of kiln sites from the transect Marchenwald€ (MAE) and Schwarze Kohlstelle (SK). Percentage values and distribution to the size classes of the identified charcoal pieces, with the mD-value below the kiln number and the total number of analyzed charcoal (n). H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 63

Fig. 16. Anthracological synthesis diagram. From left to right: results of the own study, investigation conducted by Hillebrecht (1982) and the combination of both studies reflecting the percentage values of the identified wood taxa per time interval. After calibration to BC/AD (Chapter 2.4) most of the radiocarbon ages of the study from Hillebrecht (1982) are inappropriate for classification of the kiln sites. The kilns sites were mainly chronological classified according to type and occurrence: pits ¼ early Middle Ages; small kiln sites ¼ high Middle Ages; big kiln sites ¼ Modern Times. For classification compare also Ludemann and Nelle, 2002, Knapp et al., 2013. Deciduous trees ¼ Carpinus, Fraxinus, Tilia; Wetland trees ¼ Alnus, Ulmus, Salix, Populus; Pioneer trees ¼ Betula, Corylus, Rosaceae, Sorbus.

woodland overexploitation is clearly detectable in the charcoal to the 10th century (Alper, 2003) indicating the present of Picea record. The usage of preserved afforestation trees decreases wood in the smelting site. The missing Picea charcoal in the nearby significantly and for smelting mostly charcoal from pioneer trees kiln sites and the occurrence of uncarbonized Picea wood as well as and from Picea was used. During phase 3, the clearance of the the continuously high amount of Picea charcoal in our record woodlands further culminates resulting in the usage of mainly denote that the wood from Picea was probably used without pioneer trees. This third phase is further divided into three sub- carbonization in kiln sites. Transportation of Picea charcoal from far phases (Alper, 2003;3ae3c). After the first increase of the smelt- away cannot be ruled out, but it seems unlikely, because it is ing activity accompanied by a massive degradation of the sur- generally accepted that in the Harz ore was transported to the rounding woodland (phase 3a; 1200 AD), the usage of wood from charcoal and not vice versa until the 14th century (Hillebrecht, pioneer trees decreases and more wood or charcoal from preserved 2000; Klappauf, 2000; Bartels et al., 2007). Moreover, no in- forest trees was used, indicating a slight regeneration of the dications for long distance transport of charcoal are identified in woodlands or changes of wood supply practices (Phase 3b). During other low mountain ranges (Ludemann, 1996; Nelle, 2002; Nolken,€ phase 3c the energy requirement was mainly fulfilled by pioneer 2005). If Picea charcoal is transported from the wider surrounding it trees, until the settlement was abandoned. additionally points to a preference of Picea charcoal in the context The continuous occurrence of Picea in our record during all of galena smelting, because during the 10th century the woodlands phases is remarkable, especially during phase 1. Anthracological in the vicinity were mainly unaffected by humans, supplying an investigations on contemporaneous kiln sites in the vicinity of the adequate amount of deciduous trees. Thus, it is likely that the high Johanneser Kurhaus indicate that Picea was rarely present in the amount of Picea here is the result of a preference of Picea wood for woodlands during the 10th century and, thus, barely used for construction purposes or for smelting of galena (roasting), which charcoal production during the 10th century (Hillebrecht, 1982, can be carried out without charcoal at low temperatures with log- 2000), albeit the risk of missing kiln sites. Picea abies is atypical fire (Bartels et al., 2001). for the vegetation in the Upper and Lower Harz. It occurs sporad- Beside human selection, the observed differences in the char- ically as azonal vegetation around bogs or in deep, wet valleys. coal assemblages may be the results of taphonomic processes as Nevertheless, macrobotanical investigations from Andrea (2003) well as of the sampling method (Scott and Damblon, 2010; Thery- found several trunks and remains of Picea abies in samples dated Parisot et al., 2010). Jansen and Nelle (2014) found significant 64 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

Fig. 17. Percentage values of taxonomically identified charcoal pieces from the three different development phases of the site Johanneser Kurhaus regarding to Alper (2008), based on the number of pieces. n ¼ total number of identified charcoal pieces. Other include: Alnus, Rosaceae, Fraxinus, Angiospermae, indet. Pioneer trees include: Sorbus, Populus, Salix, Corylus, Betula. differences in the charcoal assemblage between handpicked char- According to Schweingruber (1976), charcoal from diffuse porous coal samples and floated soil samples from Neolithic archaeological wood splits similarly. Thery-Parisot et al. (2010) did not find dif- sites in Northern Germany. For the two sites Huneberg and ferences in the fragmentation rate of charcoal from archaeological Johanneser Kurhaus, a comparison between handpicked charcoal sites. Fragmentation experiments from Chrzazvez et al. (2014) and soil sediment charcoal was possible. The number of taxa as well further point out that a) there is less risk of overrepresentation of as the percentage of the different taxa differs significantly between distinct taxa due to different fragmentation rates, when charcoal both sampling methods (Fig. 18). The charcoal assemblage from the larger than 4 mm is analysed and b) beside charcoal from Quercus, soil samples is richer in tree taxa and characterized by smaller they found no indication for selective fragmentation. Jansen and pieces (lower w/n-value, Fig. 19). The handpicked charcoal spectra Nelle (2014) conclude that both handpicked and soil charcoal may be biased by selection during excavation due to different size spectra represent the surrounding woodland. Thus, for woodland and visibility of the charcoal. Thus, the differences could also be the reconstruction we use the whole charcoal assemblage from each result of unequal fragmentation rates of different wood taxa. single site, without a differentiation between both kinds of samples

Fig. 18. Percentage distribution of the identified taxa based on the total number of analyzed charcoal (n) from the archaeological sites Huneberg (HU) and Johanneser Kurhaus (JO), separated by the categories handpicked and soil samples. H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 65

Fig. 19. Weight per piece-value (w/n) of the charcoal assemblage from the archaeological sites Huneberg (HU) and Johanneser Kurhaus (JO), separated by the categories handpicked and soil samples. to avoid immense falsification due to the sampling method. Addi- 4.2. Woodland composition and charcoal production in the Harz tionally, the amounts of analyzed charcoal from soil samples are Mountains much higher than von handpicked samples. However, the overall charcoal record mirrors the woodland composition of the area in 4.2.1. Classification of the kiln sites and beginning of charcoal agreement with the potential natural vegetation of the Harz production in the Upper Harz Mountains and fits with investigations by Hillebrecht (1982) as well Anthracological investigations of kilns sites by Hillebrecht as with the woodland transect of Ludemann (2010c). Furthermore, (1982) indicate charcoal production in the lower parts of the Harz it is possible to investigate charcoal/wood usage related to copper Mountains since early Middle Ages. However, so far no kiln sites and silver smelting sites and the transformation of the pre-mining were investigated in the Upper to the High Harz (>700 m a.s.l.). woodland into a managed Picea-forest since late Medieval Times Thus, the beginning as well as intensity of woodland usage remains (Fig. 16 and 20). unclear.

Fig. 20. Charcoal assemblage from the different time periods based on the analyses of 5862 charcoal pieces from six excavation sites Hahnental, Schnapsweg, Koetental, Rabental, Huneberg, Johanneser Kurhaus in the Harz Mountains. Conifer trees ¼ Taxus, Pinus; Deciduous trees ¼ Carpinus, Betula, Tilia; Wetland trees ¼ Alnus, Fraxinus, Ulmus, Salix, Populus; Pioneer trees ¼ Betula, Corylus, Rosaceae, Sorbus. 66 H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69

Our analyzed kiln sites in the Upper and High Harz are of an oval indicates a more important part of F. sylvatica and the occurrence of shape between 60 and 180 m2. Size, preservation, and shape of the Acer sp. in the area during the second mining period (Between 1500 kiln sites are in accordance with many kiln-anthracological in- and 1630; Fig. 7 and 8). Kiln BR 1 is marked by two different vestigations in central Europe (Nelle, 2001; Nolken,€ 2005; charcoal layers. Layer 2 is characterized by a higher amount of Fagus Ludemann, 2010c). Applying the classification of Ludemann and charcoal and demonstrates the presents of Acer sp. in the sur- Nelle (2002) all investigated kiln sites in the Upper and High roundings, reflecting more natural conditions, albeit no stems were Harz originate most probably from Modern Times (Knapp et al., used for charcoal production. The occurrence of Betula accompa- 2013). This fits with our 11 AMS-radiocarbon dates (Table 3, nied with low mD-values may indicate an earlier usage of the Knapp et al., 2013) and is comparable with hundreds of radiocarbon woodland or a separate usage of the trunks. The charcoal assem- dates from low mountain ranges across central Europe (Ludemann, blage of layer 1 consists exclusively of Picea, most likely reflecting 2010c). spruce cultivation. The observed beginning of charcoal production in the Upper Such overexploitation and transformation from a close to nat- Harz during early Modern Times is also reflected in the micro- ural woodland to an anthropogenic spruce forest is also detectable charcoal record from the nearby mire Brockenbettmoor (Robin in the nearby kiln KB5. This kiln is characterized by four different et al., 2013). Moreover, the dating of the beginning of intensive charcoal layers, indicating immense human woodland clearances charcoal production to early Modern Times is in agreement with through charcoal production. The charcoal assemblage of layer four archaeological studies, indicating only temporary human activity in point to a Picea-Fagus woodland (Fig. 7) as well as the usage of the High Harz Mountains (Klappauf et al., 2008; Klappauf, 2011a). medium trunks from either Middle Age woodland stocks or older Nevertheless, some wood charcoal spectra as well as low mD- stocks from which the large trunks where used separately (Nelle, values from one transects may indicate earlier woodland usage. 2002). During the next charcoal production phase (layer three) the amount of available Fagus trees in the vicinity seems to 4.2.2. Woodland composition and human impact related to decrease significantly, indicated additionally by lower mD-values. charcoal production During the charcoal production phase two and one (Layer two In the Harz Mountains, comprehensive palynological studies and one), mainly Picea wood with low diameter was used for create an overall picture of the vegetation dynamics during the carbonization, probably indicating managed Picea forest. Holocene, albeit on a regional level (e.g. Beug et al., 1999 and The charcoal assemblage from the BTM transect additionally literature within). The archives for pollen analyses are either indicates a wider distribution of Fagus sylvativa and Acer sp. in the located in the foreland or in the High Harz. Especially in the High area east of the Mt. Brocken, pointing to a Calamagrostio-villosae Harz, interpretation of pollen analyses is hampered by the fact that Piceetum (montane spruce woodland with mainly Sorbus sp.; there is a strong signal from the Harz foreland and a huge influx of Knapp et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the occurrence of Acer suggests a long distance transported pollen. In contrast, kiln-anthracology small scale interlocking between Piceetum and Fagetum (Knapp mirrors woodland composition on a local scale. The woodland et al., 2013), which is not reflected in nearby pollen diagrams and composition deduced from our charcoal records from the transects soil charcoal analyses (Beug et al., 1999; Knapp et al., 2013; Robin of the higher elevations (>700 m a.s.l.) points to Picea woodlands et al., 2013; Robin and Nelle, 2014). The discrepancy may be with interlocking of F. sylvatica and Acer sp. on a local scale. related to the low pollen productivity and dispersal of Acer sp. as Compared to lower altitude (300e600 m a.s.l.; Hillebrecht, 1982)of well as different ignition and burning capacities of the trees. the Harz as well as to other low mountain ranges, the zonal Nevertheless, it seems that woodland history deduced from pollen woodland composition of the High Harz is poor in species richness. analyses was too general for the Harz since Medieval Times. In the Harz Mountains in general, all natural wood taxa which In contrast to the area around Mt. Brocken, transect DA is located are expected for the natural site conditions have been exploited, in an area which is naturally covered by Fagus woodland. However, independent of the sites' elevation. There was no selection of no Fagus charcoal was found in the analyzed kiln sites (Fig. 11). A distinct wood taxa for charcoal production in the period before possible reason is that the kiln sites are from the 18th and 19th human reforestation took place in the 18th and 19th century. For century. During late Modern Times, the area was completely the lowlands of Belgium, Deforce et al. (2013) found evidence for reforested with Picea abies to produce enough charcoal for the fuel wood transportation and wood selection, and thus these kiln sites requirement of the nearby iron smelting industry. In 1849 AD, do not mirror local woodland composition in the surroundings. 25,000 m3 of Picea charcoal was produced in the adjacent Elbin- However, for the Harz Mountains it is assumed that similar to geroder Oberforst (von Kortzfleisch, 2008). The low mD-value firewood, the wood taxa in the kiln sites represent the surrounding further supports the assumption of a dense Picea plantation for woodland because of the principle of least effort (Shackleton and charcoal production. The charcoal assemblage of the adjacent kiln Prins, 1992). This assumption is in agreement with results from sites HO are characterized by Picea as well. Kiln HO 5 is dated to several kiln-anthracological investigations in central Europe 1450e1630 AD while layer 2 from Kiln HO 3 dated to (Ludemann, 2002; Ludemann and Nelle, 2002; Nolken,€ 2005). As in 1518e1594 AD. Thus, both kiln sites may correspond to the second the Black Forest and the Bavarian Forest (Nelle, 2003; Ludemann mining period. Beside kiln 2, the wood taxa composition and the et al., 2004; Ludemann, 2006), wood species composition of the higher mD-values indicates natural occurrence of Picea woodland charcoal assemblages in the Harz Mountains can be explained by with intermixture of some F. sylvatica in the area. This is in agree- differences in the local site conditions reflecting the woodland ment with the site conditions around the Hohnekamm, an area composition in the vicinity of the kiln sites. characterized by poor-thin soil with granite rock debris. Moreover, Therefore, the high amounts of Picea charcoal in our record are human Picea dispersal and plantation started during the 18th most likely the result of local growth conditions (BBM, BTM, HO), century and, thus, can be ruled out during the second mining phase. and later of human Picea reforestation during late Modern Times In the more western Harz transect TR, the charcoal assemblage (DA, SIE; lower altitude). Nevertheless, it is assumed that natural is dominated by Picea. A natural occurrence of a Piceetum cannot be primeval Picea forest growth around Mt. Brocken (transects BR, KB, excluded, because the area is situated close to large mires and BBM) as well as the nearby Heinrichshohe€ and Mt. Konigsberg€ spring areas, although the large diameter of the kiln sites and the occurred during the 17th century (Stocker,€ 1997; Nationalpark Harz, low mD-values points to the usage of anthropogenic Picea forest 2005). In contrast, our charcoal assemblage from BR and KB during late Modern Times. Especially during the third mining H. Knapp et al. / Quaternary International 366 (2015) 51e69 67 phase, the area was completely reforested with Picea while the peat today, most probably were covered by mixed spruce-beech forests bogs were mainly drained. A similar feature is visible in the area with maple until the 17th century. close to the Brockenbettmoor (transect BBM). The edaphic and To approach and implement issues of woodland conservancy on hydrological site conditions points to the existence of Picea wood- a sound scientific basis, in particular concerning the identification land (Calamagrostio-villosae Piceetum) and in the charcoal record of interlockings of different woodland types on a local scale, we only Picea was found. This is in accordance with soil charcoal an- highly recommend considering combined kiln- and pedo- alyses carried out nearby (Robin et al., 2013; Robin and Nelle, 2014). anthracological analyses. To further investigate the possibility of Compared to the kiln site in the High Harz, the transect Sieber is wood selection for specific smelting purposes in the past, there is located within the typical Fagus zone of the Harz Mountains. Fagus need for additional small scale anthracological investigations of charcoal was found in four of the seven investigated kiln sites, archaeological sites. albeit with low values. Most of the kiln sites are characterized by high amounts of Picea charcoal, and together with the extremely Acknowledgements low mD-values it points most likely to the usage of managed Picea forest during late Modern Times. This project was funded by the Kiel Graduate School Human In contrast to all other kiln sites, the charcoal records from the Development in Landscapes via a stipend to Hannes Knapp, € three kiln sites in the Marchenwald are characterized by several financed by the German Research Foundation (DFG). We are fl different wood taxa re ecting the small scale diversity of the especially thankful to Lothar Klappauf and Gotz€ Alper for archae- woodland in typical beech wooded area. The main tree species was ological assistance as well as to Hans-Ulrich Kison and Andrea F. sylvatica accompanied by Picea abies, Betula sp., Alnus sp. on Kirzinger from the Nationalpark Harz for their support. We are wetter sites as well as Carpinus sp. and Quercus sp. on drier sites. grateful for comments by the reviewers on an earlier manuscript The higher amount of light demanding species and the low mD- draft. values (Kiln 2, 3) most probably points to human woodland usage beside charcoal production. Most of the charcoal was classified into the lower size classes indicating that mainly branches and trunks References up to 20 cm were used. The transect is located at the northern rim Andrae, C., 2003. Ergebnisse botanischer Makrorestanalysen an Bodenproben vom of the Harz closer to a settlement area. Hence, the large trunks may Johanneser Kurhaus in tabellarischer Form. In: Alper, G. (Ed.), “Johanneser be used for construction purposes. Nevertheless, the overall char- Kurhaus”. 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