Volume 1 – Issue 7 – (July 2019)

AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-newsletter

A M O N T H L Y O N L I N E M A G A Z I N E I N A G R I C U L T U R E , F O O D S C I E N C E A N D A L L I E D S E C T I O N S

ISSN : 2581-8317

VOLUME 1 : ISSUE 7 JULY 2019

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Specialist Editor Content Reviewer Dr. Tanmay Kumar Koley Dr. Dickson Adom Dr. Manoj Kumar Mahawar Mr. Hemendra Negi Prof. Umesh Thapa Mr. Subhrajyoti Chatterjee Dr. Pradip Kumar Sarkar Mr. Sourav Mondal Dr. Pynbianglang Kharumnuid Mr. Tanmoy Sarkar Dr. Venkata Satish Kuchi Mr. Atul Yadav Ms. Sujayasree O.J. Mr. Kariyanna B. Dr. Chandan Karak Dr. Varun Mishra Dr. Nagendra Kumar Dr. Sandeep Singh Dr. Vivek Kumar Singh Mr. Soumen Ghosh Dr. Rekha Rani Mr. Alamuru Krishna Chaitanya Dr. Gopal Shukla Mr. Shashikumar J.N. Dr. Nirmal Kumar Meena Mr. Subhrajyoti Panda Dr. K. Rama Krishna Mr. Sukamal Sarkar Dr. Anil Kumar Mr. Abhijith M …………. Mr. Dodla Rajashekar Reddy ………….

Dr. Nityamanjari Mishra Arghya Mani Editor-in-chief Founder Editor

Shuvo Saha Paritosh Halder Manager Technical Head

INDEX - Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter - 1(7): June 2019 www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in

Title Article id. Page no.

Cold plasma - Improving seed germination and seedling vigour 21500 1 – 4 Organic Farming: A way to sustainable agriculture 21501 5 – 7 Major physiological disorders of Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) and their management 21502 8 – 10 Kalanamak Rice: Importance of cultivation and their Uses 21503 11 – 15 Terminator Gene Technology: Perception and Concerns 21504 16 - 20 Fertigation - Fertilizer management 21505 21 – 23 Production, postharvest management and value addition of mushrooms 21506 24 – 30 Systems Biology in Agriculture: Prospects for development of sustainable agriculture 21507 31 – 36 Surrogate broodstook development, prospects and challenges 21508 37 – 40 Climate-resilient and water efficient summer rice production system at new alluvial 21509 41 – 47 zone of West Bengal Lotus - an edible potential source 21510 48 – 52 Energy flow in aquatic ecosystem 21511 53 – 61 Brassinosteroide: A novel plant hormone 21512 62 – 65 Hirsutella- New entomopathogenic fungi to control insect pest 21513 66 – 69 Molecular approaches for crop genetic improvement against abiotic stresses 21514 70 – 72 Ornamental fish - Scope for entrepreneurship development in Northeast India 21515 73 – 74 Doubling Farmers’ Income: Issues and strategies for potato producers in Bihar 21516 75 – 80 Graviola – An elixir of human ailments 21517 81 – 83 Type of Bio-fertilizer and their advantages 21518 84 – 87 Brown manuring: Importance and advantages 21519 88 – 90 Use of Electricity in Agriculture 21520 91 – 96 Farmer Producers Organisation: An effective way for the upliftment of farmers at 21521 97 – 101 grassroot level Cultivation Practices and economical importance of curry leaf 21522 102 – 104 Applications of genome sequencing in agriculture 21523 105 – 107 Silicon based defense mechanism in plants 21524 108 – 111 Concept of ideal plant ideotype 21525 112 – 114 AGROPEDIA: An Overview 21526 115 – 117 Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) as an alternative potential pulse crop for Indian agriculture 21527 118 – 122 In-situ moisture conservation techniques: It needs for dry land and rain fed farming 21528 123 – 128 Soil Solarization 21529 129 – 133 Management strategies for improving nitrogen use efficiency in rice based cropping 21530 134 – 137 system Nutraceutical properties of mushrooms 21531 138 – 144 Male sterility in vegetable crops 21532 145 – 150 Diseases of mushroom and their management 21533 151 – 156 Technological interventions for climate resilient agriculture 21534 157 – 163 Climatic requirement of cashew 21535 164 – 168 Scientific cultivation of dragon fruit 21536 169 – 172 ARTHROPODS VENOM: As Bio-Pesticides 21537 173 – 176 Gamma irradiation used to preserved food for longer time 21538 177 – 179 Preparation of land for upcoming season 21539 180 – 181 INDEX - Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter - 1(7): June 2019 www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in

Crop Diversification 21540 182 – 186 Vermicompost: an enriched source of nutrients for better soil health 21541 187 – 190 Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative: A potential tool to boost up sugarcane productivity 21542 191 – 195 Soil testing – A boon for the Indian farmers 21543 196 – 197 Importance of water quality parameters in fresh water ponds for better fish 21544 198 – 201 production Cultivation practices and economical importance kokum 21545 202 – 203 REVERSE BREEDING: A novel breeding approach and its applications 21546 204 – 207 Effect of nutrients on citrus diseases 21547 208 – 213 Adverse effects of Pesticides in crop plants 21548 214 – 216

Climate change and CO2 concentration: Impact on plant growth and development 21549 217 – 221 Importance of grafting for healthy and quality vegetables production 21550 222 – 225 Cooking methods to save nutritional values of food 21551 226 – 228 Portulaca - A weed but a nutritious minor leafy vegetable 21552 229 – 231 Tomato leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii): An important pest of Tomato 21553 232 – 234 Precision Farming: “Need” and “constraints” in Indian Situations 21554 235 – 238 Freeze concentration and its applications in food industry 21555 239 – 242 DNA Barcoding and its applications in agricultural entomology 21556 243 – 246 Silicon based defense mechanism in plants 21557 247 – 250 Blockchain in Agriculture: A way ahead to connect farmers to the good market. 21558 251 – 254 Scientific cultivation of black pepper 21559 255 – 259 Physiological and biochemical mechanisms of salinity stress tolerance in plants 21560 260 – 263 Application of plastic mulch in horticultural crops 21561 264 – 267 Successful way to enhance productivity and profitability through soil health card: A 21562 268 – 269 Success Story Mineral mixture feeding to milch animals for curing deficiencies and improving milk 21563 270 – 274 productivity of dairy animals: A role in doubling the income of small and marginal farmers Impact of pesticides on honeybees 21564 275 – 276 Micronutrient deficiencies- measures to overcome 21565 277 – 278 Customized and value added fertilizers for better crop productivity 21566 279 – 282 Post harvest, export marketing and study of cold chain 21567 283 – 287 Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda): Emerging threat to Indian agriculture 21568 288 – 292 Identification of adulteration of fertilizers 21569 293 – 294 Integrated disease management for quick wilt in black pepper (Piper nigram L.) 21570 295 – 298 VERMICOMPOST: Clean and neat organic manure 21571 299 – 301 Integrated disease management in vegetable crops 21572 302 – 308 Better management practices for higher yields in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) 21573 309 – 311 Shifting to a modular composting system 21574 312 – 313 Zeolite – Characterization and potential use in agriculture 21575 314 – 317 Karonda – An unharnessed fruit crop of India 21576 318 – 320 High nutrient - Low cost fodders 21577 321 – 322 Soil and water conservation measures in Cashew: An approach to maximize crop 21578 323 – 327 productivity Risk and safety assessment of transgenic products 21579 328 – 331 INDEX - Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter - 1(7): June 2019 www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in

Remote sensing and its aspect in agriculture 21580 332 – 340 GMO: A long way to go 21581 341 – 345 Nematodes management in vegetable crops under protected cultivation 21582 346 – 348 Ultra high density planting: A new approach for yield enhancement in cashew 21583 349 – 350 Freeze concentration and its applications in food industry 21584 351 – 354 Effects of salinity stress on plants 21585 355 – 358 Impact of organic manures on soil and crop productivity 21586 359 – 362 Agroforestry as an option for livelihood security to farming community of INDIA 21587 363 – 372 Groundnut: Multifarious utilities of the ‘King of Oilseeds’ 21588 373 – 377 Youth and Agriculture: key challenges 21589 378 – 379 Use of organic manures in medicinal and aromatic plants 21590 380 – 383 Honey & Beekeeping: An emerging industry in INDIA 21591 384 – 387 Jasmonic acid: An abiotic stress defender of plants 21592 388 – 390 Breeding management of swine 21593 391 – 394 Health benefits and supplementary products of millets 21594 395 – 397 Black tip of Mango: Becoming a serious problem in Mango cultivation 21595 398 – 399 Diseases of barley 21596 400 – 401 Multistoried Cropping System-A strategy to improve agricultural production 21597 402 – 403 Applications of light emitting diodes for post-harvest quality management of fruits 21598 404 – 408 and vegetables DNA barcoding: A biodiversity discovery tool 21599 409 – 411 Characterization of Kuliana lime: A Land Race of Acid Lime (Citrus aurantifolia 21600 412 – 416 Swingle) in Odisha Smart Farming Technology: Its role in Indian agriculture 21601 417 – 420 Impact of drying on quality of food products 21602 421 – 423 JAPANESE MINT - A wonder aromatic crop for national and international market 21603 424 - 435

The articles published in this magazine are based on personal view / opinion of the authors. Magazine does not ensure the genuinely of the facts mentioned in the articles

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Cold plasma - Improving seed germination and seedling vigour Article id: 21500 1Arghya Mani and 2Sujayasree O.J. 1Research Scholar, Department of Post Harvest Technology, BCKV, Mohanpur, Nadia, India 2Research Scholar, Department of Post Harvest Technology, IARI, New Delhi [email protected]

Seeds are of paramount importance in relative energy levels of electrons and agriculture and horticulture. Seeds are primary constituent species, plasma is either hot plasma result of sexual reproduction in plants. Seeds or cold plasma. Hot plasma is also known as germination depends on both environmental thermal plasma and cold plasma is known as and genetic factors. Environmental factors non-thermal plasma. Cold plasma is generated include surrounding temperature, moisture under atmospheric pressure (1 bar) or at availability, gaseous concentrations, etc. Seed vacuum when a temperature of 30-60OC is germination is enhanced by both rate of water maintained. Unlike thermal plasma, non- absorption and the activity of water to trigger thermal plasma is not thermodynamically physical processes and biochemical reactions. equilibrium. With water absorption processes like Cold plasma has a wide range of reactivation of metabolism, resumptionof application which includes Disinfection or cellular respiration, DNA and protein repair, microbial inactivation of fresh horticultural translation and/or degradation of stored mRNAs produce, dairy products, meat, fish and cereals. takes place (Nonogaki et. al., 2010). It has also potential to decontaminate Plasma is the fourth state of matter that is processed products. It can also sterilize known to us. Plasma is more similar to gas than packaging materials, reduce enzymatic activity solid or liquid. Properties showed by plasma are and modification of food properties. Another quite different from solid, liquid and gas. When important application of cold plasma that has energy is supplied,matter changes its state from recently been observed is the ability to improve solid to liquid to gas and ultimately to plasma. seed germination and seedling vigour of When gases are heated sufficiently to higher different crops. Some observations related to energies thus that the intra-atomic and seed germination and seedling vigour molecular structures get loosen, it breaks down improvement have been discussed in this resulting in the formation of free electrons and article. ions. Plasma is partially or solely ionized gas composed of free electrons, neutrals and ions. Mechanism of action Plasma contains equal number of positive Three possible mechanisms have been charge carrier and negative charge carrier and proposed to explain the effects of plasma hence is neutral charged. On the basis of treatment on seed surfaces: etching, surface fictionalization and deposition of small bioactive

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 molecules. During the plasma treatment the treated seeds could increase hydrophilic seeds may be attacked by oxygen radicals and wettability of the seed, leading to accelerated bombarded by ions, leading to the erosion of water uptake. This helps in quick germination of seed surfaces. A prior study demonstrated that the seeds. Increase in seed permeability is the surface of cold air plasma treated seeds was associated with improved ability to absorb enriched with oxygen containing functional nutrients, which could promote seedling groups. Changes in the surfaces of plasma growth.

Table 1: Crop wise effect of plasma on seed germination enhancement Sl. No. Cropseed Type of plasma Salient findings Reference 1. Rice Atmospheric air Exposure of rice seeds to various durations Amnuaysin et. dielectric-barrier of DBD plasma significantly increased al., (2018) discharge plasma germination-related characters, including germination percentage, speed of germination and vigor index, in a dose- dependent manner. 2. Lentil and Atmospheric non- Germination vigour and germination Bormashenko beans thermal plasma jet percentage was increased et. al., (2012) 3. Wheat Plasma jet (15 sec) Germination vigour and germination Jiang et. al., percentage was increased (2014) 4. Soyabean Atmospheric Improved seed germination and increased Li et. al., (2014) dielectric barrier shoot length, shoot dry weight, root length discharge plasma and root dry weight were observed for 180 s. 5. Cotton Cold atmospheric- Increased water absorption of the seed, Gerard et. al., pressure plasma and improve warm germination, metabolic (2018) (CAP) chill test germination were observed. 6. Peanut Cold plasma A. Germination potential and germination Ling et. al., treatment rate were markedly raised by 150% and (2016) 21%, respectively. B. Germination was accelerated and the uniformity of emergence improved.

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7. Rapeseed Helium based radio Significant improvement in germination Ling et. al., frequency rate by 6.25% in drought sensitive variety (2015) discharge and 4.44% in drought tolerant variety 8. Bell pepper Oxygen plasma A. Germination and vigour indices Nalwaet. al., treatment using significantly increased by 21.75% and (2017) glow discharge 90.71% respectively. technique B. Characteristics of germination percentage, speed of germination, seedling vigour index-I & II significantly increased by 13.92%, 1.39 cm, 0.38 mg, 322.07 respectively. 9. Tomato Atmospheric non- Improved seed germination and Zhou et. al., thermal plasma jet germination vigour (2011) 10. Sweet Dielectric barrier Plasma activated water (PAW) has shown a Sivachandiran Pepper discharges in air significant impact on germination as well as and Khacef, under atmospheric plant growth for the three types of seeds (2017) pressure used. 11. Pea Cold atmospheric Drought resistance and germination of Khatami and plasma (CAP) seedlings increased after plasma was Ahmadinia, applied to seeds at 30 s (2018) 12. Radish Atmospheric non- A. After 7 days, the root length and stem Matra et. al., thermal plasma jet length was comparatively longer (2016) B. Average root length for control and plasma treated sample was 4.5cm and 7.5cm respectively

13. Watermelon N2 based non- A. Cold atmospheric plasma increased Lotfyet. al., thermal plasma jet the germination percentage of watermelon (2017) as well as the growth parameters (root and shoot length, dry weight), and the vigor of seedlings. B. The effects of cold plasma during this study depended on exposure time. 14. Coriander Nitrogen based After 7 days of germination there is 90% of Ji et. al., (2015) dielectric barrier seed germination compared to 40-60% for discharges control seeds

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REFERENCES

[1]. Matra K., (2016). Non-thermal plasma for germination enhancement of radish seed. Procedia Computer Science. 86(1):132-135. [2]. Amnuaysin N., Korakotchakorn H., ChittapunS. and Poolyarat N., (2018). Seed germination and seedling growth of rice in response to atmospheric air dielectric-barrier discharge plasma.Songklanakarin J. Sci. Technol. 40(4): 819-823. [3]. Bormashenko E., Grynyov R., Bormashenko Y., and Drori E. (2012). Cold radiofrequency plasma treatment modifies wettability and germination speed of plant seeds. Scientific Reports, 2(741): 1-8. [4]. Jiang J.F., Lu Y.F., Li J.G., Li L., He X., Shao H.L. and Dong Y.H., (2014). Effect of seed treatment by cold plasma on tomato. Plos One, 9(5): e97753. [5]. Li L., Jiang J., Li J., Shen M., He X., Shao H. and Dong Y., (2014). Effects of cold plasma treatment on seed germination and seedling growth of soybean. Scientific Reports, 4(5859): 1-7. [6]. Zhou Z., Huang Y., Yang S. and Chen W., (2011). Introduction of a new atmospheric pressure plasma device and application on tomato seeds. Agricultural Sciences, 2(1): 23-27. [7]. Lotfy K., (2017). Effects of cold atmospheric plasma jet treatment on the seed germination and enhancement growth of watermelon. Open Journal of Applied Sciences , 7: 705-719. [8]. L. Sivachandiran and Khacef A., (2017). Enhanced seed germination and plant growth by atmospheric pressure cold air plasma. RSC Adv., 7: 1822-1832. [9]. Gerard J.J., de Groot B., Hundt A., Anthony B., Michael M., Bange P. and Mai-Prochnow A., (2018). Cold plasma treatment for cotton seed germination improvement. Scientific reports. 8:14372 [10]. Khatami S. and Ahmadinia A., (2018). Increased germination and growth rates of pea by FSG plasma. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Physics. 12:33–38. [11]. Ling L., Jiangang L., Minchong S., Jinfeng H., Hanliang S., Yuanhua D. and Jiafeng J., (2016). Improving seed germination and peanut yields by cold plasma treatment. Plasma Science and Technology, 18(10): 1028-1033. [12]. Nalwa C., Ashok K.T., Vikram A., Rane R. And Vaid A., (2017). Studies on plasma treatment and priming of seeds of bell pepper. Journal of Applied and Natural Science. 9(3): 1505 -1509. [13]. Nonogaki H., Bassel G.W., Bewley J.D., (2010). Germination—still a mystery. Plant Science.179:574- 466. [14]. Ling L, Jiangang L, Minchong S, Chunlei Z, Yuanhua D (2015) Cold plasma treatment enhances oilseed rape seed germination under drought stress. Scientific Reports 5: 13033. [15]. Ji S.H., Kim T., Panngom K., Hong Y.J. aandPengkit A., (2015). Assessment of the effects of nitrogen plasma and plasma‐generated nitric oxide on early development of Coriandumsativum. Plasma Processes and Polymers. 12(10): 1164-1173.

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Organic Farming: A way to sustainable agriculture Article id: 21501 Bharati Upadhaya* & Kaushal Kishor M.Sc (Ag)* & Asst Professor, Depatment of Agronomy Dr Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, Pusa, Bihar

INTRODUCTION  To maintain genetic diversity of the Organic agriculture is a production agricultural system and it’s system which avoids or largely excludes the surrounding, including the plant use of synthetic compounded fertilizers, protection and wild life habitats; pesticides, growth regulators and livestock  To allow agricultural Producer’s feed additives. As per the definition of the adequate return and satisfaction from United States Department of Agriculture their work including a safe working (USDA), “organic farming is a system which environment. avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic inputs (such as fertilizers, pesticides, Why we adopt organic farming? hormones, feed additives etc) and to the The indiscriminate/excess use of maximum extent feasible rely upon crop pesticides and fertilizers has led to the entry rotations, crop residues, animal manures, off- of harmful compounds into the food chain, farm organic waste, mineral grade rock death of natural enemies and deterioration of additives and biological system of nutrient surrounding ecology (Chitale et. al., 2012). mobilization and plant protection”. With the increase in population our compulsion would be not only to stabilize Objectives agricultural production but to increase it  To produce food of high nutritional further in sustainable manner. The scientists quality in sufficient quantity; have realized that the ‘Green Revolution’ with  To encourage and enhance the high input use has reached a plateau and is biological cycles within farming now sustained with diminishing return of system involving micro organisms, soil falling dividends. Thus, a natural balance flora and fauna, plants and animals; needs to be maintained at all cost for  To maintain and increase the long existence of life and property. The obvious term fertility of soils; choice for that would be more relevant in the  To use as far as possible, renewable present era, when these agrochemicals which resources in locally organized argil. are produced from fossil fuel and are not systems; renewable and are diminishing in availability.

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It may also cost heavily on our foreign  Green leaf manuring: Green leaf exchange in future. manuring refers to turning into the soil green leaves and tender green Components of organic farming twigs collected from shrubs and trees  Farmyard Manure, Sewage sludge, grown on bunds, wastelands and Bio-gas slurry, Press mud, nearby forest areas. The common Vermicompost, Oil cakes, Bio- shrubs and trees used are Gliricidia fertilizers, Green manuring, crop (Gliricidia maculata), Sesbania rotation, On farm waste recycling, (Sesbania speciosa), karanj (Pongamia Integrated pest and disease pinnata), Subabul (Leucaena management (IPDM). leucocephala) etc. This is commonly 1. Farmyard Manure practiced in eastern and southern It refers to the well-decomposed India. mixture of dung, urine, farm litter and 3. Crop rotation left over or used up materials from It is a systematic arrangement for the growing roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. of different crops in a more or loss regular FYM becomes ready to apply after 3-4 sequence on the same land covering a period months. Well-rotted FYM contains of two years or more. The selection of 0.5% N, 0.2% P205 and 0.5% K2O. optimal crop rotation is important for 2. Green manuring successful sustainable agriculture. Crop Green manuring is a practice of rotation is very important. Soil fertility ploughing or turning undecomposed management, weed, insect and disease green plant materials into the soil for control. Legumes are essential in any rotation improving the physical conditions of the and should 30 to 50 percent of the land. soil as well as adding nutrients. For 4. Bio-fertilizer example: dhaincha., sunnhemp etc. a. Biological Nitrogen fixer: i. Rhizobium Types of Green manuring ii. Azotobacter - save 10-20 % N requirement  Green manuring in- situ: In this iii. Azospirillum - saves 25-30 % N system, green manure crops are requirement grown and buried in the same field. iv. Azolla The most common green manure v. Blue green algae crops grown under this system are b. Phosphate solubilizing micro- sannhemp (Crotalaria juncea), organism: dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) and guar i. Pseudomonas and Bacillus (bacteria) (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba). This is ii Panicillium and Aspergillus (fungi) most common in Northern India. c. Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM)

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. There is an increasing consumer demand Advantages of Organic farming for agricultural products which are free of . Organic manures produce optimal toxic chemical residues. conditions in the soil for high yields and . Organic farming helps to prevent good quality crops. environmental degradation and can be . They supply all the nutrients required by used to regenerate degraded areas. the plant (NPK, secondary and micronutrients). . They improve growth and physiological Conclusion activities of plants. Organic agriculture usefully contribute . They improve the soil physical properties to food security and is the attitude of such as granulation and good tilth, giving decision-makers. Organic agriculture must good aeration, easy root penetration and be discussed with an open mind, with the improves water holding capacity. advantages being clearly considered. Only . They improve soil chemical properties then can developing countries fully such as supply and retention of soil determine the potential of organic nutrients and promote favorable chemical agriculture under various conditions. FAO reaction, can play a key role in promoting a more . They reduce the need for purchased objective debate on the potential role of inputs. organic agriculture, and identifying the . Organic fertilizers are considered as circumstances where organic farming can complete plant foods. Organic matters be applied most beneficially. buffer the soil pH.

. Organically grown crops are believed to

provide healthier and nutritionally

superior food for man and animals.

. Organically grown crops are more

resistant to diseases, insects and hence

only a few chemical sprays or other

protective treatments are required.

REFERENCES [1]. Chitale, S., Bhoi, S.K., Tiwari, A., 2012. Organic rice production technology. Model training course on rice production technology. Feb., 22-29, 2 012.

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Major physiological disorders of Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) and their management Article id: 21502 Krishna Kumar Singh and S.K. Mehta Department of Agriculture, Career Point University, Kota, Rajasthan, India

INTRODUCTION creates such ecological conditions due to Grapes are cultivated in many countries of which some saprophytic fungi turn into the world. India produces only about 2.77 per parasitic leading to the death of tissue. The cent of the total world production. excessive foliage is due to over fertilization Physiological or a-biotic disorders are mainly especially with nitrogen. caused by changing environmental conditions Causes: The important factors which such as temperature, moisture, unbalanced contribute to the barrenness of vines are soil moisture, inadequate or excess of certain defective training and pruning practices, bud soil minerals, extremes of soil pH and poor failure and inadequate care during the non drainage. The distinction between bearing period. physiological or abiotic disorders from other Control disorders is that they are not caused by living  Adoption of proper training and organisms (viruses, bacteria, fungi, insects, pruning practices. etc.), but they are the result of abiotic  Following adequate plant protection situations (inanimate)i.e. their agents are non measures against insect-pest and diseases. living in nature which causes deviation from  Training the vines systematically normal growth. They results in physical or under the guidance of a technical expert by chemical changes in a plant which is far away following proper training system. from what is normal and is generally caused  Avoiding heavy yields from the young by an external factor. vines so as to prolong their productive life span. Grape  Heading back the barren vines to Scientific name: Vitis vinifera L. retain healthy and sound limbs to maintain Family : Vitaceae the productiveness of vines.

1.) Barrenness: Barrenness is a common 2.) Water berries: The phenomenon of phenomenon in Anab-e-Shahi cultivar of unusual berries in the grape clusters is very grapes. The vines do not bear flower bunches common. There is lack of normal sugar, and if few bunches are found they are small colour, flavor and keeping quality in such in size. Lack of flower bud formation or their berries. These berries look like small subsequent death results in lack of flower cellophane bags, partially filled with sap, bunch formation. The excessive foliage

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 which remain hanging on bunches. Although these berries look normal in size but when touched their pulp is very soft instead of firm. In severe cases, the berries are dull in colour, get shriveled and dry as harvest time approaches. Causes  Over cropping and inadequate nourishment of all the berries in a cluster.  Frequent watering and more application of nitrogenous fertilizers resulting in excessive shoot vigour. Control Water berries  Bunch and berries thinning accompanied by cluster clipping. 3.) Hen and chicken disorder: The name  Checking the shoot growth by limiting ‘hen and chicken’ is given due to the reason water and nitrogen applications. that many shot berries surround a bold berry in a cluster, where bold berry is compared to  Applying potash and oil cakes. hen and shot berries to chicken. The  Spraying boric acid (0.2%). characteristic feature of formation of shot

berries in a cluster is their number which is

several times more than the normal ones. The deficiency of zinc and boron are found responsible for this disorder and in these cases the shot berries are seedless. The shot berries are spherical or sometime oblate i.e. compressed at ends in case of boron deficiency as against elongated shape in case if zinc deficiency. Control: To reduce the incidence of hen and chicken disorder, it is advisable to correct the deficiency of zinc and boron by following proper spray schedule before flowering. Barrenness

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nourishment or failure in embryo development. Causes  Poor pollination or fertilization.  Poor carbohydrate nutrition to the flowers.  Compactness of bunches.  Deficiency of boron.  Inappropriate application of gibberellic acid.  Girdiling at incorrects stages. Hen and chicken disorder Control 4.) Blossom- end rot: In this rot the  Apply gibberellic acid (GA3) or girdling development of black sunken spot at the immediately after fruit set and before the blossom-end of he berry is seen which later o berry shatter stage. spreads with water soaked region around it.  Avoid boron and zinc deficiencies. Defective calcium nutrition and assimilation  Beery thinning also helps in avoiding appears to be the cause for it. incidence of shot berries. Control: This disorder can be corrected with a  Dipping of bunches at berry set stage spray of 0.1% calcium nitrate. in ethephon (25 ppm) + sevin (200 ppm), also 5.) Shot berries: It is a major problem in helps in controlling the problem. varieties like Beauty Seedless and Perlette which bear compact bunches. Shot berries CONCLUSION: are usually smaller, round and seedless as As grape is cultivated in tropical regions compared to the normal berries. In seedless against its natural habitat, the vine physiology varieties, they are smaller in size and sweeter undergoes change. When environmental than the normal berries of a bunch, while in a factors exceed their optimal conditions, seeded variety these are seedless and small. grapevine undergoes stress and exhibits Such shot berries are also known as certain disorders. Grape disorders can be Millerandage. In general, small berries shatter grouped into ecological, physiological, eco- after 7-20 days after set due to lack of physiological and disorders of unknown etiology.

REFERENCES: [1]. K.K. Singh. (2018). Physiological disorders in fruit crops. in Chauhan. A., Bharti, P.K. Plant Disease Management Control and Elimination Strategies. pp. 156-181. Discovery publication house delhi, india. [2]. Pandey, R.M. and Pandey, S.N. (1998). The Grape in India. ICAR, New Delhi, India.

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Kalanamak Rice: Importance of cultivation and their Uses Article id: 21503 Vishal Kumar Ph. D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005

INTRODUCTION except grain length. Thus, characterization of Among scented rice, Kalanamak (kala Kalanamak aromatic rice for various cooking = black husk; namak = salt) is a non-basmati and micronutrient traits is of prime aromatic, small and medium sized grain rice importance in order to identify genotypes with strong and pleasant aroma. Presently, with excellent cooking quality and rich in cultivation of this rice variety has been essential micronutrient (Welch and Graham, decreasing due to several biotic and abiotic 2004). stresses, including lodging. The tallness of Rice is a rich source of carbohydrate plants is an important factor that causes (CHO); it contains a moderate amount of susceptibility to lodging and ultimately causes protein and fat and also a source of vitamin B a reduction in yield (Singh et al., 2005). The complex such as thiamine (vitamin B1), growing income and food diversification in riboflavin (vitamin B2), and niacin (vitamin some Asian and European countries have led B3) ( Fresco, 2005). Rice CHO is mainly a consumers to prefer better quality rice, while starch which is composed of amylase and people in some parts of the world seek amylopectin. The grain of rice constitutes improved nutrition. Micronutrient water 12 %, starch 75-80%, and protein only malnutrition, and particularly Fe and Zn 7% with a full complement of amino acids. Its deficiency affected over three billion people protein is highly digestible with excellent worldwide, mostly in developing countries biological value (74%) and protein efficiency (Welch and Graham, 2004). Therefore, in this ratio (2.02-2.04%) owing to the presence of era, research work should be more focused higher concentration (-4%) of lysine (Eggum, on enhancement of micronutrient along with 1969, 1973, 1977; Bressani et al., 1971; cooking quality traits in rice to meeting the Juliano, 1993). Minerals like Calcium (Ca), demand and combat the malnutrition Magnesium (Mg), and Phosphorous (P) are deficiency. Aromatic rice varieties include present along with some traces of iron (Fe), long grain basmati, Jasmine rice and small to copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn) medium scented indigenous rice of India. (Oko et al., 2012). Kalanamak is one of the finest quality Due to quality, aroma and palatability aromatic rice of India, famous for taste, of Kalanamak rice, its price and demand in palatability, and aroma and it surpasses the global market are still high (Luo et al., basmati rice in most of cooking quality traits 2005). Kalanamak, a non-basmati aromatic

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 cultivar is one of the most prized rice varieties use of nitrogen fertilizer and causes problems of Asia. Most of scented rice varieties have in mechanical harvesting. Tall stature several undesirable traits such as lodging, low increases respiration, reduces translocation yield, vulnerability to pests and diseases and causes chlorosis, which affect plant (Berner and Hoff, 1986). These characteristics growth and development (Berry et al., 2002). of Kalanamak rice reduce its agronomic value. Semi-dwarf rice varieties can evade the The main reason for the reduction in yield of damage caused by wind and rain due to their Kalanamak rice is its tall stature that causes short height (Hirano et al., 2017). lodging. The tall stature also limits optimum

Table1. Distinguishing Marpho- agronomic and grain quality characters of Kalanamak Marpho- agronomic Description Grain traits Description traits Basal leaf sheath Green Kernel length 5.76 mm colour Tillering ability Medium (20 tiller hill-1) Kernel width 2.18 mm Days to 50% flowering 115 days L/B Ratio 2.64 mm (Photosensitive) Days to maturity 145 days Grain type Medium Slender (Photosensitive) Culm angle Slight Open (450) Kernel colour White Leaf length 59 cm 1000 grain weight 15 grams Leaf width 1.4 cm Hulling 80% Panicle length 31 cm Milling 75% Panicle type Open Head rice 70% Plant height 142 cm Alkali value 6-7 Aroma in plant Highly scented Volume Expansion 4.5 times Apiculus colour Brown (tawny) Gel consistency 80 mm Awning Absent Absent Amylose content 22% Lemma, Palea colour Purplish Black Aroma in grain Strong Stigma colour Purplish Black Taste Superb Source: Revised manual on organic production of kalanamak rice. R. C. Chaudhary, Abhay Gandhe, and S.B. Mishra, 2014. Participatory Rural Developmemt Foundation, Gorakhpur, 273014, UP, India.

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Kalanamak, a pigmented rice variety Large scale demon-strations of putative emerged as a potent source of vitamin E, with organic inputs are being demonstrated on the phyto constituents and free radical scavenging farmers’ fields in the above districts. They are properties. It can be concluded that also being linked to rice processors and super pigmented rice varieties might act as a markets. Hopefully we shall succeed and potential natural antioxidant source. The farmers will benefit economically, and the landraces studied here can be utilized for country will benefit by better human health major rice improvement strategies that have and safer environment (Chaudhary et al., high nutritive, nutraceutical and medicinal 2014). values (Rajendran et al., 2018). Subudhi et al. (2013) reported Kalanamak rice possessed Prosperity through kalanamak highest moisture content (MC) 10.24% Exported and organic rices fetch more followed by Tulsiphool (9.92%) and Kalajira money but under GIS of Basmati, eastern U. P. (9.9%), whereas Geetanjali had the lowest can’t grow it for export. Thus Kalanamak is the value (9.6%). hope as export candidate as “Normal” and “Organic Kalanamak”. Under a separate Scenario research project, Protocol to produce organic Rice staple food retains the main Kalanamak is being developed and farmers are source of energy and protein which provide -1 -1 being trained in organic production. They will 700 calories day person for about 3000 be linked to organic market for local million people of the world’s population consumption and export. With the high yield (Vlachos and Arvanitoyannis, 2008). of HYV Kalanamak and high price, Kalanamak Kalanamak rice has been under cultivation rice may bring fast prosperity to eastern U. P. since several thousand years and has become Kalanamak is the premium quality rice and has a land race in Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh premium price (Chaudhary et al., 2012). (Siddharth Nagar, Gorakhpur, Mahrajganj, Varanasi, Barabanki and Azamgarh) in India. CONCLUSION: This rice almost 30-35 q ha-1 produce grain The cultivation of Kalanamak rice is yields, its area reduced from 50,000 ha to gives more economical value in the country as almost 2,000 ha remains at present. well as at globally through export. This rice is very testy in food. It is well known that Organic production of kalanamak pigmented varieties are nutritionally better A multi-location trial with various owing to the presence of anthocyanins, which combinations of Herbozyme, Pseudomonas, are extensively recognized for their Trichoderma, and FYM is established in the antioxidant activity, anticancer, hypoglycemic districts of Gorakhpur, Mahrajganj and and anti-inflammatory effects. Siddharth Nagar. Few hundred farmers are being trained to grow organic Kalanamak.

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REFERENCES: [1]. Rajendran V., Sivakumar H.P. Marichamy, I., Sathish, S. and Ramalingam, S.K. 2018. Phytonutrients analysis in ten popular traditional Indian rice landraces (Oryza sativa L.). Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization (2018) 12:2598–2606. [2]. Singh, R. K., Singh, U. S., Khush, G. S., Rohilla, R., Singh, J. P., Singh, G. and Shekhar, K. H., Small and medium grained aromatic rices of India. Aromatic Rice Science, Enfield Publishers Inc, USA, and Oxford and IBH Publishing Co, New Delhi, 2005, pp. 155–177. [3]. Luo, Y., Zakaria, S., Basyah, B., Ma, T., Li, Z., Yang, J. and Yin, Z., Marker-assisted breeding of Indonesia local rice variety Siputeh for semi-dwarf phenotype, good grain quality and disease resistance to bacterial blight. Rice, 2014, 7, 33. [4]. Berner, D. K. and Hoff, B. J., Inheritance of scent in American long grain rice. Crop Sci., 1986, 26, 876– 878. [5]. Berry, P. M., Bradely, S., Pickett, R., Sterling, M., Baker, C. J. and Cameron, N., Lodging control through variety choice and management. In Proceedings of the Eighth HGCA R7D, Conference on Cereals and Oilseeds, Home Grown Cereals Authority, London, 2002, pp. 7.1–7.12. [6]. Hirano, B. K., Ordonio, R. L. and Matsuoka , M., Engineering the lodging resistance mechanism of post- green revolution rice to meet future demands. Proc. Jap. Acad. Ser. B, 2017, 93, 220–233. [7]. Welch, R.M. and R.D. Graham (2004). Breeding for micronutrients in staple food crops from a human nutrition perspective. J. Exp. Bot., 55: 353–364. [8]. Chaudhary, R. C., Gandhe, A., and Mishra, S.B.2014. Revised manual on organic production of kalanamak rice. Participatory Rural Developmemt Foundation, Gorakhpur, 273014, UP, India. [9]. Subudhi H, Meher J, Singh O N, Sharma S G, Das S. 2013. Grain and food quality traits in some aromatic long and short grain rice varieties of India. J Food Agric Environ, 11: 1434–1436. [10]. Vlachos A, Arvanitoyannis I S. 2008. A review of rice authenticity/adulteration methods and results. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 48: 553–598. [11]. Fresco L. 2005. Rice is life. J Food Comp Anal, 18(4): 249–253. Heinemann R J B, Fagundes P L, Pinto E A, Penteado M V C, Lanfer-Marquez U M. 2005. Comparative study of nutrient [12]. composition of commercial brown, parboiled and milled rice from Brazil. J Food Comp Anal, 18(4): 287–296. [13]. Eggum B O. 1969. Evaluation of protein quality and the development of screening techniques. In: New Approaches to Breeding for Improved Plant Protein. Vienna, IAEA: 125–135. [14]. Eggum B O. 1973. A study of certain factors influencing protein utilization in rats and pigs. Publ. 406. Copenhagen, Agricultural Research Laboratory: 173. [15]. Eggum B O. 1977. Nutritional aspects of cereal protein. In: Muhammad A, Aksel R, von Boustel R C. Genetic Diversity in Plants. New York, USA: Plenum Press: 349–369. [16]. Bressani R, Elias L G, Juliano B O. 1971. Evaluation of protein quality. J Agric Food Chem, 19: 1028– 1036. [17]. Juliano B O. 1993. Nutritional value of rice and rice diets. In: Rice in Human Nutrition. IRRI and FAO, Rome, Italy: 61–84.

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[18]. Oko A O, Ubi B E, Efisue A A, Dambaba N. 2012. Comparative analysis of the chemical nutrient composition of selected local and newly introduced rice varieties grown in Ebonyi State of Nigeria. Int J Agric Forest, 2(2): 16–23. [19]. Chaudhary, R.C., Mishra, S.B., Yadav, S.K., Ali, J. 2012. Extinction to Distinction: Current Status of Kalanamak, the Heritage Rice of Eastern Uttar Pradesh and its likely Role in Farmers’ Prosperity. LMA Convention Journal, 8(1): 7-14.

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Terminator Gene Technology: Perception and Concerns

Article id: 21504 Ajay Kumar Chandra1*and Sumit Kumar2 1Dept. of Molecular Biology & Genetic Engineering, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttrakhand and 2Biotechnology Laboratory, Indian Institute of Maize Research, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab.

INTRODUCTION large-scale basis, it will inevitably lead to The agricultural research is progressing at a famine and starvation on a worldwide basis. very swift race day by day. The solution for Types of GURTs food hunger, ecofriendly agriculture and There are two main classes of GURTs: trait other related challenges is being pursued by based and variety based GURTs. Trait based scientists with great vigour. In this regard, the technologies (T-GURTs) regulate the discovery of terminator technology has been expression of a particular trait; whereas very phenomenal. Terminator technology or variety based technologies (V-GURTs) restrict genetic use restriction technologies (GURTs) the use of an entire variety by hampering its are new technological means invented by reproduction. biotechnology firms to protect the IPRs of their innovations. Genetic use restriction V-GURT technologies (GURTs) are the name given to Variety-GURT is also known as experimental methods, described in a series suicide/sterile seed/gene technology, or of recent patent applications and providing terminator technology. It is designed to specific genetic switch mechanisms that control plant fertility or seed development restrict the unauthorized use of genetic. The through a genetic process triggered by a biotechnology and seed industry is promoting chemical inducer that will allow the plant to this technology as a “biosafety‟ solution to grow and to form seeds, but will cause the disguise its true role as a biological means of embryo of each of those seeds to produce a preventing farmers from saving and re-using cell toxin that will prevent its germination if proprietary seed. This technology has not yet replanted, thus causing second generation been commercialized or field tested but tests seeds to be sterile and allowing are currently being conducted in greenhouses manufacturers to maintain their intellectual in the United States (Malav and Gaur, 2017). property rights and avoid concerns related to Monsanto is in the process of acquiring and GM seed dispersal (Mukherjee and Kumar, patenting this technology, known as 2014). Production of non-viable seeds "Terminator or traitor Technology." This through GURTs can be used in the prevention technology is currently the greatest threat to of gene flow between non-specific plants, humanity. If it is used by Monsanto on a

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 avoiding the generation of “super weeds”. technology was developed. Three stretches of The production of V-GURT seeds also aid in DNA, which carry genetic information, was the management of insect pests and diseases introduced into the plant for this purpose. by preventing the formation of a “green The first bit of DNA has a particular type of bridge” between crops. These benefits would promoter. The promoter used for the result in the reduction of pesticide use, which terminator genes would become active only is economically and environmentally in the later stages of seed maturation. desirable (Malav and Gaur, 2017). However if only this promoter and lethal gene were inserted into plants, then even the first T-GURT generation seeds would not sprout. Having a In case of T-GURTs, some authors “blocking sequence‟ between the promoter considered it as the second generation of V- and the lethal gene so that the latter it is GURT, one or more genes conferring a single prevented from being expressed. The second trait are switched on or off a trait (such as bit of DNA carries the gene for an enzyme herbicide/ cold/ drought/ stress tolerance, called recombinase which is able to recognize pest resistance, germination, flowering, the excision sequences and remove these, ripening, colour, nutritional qualities of the along with blocking sequence, from the first plant, defence mechanisms, production of strip of DNA. The recombinase (repressor) industrial or pharmaceuticals) using inducible gene is kept in control by another type of promoters regulating the expression of the promoter. This promoter can be repressed transgene through induced gene silencing the recombinase enzyme will not then be (e.g., by antisense suppression) or by excision produced if a particular protein is present. A of the transgene using a recombinase (FAO, gene on the third bit of DNA keeps producing 2001). Thus this technology would enable the protein, which represses the promoter for both seed and allied agrochemical recombinase (Mukherjee and Kumar, 2014). corporations to market both proprietary seed variety and component agrochemical  The lethal gene inducers that unbolt the value added A ribosomal inhibitor protein (RIP) engineered traits in a proprietary seed. In this gene is the lethal gene, the saponin RIP being way, T-GURTs could enable seed companies particularly preferred. RIP directly interferes to maintain the value-added traits of seeds. in the expression of all proteins in a plant cell, without being toxic to other organisms. Mechanism involved in terminator gene Expression of RIP in the cells of the embryo action would be entirely preventing germination of Operon concept was put forth by Jacob the seed (Mukherjee and Kumar, 2014). Monad in 1961, which explains the gene regulations in all organisms. Based on this  The repressible promoter mechanism of gene expression, this

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If it is sensitive to a chemical stimulus, system is the bacteriophage CRE/LOX system the chemical should be non-toxic to the crop where the CRE protein performs site-specific and to non-pest and not harmful to animals. recombination of DNA at LOX sites. The Tn10-encoded tet repressor-operator system, which is responsible to tetracycline, is From above depiction, Terminator technology preferred. The Tn10 tet repressor gene consists of three genes: produces a repressor protein that binds to a) Gene I which produces a repressor the tet operon and prevents the expression of protein that interacts with a binding site the gene to which the promoter is linked. near Gene II. When tetracycline is present, it inhibits the b) Gene II is a recombinase gene that is binding of the Tn10 tet repressor to the tet controlled by a promoter. It produces a operons, allowing free expression of the recombinase protein that snips out pieces linked gene (Mukherjee and Kumar, 2014). of DNA. c) Gene III produces a toxin that is lethal to embryos. It is controlled by a late promoter, which is active only when the embryo is developing. Overall advantages and disadvantages of terminator technology

Advantages

1. This technology will induce private sector to make more investment in research and development of pure line varieties and open pollinated Figure: 1. Mechanism of action of terminator varieties because in these varieties the gene after treating with inducer farmers do not change the seeds each (tetracycline) years. Source: Mukherjee and Kumar, (2014) 2. Farmers will use new seeds every year leads to maximum production.  Recombinase and excision sequences 3. This will result in stiff competition The recombinase-excision sequence between the public and private sector system can be any one that selectively institutions and ultimately the farmers removes DNA in a plant genome. The excision will benefit through this technology. sequences are preferably unique one in the plant so that unintended cleavage of the plant genome does not occur. A preferred

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Disadvantages treatment of the seed with chemicals (or) toxins. 1. There is a danger of this technology affecting unintended targets. It is d) The country’s rich genetic biodiversity possible that these plants would will be lost. Maximum crop field may transfer pollen to nearby wild type be covered by just one genotype, and crops and cause sterility in their seeds it will eliminate the farm conservation too. traditions and location specific 2. Harvested seeds are used only for varieties. consumption. It may cause health e) The impact of tetracycline soaked hazards for animals as well as human seeds on soil ecology, particularly on beings. Because it has been treated microflora and fauna will be with some chemicals before sowing. dangerous. 3. The countries rich genetic diversity Ethical Concerns (Yusuf, 2010) will be lost. 4. Tetracycline is a chemical use to active a) Terminator technology introduces in the toxic gene, may alter the soil agri-culture scenario will definitely fauna and flora. favour large farmers and corporation 5. Location specific and season bound over farmers and peasants. varieties cannot be grown. b) It has negative impact on employment and consumers. Perception and Concerns c) A very common underlying issue is Farmer’s Concerns that this technology debates lies the critique capitalism and particularly it Farmer’s organizations across India have monopolistic characterized by the demanded a ban on any seed material dominance of large multinational containing the terminator gene (Yousuf et al, corporations. 2017). d) The terminator mechanism a) Questions on the ethical and social considered as a bias towards high tech relevance of the technology in a type of agriculture of no relevance to country like India were farming in the problem of small peasant farmers. major occupation. e) Genetic resource have been regards b) There is the danger of this technology first, as the common heritage of affecting the unintended targets, mankind due to this technology, through pollen transfer. biodiversity will be eroded quickly. c) The seed is used for consumption it may cause health hazards due to

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CONCLUSION communities work and make decisions. The terminator gene technology may be a good Food is a big business all around world and one for seed companies but it is bad for multinational companies would only be countries like India. Here in India we have happier if farmers from all around the world more than 75 percent of our population who are forced to come back to them, year after are engaged in agriculture. Therefore, what is year, to buy seeds. In a country like India, relevant to them may not be relevant to us. agriculture research if it is to be relevant and Hence, the research should not be completely realistic must be in collaboration with farms business oriented but it must be service and farmer organizations and must be oriented so that findings will reach to the sensitive to the economic, social and farming community in India. conceptual framework within which farming

REFERENCES

[1]. FAO, 2001. Potential Impacts of Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs) on Agricultural Biodiversity and Agricultural Production Systems. Wageningen University Research Centre. The Netherlands. [2]. Malav, A.K. and Gaur, A. (2017). Terminator Gene Technology and Its Application in Crop Improvement. Int. J. Curr. Res. Biosci. Plant Biol. 4(5), 57-60. [3]. Mukherjee, S. and Kumar, S. (2014). Terminator gene technology - their mechanism and consequences. Science Vision 14: 51-58. [4]. Yousuf, N., Dar, S.A., Gulzar, S., Nabi, S.U., Mukhtar, S. and Lone, R.A., (2017). Terminator Technology: Perception and Concerns for Seed Industry, Int. J. Pure App. Biosci. 5(1): 893-900. [5]. Yusuf, M. (2010). Ethical issues in the use of the terminator seed technology. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9 (52): 8901-8904.

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Fertigation - Fertilizer management Article id: 21505 Sahaja Deva Subject Matter Specialist (Crop Production), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi

INTRODUCTION: well as in world. Israel which gives major In agriculture sector to increase importance to water has 75% area under production and productivity there are so microirrigation. But in world <3% of area is many steps to be followed. Among them under microirrigation. In India only 0.3 % of reduction in cost of cultivation is one of the irrigated area is under drip irrigation. It can important aspects. Maintaining be possible to extend area under drip environmental balance and getting irrigation upto 27 m.ha. sustainable and stable yields is also one of the major factors for increase in productivity. To Advantages: reach the goal it is very important to supply  Nutrients will be available to plants water and nutrients to crops in sufficient easily doses and also nutrient and water use  Nutrient use efficiency will be high efficiency should also be improved. compared to broadcasting or side Integrated water and nutrient management dressing plays an important role in protecting  Plant can be provided with required environment from pollution. In integrated amount of nutrients nutrient and water management fertigation is  No wastage of nutrients due to heavy one of the important method which gain very winds and no erosion of nutrients on much importance. In this method water and top layer of soil nutrients required crop can be supplied at the  No evaporation and no wastage of same time. With this method not only yields nutrients is observed will be increased but also environmental  Low incidence of pests and diseases pollution will be reduced. This method is due to favourable microclimate at being followed throughout the world and root zone India as well mostly under drip irrigation,  Organic fertilizers usage can be underground drip, microsprinklers and reduced upto 15-40%, chemical microjets. With the introduction of this fertilizers usage can be reduced upto method microirrigation usage us also 20-30% and labour requirement can increased. As a result of this fertigation is be reduced upto 10-15% and being used in different crops, soils and machineries usage can be reduced environmental conditions. Area under upto 20-25% fertigation is increasing day by day in India as

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 Best method of fertilizer application in  with the above benefits yield can be slopy and problematic soils. improved from 30-70% and quality  Maintains environemntal balance will also be improved

Chemical fertilizers suitable for fertigation Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Micronutrients  Urea (46-0-0)  Urea phosphate  Potassium chloride  FeEDTA (13%)  Ammonium nitrate (17-44-0) (0-0-60) (white  FeDTPA (12%) (34-0-0)  MAP (12-61-0) coloured)  FeEDDHA (6%)  Ammonium sulphate  MKP (0-52-34)  Potassium nitrate  ZnEDTA (915%) (1-0-0)  Phosphoric acid (13-0-46)  CaEDTA (9.7%)  Calcium nitrate (16- (0-52-0)  Potassium sulphate  Rexolling (boron, 0-0)  NPK (19-19-19) (0-0-50) copper, iron,  Calcium nitrate (15-  NPK (20-20-20)  Potassium manganese, 0-0) thiosulphate (0-0-25) molybdenum, zinc,  Urea ammonium (liquid form) magnesium) nitrate (32-0-0)  MKP (0-52-34)  Potassium nitrate (13-0-46)  Magnesium sulphate (11-0-0)  MAP (12-61-0)

Fertilizers use for fertigation should be  Method of cultivation (Field method, dissloved in water completely. Otherwise greenhouse cultivation, hydroponics fertilizer will block the pores of drip pipes. or aeroponics) Powder or liquid form of fertilizers can be  Soil physical and chemical properties used for fertigation. Chloride free ferilizers (Soil type, pH, EC, clay content, should be selected for good yields and Organic carbon, nutrients in soil) quality.  Climatic conditions  Quality of irrigation water (pH, EC) Factors influencing fertigation:  Following technical points to be keep  Type of crop (crop types, stage of the in mind during fertigation: crop, plant population, method of  In medium and heavy soils fertilizer nutrient uptake by crop and targetted tank should be used. In light soils yields) fertilizer injector should be used

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 Fertilizers should be supplied regularly  If irrigation water contains high on daily basis. If not possible twice a calcium, magnesium, sulphate, iron week and manganese nutrient use efficiency  fertilizers should be selected based on will be reduced need of the crop. Fertilizer should  While mixing powder or liquid form of supply nutrient to crop and also fertilizers 50-75% water should be correct pH of soil there in tank

Table: Fertilizers that can be mixed and cannot be mixed for fertigation Fertilizer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 C C C C C C 2 C C C C C C 3 C C LC C C LC 4 C C LC LC LC C 5 C C C LC C 6 C C C LC C C 7 C C LC C C C C- can be mixed SC-cannot be mixed LC-can be mixed to some extent

Details of fertilizers for fertigation: 1. 1.Urea 2. Ammonium nitrate 3. Ammonium sulphate 4. Calcium nitrate 5. Mono ammonium phosphate 6. Mono potassium phosphate 7. Potassium nitrate

CONCLUSION: Using correct and recommended fertilizers suitable for fertigation will gives good and improved yields with reduced cost of cultivation.

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Production, postharvest management and value addition of mushrooms Article id: 21506 B.L.Attri, Anuradha Srivasatava and V.P. Sharma ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan (H.P.)- 173 213

History of Mushroom and forms fruiting body, commonly known as The world of mushrooms has always mushroom. been fascinating and mystic to man owing to The term “Mushroom" refer to a wide their sudden appearance in number, groups, variety of gilled fungi, with or without stems, rings, bunches and also in isolation as a single and the term is used even more generally to attractive and imposing structure. Their describe both the fleshy fruiting bodies of sudden appearance has often led to localized some Ascomycota and the woody or leathery beliefs and notions such as their association fruiting bodies of some Basidiomycota, with thunder-storm and lightening, their depending upon the context of the word. typical growth could not be described better Forms deviating from the standard form by any other terminology than mushroom usually have more specific names, such as growth. Man has been fascinated with this "puffball", "stinkhorn", and "morel", and biological entity since time immemorial and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called references about the mushrooms are "agarics" in reference to their similarity to available in most ancient literature like Vedas Agaricus or their placement in the order and Bible. In fact mushroom have existed Agaricales. However, all mushrooms are not even long before man appeared, as is evident edible, and some are highly poisonous too. from the fossil-records of lower cretaceous The toxic/poisonous species, commonly period, i.e. about 130 million years ago. referred to as "toadstools" are objects of fear Mushrooms belong to a separate and distrust and have led to certain amount group of organisms called Fungi. They lack of inhibition and taboo towards mushroom the green matter (Chrolophyll) present in eating. plants and grow on dead and decaying Mushrooms can be roughly divided organic materials. From these decaying into four categories: (1) those which are substrates, they absorb their nutrition with fleshy and edible, are edible mushrooms, e.g., the help of very fine thread like structures Agaricus bisporus; (2) mushrooms with (mycelium), which penetrate into the medicinal applications, are medicinal substratum and are generally not visible on mushrooms, e.g., Ganoderma lucidum; (3) the surface. After the mycelium has grown those with proven, or suspected of being profusely and absorbed sufficient food poisonous, are poisonous mushrooms, e.g., materials, it forms the reproductive structure Amanita phalloides; (4) a miscellaneous which generally comes out of the substrate category includes a large number of

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 mushrooms, whose properties are not well units and the processing units. In recent defined. years, in spite of these factors, cost of Till now almost 14000 mushroom mushroom production in these countries and species are known to exist. Of these about in USA has gone up resulting into stagnation 50% are considered to possess varying of mushroom production which has opened degrees of edibility and almost 3000 species opportunities for the third world countries to from 31 genera are regarded as prime edible capitalize due to widening gap between mushroom. Till date only 200 of them are demand and supply. experimentally grown, 100 of them China is an example of success economically cultivated, approximately 60 through low cost community based commercially cultivated and about 10 have technology for mushroom production and reached to industrial scale in many countries. diversification of specialty mushrooms There are about 2000 medicinal mushrooms making it a leading mushroom producing are known with varieties of health attributes. country in the world producing about 80% of Amongst all, poisonous mushroom the total world mushroom production. In contributes a very small fraction recent years, production of specialty approximately 1% but there is an estimate mushrooms has increased substantially that about 10% may have poisonous resulting in reduced share of the button attributes while 30 species are considered to mushroom (15%). Presently shiitake be lethal. (Lentinula edodes) has become the most Though Chinese were the first to do cultivated mushroom in the world followed the artificial cultivation of the tropical and by oyster (Pleurotus spp.) and wood ear subtropical mushrooms about thousand years (Auricularia spp.) mushrooms. ago real commercial ventures started when India is blessed with varied agro- Europeans started cultivation of button climate, abundance of agricultural wastes and mushroom in green houses and caves during manpower making it most suitable for the 16th and 17th century. Mushrooms are now cultivation of all the types of temperate, getting significant importance due to their subtropical and tropical mushrooms. It is nutritive and medicinal values and income estimated that more 700 million tones of crop generating venture in about 100 countries. residues are generated annually and most of At present, world mushroom production is it is left out for burning and incorporating in estimated to be around 38 million the soil in manure form. Though mushroom tons/annum and is increasing @ 7% per production in India started in 60’s, it was annum. In developed countries the units are during 90’s that there was sudden jump in highly mechanized and with computer mushroom production, which resulted in controlled environmental system. Besides, significant increase in mushroom production there are decentralized activities viz., from 5,000 tones (1985) to 30,000 tones compost producing units, spawn producing (1995), and 38,000 (1997) and at present it is

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 estimated to be around 1,55,000 mushrooms in the world and contributes tonnes/annum. Still the major share (72%) is around 15 per cent of world production of contributed by button mushroom though mushrooms. It is cultivated on a specially specialty mushrooms have greater scope in prepared substrate known as compost, which the country. Apart from white button is a product of fermentation by a number of mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), Oyster thermophilic organisms that decompose plant (Pleurotus sp.), milky (Calocybe indica), paddy residues and fix them in the form of microbial straw (Volvariella volvacea) and shiitake proteins. Compost if properly prepared is very (Lentinula edodes) are the commercial selective in nature and only A. bisporus mushrooms being grown in India. mycelium can grow successfully on it at the Agaricus bisporus, the white button practical exclusion of other competing mushroom is one of the most popular organisms.

Cultivation method (Indoor compost). Yields obtained Cultivation of this mushroom first using such compost range between 10-15 kg originated in France around 1650, where of mushrooms per 100 kg of compost. melon growers observed spontaneous However, higher yields to the tune of 18-22 appearance of A. bisporus on used melon kg have also been reported by some seasonal crop compost. Since then tremendous growers who take single crop in the entire advancement has taken place in the season. Most important aspect of indoor cultivation technology of this mushroom. composting is that besides being environment Today in our country white button mushroom friendly, it takes less time and gives more is cultivated on the compost prepared by a compost biomass (around 25-30% more) per traditional method known as long method of unit weight of the ingredients taken and composting, on short method of compost or hence over all yield of mushrooms in such on compost prepared by an accelerated compost is higher. method also known as rapid composting

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Mushrooms cultivated in India

Button mushroom cultivation has two temperature of 24 ± 1°C, RH-95% and CO2 > major components, composting (preparation 7500 ppm (strain dependent) for about one of substrate/compost), and the crop week. There is no requirement for fresh air management, (raising of mushroom crop). introduction during case run. It is considered The prepared compost is first spawned. complete when mycelia come in the valleys of Spawning is mixing of grain based spawn (@ casing layer. After case run, the 0.5-0.7% of wet compost weight) of environmental conditions are changed by A.bisporus under clean conditions (i.e. with bringing down the temperature to 15-17°C clean hands and pre-sterilized area). Compost (air), RH to 85% and CO2 to 800-1000 ppm can be filled in bags or racks and kept at a (strain dependent) by opening of the fresh air temperature of 23 ± 2°C (air temp.), RH of ventilation and exhausting CO2. This change 95% and high CO2 conc. (1.0-1.5% strain in environmental parameters induces dependent). The bags are kept under above pinhead formation in 3-4 days (strain conditions for 12-14 days. After the spawn dependent) time. The pinheads develop into run the bags are needed to be applied with solid button sized mushrooms in another 3-4 casing soil. Casing is a 3-4 cm thick layer of days. At this stage, the air inside the cropping soil applied on top of spawn run compost and room is changed 4-6 times in an hour to is a pre-requisite for fructification in A. maintain appropriate CO2 conc. as CO2 bisporus. Casing can be peat and its production is at its peak during first flush alternative materials (well decomposed FYM, (actually peaks at case run). Spent Mushroom Compost and Coir Pith) with Mushroom contains nearly 90% water prime objective to improve productivity and and that gives us an idea how water is quality of mushrooms. Casing material should important for the crop. Mycelium gets water be steam/chemically treated properly before from compost during spawn run and compost its application on the spawn run compost. + casing during case run and from casing The case run takes 7-10 days at a during fruit body formation. Water level in

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 casing must be maintained in order to get a Protection good crop. Regular water spray must be done A number of harmful fungi/bacteria when pinheads are pea sized and maintain RH are encountered in compost and casing soil at 80-85% during cropping. Mushrooms with during the cultivation of white button 4-5 cm dia., with hard pileus and closed veil mushroom. At times there is complete crop are ready for the harvest. Mushrooms are failure depending upon the stage of infection, harvested by holding them between quality of compost and environmental forefinger and thumb, and rotating in conditions. At any phase, an undesirable clockwise/anticlockwise direction. The soiled growth of certain mould may adversely affect stem portion is cut with sharp edged knife the final mushroom yield. Some of the and mushrooms are collected grade-wise in competitor moulds are brown plaster mould, baskets. Dropping of the stem cuttings on the lipstic mould, green mould etc while some floor or the bed should be avoided, as these myco-parasites are yellow mould, wet will promote the growth of undesirable bubble, dry bubble disease, etc. All these microorganisms. diseases and moulds affect the yield of

mushroom adversely. The best way to protect Ready to fruit bag the crop from the diseases/pests and moulds Ready to fruit bag (RTF) in is to keep the very high level of hygiene in mushrooms, provides the growing experience and around the mushroom farm. Since there to the beginner growers. Main target of RTF is no label claim of any fungicide or pesticide technology is to promote the growers of in mushroom, it is very difficult to get rid of urban and peri-urban areas. This technology any disease once it infects the mushroom also enables to spread awareness about the crop. mushrooms. In 2017, ICAR-DMR has developed a low cost RTF on oyster Postharvest management and value addition mushroom. The RTF is wheat straw based As mushroom contains 85-90% of technology containing 2kg of wet substrate. water, its shelf life is very low because of high The spawn requirement for bag is 4 % of wet respiration rate, porous fruit body and access weight basis. The bags come with handy to microbes. It is very important to follow the hanging options so that it can be hanged in cold chain if the produce has to be sent to the rooms. On optimum temperature and distant markets. The mushroom is a complete humidity each bag can produce 600 g of pack of a number of nutrients in a balanced mushroom in three flushes. The fruiting proportion for which it is important to follow requires temperature around 24ᵒC and the postharvest management techniques so humidity around 80-85%. After pin head that it is available in those areas where it is formation, humidity is created by spaying the not grown. It is a rich source of protein along water on fruit body and bags so that fruit with different minerals, vitamins and body won’t dry. antioxidants (selenium). The sugars and fats

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 are very low because of which it is a delicacy fennel seed powder (saunf) and mustard oil for the diabetics. Anti-cancerous properties of are added to prepare tasty pickle. Acetic acid mushroom make it very useful to fight against and sodium benzoate within the permitted breast and prostate cancer. Apart from cold limits are used as preservatives. This pickle chain, controlled atmospheric packaging can be stored upto one year in the lug using polyethylene and polypropylene bags bottles. with ethylene absorbents extend the shelf life Mushroom Biscuit to a certain extent. There are certain Delicious and crunchy mushroom chemicals which also help to extend its shelf biscuits were prepared by using the life. Drying is one of the most important button/oyster mushroom powder and various methods to decrease the water content and ingredients viz., maida, sugar, ghee (bakery the dried produce can be utilized for preparing a number of value added products. fats), mushroom powder, coconut powder, From fresh mushrooms pickle, jam, sauce, baking soda, ammonium bicarbonate and milk powder. For making biscuits entire toffee, candy, preserve, chips etc. can be ingredients are finely ground using Electric prepared whereas from the mushroom Mixture and cleaned with the help of fine powder value added products like instant sieve separately. The ingredients viz., ghee soup mix, papad, nuggets, noodles, biscuits, and sugar are well mixed for 5-7 minutes bread, cake, bhujiya may be prepared. using Dough kneeder to make the mixture Mushroom Pickle homogenous. These ingredients are added to For preparing mushroom pickle, dough kneeder for dry mixing of 20-25 mushrooms are washed, sliced and blanched minutes. Thereafter, 500 ml water is added to for 5 min in 0.05% KMS solution. The kneeder to make dough cohesive and blanched mushrooms are washed in cold homogenous and continued for next 10-15 water for 2-3 times and the excess water is minutes. After that dough is kept for 10 drained off. Then the mushrooms are minutes under the wet cloths to make it cool. subjected to salt curing process, in which 10% Thereafter, thin sheets of dough (1.25 cm sodium chloride is added and kept overnight. thick) are made and cut into different shapes The excess water oozed-out of mushroom is of biscuits using different steel dies. These removed on the next day and spices & raw cut biscuits are kept in the steel trays in preservatives are mixed to the desired taste systematic manner and shifted to hot oven and quality of mushroom pickle. The various (180°C) for baking purpose. After 20 minutes, spices namely turmeric powder, black baking trays are removed from the hot oven mustard seed powder (rai), red chilli powder, and after cooling the biscuits are ready to cumin seed powder, fenugreek seed powder, packaging and serve. aniseed powder (suwa/ shopa), black pepper, carom seed (ajwain), nigella seed (kalonji),

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Mushroom nuggets mixed in the syrup. After bringing its For preparation of mushroom concentration to 65 °Brix, mushrooms are nuggets, mushroom powder (dried and added in the syrup and good coarsely ground mushrooms) is mixed with quality murabba is prepared. the Urad dhal powder and a paste is prepared by adding required quantity of water. Mushroom candy Ingredients and spices are added to the The process for making candy is prepared paste and round balls of 2-4 cm practically the same as that employed in the diameters are made out of the paste. The case of mushroom preserve, with the prepared balls are spread over a steel tray difference that the produce is impregnated and are dried by sun-drying method and thus with a higher concentration of sugar. The the mushroom nuggets are prepared. total sugar content of the impregnated produce is kept at about 75% to prevent Mushroom ketch-up fermentation. The mushroom candy can be Freshly harvested button mushrooms stored up to 8 months with excellent are washed, sliced and cooked in 50% of acceptability and good chewable taste. water for 20 minutes. Mushroom paste is prepared using a mixer grinder. Arrarote Mushroom chips (0.2%), acetic acid (1.5%) and other The freshly harvested button ingredients are mixed in the paste and mushrooms are washed, sliced (2 mm) and cooked to bring its TSS to 35 °Brix. Then the blanched in 2% brine solution. The ketch-up is filled in the sterilized bottles or mushrooms are dipped overnight in a jars. solution of 0.1% of citric acid + 1.5% of NaCl + 0.3% of red chilli powder. After draining off Mushroom preserves (Murabba) the solution, the mushrooms are subjected to Fresh button mushrooms are graded, drying in cabinet dryer at 60°C for 8 h. Then it washed, pricked and blanched in 0.05% KMS is fried in the refined oil and good quality solution for 10 min. It is treated with 40% of chips are prepared. After spices mixing, the its weight of sugar daily for 3 days. Then, chips are packed in polypropylene packets mushrooms are taken out from the syrup and and sealed after proper labeling. 0.1% citric acid and remaining 40% of sugar is

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Systems Biology in Agriculture: Prospects for development of sustainable agriculture Article id: 21507 Sumit Kumar1* and Ajay Kumar Chandra2 1Biotechnology Laboratory, Indian Institute of Maize Research, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab and 2Ph.D Scholar, Dept. of Molecular Biology & Genetic Engineering, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttrakhand INTRODUCTION Production efficiency of an agricultural crop is and fungicides. In addition, it also adds governed by numerous complex traits development of environment friendly, manifested by epigenetic and genetic sustainable agriculture to ensure sufficient interaction. Generally, two main approaches food and nutritional security for ever growing are being commonly used to study such mouth. agriculturally important traits: genotypic to phenotypic and phenotypic to genotypic. The term ‘‘systems biology’’ has However, a wide knowledge gap exists in proposed recently to explain the three these approaches. Hence systems biology is dimensional scientific innovations and to an only promising approach to study the boost frontiers of multi-disciplinary research precision lies within biology of such traits. As in life sciences. Literally, Systems biology is a we know these agriculturally important traits new field in biological science that aims to are governed by complex gene, and have infer system level understanding of biological different interacting partners in the systems. Thus, system biology and biological regulatory networks that will enable us to system are symmetry to each other. That develop smart crops with superior traits means that system biology recognizes and through genic manipulation of trait governing helps in understanding the complete candidate genes (Kanwal et al., 2014). Smart biological systems by elucidating, modelling, or super crop is a part of agricultural and predicting the behaviour of all interacting improvement that produces ample but nutri- partners and interactions of biomolecules enriched food product in a shorter period, (gene, proteins, and metabolites) with and minimises our dependency on respect to external stimuli (Junker and agrochemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides Schreiber, 2008).

Important agricultural traits linked with agricultural productivity Sustainable agriculture mainly relies on irrigation purposes. Systems biology aided conserved action of agricultural, available with different computational tool has a germplasm, wild biodiversity, management of potential for development of smart soil ecosystem, and conservation of water for sustainable agricultural system. It can also be

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 used to design and analyze complex Designing and expansion of software agriculturally important traits linked with for analysis of biological systems is a agricultural productivity such as growth and demanding task because researchers from development of plants, architecture of plants, interdisciplinary fields such as biological nitrogen use efficiency, photosynthetic sciences, chemistry, physics, statistics, efficiency, water use efficiency, tolerance to mathematics, and computer science with various biotic and abiotic stresses, nutritional strong backgrounds are requisite to develop quality, and other essential traits associated better tool with efficient algorithms. with plant architecture and plant physiology for future biotechnological applications in  Development of databases crop plants that provide new dimension with Documentation of information context of improvement, growth, and available from literature, genomics, productivity of cereal based crops (Kumar et transcriptomics, and proteomics data al., 2015; Hollender and Dardick, 2015). analysed from high throughput systems Henceforth, Systems biology is a “Science of biology studies with respect to protein, the twenty-first century” which can solve metabolites and genes with their interacting complex biological problems that will be partners, as well as signal transduction useful to develop new biotechnological pathways created through computational dimension to agriculture improvement biology is an interesting task for a programs. bioinformaticians.

Integrated computational approaches to  Network measures and topological study system biology of the plants analysis Systems biology is able to predict a clear Plant physiology is a congregation of picture of complex agriculturally important different biological incidents spanning traits through interconnected network intracellular molecular networks to the whole profiling of biochemical reactions. It provides systems from phenotypic to genotypic better insights of the systems dynamics under response. Thus through systems biology different physiological, and environmental attempts are needed to break these multi- conditions, therefore a systematic scale networks and bridge to link between computational approaches are required for genotype and phenotype response. modelling and analysis of high throughput biological informations (Chelliah et al., 2013).  Pathway modelling and analysis Here we describe some important steps Pathway modelling and analysis are commonly employed during systems biology most useful tools for understanding the analysis of plants. enigma between different biological entities  Designing and development of software (genes, proteins, and metabolites) for

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 identification and characterization of complex association, Evolution and Linkage) agriculturally important traits in crop plants. implements general linear model and mixed linear model approaches for controlling Software Tools commonly used for Plants population and family structure. For result Systems Biology studies interpretation, the program allows for linkage 1) National Center for Biotechnology disequilibrium statistics to be calculated and Information (NCBI) visualized graphically. The NCBI is part of the United States 4) STRUCTURE: Software for cluster analysis National Library of Medicine (NLM), a branch of mapping population of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The The program STRUCTURE is a free NCBI houses a series of databases relevant software package for using multi-locus to biotechnology and biomedicine and is an genotype data to investigate population important resource for bioinformatics tools structure. It is commonly used for various and services. NCBI provides some major plant breeding and genomics studies includes biological databases inferring the presence of distinct populations, include GenBank, PubMed assigning individuals to populations, studying and Epigenomics database. All these hybrid zones, identifying migrants and databases are available online through admixed individuals, and estimating the Entrez search engine. NCBI also provides population allele frequencies in situations primer 3.0 for designing oligos needed for where many individuals are migrants or amplification of gene of interest. admixed. It can be applied to most of the 2) Molecular Evolutionary Genetics commonly-used genetic markers, including Analysis (MEGA) SNPS, microsatellites, RFLPs and AFLPs. MEGA is offline available software for 5) Modelling of Bio-molecular pathways conducting automatic and manual sequence using CellDesigner alignment, statistical analysis of molecular CellDesigner is a structured diagram evolution and for constructing phylogenetic editor for drawing gene regulatory and trees. It includes many sophisticated methods biochemical networks that uses standard and tools for phylogenomics. formats. It allows annotating the reactions, 3) TASSEL: Software for association mapping proteins, genes, etc. and organizes a lot of of complex traits in diverse samples information in a unique diagram. Association analyses that exploit the 6) BioModels natural diversity of a genome to map at very BioModels is a repository of high resolutions are becoming increasingly mathematical models of biological and important. TASSEL (Trait Analysis by biomedical systems. It hosts a vast selection

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 of existing literature-based physiologically both primary and secondary metabolism, as and pharmaceutically relevant mechanistic well as associated metabolites, reactions, models in standard formats. it provide the enzymes, and genes. systems modelling community with 8) PlantGDB: Plant genome database and reproducible, high-quality, freely- analysis tools accessible models published in the scientific literature. PlantGDB is a genomics database encompassing sequence data for green 7) MetaCyc: Metabolic Pathway Database plants. PlantGDB provides annotated MetaCyc is a curated database of transcript assemblies for more than 100 plant experimentally elucidated metabolic species, with transcripts mapped to their pathways from all domains of life. MetaCyc cognate genomic context where available, contains 2722 pathways from 3009 different integrated with a variety of sequence analysis organisms. It contains pathways involved in tools and web services.

NCBI interface MEGA software interface

TASSEL software preface STRUCTURE software preface

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CellDesigner screen BioModels interface

MetaCyc Database interface PlantGDB Database interface Figure: Software Tools commonly used for Plants Systems Biology studies

Systems Biology in Agriculture: Future interaction pathway. Currently, systems Directions biologist applied such systems biology The sequencing of big and complex genomes approaches for identification, of important crop plants, facilitated by new characterization and visualization of various sequencing technologies (NGS platforms), candidate genes of agriculturally important data integrations, visualization, modelling, traits, as well as it provide new biological and simulation approaches has opened new insight in root, shoot, fruit, and seed levels for opportunities in filling the knowledge gap improvising agricultural productivity. Thus between phenotype to genotype for systems biology approaches will be very improving the crop productivity. The useful, for diverse genomic and functional interactions between various transcriptomics analysis to increase the biomolecules such as proteins, enzymes, precision of the genetic outputs. metabolites, nucleic acid, and transcription Consequently, with the assistance of systems factors form the basis of the molecular biology tools and techniques, it may helps in

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 accelerating crop improvement programme of agriculturally importance, as well as to to resolve the future food and nutritional provide new biological insight during different security concerns. developmental stages and growth conditions to enhance agricultural productivity. Such Conclusion systems biology approaches will be very Systems biology helps us to understand crops useful, when we use diverse genomic and at systems level, which provide novel transcriptomics information to increase the molecular insights for augmenting agricultural accuracy with which phenotype can be productivity in the future. The progress in predicted from phenotype to genotype and systems biology is still ongoing, and available genotype to phenotype. Hence, the molecular database resources are updated timely with sketch thus analysed through systems biology new information. Current researchers applied will enable us to design or engineer the crops such systems biology approaches to identify of interest for fulfilling the future demands of and visualize various candidate genes/traits food and nutritional security issues.

REFERENCES [1]. Chelliah, V., Laibe C. and Le Nove`re, N. (2013). BioModels Database: A repository of mathematical models of biological processes. Methods Mol Biol, 1021: 189-199. [2]. Hollender, C.A. and Dardick, C. (2015). Molecular basis of angiosperm tree architecture. New Phytol. 206: 541-556. [3]. Junker, B.H. and Schreiber, F. (2008). Analysis of Biological Networks. A Wiley Interscience Publication . ISBN: 978-0-470-04144-4. [4]. Kanwal, P., Gupta, S., Arora, S., and Kumar, A. (2014). Identification of genes involved in carbon metabolism from Eleusine coracana (L.) for understanding their light-mediated entrainment and regulation. Plant Cell Rep. 33: 1403-1411. [5]. Kumar, A., Pathak, R.K., Gupta, S.M., Gaur, V.S. and Pandey, D. (2015). Systems Biology for Smart Crops and Agricultural Innovation: Filling the Gaps between Genotype and Phenotype for Complex Traits Linked with Robust Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability. OMICS A Journal of Integrative Biology. 19(10): 581-601.

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Surrogate broodstook development, prospects and challenges Article id: 21508 Archit Shukla, Harmanpreet Singh and Varun Mishra ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education Mumbai – 400 061 Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishvavidyalaya, Kawardha- 491995

INTRODUCTION classical examples is entry of African catfish Seafood is an important source of Clarias gariepinus and Channel catfish protein as well as a food source. With the Ictalurus punctatus to Asian water bodies. The global population expected to exceed nine impact has been such that, some of the billion in 2050, demand is likely to increase. A valuable native fish species of the region are worldwide decline in the number of fish on the verge of extinction. It is also true that, species, calls for strategies to restore such invasive fish species are extremely endangered populations. Surrogate brood difficult to control in large size water bodies. stock development by stem cell In this scenario, turning the invasive fish transplantation is a powerful reproductive species into surrogate parents could be a biotechnology for the conservation and viable alternative to arrest the proliferation of propagation of fish genetic resources. The such fish population. Due to overfishing from technique has gained much attention due to oceans a lot of fishes come under the IUCN the enormous potential for application in red list category of endangered species. So it reproductive medicine and stem cell therapy. is the needs of hour too develop a technology Transplantation of donor spermatogonial that can improve, enhance, restore the stem cells into the testis of a surrogate male depleting stocks while promoting biodiversity with aim of production of donor gametes conservation. from the surrogate male. This technology may eventually find applications in facilitating the Surrogate broodstocking production of commercially valuable fish, as “Surrogate” is derived from Latin word well as in species conservation. “surrogatus meaning a substitute or replacement. Surrogacy in general simply Stem cell transplantation technique refers to “the practice of serving as a has also application beyond this and could surrogate mother”. Surrogacy in terms of play a pivotal role in fishery resources research is “a test species used in the place of management in open water bodies such as another test or target species”. lake, reservoir, etc. Invasive fish species in lake and reservoir have caused potential In mammal’s gestational surrogacy, an egg is damage to the ecosystem resulting into removed from the intended mother (donor) decline in native fish population. One of the and fertilized with the sperm of the intended father (donor) and the fertilized egg, or

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Surrogacy is a method that can quickly prepare surrogate fish mothers and fathers for breeding. By using thermo-chemical treatments, adult fish recipients can be prepared that can host implants and make surrogate sperm and egg cells from them in a How this technology is used in fisheries? short time. Following are the steps to explain this technology in fisheries Immature germ cells from a target species are transplanted into a related species, it can  First a protocol for efficient depletion of produce sperm and eggs of the target species endogenous germ cells in recipient fish is (Yoshizaki et al. 2002, 2003) The first prepared. attempts to perform GCT in fish were  Then there is a need of a surrogate performed in Rainbow trout and consisted in broodstock through intra-gonadal germ the grafting of pieces of testis into isogeneic cell transplantation that will generate animals, resulting in donor-derived unlimited donor-derived functional spermatogenesis (Nagler et al, 2001) gametes. If the host species is small, they are more . Transplantation of donor spermatogonial efficient, because they can be maintained stem cells into the testis of a surrogate using less space and food. In addition, the male with aim of production of donor time to reach maturity can be shortened gametes from the surrogate male. using small fish (usually, large fish take longer Criteria for host selection to reach maturity)In one research, small  The genital ridges, containing PGCs, species is the Yellowtail kingfish (Seriola should be easily isolated. lalandi) (YTK) (order Perciforms) as a possible  High fecundity to allow thousands of host for tuna transgenic embryos to be produced from a single insemination.  Hardy and easily breed under captivity with short maturation period.  Sertoli cell should be able to support spermatids easily.

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 Donor cell should have the potentiality to  Facilitate seed production of commercially become functional gametes. valuable species, whose broodstocks are Procedure difficult to maintain in captivity  The treatment involving constant rearing  Improve fish bioengineering, using o transgenic spermatogonia of animals at water temperature of 30 C  The germ cells transplantation between and injection of Busulfan (40 mg/kg body different species and of different weight; at two week interval ) results into environment has been more feasible. significant loss of germ cells.  Production of marine fishes through  The testes gets shrunken and ovary freshwater hosts would be much easier sections show markedly few oogonia. and cheaper  Donor fish males are sacrificed by  Boost wild stocks of commercially anesthetic overdose and the testes are important fishes like blue fin tuna using excised and rinsed in phosphate-buffered mackerel that breed fast and can be kept saline. in small cages hence, a lot of space, labor and cost can be saved.  The testicular tissue is minced and  A boon to commercially valuable species incubated in a dissociating solution that are hard-to bread in captive, those containing 0.5% Trypsin (pH 8.2), 5% Fetal that need more rearing time and space, Bovine Serum and 1mM Ca2+ in PBS (pH those whose reproduction are sensitive to 8.2) for 2 hr at 22°C. seasonal changes.

 The targeted germ cells (determined in Prospects in conservation and fish preliminary trials by measurement of cell biodiversity size) were harvested and a cell viability  Promising scenario in transgenic animal was tested by the trypan blue (0.4% w/v) production and the preservation of the exclusion assay. genetic stocks of valuable animals or endangered species. Prospects in aquaculture  Quick way to propagate the numbers of  The technique, combined with the endangered fish stocks through easy-to- cryopreservation of PGCs and interspecies grow and breed fishes transplantation can enhance fish  For one, difficult to spawn species need breeding. no longer be a bother, as long as easy, and  Preservation and propagation of genetically compatible species are endangered species available.  Tremendous potential for indigenous ornamental fish biodiversity conservation.

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 The spermatogonia is small enough to appearance of the animal, which can freeze, so that an endangered species affect its survival in the wild. spermatogonia could be cryopreserved  The initial capital investment and used to produce broodstock to help  Fish raised in hatcheries, can develop rebuild populations. numerous problems that limit their  Transplantation of germ cells into chances of surviving in the wild sexually competent adult fish by Recent Researches nonsurgical methods allows the production of functional donor  Rainbow trout from Masu salmon derived eggs and sperm in a (Takeuchi et al ,2004) considerably short time.  Single pearl danio (Danio albolineatus)  “Surrogate species approaches are and Gold fish from Zebra fish ( Saito et al. often necessary shortcuts to pursuing 2008) conservation goals/objectives”.  Odontesthes bonariensis from Odontesthes hatchery (Majhi et al, 2009) Problems and issues  Red tilapia (O. niloticus) from Chitralada tilapia (O. niloticus) (Samyra et al, 2010)  The captive environment can induce  Tuna from mackerel (Yoshizaki et al,2014) changes in the behavior and the

REFERENCES [1]. Alvarez, M.C., Béjar, J., Chen, S., Hong, Y., 2007. Fish ES cells and applications to biotechnology. Mar. Biotechnol. 9, 117–127. [2]. Etsuro Yamaha a, Taiju Saito a Rie Goto-Kazeto a and Katsutoshi Arai b.,2007.Developmental biotechnology for aquaculture, with special reference to surrogate production in teleost fishes J. of Sea Res. 58 8–22. [3]. Lacerda S , G. Costa M.J , Campos-Junior P.H,Segatelli T.M,Yazawa .R ,Takeuchi .Y, Morita .T ,Yoshizaki R, Franc.L.,2013. Germ cell transplantation as a potential biotechnological approach to fish reproduction, Fish PhysiolBiochem 39:3–11. [4]. Raz E., 2003. Primordial germ-cell development: the zebra fish perspective. Nat Rev Genet; 4:690–700. [5]. Saito T, Psenicka M, Goto R, Adachi S, Inoue K.,2014. The Origin and Migration of Primordial Germ Cells in Sturgeons. PLoS ONE 9(2): 1371. [6]. Takeuchi Y, Yoshizaki G, Takeuchi T., 2001. Production of germ-line chimeras in rainbow trout by blastomere transplantation. Mol. Reprod.Dev; 59:380–389. [7]. Yoshizaki G, Takeuchi Y, Kobayashi T, Takeuchi T., 2003. Primordial germ cell; a novel tool for fish bioengineering. Fish Physiol. Biochem; 28:453–457. [8]. Yoshizaki G, Takeuchi Y, Kobayashi T, Ihara S, Takeuchi T.,2002. Primordial germ cells: the blueprint for a piscine life. Fish PhysiolBiochem; 26:3–12. [9]. Yoshizaki G, Takeuchi Y, Sakatani S, Takeuchi T., 2000. Germ cell-specific expression of green fluorescent protein in transgenic rainbow trout under the control of the rainbow trout vasa-like gene promoter. Int J DevBiol; 44:323- 326.

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Climate-resilient and water efficient summer rice production system at new alluvial zone of West Bengal Article id: 21508 Mousumi Mondal1 and Sourav Garai1* 1 Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal 741 252

1. INTRODUCTION Rice is an important staple food in Asia, covering 85% of the total world rice area. In India, rice is grown in 44 m- ha, contributing about 106.7 million tons of food grain production, out of which dry-season (boro) rice adds 15.2 million tons [1]. Among the rice-producing states, West Bengal ranks the leading position in production for both totals as well as summer rice. Our state contributes near about 33 % of summer rice all over India (Fig. III). Increasing farm labor scarcity and depletion of natural resources such as water are posing a major threat to the sustainability of traditional puddled transplanted rice (PTR) farming in Eastern India. Furthermore, due to the abrupt increase in urban and industrial sectors, Fig. I- Water stress situation (Dark agriculture's share of fresh water has declined by 8-10% colour indicates higher stress) [2, 3]. Yield is almost stable (Fig. II) in summer rice but recently seedlings at nursery bed are severely affected by 5000 3500 4500 3400 cold injury due to climatic abnormalities which result in 4000 seedling mortality and ultimately affects final plant 3500 3300 3000 3200 population. 2500 2000 3100 So, there is a need to search for alternate water-efficient 1500 3000 1000 crop establishment methods and nursery intervention to 500 2900 enhance seedling growth and vigor that ultimately 0 2800 increases the productivity of summer rice.

Area ('000 ha) Production ('000 ton) 2. Advantages of summer rice cultivation Productivity(kg/ha) In eastern India puddled transplanted kharif rice is the most popular among cultivation technique but production Fig. II- Summer rice status in and productivity are always lower than summer rice West Bengal during last seven which has several advantages as follows- years

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 More number of bright sunshine hours which facilitates the accumulation of photosynthates, Others AP thereby increasing carbon: nitrogen ratio. 11% 19%  Being a winter/dry season crop, it is spared from Assam insect-pest infestation. WB 8% 33% Bihar  Water management in boro is more systematic as 2% Telengana it is an irrigated crop. Consequently, this crop Odisha 19% responds well to higher doses of fertilizers 6% resulting in higher production.

TN 3. Constraints to summer rice Cultivation 2% Summer rice is a 190-200 days crop and may require Fig. III- Contribution of West Bengal in more resources and care for a longer period. Moreover, Summer rice production (2016-17) improved varieties and agro-techniques are not available for summer rice cultivation. Lack of credit facilities and the small size of holdings are major challenges. Some of the environmental constraints are as follows:  Low temperature at seedling stage can cause poor

germination, slow and stunted seedling growth, Table1: Water demand of major crops Water yellowing of leaves, leaf spots, slow and delayed Crop requirement (mm) tillering and non-synchronous and delayed flowering. Kharif rice 900-1890 Dense fog, coupled with greater temperature fluctuation or high day temperature at flowering may Summer rice 2150-2500 cause sterility of flowers. Wheat 450-650  Seedling mortality (Fig IV) takes place during the Sorghum 450-650 nursery stage due to long cold spells. Duration of Maize 500-700 panicle initiation and maturity period also increases. Sugarcane 1500-2500 This increases expenditure on additional irrigation Groundnut 500-700 and care. The cold spell also restricts root growth Soybean 450-700 delaying the proper establishment of the seedlings.  Because of water-loving crop rice demands a huge amount of water than others. In summer season the demands totally fulfilled by the groundwater irrigation in eastern India. The excess uplifting of groundwater depletes the water table which facilitates arsenic toxicity in rice (summer) growing belt.

4. Fig. IV- Seedling mortality 42

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Reliable technique for seed germination Germination is a complex physiological process which is affected by temperature water potential of the soil [4]. Generally, cardinal temperature (minimum, optimum and maximum) for germination of a particular seed depends on environmental conditions in which it is adapted and seeds normally germinate when an environmental condition for growth and development of seedling is assured. Generally, seedbed preparation starts from the month of December in the traditional way and 35-40 days age-old seedlings are transplanted into the main field. But low temperature during this period delays seed germination due to hampering of physiological process. So, farmers keep the water soaked seeds into the straw/gunny bag to raise the internal temperature and sometimes they use the Fig.V- Flow chart of rice seed hot water. In this way, 3-4 days are required for the germination proper germination of the seeds. As a general rule, a seed needs lower temperature in the temperate environment compared with tropical conditions [5]. The optimum temperature for most of the rice seeds is between 15 and 30 ºC and the maximum temperature is between 30 to 40 ºC [6]. By using this theory a simple and cost-effective seed germinator has developed where boiled water (1000 C) and normal water (20-220 C) are mixed in 1:2 ratios to maintain the water temperature 400C. The process of germination through this germinator is as follows (fig. V)-

 Rice seeds should be soaked with salt water (180 g salt/lit of water) to remove the chaffy grain. Then the filled grain should thoroughly be washed by fresh water;  A 12 lit of normal water should be mixed with 5 lit of hot water in a blank germinator and washed seeds should be placed into mixed water and close the germinator for 24 hrs;  After 24 hrs seeds should be kept out and water should be drained out from germinator. After that a thin cotton cloth should be covered on seed tray which is now placed into germinator and seeds should be spread onto it and covered by wet jute gunny bag;  A mixture of 10 lit normal water with 5 lit hot water should be given into germinator though a pipe but seeds should not be touched with the water. Now close the germinator air- tightly;  After 30-35 hrs we will get germinated rice seed that can be sown in the nursery bed

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5. Raising of climate resilient rice seedling In the conventional method during December-January (Boro season) because of lower temperature, germinated seeds cannot properly be standing up in seedbed. Actually, physiological processes in seedling are hampered due to cold injury. So, near about 20-30 days more than kharif season is required for transplanting of those weak and small seedlings in the main field. After that at the early stage of transplanting, seedlings suffer from ‘transplanting shock' due to their low vigor. Aforesaid problems finally increase crop duration 30 to 35 days more than Fig. VI- Modified seedbed kharif season. To avoid those problems, a simple and reliable method has developed where seedbed should be covered with transparent polythene sheet (1.5 ft height from bed). Due to the greenhouse effect, the temperature of covered seedbed will be raised by 5- 10º C than outside vis-à-vis RH under polythene sheet also enhances that creates a favorable microclimate for seedling growth and seedlings also get away from cold injury. In this method, healthy, strong vigor seedlings have obtained within 20-25 days without Fig. VII- Fresh seedlings any symptoms of disease infestations. Now a question can be raised that how it can possible to cover 1 katha of seedbed with polythene to cultivate 1 bigha land? Recently erratic behavior of temperature fluctuations causes frequent cold injuries in nursery bed that affect the vigor of the seedlings. So, farmers have to transplant 2-3 or more seedlings per hill that increase the seed rate (50-60 kg seed/ha or 7-8 kg/bigha) and subsequently area of seedbed. But in above- mentioned seedbed management technique, a single healthy seedling per hill (spacing 20x10 cm) is enough in the main field also dropping the intra hill competition amongst the tillers that ultimately lessen the seed rate (11-12 kg/ha or 1.5 kg/bigha) and area of Fig. VIII- Single seedling per hill the seedbed. If 50 g seeds/m2 is sown then 2 kg

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6. Water application strategies in the main field Over-exploitation of groundwater is the main constraint in summer rice cultivation because the total amount of water is supplied through irrigation. From table 1 it is concluded that summer rice is the only monster for creating water stress condition but it can’t be replaced for being of higher production and productivity over kharif rice. But in this new system, half of the irrigation water is sufficient over conventional by changing the methods of main field preparation and irrigation scheduling. a. Preparation of the main field The main field is prepared through dry tillage (2-3 times) in optimum moisture followed by laddering. During the last tillage operation, fertilizer should be mixed with soil. In the absence of optimum moisture in the soil, 50 mm water should be applied before one week of tillage. After tillage, a 50 mm pre transplanting irrigation should be given and after 1-2 hrs of irrigation, application seedling should be sown in one seedling per hill. Here no such cracks are developed as like conventional method due to avoidance of puddling. Cracks free situation also trim down deep percolation loss and saves up to 1500 mm irrigation water. After transplanting a little moisture in the soil is enough, no need of standing water. b. Irrigation scheduling in the main field The optimum time of transplanting is last week January to 2nd week of February. Next irrigation should be given after appearing of dryness on the soil. Subsequent water applications follow the same way and as per irrigation scheduling of table 2. Only with total 750 mm water or more precisely half water of conventional method we can complete one ha of rice cultivation.

Table 2: Irrigation planning in the main field No. of Amount of irrigation in the No. Month irrigation in Remarks main field (mm) the main field Before tillage (If moisture 1 1 50 January is not present in the field) 2 1 50 1-2 hrs before sowing 3 February 7 350 (7x50 mm) 4 days interval 4 March 4 200 (4x50 mm) 7 days interval 5 April 2 100 (2x50 mm) 7 days interval Total 15 750

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Table 3: Comparison between new and conventional methods in accordance with crop duration Duration (day) No. Month Conventional Remarks New method method 1 December - 15 Seedbed 2 25 29 Seedbed January 3 03 02 Main Field 4 February 28 28 Main Field 5 March 31 31 Main Field 6 April 30 30 Main Field 7 May 05 07 Main Field Total 123 143

Table 4: Comparison between the new method and conventional method in brief Conventional Subject New method method Within 1 to 2 weeks of November to Soaking and purification of seeds January December Per ha main field 11-15 kg 50-60 kg Amount of seeds Per bigha main field 1.5-2.0 kg 6.7-8.0 kg Use of respiration By using the heat of Jakh method heat with the help of Germination boiled water straw and gunny bag Time 25-30hrs 3-4 days For per ha main field 300 m2 1000 m2 Area of seedbed For per bigha main (Density of seed 50 field 40 m2 134 m2 g/m2) (33 satak = 1333 m2) The character of Seedling Healthy, fresh and Weak, yellowish and wet seedbed characteristics greenish disease infested Amount of irrigation 3 20-25 Probability of seedling Sometimes all are Nil At Seedbed mortality affected Age of seedling during 20-25 40-45 transplanting (day) Crop duration (day) 90-100 120-150 At main field Seedling/hill 1 3-4

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Recovery period of 5-7 days 10-15 days transplanting shock Amount of irrigation Around 750 mm Around 1500 mm water Seedbed: Main 1:33 1:10 field Crop duration over kharif season 10-15 days more 25-50 days more (Seedbed + main field) Cost effective Cost of cultivation (Savings in time, seed, Higher land, labour and water )

CONCLUSION This methodology provides an integrated assessment of nursery cultures to produce embolden rice seedling having the capacity to withstand cold at an early stage. Besides this, water efficient crop establishment methods without compromising productivity have remained relatively rare in the scientific literature, but it is needed for assuring the environment-friendly summer rice production technology in any climatic irregularities in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India.

REFERENCES [1] GOI, 2016a. Agricultural statistics at glance. In: Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Directorate of Economics and Statistics. New Delhi. http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/PDF/Glance-2016.pdf. [2] Tuong T.P. and Bouman B.A.M., (2003). Rice Production in Water-scarce Environments. In: Kijne JW, Barker R, Molden D (eds.), Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for Improvement. CAB International, pp: 53-67. [3] Akhter M., Ali M., Haider Z., Mahmood A. and Saleem U., (2017). Comparison of Yield and Water Productivity of Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Hybrids in Response to Transplanting Dates and Crop Maturity Durations in Irrigated Environment. Irrigat Drainage Sys Eng. 6 (1):180. doi: 10.4172/2168-9768.1000180. [4] Alvarado V. and Bradford K.J., (2002). A hydrothermal time model explains the cardinal temperatures for seed germination. Plant Cell Environment. 25: 1061-1069. [5] Hardegree S.P., (2006). Predicting germination response to temperature. I. cardinal-temperature models and subpopulation-specific regression Ann. Bot, 97: 1115-1125. [6] Tilebeni H.G., Yousefpour H., Farhadi R. and Golpayegani A., (2012). Germination Behavior of Rice (Oriza Sativa L.) Cultivars Seeds to Difference Temperatures. Advances in Environmental Biology. 6(2): 573-577.

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Lotus - an edible potential source Article id: 21510 Vartika Singh Department of Fruit Science , College of Horticulture and Forestry, NDUAT, Ayodhaya, Uttar Pradesh, INDIA

INTRODUCTION Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) is the national will have a sweet flavor and can be eaten like flower of India and Vietnam belongs to family peas. When seeds begin to turn brown, the nelumbonaceae and order proteales. Also seeds will have a nuttier taste. The seeds can known by different names such as Kamal, be ground into paste and used to make Bean of India, Egyptian bean, Ambal, pastries. Seeds can also be ground into flour Thamarai, Suriya kamal, Padma, Ambuja and for use in baking. Pankaja. It has cultural and religious significance in many Asian traditions. In India, 2.) TUBERS-Lotus tubers are similar to sweet lotus is considered sacred and is revered by potatoes. The tubers can be used in a Hindus. Likewise, the lotus has religious multiple of ways, sliced, pickled, cooked, significance in Chinese, Christianity, Japanese, candied or stir-fried. Buddhist and Jainism traditions. 3.) LEAVES AND STEMS- Leaves or stems of Lotus is herbaceous perennial aquatic plant the lotus can be eaten raw or cooked. and an edible potential source. Lotus is a staple food throughout China, Southeast Asia 4.) FLOWERS- Flowers can be dried and used and India. Lotus leaves, stems, tubers, seeds in recipes for cooking. and flowers are all relished. All the parts of the lotus plant—the stems, leaves, flowers, All parts of the lotus have been used for seeds, stamens, and seed pods—are edible. medicinal purposes for several ailments. It The stems are eaten as a vegetable. The has been used as an antidote for mushroom younger stems are also pickled. poisoning as well as teas, tonics and astringents. 1.) SEEDS-The seeds from a lotus seed head can be eaten when they are green and they

NUTRITIONAL PROFILE OF EDIBLE PARTS OF LOTUS—

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Lotus Roots

 Moderate in calories, provides 74 cals per 100g.  Good levels of dietary fiber, about 13% of daily requirement.  Low in fat and no cholesterol.  Excellent source of Vitamin C, with 73% of RDA per 100g.  Provides a number of B-complex vitamins and several minerals, along with good amounts of copper and iron.  Low in sodium and high in potassium and has the optimum 1:4 ratio of these minerals.  Seeds are rich in protein and minerals.  Lotus contains several alkaloids and flavonoids.

Lotus Stem

 It is rich in calcium, iron, fiber and many important minerals like zinc, manganese, magnesium, potassium, copper, etc.

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 It is also loaded with Vitamin B, Vitamin E, vitamin K etc.

100 grams of lotus stem contains around 74 calories, 17 grams of carbohydrates, 2.5 grams of protein, 5 grams of fiber, 0.1 grams of fat, 0.39 mg of zinc, 0.261 mg of potassium, 23 mg of magnesium, 1.16 mg of Iron, 0.25 mg copper, 556 mg of potassium, 40 mg of Sodium, 44 mg of Vitamin C and Niacin, Pyridoxine, Selenium and Thiamine.

Lotus seeds

Seeds of N. nucifera consist of 10.5% moisture, 10.6-15.9% protein, 1.93-2.8% crude fat, 70-72.17% carbohydrate, 2.7% crude fibre, 3.9-4.5% ash and energy 348.45 cal/100 g (Reid, 1977; Indrayan et al., 2005).

Minerals of lotus seeds consists of chromium (0.0042%), sodium (1%), potassium (28.5%), calcium (22.1%), magnesium (9.2%), copper (0.0463%), zinc(0.084%), manganese (0.356%) and iron (0.199%).

Cooking Uses of the Lotus Plant Lotus has been used for thousand of years and has played many important role in Chinese, Japanese and Thai culinary history. Edible parts of lotus can be used in various recipes for cooking like - lotus stem curry, soups or salads, stir-fried, deep-fried, or braised, lotus root cake, the flower petals are used as a garnish, dried lotus stamens and dried leaves both can be used to make tea, the seeds can be made into a paste to make soups and are also used in cooking and baking. Other post harvest products are lotus stem chips, lotus stem pickles etc. can be processed.

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Lotus stem chips Lotus stem pickles

Lotus stem curry Lotus root cake

Lotus leaves tea Lotus flower tea

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CONCLUSION Along with aesthetic values, lotus plant also presents edible and medicinal properties. However, uses of lotus crop as a potential edible source is limited to China, Japan, Thailand and few Asian countries, therefore there is need to familiarize lotus crop in other countries also, as it contains various numerous health benefits. Being a national flower of India, lotus plant is only used for spiritual and ornamental purpose and still considered as underutilized crop for human consumption. To fully utilize edible flowers more researches should be conducted and more emphasis should be given on its human consumption acceptability and increase uses of its culinary and post harvest products.

REFERENCES [1.] http://www.ijat-aatsea.com/pdf/JUN_V3_07/13-IJAT2007_07-R.pdf [2.] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_root [3.] http://www.flowersociety.org/lotus-plant-study.htm [4.] http://www.itmonline.org/arts/lotus.htm [5.]http://sayeverything.org/pipermail/sayeverything_sayeverything.org/2011- December/005576.html [6.]http://www.bookmydoctor.com/health-article/health-benefits-of-lotus-seeds-makhana-253/ [7.]http://ayurvedaplace.com/2011/05/11/lotus-%E2%80%93-india%E2%80%99s-most-sacred- plant/ [8.] http://www.itmonline.org/arts/lotus.htm [9.] Indrayan, A.K., Sharma, S., Durgapal, D., Kumar, N. and Kumar, M. (2005). Determination of nutritive value and analysis of mineral elements for some medicinally valued plants .Uttaranchal. Current Science 89: 1252-1255.

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Energy flow in aquatic ecosystem Article id: 21511 Harmanpreet Singh, Archit Shukla and Varun Mishra ICAR- Central Institute of Fisheries Education Mumbai – 400 061. Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishvavidyalaya, Kawardha- 491995

Energy

Energy is the capacity to do work. In biologically it is defined as ““Energy is an element that is stored by cells as biomolecule. It is released when the molecules are oxidised during a process called respiration and these released energy is transported using ATP carriers”. The word energy is derived from ‘energia’ means “active” or “work”. Thomas Young he is the man first used the word energy. For the life sustainment of all the living things energy is necessary and is obtained from food sources. Energy neither be created nor be destroyed.

Units of energy

There are three units are commonly used.

1. Joule (J) It is equal to the work done in using a force of one Newton through a distance of one metre.

2. Calorie (C) One calorie is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C.

3. British Thermal Unit (BTU) It is the amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree F.

Some Common values are,

1 Calorie = 4.184J 1 Joules = 0.239 Calories 1 BTU = 1055.05585j 1 BTU = 251.996 Calories Lipids – 9.5Kcal/g Carbohydrate – 4.2Kcal/g Protein – 5.65Kcal/g Conversion Joule to Calorie – Joule × 0.239 Joule to calorie – Joule / 4.18 Calorie to Joule – Calorie × 4.18 Calorie to Joule – Calorie / 0.239

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Energy production in an Aquatic Ecosystem

Photosynthesis

It is a process by which the solar or light energy (Sun) is converted into chemical energy (sugar). It is a Greek word it means Photo – Light and Synthesis – Putting together (Storage of energy). Photosynthesis is necessary for any ecosystem to produce food and oxygen that necessary for any ecosystem. Autotrophs are capable of producing their own food by this process. In any ecosystem energy is produced by autotrophs. In terrestrial ecosystem energy is produced by plants (Chlorophyll pigment). In aquatic ecosystem it is carried out by phytoplankton, algae, and plants.

There are two types of autotrophs. 1) Photoautotrophs – Capable of producing their own food with the help of light energy (Plants and Phytoplankton). 2) Chemoautotrophs – Able to produce their organic matter (energy) from inorganic nutrients (H2S) like bacteria. The production of energy is affected by light availability (maximum production in photic zone were the intensity of light is maximum) and nutrient availability (maximum in coastal waters due to the river inflow). Among all aquatic ecosystems, estuary has the maximum production. Phytoplankton performing 40% of the photosynthetic activity on earth.

Gross Primary Productivity (GPP)

The rate at which producers converts the light energy into chemical energy from sun or the amount of CO2 fixed during photosynthesis. The amount of plant sufficiently produced per unit of time and space is defined as rate of gross primary productivity. The gross primary productivity high in equator (light intensity is high) and shore areas (nutrient availability is high). It is calculated by the following formula,

GPP = LB-DB × 0.375 × 1000 / T × PQ

GPP is estimated by the following methods,

1. Dark and Light bottle method 2. C14 method 3. Standing crop method

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Energy Utilization in an Aquatic Ecosystem

Cellular Respiration

A process by which the intake foods are breakdown and energy is released. Simply cellular respiration means, conversion of chemical energy into heat energy. This released energy is used for survival of that animal. Respiration is the related term it means amount of CO2 is released by an organism due to metabolic activity.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

The amount of energy left over after the utilization of autotrophs. The rate of net primary production represents the rate at which the organic matter is stored. The produced energy is used for varies activities like metabolism, growth and food production. So the remaining energy after it’s stored in the body as a NPP. Normally primary producers have maximum net primary productivity compare to other trophic level in any ecosystem. It utilizes 90% of its produced energy remaining 10% energy it saves as a Net Primary Productivity. It is calculated using following formula,

NPP = LB-IB× 0.375 × 1000 / T × PQ

Energy Flow in Aquatic Ecosystem

The transfer of energy from one trophic level to another trophic level is called as energy flow or energy transfer. It is also known as calorific flow because it shows the rate of calorie is transferred between the trophics. Energy begins its journey from sun as light energy and it’s converted into chemical energy by autotrophs. The flow of energy is unidirectional and it’s never return back, like nutrients, which cycles in the ecosystem. So, energy can be utilized once in the ecosystem and otherwise it will go as a waste.

Primary producers during photosynthesis use the light energy and manufacture carbohydrate for their own needs. The remaining energy after utilization is stored by primary producers as a biomass. Ultimately, the stored energy is transferred to the second trophic level, which comprises of herbivorous and grazers. The energy assimilated in the second trophic level is again become a new biomass. So, organism in each trophic level transfer some amount of biomass that is lesser than they receive. In aquatic ecosystem growth rate of phytoplankton and algae are rapid to support the 5-7 trophic level in aquatic ecosystem. Decomposer play a major role in ecosystem. They convert the tertiary consumers (top level carnivores) organic matter and

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 undigested feed (excreta) by other organisms into nutrients, which is necessary for the production of energy by primary producers.

Rate of Energy Flow

The rate at which the energy or biomass is transferred into next trophic level. There is no energy conversion process is 100%. During energy transfer some amount of energy is wasted as a heat energy. In energy transfer energy is degraded and quality of energy to next trophic level is decreased. This energy loss is limits the number of trophic level in any ecosystem. 90% of energy utilized at each trophic level, only 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic level to next trophic level. From primary producers (first level) 10% is transferred to primary consumers (second level), 1% energy is transferred to secondary consumers (third level), and 0.1% is transferred in to tertiary consumers (top level). In any ecosystem primary producers gets maximum energy and tertiary consumers gets the least energy. Energy flow depends on the length of food chain, trophic level and nature of food chain. The following piccture showing rate of energy flow in aquatic ecosystem.

Small Algae Zooplankton Small Fish Big Fish Big Fish (10000J) (1000J) (100J) (10J)

Energy Flow Study

In any ecosystem energy flow can be studied by the following methods.

1. Food chain The linear sequence of food relationship of animals in an ecosystem. The biotic components of any ecosystem are linked with each other by food. The nutrients and energy is passes from one organism to other, when the one animal eats the others. It is used to describe the ecosystem

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 structure and dynamics. The problem is a food chain cannot be a linear. Because an organism in ecosystem can feed more than one trophic organisms and that organisms can be eaten by more than one trophic animals. There are different food chains there, Grazing food chain, Predator food chain, Parasite food chain, and Detritus food chain. A simple food chain in aquatic ecosystem is follows,

2. Food web It shows the feeding interaction between species present in an ecosystem. It is a set of interconnected food chains by which energy and materials circulate within an ecosystem. There are two types of food web: a) Grazing food web (starts with green plants and algae) and b) Detrital food web (starts with organic matter). The arrow in food chain and food web directs the flow of energy in an ecosystem. A diagram showing an aquatic ecosystem food web.

3. Ecological pyramid An ecological pyramid (trophic pyramid) is the graphical representation of the trophic structure of an ecosystem. It was first proposed by Charles Sutherland Elton (1927). It is also known as

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Eltonian pyramid. It begins with producers in the bottom and proceed through the various trophic levels, the highest of which is on top. There are three types of ecological pyramids are there.

a) Pyramid of Number It shows the number of organisms at each trophic level. The number of individuals at the trophic level decreases from producers (bottom) to the consumers (top). So, in an ecosystem number of producer is far high and the number of consumers in the subsequent trophic levels, are lesser then that of the producers.

b) Pyramid of Biomass It refers to the total weight of the living organisms in an ecosystem. It quantify the amount of biomass present at each trophic level. In this there is a clear cut decrease in the biomass from lower to the higher trophic levels. Generally it is an upright one (apex is pointed upwards) in all terrestrial ecosystem. In aquatic ecosystem it is an inverted type (apex is pointed downwards). So, in an aquatic ecosystem less amount of biomass of producers (phytoplankton and algae) and more amount of biomass of consumers (fishes).

c) Pyramid of Energy It refers to the amount of organic matter present in each trophic level. There is generally 90% of energy is lost at each level of the food chain, creating a pyramid wider at the bottom and narrow at the top. In pond ecosystem, maximum energy is stored by the phytoplankton. Then these energy decreases when it is transferred to the subsequent consumer levels.

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Energy Measurement

Bomb Calorimeter

Calorimetric is the science of measuring quantities of heat, as distinct from “temperature”. The instruments used for such measurements are known as calorimeters. The calorific value (heat of combustion) of a sample may be broadly defined as the number of heat units liberated by a unit mass of a sample when burned with oxygen in an enclosure of constant volume. The term calorific value (or heat of combustion) as measured in a bomb calorimeter denotes the heat liberated by the combustion of all carbon and hydrogen with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water, including the heat liberated by the oxidation of other elements such as sulphur which may be present in the sample. The heat energy measured in a bomb calorimeter may be expressed either as calories (cal), British thermal units (Btu) or Joules (J).

Parts of Bomb Calorimeter 1. Bomb It must be a strong, thick-walled metal vessel which can be opened for inserting the sample, for removing the products of combustion and for cleaning. Valves must be provided for filling the bomb with oxygen under pressure and for releasing residual gases at the conclusion of a test. Electrodes to carry an ignition current to a fuse wire are also required. 2. Calorimetric Bucket It must be carefully designed with sufficient capacity to hold the bomb completely submerged in water, with a probe to read temperature and a stirrer included to promote rapid thermal equilibrium without introducing excessive heat in the form of mechanical energy. Buckets are commonly made with a highly polished outer finish to minimize the absorption and emission of radiant heat.

3. Calorimetric Jacket It serves as a thermal shield, controlling any heat transfer between the bucket and the surroundings. The jacket will minimize the effects of drafts, radiant energy and changes in room temperature during a test, but it may not completely eliminate all heat leak. The simplest of these is the uncontrolled or plain insulating jacket. With this type of jacket it is assumed that the jacket temperature will remain constant throughout the test without employing an auxiliary temperature control system.

4. Thermometer Precise temperature measurements are essential in bomb calorimetry. Mercury-in-glass thermometers, platinum resistance thermometers, quartz oscillators and thermistor systems have

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 all been used successfully to measure the temperature rise in the bucket. Whatever system is used must provide excellent resolution and repeatability, with an accuracy of 0.001°C or better specified in most standard test methods.

Procedure

Before using the bomb calorimeter it should be calibrated with standard benzoic acid.

1. Make a pellet of benzoic acid weighing approximately 0.8 to 1.0 g. 2. Cut a 10 cm length of fuse wire and weigh it. Fuse the pellet onto the wire by heating the wire with an electric current from a 6 V battery. 3. Weigh the wire and pellet and calculate the exact weight of benzoic acid. 4. Using an Eppendorf pipette, introduce exactly 1.0 ml of pure water into the clean dry bomb. 5. Tie the wire to the electrodes, assemble the bomb and pressurize it with oxygen to approximately 25 atmospheres. 6. Place the can inside the insulating jacket, set the bomb in the can, attach the electric leads and pour in exactly 2 L of water at a temperature about 1-2 degrees below room temperature and close the cover. 7. Start stirring the water in the calorimeter, and after about 2 minutes start taking temperature readings at 1 minute intervals for at least 5 minutes. 8. Discharge the capacitor (ignition unit) to initiate combustion exactly 30 sec. after the previous reading and release the ignition switch when the red pilot light goes out. 9. Record the temperature 30 seconds after ignition and then every 30 seconds while the temperature is on the rise. After a maximum temperature is observed continue to take temperature readings for a further 5 minutes, reverting to one minute intervals. 10. Open the calorimeter, take out the bomb, release the pressure and open the bomb. Remove the unburned wire and weigh it. Calculate the amount of wire burnt.

Calculation

∆E = -Z × ∆T × M / W

Where, ∆E = Internal energy change Z = Heat capacity of calorimeter system M = Molecular mass substance W = Mass substance taken

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REFERENCES [1]. Castro, P; (1998) Structure and Function of Marine Ecosystems; Vol.2; 199-211. [2]. Castro., Huber; (1997) Marine Biology; Structure and Function of ecosystems; The flow of energy and minerals; 204-211. [3]. David C.Sigee; (2004) Freshwater Microbiology; Food webs in lentic and lotic ecosystems; 34-43. [4]. Srinivasan., Manimaran., Padmavathi., Jayakumari; (2007) Aquatic Environment and Biodiversity; Energy flow; 125-129. [5]. http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/energyflow/en ergyflow.html

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Brassinosteroide: A novel plant hormone Article id: 21512 Suvarna Gare1, A. U. Ingle2 and S. A. Tayade3 1, 2, 3 Ph. D. Scholar, MPKV, Rahuri. INTRODUCTION Brassinolide (BL) is the most bioactive Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a class of form of the growthpromoting plant steroids polyhydroxysteroids that have been termed brassinosteroids (BRs). recognized as a sixth class of plant Brassinosteroids are important plant growth hormones and may have utility as an regulators in multiprocesses at the anticancer drug for endocrine-responsive nanomolar (nM) concentration, including cell cancers to induce apoptosis and inhibit division, cell elongation, vascular growth. Brassinosteroids (BR) are a group of differentiation, reproductive development polyhydroxy lactones with a common 5 α- and modulation of gene expression (Bajguz, cholestane skeleton. This class of plant 2007). They also influence various hormones has been extracted from a variety developmental processes like germination of of plant species from pollen grains, anthers, seeds, rhizogenesis, flowering, senescence, seeds, stems, leaves, roots, flowers, and abscission and maturation. The highest other organs. Plants produce numerous brassinosteroid concentrations were steroids and sterols, some of which are measured in pollen and immature seeds recognized as hormones in animals (Geuns, (Bajguz and Tretyn, 2003). 1978; Jones and Roddick, 1988). These Biosynthesis brassinosteroids were first explored during The BR is biosynthesised the 70s, when Mitchell et al. reported from campesterol. The biosynthetic pathway promotion in stem elongation and cell was elucidated by Japanese researchers and division by the treatment of organic extracts later shown to be correct through the analysis of rapeseed (Brassica napus) pollen (Grove, of BR biosynthesis mutants in Arabidopsis 1979). Brassinolide was the first isolated thaliana, tomatoes and peas (Fujioka and brassinosteroid in 1979, when pollen Sakurai, 1997). The sites for BR synthesis in from Brassica napus was shown to promote plants have not been experimentally stem elongation and cell divisions, and the demonstrated. One well-supported biologically active molecule was isolated. The hypothesis is that all tissues produce BRs, yield of brassinosteroids from 230 kg since BR biosynthetic and signal transduction of Brassica napus pollen was only 10 mg. genes are expressed in a wide range of plant Since their discovery, over 70 BR compounds organs, and short distance activity of the have been isolated from plants (Bajguz, hormones also supports this (Fujioka, 1997 2007). and Clouse, 1998). Experiments have shown that long distance transport is possible and

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 that the flow is from the base to the tips In all Type of brassinosteroids 28-homoBL (acropetal), but it is not known if this is the most effective type of brassinosteroids movement is biologically relevant (Clouse and (sandeep kumar et al., 2010). Sasse, 1998). Brassinosteroids increased tolerance to high temperature in Brassica juncea L. (Kumar S. Hormonal activity 2010). The ability of 28-homobrassinolide to BRs have been shown to be involved in confer resistance to stress in Brassica juncea numerous plant processes: L. has also established (sandeep kumar).  Promotion of cell expansion and cell Application of 24-epiBL have any protective elongation works with auxin to do so. role on shoot, root length, soluble protein,  It has an unclear role in cell division and proline content and peroxidases along with cell wall regeneration. proline content PPO and IAA in seedlings of B.  Promotion of vascular differentiation; juncea L. under seasonal stress (Geetika BR signal transduction has been studied Sirhindi). during vascular differentiation. BRs have also been reported to have a  Is necessary for pollen elongation variety of effects when applied to rice seeds for pollen tube formation. (Oryza sativa L.). Seeds treated with BRs were  Acceleration of senescence in shown to reduce the growth inhibitory effect dying tissue cultured cells; delayed of salt stress (Anuradha and Rao, senescence in BR mutants supports that 2003). When the developed plants fresh this action may be biologically relevant. weight was analyzed the treated seeds  Can provide some protection to plants outperformed plants grown on saline and during chilling and drought stress. non-saline medium however when the dry  Promote apical dominance. weight was analyzed BR treated seeds only Extract from the plant Lychnis outperformed untreated plants that were viscaria contains a relatively high amount of grown on saline medium. When dealing with Brassinosteroids. Lychnis viscaria increases tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) under the disease resistance of surrounding plants. salt stress the concentration of cholophyll a BRs have been reported to counteract and cholophyll b were decreased and thus both abiotic and biotic stress in plants. pigmentation was decreased as well (Meleigy Application of brassinosteroids to cucumbers et al., 2004). BR treated rice seeds was demonstrated to increase considerably restored the pigment level in the metabolism and removal of pesticides, plants that were grown on saline medium which could be beneficial for reducing the when compared to non-treated plants under human ingestion of residual pesticides from the same conditions. non-organically grown vegetables (Xia et al., Megbo (2010) reported that plants 2009). treated with brassinolide (BL) alone or where brassinolide was combined with gibberellic

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 acid (BL+GA3) exhibited a notable increase in metabolism in tomato which may enhance the size of both epidermal and mesophyll tolerance to phenanthrene (Ahammed et al. cells, this was also true for leaf size but such 2013). changes were not observed in the control High levels of exogenously applied BR plants. A combination of Gibberrelic acid should induce JA synthesis, because many of (GA3) and brassinolide (i.e. BL+GA3) exhibited BR's effects may be to increase sugar levels the highest stem elongation as well as petiole within the plant, if only temporarily. This may growth rates. Results suggest a synergistic include making dormant reactions that interaction between gibberellic acid and normally depend on sugar. brassinolide in stimulating significant increase in stem growth. Agricultural uses Swamy and Rao (2010) which stated BR might reveal to have a prominent that plants obtained from brassinosteroid interest in the role of horticultural crops. treated stem cuttings exhibited better foliage Based on extensive research BR has the growth as compared to that of the control ability to improve the quantity and quality of and that increase in leaf area amounted to horticultural crops and protect plants against the enhancement in photosynthetic area and many stresses that can be present in the local that might have contributed to increase in environment. With the many advances in growth. Brassinosteroids are known to induce technology dealing with the synthesis of more a broad spectrum of responses, including stable synthetic analogues and the genetic stimulation of longitudinal growth of young manipulation of cellular BR activity, using BR tissues via cell elongation and cell division (Hu in the production of horticultural crops has et al., 2000) and vascular differentiation, become a more practical and hopeful strategy which is a developmental process critical for for improving crop yields and success (Kang plant growth. and Guo). Little is known about the role of BRs in BR could also help bridge the gap of the plant response to oxidative stress. It was the consumer’s health concerns and the shown that application of BRs modifies producers need for growth. A major benefit antioxidant enzymes as well as non-enzymatic of using BR is that it does not interfere with antioxidants. When maize seedlings treated the environment because they act in natural with brassinolide (BL) are subjected to water doses in a natural way (Khripach, 2000). Since stress, the activities of SOD, CAT, APX, as well it is a “plant strengthening substance” and it as ascorbic acid and carotenoid content is natural, BR application would be more increase (Li et al. 1998). On the other hand, favorable than pesticides and does not BRs enhance the activity of CAT and reduce contribute to the co-evolution of pests the activities of POX and ascorbic acid oxidase (Khripach, 2000). under osmotic stress in sorghum (Vardhini and Rao 2003) and also regulate secondary

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CONCLUSIONS development and bring about the BR should encourage shoot and new achievement of desired morphological and shoot growth, Promotion yield parameters. of vascular differentiation, Promotes epinasty Brassinosteroides in combinations through synthesis of ethylene and inhibits with other classes of phytohormones, for leaf abscission. Higher BR levels inhibit root example gibberellic acid, auxins, have been growth. Brassinosteroids are a class of seen to be very useful. They have been used phytohormones that has been found to successfully to improve the yields and quality influence many physiological processes in of agricultural and horticultural crops, plants. especially in relation to disease control and Their wise application within for improving crop resistance against biotic recommended doses for different crop plants and abiotic stresses. can positively influence plant growth and

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Hirsutella- New entomopathogenic fungi to control insect pest Article id: 21513 1Surya Prakash Reddy, , 2Ashwini kumar ,3Sundar Borkar and 4Purnima Singh 1Department of Plant Pathology, JNKVV, Jabalpur-482004,2Department of Plant Pathology,B.M College of agriculture, RVSKVV, Khandwa,M.P, 3Department of Entomology1, JNKVV, Jabalpur 4Department of Plant Pathology, College of agriculture, RVSKVV, Gawalior,M.P.

INTRODUCTION groups consisting of the tropical variety Hirsutella is a genus of asexually reproducing synnematosa, the subtropical variety vinacea fungi in the Ophiocordycipitaceae family. and the temperate variety thompsonii. Originally described by French  This fungus has a worldwide distribution on mycologist Narcisse Théophile Patouillard in different eriophyoid and tetranychid mite 1892, this genus includes species that are hosts and during hot, humid weather can pathogens of insects, mites and nematodes; cause spectacular natural epizootics among there is interest in the use of these fungi as mite populations (e.g. citrus rust mites, biological controls of insect and nematode blueberry, coconut and tomato mites, etc.) pests. The teleomorphs of Hirsutella species and is considered to be a major natural belong to the enemy of various mite pests (Chandler et al., genera Ophiocordyceps and Torrubiella.The 2000). genus Hirsutella (Hypocreales) contains a variety of fungal pathogens isolated from numerous Medium which grown mite, nematode, and insect hosts (Van der Geest  ATCC® Medium 200: YM agar or YM broth et al., 2000).  ATCC® Medium 336: Potato dextrose agar (P DA) Example for Hirsutella species  ATCC® Medium 340: Rabbit food agar  H. nodulosus, H. citriformis and H. gigantean, infect lepidopterans, hemipteran and Mass Culturing of Hirsutella dipterans producing structures composed of thompsonii Fisher a Fungal Pathogen a compact group of erect conidiophores  Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB): potato (synnemata) while H. rhossiliensis and H. dextrose powder (24 g), distilled water (1L). minnesotensis infect plant-parasitic  Sabouraud Dextrose Broth (SDB): sabourou nematodes. dextrose powder (30 g), distilled water (1L).  The most wide-studied species from this  Sabouraud Maltose Broth (SMB): sabouraud genus is the mite specific pathogen maltose powder (50 g), distilled water (1L). Hirsutella thompsonii (McCoy, 1981), a  Yeast Extract Dextrose Peptone (YDP): yeast mononematous species that has been extract (15 g), dextrose (20 g), peptone (0.5 separated into three morphologically distinct

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g), KH2PO4 (1.5 g), MgSO4 (0.5 g), CaCl2 (0.1 g) complete growth inhibition were 150μg/ml and , distilled water (1 L). 400μg/ml, respectively, for H. minnesotensis AS3.9869 and 100μg/ml and 400μg/ml, (Aghajanzadeh et.al 2006) Production of H. respectively, for H. rhossiliensis AS6.0004. thompsonii on synthetic liquid Growth responses of these isolates to media: Maximum fungal growth (0.71 g dry hygromycin B on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and wt./50 mL) was observed on SMB medium for cornmeal agar (CMA) were indistinguishable. submerged culture twenty days after Based on their higher sensitivity to hygromycin B inoculation compared to other liquid media than geneticin, we chose the hph gene, which like SDB (0.6 g/50 mL), YDP (0.48 g/50 mL) confers resistance to hygromycin B, to select and PDB (0.33 g/50 mL). transformants. Binary vectors containing hph Growth Conditions Temperature: 24°C to 26°C and the AsRed, AsCyan or ZsGreen gene were Atmosphere: Typical aerobic used for transformation

Toxin produced by Hirsutella thompsonii Taxonomy and biology

Maimala et al. (2002) reported that the major Kingdom:Fungi,Division:Ascomycota,Subdivision: hosts of H. thompsonii are eriophyoid mites Pezizomycotina,class:Sordariomycetes, displaying specific host plant preferences and Order:Hypocreals, Family:Ophiocordycipitaceae, that many H. thompsonii isolated from a range Genus:Hirsutella of eriophyiids varied in their ability to produce Hirsutella used as biological Control for exotoxins such as Hirsutellin A (HtA). management citrus rust mite

Molecular markers used identification of The most important natural control agent for Hirsutella thompsonii the citrus rust mite (CRM) is the parasitic fungus, (Tigano et al. 2006)Amplified fragment length Hirsutella thompsonii Fisher. The fungus polymorphism (AFLP) was used to investigate requires the same warm, humid conditions that polymorphism among 43 Hirsutella thompsonii favor rapid population growth of the CRM. In isolates (33 from Thailand) obtained from addition, H. thompsonii is density-dependent, various mite species. requiring high populations of CRM to facilitate its spread. Hirsutella thompsonii is most Transformation of Hirsutella spp. with three effective in the summer and fall when such fluorescent protein genes. conditions exist. CRM infected with H. thompsonii first appear sluggish in movement, (Jingzu Sun et.al.2015)The sensitivities of and gradually change color from the normal Hirsutella spp. to hygromycin B and geneticin yellow to a dark yellow or even brown Hirsutella were determined. The minimum concentrations thompsonii will cause suppression of CRM of hygromycin B and geneticin resulting in

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 populations 6 to 8 weeks after the beginning of 6686: Ht6, 34.7 Mb) are presented and mite population buildup. compared with the genomes of Beauveria During this period, the CRM infestation bassiana (Bb) ARSEF 2860 and Ophiocordyceps may reach injurious densities and inflict sinensis(Os) CO18. Comparative analysis of economic injury. Many times, however, H. carbohydrate active enzymes, pathogen–host thompsonii will develop in a CRM population interaction genes. and prevent populations from increasing to injurious levels. If three dead or diseased mites The genus Hirsutella includes some other are observed within a 20X lensfield on the fruit wellknown insect-pathogenic fungi, such as surface on a 100 fruit sample, do not spray. Do Hirsutella rhossiliensis and Hirsutella sinensis not rely on H. thompsonii to regulate CRM (Sung et al. 2007). A range of bioactive population on fruit grown for the fresh market. secondary metabolites have been reported in Hirsutella species, such as linear and cyclic Effect of Hirsutella thompsonii on mortality and nonribosomal peptides: Hirsutellic acid A, detoxification enzyme activity in Periplaneta hirsutide, hirsutatins A and B; polyketide Americana(American cockroach). synthase–nonribosomal peptide synthase (PKS– NRPS) hybrid metabolites: Cytostatic (Abhilasha Chaurasia et.al 2015) Determine the cytochalasin Q (Molnar et al. 2010). Some effect of Hirsutella thompsonii, an strains of Hirsutella are also used in traditional entomopathogenic fungus on mortality and Chinese medicines and neutraceutical antioxidant enzymes of Periplaneta Americana. preparations (Molnar et al. 2010). Conidial suspensions of fungi were given to cockroaches through different modes for 24 Effective Control of Mites hours. Mode of action The positive effect of H. thompsonii on The modes of penetration of Hirsutella both mortality and the antioxidant enzyme Thompsonii in to the mites mainly through the (catalase, superoxide dismutase and glutathione legs, which later on forms hyphal bodies in peroxidase) activity in different tissues of chains in the haemolymph. Hyphae, on which cockroaches. spores are produced, emerge through the mouth as well as genital and apertures first and Genome Sequence, Comparative Analysis, and then from all over the body. This is well Evolutionary Insights into Chitinases of demonstrated in case of carmine spider mite Entomopathogenic Fungus Hirsutella and the oriental spider mite. Hirsutella thompsonii Thompsonii has been found to be safe to mammals.The fungal pathogen Hirsutella Hirsutella thompsonii (Ht) is a fungal pathogen thompsonii produces a single polypeptide chain, of acarines and the primary cause of epizootics insecticidal protein name Hirstutellin A. which among mites. The draft genomes of two isolates of Ht (MTCC 3556: Ht3, 34.6 Mb and MTCC

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 possess ribosomal inhibiting activity and appears side of leaves at 15 days interval to control the to possess specific control of invertebrate cells. mites. Target Crops: Coconut, Citrus, Apple, Litchi, Chili, Brinjal, Compatibility Tomato, Cucurbites, Cotton, Tea, Roses  Don’t mix with chemical fungicides. Target Insect:  Alternate spray of chemical insecticides, fungicides and botanical insecticides may Almite Control, Red, Pink, Yellow mites in tea, be applied. rose, fruit, vegetables and plantation crops  Safe to human, mammals, predators and parasites. Method of application and dosage  Exempted from residue tolerance limit.

Foliar Application – Mix 1 ltr. Almite in 150 to 8 200 ltr of water for foliar spray against mite in Clony forming unit: CFU – 2 X 10 per ml standing crop at the time of mites appearance in Formulation : AS (Aqueous Suspension) and WP one acre. Follow 2-3 foliar spray in the morning (Wettable Powder). time by using high volume spray to cover both REFRENCES

[1]. Aghajanzadeh, B. Mallik and S.C. Chandrashekar 2006,Mass Culturing of Hirsutella thompsonii Fisher a Fungal Pathogen of Eriophyid Mites.,Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences Volume 9 (5): 876-879. [2]. Chandler D, Davidson G, Pell JK, Ball BV, Shaw K and Sunderland KD (2000) Fungal biocontrol of acari. Biocontrol Science and Technology 10:357-384. [3]. Jingzu Sun, Sook-Young Park , Seogchan Kang , Xingzhong Liu , Junzhi Qiu & Meichun Xiang2015, Development of a transformation system for Hirsutella spp. and visualization of the mode of nematode infection by GFP-labeled H. minnesotensis, Scientific Reports | 5:10477 | DOI: 10.1038/srep10477. [4]. Maimala S, Tartar A, Boucias D and Chandrapatya A (2002) Detection of the toxin Hirsutellin A from Hirsutella thompsonii. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 80:112-126. [5]. McCoy CW (1981) Fungi: Pest control by Hirsutella thompsonii. In: Burges HD (ed) Microbial Control of Insects, Mites and Plant Diseases. Academic Press, New York, pp 499- 512. [6]. Molnar I, Gibson DM, Krasnoff SB. 2010. Secondary metabolites from entomopathogenic Hypocrealean fungi. Nat Prod Rep. 27: 1241–1275. [7]. Myrian S. Tigano , Byron Adams , Saowanit Maimala and Drion Boucias.2006. Genetic diversity of Hirsutella thompsonii isolates from Thailand based on AFLP analysis and partial -tubulin gene sequences, Brazilian Society of Genetics, Genetics and Molecular Biology, 29, 4, 715-721 . [8]. Patouillard NC. (1892). "Une Clavariée entomogène". Revue de Mycologie. 14: 67–70. [9]. Sung GH, et al. 2007. Phylogenetic classification of Cordyceps and the clavicipitaceous fungi. Stud Mycol. 57:5–59. [10]. Van der Geest LPS, Elliot SL, Breeuwer JAJ and Beerling EAM (2000) Diseases of mites. Experimental and Applied Acarology 24:497-560.

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Molecular approaches for crop genetic improvement against abiotic stresses Article id: 21514 Himani*1 and Anurag Malik2 1Department of Biochemistry, COBS&H, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar-125004, Haryana, India 2Department of Seed Science & Technology, COA, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar- 125004, Haryana, India

ABSTRACT crop improvement reach their limits, agriculture has to Abiotic stress such as cold, drought, salt, and heavy adopt novel approaches to meet the demands of an metals largely influences plant development and crop ever-growing world population. productivity. Abiotic stress has been becoming a major threat to food security due to the constant changes of With the development of modern molecular biology, climate and deterioration of environment caused by genomics approaches have been applied in crop human activity. To cope with abiotic stress, plants can breeding while not popularly in practice. The initiate a number of molecular, cellular, and exploitation and utilization of crop germplasm physiological changes to respond and adapt to such resources are the basis of crop breeding. However, stresses. Better understanding of the plant with continuous collection of germplasm resources, responsiveness to abiotic stress will aid in both the size of populations has been becoming bigger, traditional and modern breeding applications towards which hinders the evaluation and utilization of the improving stress tolerance. As traditional strategies for germplasm resources. The wild plant species with high crop improvement approach their limits, the era of tolerance to abiotic stress have attracted more and genomics research has arisen with new and promising more attentions of plant biologists, especially when perspectives in breeding improved varieties against the studies within a crop species on improving the abiotic stresses. stress tolerance show the limitation. Understanding the mechanisms for stress tolerance achieved by these INTRODUCTION wild species will help in crop improvement; even some Abiotic stresses are the most significant causes of yield relatives can be directly or indirectly applied in crop losses in plants, implicated to reduce yields by as much breeding by cytological ways. It is necessary to further as 50% [1]. Among abiotic stresses, drought is the most clarify the mechanisms underlying plant stress prominent and widespread; consequently the drought responses through modern biological technologies, stress response has been dissected into its especially to understand stress responses of some wild components and extensively studied in order to plant species with extremely high stress tolerance, understand tolerance mechanisms thoroughly. To which will be eventually applied in developing crops improve abiotic stress, particularly drought, tolerance with high stress tolerance. of cereals is of extreme importance, as cereals, including wheat and barley, are the main constituents 1. Functional Genomics of the world food supply. However, many abiotic Functional genomics techniques have long been stresses are complex in nature, controlled by networks adopted to unravel gene functions and the interactions of genetic and environmental factors that hamper between genes in regulatory networks, which can be breeding strategies [2]. As traditional approaches for

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 exploited to generate improved varieties. Functional 2. Structural Genomics genomics approaches predominantly employ sequence While functional genomics focus on the functions or hybridization based methodologies. of genes and gene networks, structural genomics focus on the physical structure of the genome, A. Sequencing-Based Techniques aiming to identify, locate, and order genomic features along chromosomes. Together, structural One way to explore the expressed gene catalogue genomics and functional genomics can of a species is to analyze Expressed Sequence Tags characterize a genome to its full extent. (ESTs). ESTs are partial genic sequences that are A. Genome Mapping and Sequencing generated by single-pass sequencing of cDNA clones [3]. Despite the concerns over the quality of In the last decade, advances in DNA sequencing ESTs as well as the representation of the parental technologies have enabled the generation of a wealth cDNA [4], ESTs have been shown to identify of sequence information including whole genome corresponding genes unambiguously in a rapid and sequences. quence information including whole cost-effective fashion [4]; therefore, ESTs have genome sequences. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) been a major focus on functional studies. platforms such as Roche 454 GS FLX Titanium or Illumina Solexa Genome Analyzer can carry out high B. Developments to Functional Genomics capacity sequencing at reduced costs and increased Techniques rates compared to conventional Sanger sequencing [6]. Genome wide expression profiles are most useful These advances have paved the way for the in the detection of candidate genes for desired exploitation of plant genomics studies for breeding traits, such as stress tolerance. A fraction of improved varieties. Through NGS technologies, functional studies then adopt inactivation or sequencing and re-sequencing of even large genomes overexpression of such candidate genes for further have become feasible. characterization and utilization. Of these, Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING) B. Molecular Markers enables high-throughput analysis of large number Genomics applications involving molecular markers are of mutants [5]. TILLING is applicable to virtually all largely dominated by Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms genes in all species where mutations can be (SNPs) as reflected in the predominance of software induced. Importantly, a modified strategy, called related to SNP discovery [6]. The high abundance of EcoTILLING, has been developed to identify natural SNPs in genomes is particularly beneficial for their use polymorphisms, analogous to TILLING-assisted in genomics. SNPs are readily identified by genome or identification of induced mutations. transcript re-sequencing and by comparison of Polymorphisms demonstrating natural variation in different genotypes in species where reference germplasms are valuable tools in genetic mapping. genome sequences or extensive transcript databases Furthermore, via the discovery of polymorphisms are available. Transcriptome re-sequencing not only among individuals, EcoTILLING is able to implicate avoids repetitive sequences of complex genome but favorable haplotypes for further analyses, such as also identifies SNPs within transcripts that may serve sequencing. Similar to TILLING, EcoTILLING is as functional markers applicable to polyploid species, where it can be utilized to differentiate between alleles of C. Role of Structural Genomics in Crop Improvement homologous and paralogous genes.

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A major impact of NGS-mediated shotgun sequences 3. Comparative Genomics has been their substantial contribution to the For species with largely unexplored genomes, development of molecular markers. These markers comparative genomics is a promising tool to gain indicate diagnostic polymorphisms at the DNA information by utilizing the conservation between sequence level, and in contrast to morphological closely related plant species. In fact, plant markers which once had been the focus of traditional genomes share extensive similarities even breeding studies, they are not affected by the between distantly related species. Comparative environment. In general terms, Marker-Assisted genomics has contributed significantly to the Selection (MAS) refers to the utilization of molecular emergence of the “genome zipper” concept, which markers in breeding improved varieties with respect to enables the determination of a virtual gene order desired traits, such pathogen resistance, abiotic stress in a partially sequenced genome. Genome zippers tolerance, or high yield [7]. Through MAS, phenotype compare the fully sequenced and annotated can be predicted from genotype. For efficient and genomes of Brachypodium, sorghum, and rice with accurate MAS, the trait of interest should be tightly various sources of data from less well-studied linked to a molecular marker or more preferably species, such as genomic survey sequences flanked by two close markers. Recombination between andgenetically mapped markers, to predict the both flanking markers and the trait is less likely to gene order and organization in these species [8]. occur compared to a single marker, due to the low frequency of double crossovers.

REFERENCES [1]. F. Qin, K. Shinozaki, and K. Yamaguchi-Shinozaki. 2011. Achievements and challenges in understanding plant abiotic stress responses and tolerance. Plant and Cell Physiology, 52(9): 1569– 1582. [2]. T. R. Sinclair 2011. Challenges in breeding for yield increase for drought. Trends in Plant Science, 16(6): 289–293. [3]. D. Bouchez and H. Hofte. 1998. Functional genomics in plants. Plant Physiology.118(3): 725–732, 1998. [4]. S. Rudd. 2003. Expressed sequence tags: alternative or complement to whole genome sequences? Trends in Plant Science, 8(7): 321–329. [5]. C. M. McCallum, L. Comai, E. A. Greene, and S. Henikoff. 2000. Targeting induced local lesions IN genomes (TILLING) for plant functional genomics. Plant Physiology, 123(2): 439–442. [6]. R. K. Varshney, S. N. Nayak, G. D. May, and S. A. Jackson. 2009. Nextgeneration sequencing technologies and their implications for crop genetics and breeding,” Trends in Biotechnology, 27(9): 522–530. [7]. B. C. Y. Collard and D. J. Mackill. 2008. Marker-assisted selection: an approach for precision plant breeding in the twenty-first century. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 363(1491):557–572. [8]. K. F. X. Mayer, S. Taudien, M. Martis et al., 2009. Gene content and virtual gene order of barley chromosome 1H. Plant Physiology, 151(2): 496–505.

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Ornamental fish - Scope for entrepreneurship development in Northeast India Article id: 21515 Ningthoujam Peetambari Devi* ICAR-Research Complex for NEH Region, Umiam- 793103, Meghalaya

INTRODUCTION northeast region of India (Mahapatra, 2018). The North-Eastern part of India is However, most of these resources are exist in abound with rich resources of fresh water fish wild state and threats to habitat degradation species and holds an important place in and indiscriminate harvesting will have a providing livelihood and nutritional security significant impact in terms of economic loss. of the region. The role of fishery sector in There call a well establish and systematic way this region is expected to be increased in the to develop sector of ornamental fish. In this coming years to come. This opportunity can context, agribusiness ventures would likely to be exaggerated by initiation of agribusiness play a significant role in strengthening the based entrepreneurship vendors. Since the development and further utilization of the region has gifted with diverse ornamental fish ornamental fish on sustainable basis. species of highly commercial value, however, What are ornamental fish? the market oriented aspects of this sector  Fish having attractive quality due to its have still unreached. The initiation or varied forms and fascinating beauty establishment of agribusiness platform in this  Attractive qualities like body colour, aspect would very prospective and highly morphology, feeding habits etc. remunerative one. In India a total of about  Mostly placed in aquarium or garden pool 374 freshwater ornamental fishes have been for beautification purpose reported in which 66.85 % are existed in

Important ornamental fish species of Northeast India States Important Ornamental Fish species Arunachal Leopard loach, Shovel mouth catfish, Goliath hill trout, Rani loach, Peacock Pradesh snakehead Assam Violet, snakehead, Peacock snakehead, Nobel gourami Manipur Blyth’s loach, Shovel catfish, Goliath hill trout, Rani loach Meghalaya Shaylini barb, Moustached danio, Devil catfish, Violate snakehead, Blue channa Mizoram Shovel mouth catfish, Rani loach, Moustached danio, Clown catfish, Stone fish Nagaland Leopard loach, Rani loach, Moustached danio, Clown catfish, Stone fish Sikkim Nobel gourami, Goliath hill trout, Devil catfish Tripura Leopard loach, Shovel mouth catfish, Goliath hill trout, Rani loach Source: Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture (2003-04).

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Major Lacunas  Conservation and management of native  Mostly exist in wild state: threats to ornamental fish especially endangered habitat degradation and indiscriminate and extinct ones harvesting  Introduction and rearing of economic  Lack of financial support exotic ornamental species  Lack of marketing and transportation  Formulation of government policy to facilities safeguard and sustainability of  Lack of suitable low-cost breeding ornamental fish resources technologies  Attraction of private investment

Ways to Link Agribusiness Opportunities CONCLUSION  Trading of the newly emerging North Eastern states is contributing ornamental fish species like Olyra the major share in the ornamental fish longicaudata, Pseudechenies sulcatus, market in India Development of agribusiness Psilorhynchus balitora, Somileptes ventures not only help in systematic gongota, etc. collection and conservation of the existing  Market information ornamental fish resources but also aid to  Proper marketing channels sustain the economic benefits of the region  Government initiatives and funds by providing employment to local people and  Proper technical assistance to different increasing their income. Provision of stakeholders government financial supports such as  Proper policy for the development of incentives, loans as well as technical ornamental fish industry assistance such as training and demonstration  Setting up suitable ornamental fish Programme is having inattention. Now it is breeding units the right time to realize that the Agribusiness Ventures will helps in opportunities and scope of agribusiness in  Generation of employment enhancing the value chain and market value  Livelihood improvement of the rural and of the ornamental fish resources in one side poor fishermen and conservation and utilization of this highly potential resources in sustainable way.

REFERENCES [1]. Mahapatra, B.K. (2018). Ornamental Fishery Resources in India: Diversified Option for Livelihood Improvement. In: National Seminar on Recent Trends in Fishery and Ecological science, 19th May, 2018.

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Doubling Farmers’ Income: Issues and strategies for potato producers in Bihar Article id: 21516 Pynbianglang Kharumnuid*1, NK Pandey1, Dhiraj K Singh2 RK Singh3 and S Kumar3 1Division of Social Sciences, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla 2Division of Socio-Economics and Extension, ICAR-RC for Eastern Region, Patna 3ICAR-Central Potato Research Station, Patna

INTRODUCTION of the total national potato production. India Potato plays a very important role in Indian is predominantly an agriculture based country agriculture as potato alone contributes about in which agriculture and allied activities 21 percent of the total vegetable area and 26 contributes about 17 percent to the country’s percent of total vegetable production of India GVA and provides employment to about 54.6 (DAC&FW, 2017a). It is the third most percent of the population (DAC&FW, important food crop, after rice and wheat. 2017b).Unfortunately, majority of the farming Uttar Pradesh is the highest potato producing communities in the country get very less state of the country followed by West Bengal remuneration for their hard work. In Bihar, and Bihar. Potato is the single largest yield of potato is hovering around 19-20 t/ha vegetable crop in Bihar. During 2016-17, Bihar since last 7-8 years which is below the produced about 6.38 m tons from an area of national productivity (nearly 24 t/ha during 0.32 m ha with the productivity of 19.9 2017-18). ton/ha (Figure 1). This is nearly 13.1 per cent Area(10,000 ha) Production(lakh t) Yield (t/ha) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Compound Annual Growth Rate (%) of area, production and yield of potato in Bihar Year Area Production Yield 1949-50 to 1958-59 7.1 4.3 -2.6 1959-60 to 1968-69 4.6 8.6 3.9 1969-70 to 1978-79 5.2 4.3 -0.9 1979-80 to 1988-89 1.1 3.9 2.8

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1989-90 to 1998-99 1.3 1.2 -0.2 1999-00 to 2008-09 3.1 4.4 1.2 2009-10 to 2016-17 0.1 1.1 0.9 1949-50 to 2016-17 2.7 4.1 1.4 Fig 1. Trends in area, production and yield of potato in Bihar (Source: DES, MOA, GOI and NHRDF, New Delhi) Potato has a very high potential in doubling very important for improving the productivity farmers’ income as it can be used for table of each crop in the sequence. The results of purpose (as vegetables), seed purpose and the experiments conducted at Central Potato processing purpose. It is a highly nutritious, Research Institute’s regional station, Patna easily digestible, wholesome food containing found that potato-cowpea-maize cropping carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, vitamins system with 100 per cent recommended NPK and high quality dietary fibre. Income of level was the most productive system (CPRI, potato growers can be improved by (i) 2018). Better cropping systems should be increasing the productivity, (ii) decreasing cost popularised among the farmers for achieving of production, (iii) ensuring remunerative price higher productivity in the state. for the produce and (iv) reducing harvest and Supply of good quality seeds: Use of low post harvest losses. quality seeds for planting is one of the main Increasing the productivity reasons of low productivity of potato in Bihar. In potato cultivation, productivity can be Majority of farmers used low quality farm increased by adopting various saved seeds and seed purchased from local technologies/approaches like: traders. Thus, the government should ensure Adoption of improved varieties: The quality regular supply of good quality seeds to the seeds of improved varieties are the critical farmers. Progressive farmers may be inputs for achieving higher and sustainable motivated and seed villages could be crop productivity. However, in Bihar, majority established for seed production on a larger of farmers still growing local varieties like scale so that regular supply of seeds will be Bhoora Aloo, Lal gulab, C-1, C-40, etc. These achieved. varieties give low yield and also are highly Forecasting for efficient and effective susceptible to diseases. Thus, adoption of new management of Late Blight: Late blight of improved varieties like Kufri Pukhraj, Kufri potato can cause huge loss to potato Lalit, Kufri Khyati, Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Mohan, production. In India, the reduction in potato Kufri Arun, etc. is highly needed for doubling production due to late blight ranged between farmers’ income. 5 and 90 percent depending upon climatic Adoption of suitable potato based cropping conditions, with an average of 15 percent system: Choosing of suitable crop sequence is across the country (Collins, 2000). Information

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 regarding occurrence of late blight in advance in potato cultivation in almost all states of will enable farmers to apply fungicides timely, India. Potato production through TPS not only effectively and efficiently, resulting in reduces the production cost, but also substantial reduction of losses due to late increases the net profit of the farmers. Some blight and also reduce cost of purchasing of the advantages of potato cultivation fungicides. Bihar government should make use through TPS are disease free planting, low cost of the late blight forecasting model like Indo- planting material and easy and cheap storage Blightcast model and the information should and transportation. be made aware to all categories of farmers. Organic Cultivation of Potato: Organic potato Enhancing farmers’ knowledge and skill: Low cultivation not only fetch premium prices but adoption of improved potato technologies also also reduces the cost of cultivation to a large account for low productivity in the state. This extent as it relies mainly on crop rotations, is because farmers are still unaware of the FYMs, off farm organic wastes and biological improved package of practices and are not insects and diseases management, which are competent enough to use the scientific sustainable and lower in cost. There is also a package of practices. Thus, they are still good scope of exporting organic products from relying on their own traditional practices. The India. Supports in the form of incentives and state government should make necessary subsidies of important organic inputs should institutional and financial arrangement for be given to farmers for encouraging them to dissemination and diffusion of new take up organic potato farming. technologies and enhance the knowledge and Production of farmers’ quality seeds: Since skills of farmers on scientific potato cultivation seed cost is the highest cost component in through trainings, demonstrations, technical potato cultivation, the government should advisories, etc for enabling them to use the encourage farmers to grow their own good technologies in their own fields. quality seeds which could be used for planting Decreasing cost of production in the next season or selling to the market at Cost of production is inversely proportional to higher prices. the income of farmers. Thus it needs to be Collectivization of famers into FPOs: Farmer lowered down in order to get higher returns producer organisations help its member from potato cultivation. Cost of cultivation can producers, especially marginal and small be decreased by adopting the following farmers to sell their produces in bulk at a price technologies/methods: higher than when sold individually. The Cultivation through True Potato Seed: Seed farmers will also get the benefits of purchasing potato is the most expensive potato input production inputs at a price below the market which account about 30-40 per cent of the prices and hiring of machineries and tools total cost of cultivation. Lack and high cost of locally at low cost which is affordable by quality seeds was one of the major constraints marginal and small farmers.

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Ensure remunerative price for the produce Uzhavar Santhaigal in Tamil Nadu have Better income for farmers can be ensured by enabled farmers to get remunerative prices. adopting the following approaches/ways: Many studies reported that contract farming Through production of quality seeds: Lack and provides many advantages to the farmers such high cost of quality seeds is one of the main as assured price, assured market, credit, problems in potato cultivation. The market technologies, inputs, extension services, risk rate of potato seeds is very much higher when sharing, employment generation and reducing compared with table potatoes. Most of the the cost of production and transaction. Thus, seed potatoes in India are supplied from direct marketing and contract farming may be Punjab. In Bihar, majority of farmers procured adopted by the state for increasing farmers’ seeds from Punjab and other states at higher income. price and higher transportation cost. Thus, Production of processing potatoes: Many there is a big scope for farmers to start up processing varieties like Kufri Chipsona 1, Kufri seed production venture in Bihar. Therefore, Chipsona 4, Kufri Frysona, Lady Rosetta, FC1, efforts should be made by the state etc. have been procured by many MNCs like government and SAUs to train the progressive McCain, PepsiCo and many other medium and farmers, NGO members, youths, etc for small scale industries for processing of chips, production of quality seeds in Bihar. French fry and other processed products. The Avoiding middlemen through direct export of fresh potatoes and other processed marketing and contract farming: Direct products is increasing at a significant rate marketing and contract farming enables (Table 1). In India, the demand for processing farmers to sell their produce directly to the quality potatoes is expected to rise to 25 consumers/contracting firms without the million t during the year 2050 (CPRI Vision involvement of the middlemen. Cases of direct 2050). Thus, farmers need to be encouraged marketing like Apni Mandis in Punjab and and trained to adopt processing potatoes for Haryana, Rythu Bazaars in Andhra Pradesh and selling at higher price.

Table 1: Potato export from India during 2003-04 to 2017-18 Fresh Potato Frozen Dried Flour, Flakes, Potato Total Year potatoes seeds steam potatoes meal & granules starch (t) (t) potato (t) powder & pellets (t) (t) (t) (t) 2003-04 67740 5201 2849 426 401 17 0 76634 2004-05 65996 6657 3034 227 397 122 0 76433 2005-06 74534 3844 7815 1396 2053 142 0 89784 2006-07 89025 3159 7952 277 2088 610 9 103120 2007-08 78451 3176 7690 101 2486 1600 49 93553 2008-09 184961 11429 15529 6459 1319 292 57 220046

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2009-10 94088 2311 7433 851 1910 242 45 106880 2010-11 185953 12109 24995 1700 2321 1004 83 228166 2011-12 193086 5669 36539 999 5344 1963 301 243900 2012-13 163186 1843 14297 5697 5197 898 61 191180 2013-14 220926 1734 33038 3503 7797 2186 1473 270657 2014-15 373932 834 334 97 19013 1034 1086 396330 2015-16 279650 818 3304 231 3101 1770 1738 290612 2016-17 396341 1147 1026 3263 3293 2324 2733 410126 2017-18 395748 4175 1117 368 8914 2802 320 413444 Compound Annual Growth Rate (%) of potato export during 2003-04 to 2017-18 CAGR (%) 15.0 -10.1 -8.3 4.5 20.6 30.0 53.4 14.1 Source: APEDA Agri Exchange Value addition/processing of potato: With to be high. Farmers need to be made aware and ever increasing urbanization, the demand of trained about good harvesting practices and post processing potato in India as well as from harvest operations. Very less number of farmers other countries is increasing at a rapid rate in Bihar used improved machineries and tools for (Table 1). As per CPRI Vision 2050, the pattern scientific harvesting and post harvest operations of potato. This results in heavy losses (cut, of Indian potato industry suggests that the bruises, etc.) during harvesting and post harvest. demand for processing potatoes is expected Many types of machineries like diggers, graders, to rise rapidly over next 40 years for French seed treatment machines and handling fries (11.6% CAGR) followed by potato machineries/tools have been developed by flakes/powder (7.6%) and potato chips agricultural research institutes and companies, (4.5%). Potatoes can be processed into which significantly reduce harvesting and post various forms such as chips, fries, dehydrated harvest losses of potatoes. Farmers have to be products (dehydrated chips, dice or cubes, made aware about these machines and their skills papads, flakes, granules and flour) potato have to be improved for operation of these starch, cookies, etc. Thus, farmers and machineries. Potato processing centres need to organized sectors like SHGs, NGO members, be established in every major potato producing areas/blocks, so that farmers can sell their etc may be encouraged to take up the produce to the processing centres at higher processing business for improving their prices. income. Similarly, cold storages have to be established Reduce harvest and post-harvest losses in every major potato producing block in the Post harvest losses in potato are to the tune of district in order to reduce post harvest losses 15-18 % of the total production. Harvesting, as well as transportation cost. As on August sorting/grading, transportation, storage at 2017, there are 387 cold storages in Bihar. wholesaler and retailer levels are the main Out of these, 246 cold storages are operations and channels where losses were found functioning whereas 124 are non-functioning

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 and 17 are under construction (DoH Bihar, method is low cost and work efficiently for 2- 2019) Government of Bihar should see the 3 months. Weight loss and rottage are possibility of repairing the non-functioning significantly reduced (<10%) in potatoes storages besides constructing new ones so stored in modified heaps as compared to that farmers could keep them in cold storages those stored at room temperature (Mehta et at times when there is a glut in the market. al., 2007). Potato farmers in Bihar need to be CPRI Shimla has modified the traditional heap made aware and trained about these storage of farmers. This modified heap improved heap storage.

REFERENCES: [1] Collins W.W., (2000). The global initiative on late blight- alliance for the future. In: Khurana S.M.P., Shekhawat G.S., Singh B.P., Pandey S.K., (eds) Potato Global Research and Development, Vol I, Indian Potato Association, CPRI, Shimla, India, pp 513-524. [2] CPRI, (2015). Vision 2050. ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India. [3] CPRI, (2018). CPRI Annual Report 2017-18. ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India. [4] DAC&FW, (2017a). Horticultural Statistics at a Glance 2017. Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi. [5] DAC&FW, (2017b). Annual Report 2016-17. Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi. [6] DES, (2019). District wise crop production statistics. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Ministry Of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Govt. Of India, New Delhi. Retrieved on March 12th, 2019 from https://aps.dac.gov.in/APY/Public_Report1.aspx. [7] DoH Bihar, (2019). List of cold storage: all districts data. 2019. Directorate of Horticulture, Government of Bihar. Retrieved on April 27th, 2019 from http://horticulture.bihar.gov.in/MainSite/ColdStorageList.aspx. [8] Mehta, A., Ezekiel R., Singh, B., Kumar, D. and Pandey S.K., (2007). Modified heap and pit storage for table and processing potatoes, Technical Bulletin No. 82, ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India. [9] NHRDF, (2019). State wise area and production data. National Horticultural Research and Development Foundation, New Delhi. Retrieved on April 25th, 2019, from http://nhrdf.org/en- us/AreaAndProductiionReport.

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Graviola – An elixir of human ailments Article id: 21517 1M. Rajasekar and 2*S. Suganthi 1Research Associate, Precision Farming Development Centre 2Research Scholar, Department of Spices and Plantations Crops Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3.

Graviola (Annona muricata) is a small Annona muricata is a slender, evergreen deciduous tropical evergreen fruit tree, tree, 5-10 m in height and 15 cm in diameter; belonging to the Annonaceae family, and is trunk of the tree is straight with smoothened widely grown and distributed in tropical and bark which is dull grey or grey-brown, rough and subtropical regions around the world. The aerial fissured with age. The root system is extensive parts have wide functions in human health. The and superficial, spreading beyond the diameter fruits have been widely used as food of the crown although shallow rooted; juvenile confectionaries, while several preparations, plants have a taproot that is eventually lost. especially decoctions of the bark, fruits, leaves, Leaves are alternate, 7.6-15.2 cm long, pericarp, seeds, and roots, have been extensively 2.5-7.6 cm wide, leathery, obovate to elliptic, used in traditional medicine to treat multiple glossy on top, glabrous on underside, simple, ailments including cancers by local communities green on top, paler and dull on under side with in tropical Africa and South America. The fine lateral nerves; a strong, pungent odour; reported therapeutic benefits of graviola against petioles short, 3-10 mm long. various human tumors and disease agents in in- Flower terminal or lateral, large; stalks vitro culture and preclinical animal model stout, green, 1.3-1.9 cm long; 3 sepals, minute, systems are typically tested for their ability to inconspicuous, broad, green, 3 mm long, specifically target the disease, while exerting triangular; petals yellowish-green, 6 in 2 whorls little or no effect on normal cell viability. Over of 3, outer petals larger, ovate-acute, valvate, 212 phytochemical ingredients have been cordate with pointed apex (heart shaped), 4-5 x reported in graviola extracts prepared from 3-4 cm, 3 mm thick and fleshy, fitting together at different plant parts. The specific bioactive edges in bud and rough on the outside; 3 inner constituents responsible for the major petals, narrow, smaller, nearly 3.8 cm long, anticancer, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, thinner, rounded, concave with fingernail- antimicrobial, and other health benefits of shaped base and overlapping edges; stamens graviola include different classes of annonaceous numerous, shield shaped, united below; anthers acetogenins (metabolites and products of the parallel and opening longitudinally; carpels polyketide pathway), alkaloids, flavonoids, numerous, overtopping the stamens, each with 1 sterols and others. ovule; pistils white, narrow, 5 mm long, with sticky stigmas. Morphology

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4. It thrives well from sea level up to 300 meters above sea level although it is known to grow up to 1000 m.

Traditional medicinal values Different parts of A. muricata are widely used in traditional medicine of many countries to cure various ailments and diseases. The natives of Malaysia apply the leaf juice of a mixture of A. muricata, A. squamosa L. and Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L. on the head to protect against fainting, and they also use the A. muricata leaves to treat cutaneous (external) and internal Fruit 14-40 x 10-18 cm, weighing up to 7 parasites. The leaves have also been used to kg, ovoid, heart shaped, an oblong syncarp treat cystitis, diabetes, headaches, and insomnia. composed of numerous united pistils, pistils end The decoction of the leaves is applied topically in a fleshy spine or short base of spine 1.5 mm or for its anti-rheumatic and neuralgic effects, and more in length, which grows from the style; to reduce abscesses. The leaves are used in the often asymmetric due to incomplete fertilization bath to cure skin diseases in the Caribbean of the ovules; epidermis often shining, dark islands, Indonesia as well as in the South Pacific green, with short, fleshy spines covering each countries. In Ecuador, Mauritius and New carpel; pulp white, fibrous and juicy; seeds shiny, Guinea, the application of the A. muricata leaves dark brown or black, oblong, up to 2 cm long, 0.7 is local on the pain site. Decoctions of A. cm wide. muricata leaves are used as analgesics in Brazil, The genus name ‘Annona’ is from the Martinique, Mexico and Nicaragua, while in Latin word ‘anon’, meaning ‘yearly produce’, Benin, the Caribbean, Cuba, and Mexico, it is referring to the fruit production habits of the used to reduce colds, flu, and asthma. In Ghana, various species in this genus. A. muricata and some other plants are decocted Growing season and type into a mixture and used in bath for feminine 1. Graviola is a shrub or small tree 3-10 meters in hygiene. height. Besides the wide array of the 2. It is adapted to warm, humid tropical ethnopharmacological values of the leaves of A. climate, and can tolerate both drought muricata, the juicy flesh-fruit of the soursop is a conditions and partial shade. remedy for rheumatism, arthritic pain, fever, 3. This fruit crop grows in any kind of soil but neuralgia, heart, and liver diseases, diarrhea, prefers loose, fairly rich, deep loam and well dysentery, malaria, parasites, skin rashes, and drained soil with pH ranging from 6.1 to 6.5. worms as well as increasing breast milk after childbirth. In India, the roots, bark and leaves of

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A. muricata are claimed to exhibit antiphlogistic cells. An in-vivo and in-vitro study found graviola and anthelmintic activities while the flowers and may be beneficial against some pancreatic fruits of the plant are applied to treat catarrh. cancer cell lines by inhibiting cellular The seeds are used as an anti-anthelmintic metabolism. The leaf extract was able to induce against external and internal worms and apoptosis in colon and lung cancer cells through parasites. A. muricata is employed in tropical the mitochondrial-mediated pathway. In Africa as insecticidal and pesticidal agents addition, the migration and invasion of colon besides being used for the treatment of coughs, cancer cells were significantly inhibited. This pain and skin diseases. The leaves, seeds, unripe plant contains a high concentration of secondary fruits and roots of A. muricata are traditionally class metabolite compounds, such as alkaloids, used as biopesticides, bioinsecticides and topical saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids, coumarins insect repellents and showed significant and other lactones, anthroquinones, tannins, effectiveness among other pests in Latin cardiac glucosides, phenols and phytosterols. America. The aqueous extract of A. muricata is These compounds are called Annonaceous used to control lepidopteran larvae, aphids and acetogenins (AGEs), which were shown to induce thrips, among others. In addition, the leaves, cell cytotoxicity by inhibiting the mitochondrial bark, and roots of A. muricata have been used complex I. for its anti-inflammatory, hypotensive, sedative, hypoglycemic, smooth muscle relaxant, and CONCLUSION antiplasmodic effects. Besides the traditional A. muricata is proven to possess a wide medicinal uses, A. muricata is also used in other spectrum of biological activities. The most fields, for instance, the fruits are widely used in promising role is its anticancer, antiparasitic and the food industries in the making of syrups, insecticidal activity. Because the majority of the beverages, candy, ice creams and shakes. previous studies were focused on the biological activities of the plant extract, further Against cancer investigations on the biochemical and There is some evidence graviola may physiological functions of active compounds and battle some types of cancer. According to 2016 the detailed mechanisms underlying these in vivo and in vitro research, graviola extract was activities are completely pivotal for the toxic against some breast cancer cell lines. It also development of pharmaceutical and agricultural increased T cells. T cells are lymphocytes in the products. body that kill cancer cells and other damaged

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Type of Bio-fertilizer and their advantages Article id: 21518 Krishna Kumar Singh and S.K. Mehta Department of Horticulture, School of Agriculture Sciences, Career Point University, Kota, Rajasthan, India

INTRODUCTION  Reducing ground water and environment Bio-fertilizer or microbial fertilizer or more pollution. appropriately ‘microbial inoculants’ are preparations containing live or latent cells of Types of bio-fertilizers: efficient strain of N fixing micro-organism 1. Rhizobia: used for seed or soil application with the  It is a group of bacteria which can fixes the objective of increasing the numbers of such atmospheric N2 in association with the roots micro-organisms in soil or rhizosphere and of leguminous plants. consequently improve the extent of  Normally Rhizobia can fix annually 40-120 kg microbiologically fixed N for plant growth. of nitrogen/acre according to the crop, Use of cost effective and eco-friendly bio- rhizobium species and condition of fertilizers with suitable integration of organic environment. manures will restores the soil health and  It helps to maintain soil productivity, plant keeps the soil productive and sustainable. nutrition and growth and cause no opposite Bio-fertilizer are inputs containing micro- effect on soil or to the environment. organism which are capable of mobilizing  Leguminous crop requires a specific nutritive elements from non-usable from rhizobium species according to crops. through biological processes. Bio-feritilizer convert the unavailable form of nutrients into 2. Azotobacter: forms of easily accessible to the plants. They  Azotobacter is a group of nitrogen-fixing improve physical and chemical properties of bacteria unlike to rhizobia, they don’t have soil and sustain soil fertility by providing root nodules or no associate with leguminous aeration, biomass and nutrients. The do not crops. make atmospheric N available but also  They are free-living nitrogen fixers organisms solubilize and mobilize soil fixed P and which can be taken for all types of land crops improve P uptake in plants. but they can’t survive in more water conditions. Benefits of bio-fertilizer:  In poor fertile soils, needs to applied  Bridging fertilizer demand and supply gaps. azotobacter regularly.  Maintaining soil fertility and biological  In addition to nitrogen fixation, azotobacter quality. also provides beneficial growth substances  Sustaining crop productivity.

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and antibiotics which help to reduce root  Azolla multiply faster and also used as control diseases. of weeds in (flooded) paddy fields.  Sometimes, Azolla is used as a source of 3. Blue-green algae: green manure.  Blue-green algae or cyanobacteria are free-  Azolla contains 90-92 % water and 50-60 % living photosynthetic microbial algae which protein. are found in wet conditions.  Azolla can yield about 3000 quintals/acre.  Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are named  It is also used as a quality feed for castles, for their colour but they may also be purple, goat, rabbit,sheep, pig and poultry. brown or red.  Azolla can increases 15-20 % milk production.  They are easily prepared for rice cultivation when the field is filled with water. They do 6. Phosphate (PO4)-Solubilizing not survive in acidic soils like Anabena. Microorganisms:  These are the groups of bacteria and fungi, 4. Azospirillum: which are capable in breakdownof insoluble  Azospirillum species also do not form root phosphates into soluble form so that it nodules or have no associate with leguminous becomes available for crop plants. crop plants.  It is important to breakdown insoluble form  They are not free-living and live inside the of phosphate because 2/3 of total phosphate plant roots where theyperform the fix present in the soil is in inorganic form. nitrogen process. They can be used in more  These micro-organisms make a sufficient level water conditions. of important compounds in the soil.  These microorganisms also produce useful components for plant growth. 7. Mycorrhiza:  Mycorrhiza is the species of fungi which live 5. Azolla: in a symbiotic form with the roots of some  Azolla, another nitrogen fixing organism, angiosperm plants. The most important in which is a free-floating water fern have close agriculture is VAM fungi (vesicular-arbuscular association with many species of mycorrhiza). cyanobacteria.  Plants associated with VAM fungi are capable  It is used as a renewable bio-fertilizer and can for taking high amount of nutrients and water be mass produced on the paddy fields. from the soil.  Besides the source of nitrogen, it is also a  VAM provides the water and nutrients to the source of various micro and macro-nutrients. plants from vertical distances the region which is not reachable to plant roots.

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Table 1: Nitrogenous Bio-fertilizer

Sl. Name of Function/Contributio Limitation Beneficiaries No. fertilizer n (crops)

1. Rhizobium Fixes 50 – 100 kg Fixation only with legumes. Pulse legumes, (symbiotic) N/ha. Increase yield Visible effect not oilseed legumes, from 10 – 30 % reflected in traditional area. fodder legumes, Leaves residual Need optimum P & Mo. forest legumes. nitrogen. Demand bright sunlight. Great demand for phosphorous. 2. Azotobacter Fixation of 20 – 25 kg Demands high organic Wheat, maize, (non–symbiotic) N/ha. matter. cotton, sorghum, 10 – 15 % increase in sugarcane, pear, yield. millet, vegetables Production of growth and several other promoting crops. substances. 3. Azospirillum(ass Fixation of 20 – 25 kg Demands high organic Wheat, maize, ociative) N / ha. matter cotton, sorghum, 10 – 15 % increase in sugarcane, pear, yield. millet, vegetables Production of growth and several other promoting crops. substances 4. Blue Green Fixation of 20 – 30 kg Effective only in submerged Flooded rice. Algae(phototrop N/ha.10–15% rice. Demand bright ic) increase in yield. sunlight. Production of growth promoting substances. 5. Azolla(symbiotic Fixation of 30 – 100 Survival difficult at high Only for flooded ) kg N / ha. temperature. rice. Yield increase 10 - 25 Great demand for % phosphorous.

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Table 2: Phosphoric Bio-fertilizer

1 Phosphate solubilizing Solubilizes insoluble Bacteria can be All types of crops. micro-organism phosphates. use in neutral to (bacteria / fungi). Yield increase alkaline soils and 10 - 20%. fungi can function in acidic soil.

2. VAM fungi Enhance uptake of P, Can be maintained Forest trees. Zn, S, Fe, Cu and only on growing water. plants. Promotes uniform crop, increase growth and yield.

CONCLUSION:

Biofertilizer is a technological innovation that has the possible to increase crop yield, reduce agricultural and environmental sustainability and efforts production cost and improve soil situation. A Bio-fertilizer is a substance, which contains living microorganisms, when applied to seed, plant surfaces or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the host plant.

REFERENCES:

[1]. K.K. Singh, S.P. Singh and A. Uniyal. (2018). Organic Farming. in Sethi V.K. and Bhrati P.K. (Eds.). Organic farming and biofertilizers. pp. 11-20. Discovery publication house delhi, india.

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Brown manuring: Importance and advantages Article id: 21519 Prasanna S. Pyati1, Sourabh Kumar1 and Manjunath S. K2. 1 Ph.D. Scholar, Agronomy division 2 Master of Science in Agriculture, Agronomy division ICAR- National Dairy Research Institute (Deemed University), Karnal-132001, Haryana State

At the present agriculture scenario, the modern the problems above mentioned will be agriculture is redefining the practices followed in minimized. farming. More attention is given towards the Brown manuring is a technique of resource conservation practices with low cost of growing green manure crops along with main cultivation. This is why the conservation crop as an intercrop or mixed crop and sprayed agriculture concept is attracting the attention of with a post emergent herbicide to desiccate the agriculture researchers. There are several green manure crop instead of cultivating like in concepts among the resource conservation green manuring. It is called brown manuring practices such as green manuring, organic because, after the spray of post emergent manuring, integrated farming system, integrated herbicide the green manure crop turns into nutrient and weed management practices. brown colour due to loss of chlorophyll after Among these methods, brown mulching concept spray. After the spraying of post emergent came recently into the existence which is most herbicide, the green manuring crop turns into suitable and feasible method to improve soil brown and then it is not incorporated into the properties especially in rice cultivation. Green soil and left as it is so that the residues of the manuring is traditional practice that was dried crop decompose well besides acting as followed by the rice growing farmers in which weed suppressor. Dhaincha, Sesbania, they used to grow green manure crop and Sunnhemp etc. crops are used for brown incorporate into the soil which helped to manuring in rice crop. It can also be used in wide improve the soil properties. But, the farmers spaced cereal crops such as sugarcane, maize. usually unable to the full use of green manuring The herbicide generally used is post emergent since cost of incorporating, puddling increases, herbicide 2, 4-D ethyl ester. Besides acting as there will not be enough time for the green post emergent spay for green manuring crop, manure crop for its full growth in between the the herbicide helps in controlling broad leaf rice- rice cropping system. Therefore, brown weeds, adds dry matter to the soil. manuring can place of green manuring in which How to use? difference. In green manuring we incorporate The method used in brown manuring the green manure crop into the soil at flower is very similar to green manuring with slight initiation stage which needs cultivation where

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 as in brown manuring, we will not broad leaf weeds in the crop field. In rice incorporate the green manure crop instead field, the green manure crop like Sesbania sp. we spray a post emergent herbicide leave as is broadcasted @ 25 kg per ha seed rate three it is. to five days after sowing of rice, it is allowed According to this method, the green to grow for 30 to 35 days and then sprayed manure crops are grown along with main with 2,4-D ethyl ester. Brown manuring in crop and killed using post emergent herbicide rice have the potential to promote directed and left as it is so that it adds organic matter seeded rice which also helps in reducing to the soil and suppress weeds especially water consumption in rice cultivation.

Nutrient content and C: N ratio of prominent green manure crops Green manure crop Scientific name N % P % K % C: N ratio

Sesbania Sesbania speciosa 3.97 0.37 4.80 21:1

Sunhemp Crotolaria juncia 1.90 0.34 3.60 44:1

Dhaincha Sesbania aculeata 2.71 0.53 2.21 40:1

Source: Sankaranarayan K. 2003

Advantages of brown manuring  Adds 10-15 kg nitrogen per hectare into the soil.  Improves physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.  Improves the beneficial microbial population in soil horizon.  Act as mulch on the surface of soil and suppress weed population.  It can be used in crusted soil which breaks soil crust and helps crop seeds for better germination and emergence.  Adds organic matter which improves organic matter and carbon content in soil.  Improved microbial population helps in faster decomposition of residues.  Saves the cost of incorporating and puddling in rice field.  Takes less time compared to green manure crops.  Promote organic farming by reducing inorganic fertilizer consumption.  Most suitable in direct seeded rice (DSR) and aerobic rice.

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Rice + Sesbania before spraying

Rice + Sesbania sprayed with bispyribac @ 25 g per ha Source: Illiger et al. 2017. REFERENCES: [1]. Sankaranarayanan K. 2003. Nutrient potential of organic sources for soil fertility management in organic cotton production. [2]. M. D. Iliger, M.D., Reshma S., Shilpa, V., Chogatapur and Parameshwarareddy, R. 2017. Effect of Brown Manuring on Soil Properties, Weed Density, Grain Yield and Economics of Different Crops. Advances in Research, 12(6): 1-11, 2017.

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Use of Electricity in Agriculture Article id: 21520 Brahmanand Bairwa and Krishan Kumar Singh School of Agricultural Sciences, Career Point University, Kota (Rajasthan), India

INTRODUCTION: such that the farming becomes easy for Agriculture has always been the backbone of the farmers. India’s economy. It meets the vital requirements of food and nutrition security of Equipment required for standby electric power the people. This sector supports the country’s service include development initiative and more than 60% of (1) An alternator to produce the alternating the population derives its subsistence from it. current Agricultural machinery is machinery used (2) An engine to power the alternator and in farming or other agriculture. The basic (3) A transfer switch. technology of agricultural machines has changed little in the last century. Though In adding to the essential equipment, a power modern harvesters and planters may do a failure alarm may be desirable where an better job or be slightly tweaked from their outage cannot be tolerated for more than a predecessors, the US$250,000 combine of short time. Even with an automatic start today still cuts, threshes, and separates grain in system, alarms and emergency ventilation the same way it has always been done. systems should be considered for such However, technology is changing the way that applications as controlled environment humans operate the machines, livestock buildings. An electrical problem such as computer monitoring systems, solar based as a tripped main breaker at the service agriculture robot, GPS locators, and self-steer entrance of a building may be undetected by programs allow the most advanced tractors the automatic power sensor. Even if it were, and implements to be more precise and less the situation would not be helped by turning wasteful in the use of fuel, seed, or fertilizer. In the standby system on. the foreseeable future, there may be mass production of driverless tractors, which use Combining Solar Panels with Agriculture GPS maps and electronic sensors. The Makes Land More Productive:- new technology in agriculture has taken a Solar panels are wonderful things, but they do tremendous growth since the last decades and take up a lot of space, especially for larger, many scientific and technological changes are utility-scale systems. In some densely being done by some of the agricultural populated countries like China and India, experts particularly in the agricultural sector. where loss of farmland can lead to hungry New inventions are done each and every year people, floating solar farms are being built to take advantage of the surface area of lakes and

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 rivers. Researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems have conducted an experiment near Lake Constance — which borders Germany, Lichtenstein, and Switzerland — regarding another solution.

Figure.2. Solar Panel with Agriculture Land

Solar Powered Agricultural Tools in India:- Solar energy is an alternative renewable energy that is increasingly becoming Figure.1. Combining Solar Panel with mainstream due to cost feasibility and higher Agriculture Land efficiency. Apart from producing power for offices and households, solar energy can be Panels are mounted in heightsufficient to allow used to power dryers, cookers, solar the crops planted below to receive almost as stills, lighting, refrigeration and even air much sunshine as they would if the panels conditioning. There is increasing usage of solar were not there and to permit farm machinery energy for agricultural purposes, which to operate beneath them. After a year of trials, consumes considerable amount of power in the research showed the dual use system India.Solar power technology would be a increased the total productivity of the land by reasonable choice for agricultural tools. Solar 60%. Photovoltaic cells (SPV) directly convert the “From the perspective of agricultural science, light energy from the sun into electricity. agrophotovoltaics is a promising solution for Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use an increasing both the land use efficiency and the indirect method for the conversion process. share of renewable energy provided by the Other than SPVs and CSPs, there are other new agricultural sector”. techniques such as dye-sensitized solar cells, luminescent solar concentrators, bio-hybrid solar cells, photon enhanced thermionic emission systems, etc. All these tools can be produced in small volumes; they are portable which makes it easier to use them in

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 agriculture.Here is a list of agricultural tools that are currently being operated in India using solar energy: -

Electrical Engineer Helps the Small Farmers with Technology:- 1. Concept of Electric Planter The concept of introducing the electric planter where the plant can switch seeds to the paddy fields automatically. The farmers need not Figure.4. Solar Farming have to manually deliver the seeds which are a time wasting job. Hence this plant was Solar farming uses power generated from solar introduced to help the farmers a great deal and energy to operate agricultural or farming tools. the work can be done in many fields in a short It is simple, cost effective, reliable and long amount of time. Even the concept of multi lasting. Most common agricultural tools such hybrid planter was introduced. This device was as tractors, watering systems, rotator, roller, even more advanced and it let us know sprayers, broadcast seeder etc. work on what kind of seed is planted which are all battery power and fuel oil. In solar farming, the done automatically which is really a battery power is replaced with solar power, so great improvement in the agricultural. that the usage of electricity from grid-power and non-renewable sources can be reduced.

3. Solar Water Pumping System

Figure.3. Electric Planter

2. Solar Farming

Figure.5. Solar Water Pumping System

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A solar photovoltaic (SPV) water pumping Solar dehydrators or dryers are used in farms system consists of solar panels, an on-off to dry crops before sending them to the switch, a control & tracking mechanism, and a market. These dryers commonly use passive motor pump. This system essentially uses SPV solar panels for generating energy. A large- cells for converting solar energy into electric scale solar dryer usually consists of a shed, current. A SPV cell array capacity can range drying racks and a solar collector (panels). The around 200 watts to 5KWp (kilowatt-peak) crops are dried when hot air is circulated based on the needs of different water sources through the shed by natural convection or such as bore-wells, open wells, reservoirs, using a fan.Domestic and compact solar dryers streams, etc.Parameters such as the daily can handle farm produce like vegetables, fruits, water requirement, water source and spices, etc. Solar cabinet dryers can be used for geographic location must be kept in mind drying perishable, semi-perishable and wet before selecting a suitable solar pump. processed food material (such as potato chips, Although its operation is similar to other pump leafy vegetables) without contamination. systems, the duration and quantity of pumping Forced circulation solar dryers use an array of water might vary, depending on the solar solar collectors connected together to radiation intensity, location, season, etc. A maximize airflow. This type of dryers have system with 1,000Wp capacity can irrigate components such as solar air heaters, an about two acres of land, pumping electric blower, connecting ducts, a drying approximately 40,000 liters of water per day. A chamber and control systems for air solar pump system with 5HP capacity costs temperature and flow rate. around INR439,000. Some states in India offer 5. Solar Greenhouse subsidies of up to 80% to farmers for encouraging the use of solar energy. 4. Solar Dryer

Figure.7. Solar Greenhouse Solar Greenhouses make optimum use of solar energy for providing heating and insulation. Figure.6. Solar Dryer Specialized solar greenhouses can collect and store energy for night-time use or during

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cloudy weather. SPV cells can be used to fraction of a second. The batteries can be collect solar energy for additional insulation in recharged using readymade solar fence colder climates. Another solution is to use chargers. Battery operated solar fences may water tanks heated by solar power for cost from INR45,000-50,000 per acre. circulating heat, which maintains the temperature at a level suitable to grow 7. Solar Mowers & Tractors vegetables throughout the year, enabling Solar electric mowers are available with vegetable production during off-seasons. Such cordless and rechargeable battery options. greenhouses using passive solar technology These lawn mowers do not emit toxic fumes have been built for costs starting at INR30,000 and do not require frequent refueling to run. in Ladakh. Cooling pumps can be powered by Only a few hours of recharging from a solar- SPV cells placed either on top or along the powered battery charger are required. It is also sides of the greenhouse. Greenhouses also possible to convert an existing fuel or electric require proper ventilation with exhaust lawn mower into a solar mower. mechanisms to reduce humidity and get fresh air inside. Solar energy can be used for such ventilation systems. 6. Solar Electric Fence

Figure.9. Solar Mowers & Tractors Similarly, tractors and planting machines are available with solar panels on top to power them. Solar-powered tractors can easily handle Figure.8. Solar Electric Fence non-energy intensive operations like planting and harvesting. Their operating costs would be Solar powered electric fences are highly a fraction of those of conventional tractors. effective and dependable for large fields and However, the technology is relatively new in cattle farms. These fences typically consist of a India and used in a few places along with SPV unit as a source of power, an energizer conventional tractors. May be in a decade, we that produces high voltage impulses (8kv) will have fully solar-powered agricultural emitted in intervals of 0.9 to 1.2 seconds, along machineries. Electronic sensors used to with a 12V battery. The impulse carries 10 mA determine soil moisture, precipitation, and of current and delivers a shock lasting for a

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location-specific weather data can also be environmentally friendly, but also reliable and made to work with solar energy. They can also cost effective. Maintenance cost is low, since be programmed to be remotely operated. there will be fewer moving parts and lesser impact of oil corrosion. The Indian government CONCLUSION:- and NABARD are also helping farmers by The technologies include that providing subsidies and loans to acquire solar computer monitoring systems, solar based powered agricultural tools. Agricultural experts agriculture robot, GPS locators, Electric are being encouraged to guide farmers in Planter, Solar dryer, Solar mowers & Tractors, operating them. The time has come to switch Solar Greenhouse, Solar Electric fence, Solar to solar power on Indian farms! water pumping etc.So solar farming is not only

REFERENCES [1]. Solar Powered Agricultural Tools in India, http://www.ecoideaz.com/showcase/solar-powered-agricultural- tools-in-india [2]. Sobotzik J.,(2010), Electric Drives - Potentials on Tractors and Implements, Munich, Germany [3]. Nelson Richard, (2015),The Role of Farm Power in Agriculture, Seminar Presentation at the College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology-JAU

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Farmer Producers Organisation: An effective way for the upliftment of farmers at grassroot level Article id: 21521 Smriti Singh Department of Agricultural Communication Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agricuture & Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand.

Group members are able to leverage further with every successive generation. The collective strength and bargaining power to big challenge under these conditions would access inputs, services and appropriate be to integrate these small holders with the technologies which helps in reducing the agricultural markets so that benefits from transaction costs. Being smallholders, these transforming agriculture, trade environment farmers suffer from some grave problems and growing economy may be optimized and such as absence of economies of scale, access help in realizing higher income of small and to information and their inability to marginal farmers and lead to more inclusive participate in the price discovery mechanism. growth. The concern now is how to aggregate The participation of farmers is observed to be these smallholders and bring in economies of restricted by limitations like poor vertical and scale. It is equally important to link these horizontal linkages and limited access to increasing smallholders to the markets (input market, training and to finance. Poor and output). Various institutional information flow along the chain, has also interventions, formal or informal, have tried been identified as a vital constraint. The to link smallholders to the input and/or problem of access to market is even more output markets. These interventions were pronounced for small and marginal farmers. started either by government, or by private The main challenge today is to optimize corporate, civil society organizations. Some benefits through effective and efficient interventions are agricultural cooperatives, means of aggregation models. An ideal model self-help groups, commodity interest groups, of aggregation assumes significance mainly contract farming, direct marketing, farmer due to transformation of Indian agriculture producer organizations, producer companies, towards high-value commodities which is a etc. result of agri-food market caused by liberalization, globalization, improved What is Farmer Producer Organisation? purchasing power, demand for safe and A producer company is basically a corporate quality food, expansion for niche market, etc. body registered as a Producer Company It has become even more pertinent due to under Companies Act, 1956 (as amended in land fragmentation. The size of operational 2002). The same provisions have been holdings in India is continuously declining

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 retained for FPC after the amendment of Small Farmers’ Agribusiness Companies Act in 2013. Its main activities Consortium (SFAC) is designated agency of consists of production, harvesting, Department of Agriculture and Cooperation processing, procurement, grading, pooling, (DAC) to act as a single-window for technical handling, marketing, selling, export of support, training needs, research and primary produce of the members or import of knowledge management and to create goods or services for their benefit. It also linkages to investments, technology and includes, promoting mutual assistance, markets. welfare measures, financial services, insurance of producers or their primary Why we need FPOs? produce. A Producer Organisation (PO) is a Improper functioning of extension system legal entity formed by primary producers, viz. cannot be neglected in a country where 82% farmers, milk producers, fishermen, weavers, of farmers are small and marginal. The public rural artisans, craftsmen, etc. The main aim of extension system is unable to reach the small a PO is to ensure better income for the and marginal farmers due its limitation like producers through an organisation of their overburdened manpower, poor infrastructure own. A PO can be an SHG, farmers’ and inadequate resources. In fact today the association, federation, farmers’ union, outreach of extension system to individual Farmer Interest Groups (FIGs), Community farmer is very expensive. Even the private Interest Groups (CIGs), a producer company, extension system cannot deal with lakhs of a cooperative society or any other legal form individual farmers. In such a situation FPOs which provides for sharing of profits/benefits are a good answer for the problems faced by among the members. The instrument of the extension system. FPOs become a good Farmer Producer Company (FPC), registered platform of knowledge management picking under Companies Act, is emerging as the the relevant inputs either from external most effective means of Farmer Producer source or from members’ own experience. Organization (FPO) to cater to the needs of farmers at the grass root level.

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Advantages of FPOs/ FPCs: FPCs offer a wide range of benefits compared collectively leverage their production and to other formats of aggregation of the marketing strength (DAC, 2013). Thus, it can farmers. FPC members are able to leverage be inferred that there is a huge scope for collective strength and bargaining power to increasing the number of FPOs. access financial and non-financial inputs and services and appropriate technologies leading Role of Extension personnel: to reduction in transaction costs. Members As FPOs work in business mode, the roles of can also collectively tap high value markets the extension personnel start from the and enter into partnerships with private formation of producer organisations to entities on equitable terms. Many a time, convert them into profitable and sustainable poor productivity lack of modernization is business organisations (Panda and Singh, attributed to the holding size of the farmers. 2016). Also the big challenge is how farmers FPO is a way to overcome these limitations. can safeguard their interest and how The acquired knowledge through FPOs can agricultural extensionists may contribute in help farmers in value addition, price group formation and sustainability of group discovery, and connecting to the markets or with FPOs.Some identified roles of extension direct marketing. Empowering farmers for personnel are as followed: better negotiations while purchasing inputs is the main advantage of FPOs. FPOs are a  There is lack of awareness about FPOs solution for extension system to reach large amongst producers, corporate sector, number of farmers with limited time and input suppliers, commercial banks, and effort. It creates sustainable linkages among district-level and agriculture department FPOs and inputs suppliers, technology officials. Thus, Extension agents can providers, extension and research agencies sensitize the stakeholders about its and marketing and processing players, both in importance. the public and private sectors (FPO Policy and  There is significant need for training and Process Guidelines, 2013, DAC, 2013). capacity building of farmers, shareholders, Collectivisation of producers, especially small board of directors, FPO staff and and marginal farmers, into producer handholding institutions so trainings and organisations has emerged as one of the most start up campaigns can be organized for effective pathways to address the many ouscaling and upscaling FPOs. challenges of agriculture. Most importantly, it  Lack of access to information and has improved access to investments, knowledge about extension services that technology and inputs and markets, also DAC can lead to productivity enhancement at has identified farmer as the most appropriate farmer’s field level.ICT interventions can institutional form around which to mobilize farmers and build their capacity to

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be incorporated so that maximum farmers  There is a need for aggregation of farmers can be benefitted from this. in order to benefit from economies of  Lack of an effective coordination and scale. Extension agents can motivate consultative mechanism at the regional opportunities for producers to get and national level to network FPOs and involved in value all supply chain activities leverage their collective voice and such as input supply, credit, processing, bargaining power. So public private marketing and distribution. partnership can be promoted to achieve its excellency throughout the nation.

Successful Farmer Producer Companies: 1. Jagannath Crop Producers Company Ltd., The Primary Agricultural Cooperative Society Odisha, Chetna Organic Agriculture Produce (PACS) is one of the oldest forms of producer Company (COAPCL), and Chetna Organic organisations in India. In addition to the Farmers Association (COFA), Telangana, cooperatives, there have been many other 2. Pashusamvardhan Producers Company forms of producer organisations catering to Ltd., Maharashtra, specific or multiple functions such as self-help 3. Dhari Krushak Vikash Producer Company groups (SHGs), Common Interest Groups Limited, Gujarat, (CIGs), Joint Liability Groups (JLGs), Farmers 4. Rangsutra in Kerala, Club, farmer producer organisations, and 5. Vegetable Growers Association (VGAI), Producer Companies.Some FPOs are doing Narayangaon Pune excellent work across India. They are: 6. Sahyadri Farmer Producer Company, Nasik 7. PAAYAS Milk Producer Company, Jaipur

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8. Savithribai Phule Goat Farming Producer farmers to evolve in form of a productive Company group, only joining a company merely by 9. Maahi Milk Producer Company, Gujarat giving share will not solve the purpose. And it 10. Nachalur Farmer Producer Company, requires good quality of leadership and Tamil Nadu vision, so the leaders / board of directors should be chosen based on these skills and should be given training to manage a CONCLUSION: company/ organisation. Producers’ The producer companies are seen as a new organizations help in reducing the transaction ray of hope for collectivizing farmers and costs and provide a forum for members to upliftment of socio-economic condition of share information, coordinate activities and small and marginal farmers. Due to so many make collective decisions. Undoubtedly, FPOs compliances in its registration and (cooperatives/ SHGs/FIGs/Producer establishment, there are less chances of Companies) have the potential to bring about creeping in of politics and corruption in its vertical integration in the traditional working but leadership and sustainability are fragmented supply chains with need-based still hurdles. The need is to aggregate the long term business plans.

REFERENCES: [1]. http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/farm_association/farm_asso_organi.html [2]. http://www.sourcetrace.com/the-power-of-the-collective-farmer-producer-organizations/ [3]. http://kvk.pravara.com/web/agri%20asso/page/network%20button/farmers_producers_organizatio n.htm [4]. https://web.iima.ac.in/assets/snippets/workingpaperpdf/10539809132015-01-05.pdf [5]. Paty, B.K., Gummagolmath, K.C. (2018). Farmers Producer Companies: Issues and Challenges. Extension Digest.1 (3). National Institute of Agricultural Extension Mnagaement (MANAGE), Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.

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Cultivation Practices and economical importance of curry leaf Article id: 21522 Virkar A. M. and Bahiram, V. K. Ph.D., Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Post Graduate Institute, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722 Maharashtra.

Botanical name : Murraya koenigii Family : Rutaceae Chromosome no. : 2n = 18 Origin. : South India

Economical Importance:  It plays important role in condiments.  It staple in Indian dishes.  It contains carbohydrate, calcium, vit. A, B, C, E.  It help your heart function better.  It helps to fight infections.  Leaf adds special flavours to every dish.  Enliven your hair and skin with vitality.  It is the rich source of iron and folic acid.  It helps to maintain blood sugar level.

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Climate: It requires warm and humid climate . Optimum temp. for this crop is 15℃ .Below the 13℃ temp. growth of shoot will be adversely affected . It does not requires a specific climate and can come up in dry climate too. In places min. temp. goes below 13℃ , the growth of shoot will be slightly affected.

Soil and its preparation: Red sandy loam soil with good drianage are ideal for better leaf yield . It grow in any type of soil . The filed is ploughed 3to4 times to get a fine tilth. Before last ploughing well decomposed FYM is applied @20 t / ha. Pit size of 30×30×30 cm is dug 1to2 months . Before planting at a spacing of 1.2 to 1.5 m .

Seed rate and Sowing time:  Required seed rate for this crop is 5 to 7 kg/ha.  Crop sown through the year ,mainly sown in June to Jully.

Layout and spacing: Various type of planting systems are use . 1.2 to 1.5 m spacing is maintain while sowing this crop .

Varieties:  DWD 1 –It contains 5.22 % of oil.  DWD 2 – It contains 4.09 % of oil.

Manures and Fertilizers: After each harvest 20kg of FYM /plant is applied and mix with soil.

Intercultural Operations: Periodical hoeing and in the first year intercepted like pulses can be grown .After attaining 1m height, the terminal bud is cut off to encourage basal branching .In total 5 to 6 branches are maintained per bush . 10 to 12 months after planting the first harvest start.

Irrigation: Immediately after planting the pits are irrigated. On the 3rd day the 2nd irrigation is given and then the irrigation is given once in a week.

Harvesting and Yield: At the end is 1st year: 250 to 400 kg of leaves/ ha can be harvested . In 2nd year : Once in 4 months every time 1800 kg /ha which would workout to 5400

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Kg / ha / year . In 3rd year : Yield 5400 kg / ha . In 4th year : 2500 kg/ha once in 3 months which would workout to 10000kg /ha / year . 5th year onwards. : 5000kg /ha once in 3 months which would workout to 20000kg /ha/year.

Plant Protection: Pests Citrus butterfly Hand picking and destruction of the larvae and spray Malathian @1 ml/ lit. Psyllidbug and scale Psyllid bug and scale can be controlled by spraying dimethoate@1ml/lit . Diseases: Leaf spot Leaf spot disease can be controlled by spraying carbendazim @1gm / lit of water . Spraying sulphur compounds should be avoid .

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Applications of genome sequencing in agriculture Anita Burdak1 and Jeet Ram Choudhary2 Article id: 21523 1Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, SKN Collage of Agriculture (SKN Agriculture University) Jobner, Distt- Jaipur (Raj.) 303329 India 2Department of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Delhi-110012 India

INTRODUCTION Genome Sequencing in Plants To cope with the increasing demand for food and other plant-based products, improved Arabidopsis thaliana crop varieties have to be developed. To breed The first plant to be sequenced was Arabidopsis improved varieties, a better understanding of thaliana, a wild member of the mustard family. crop genetics is necessary. With the advent of Known as the lab rat of the plant world, next-generation DNA sequencing technologies, Arabidopsis is considered the species for many important crop genomes have been investigating plant genetics. This “model” plant is sequenced. Primary importance has been given popular among researchers because it’s easily to food crops, including cereals, tuber crops, grown in the lab, completes its entire life cycle in vegetables, and fruits. Application of the about six weeks, and has a small genome of 125 knowledge obtained from the genomes, megabase pairs (Mb), or 125 million base pairs (a transcriptomes, expression studies, and megabase is 1 million base pairs) containing epigenetic studies would enable the about 10% repetitive DNA. The genome of development of improved varieties and may lead Arabidopsis was published in the journal Nature to a second green revolution. in the year 2000.

DNA sequencing has played vital role in The most important of these is that it has a very the field of agriculture. The mapping and small nuclear (sn) genome, one of the smallest sequencing whole genome of microorganisms among the angiosperms. The genome contains has allowed the agriculturists to make them 25,498 genes encoding proteins from 11,000 useful for crops and food plants. For example, families, similar to the functional diversity specific genes of bacteria have been used in of Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans— the some food plants to increase their resistant other sequenced multicellular eukaryotes. against insect and pest and as a result the Rice (Oryza sativa L.) productivity and nutritional value of plants also Rice was the first sequenced crop genome, increases. These plants can also fulfill the need paving the way for the sequencing of additional of food in poor countries. Similarly, it has been and more complicated crop genomes. Rice is a useful in production of livestock with improved model species for the cereals and a good quality of meat and milk. candidate for DNA sequencing. It has a genome size of 400-430 million base pairs (Mb), the

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 smallest of the major cereals but three times and sorghum is estimated to have lived only 12 that of Arabidopsis thaliana. Rice also has a well- million years ago. mapped genome: the rice molecular map, which has over 6000 markers, has already been useful The sorghum genome was published in 2009. in helping to align physical chromosome maps. In The current version in CoGe (v1.4) contains ~700 the August 2005 International Rice Genome megabases of sequence and 34,496 protein Sequencing Project (IRGSP) reported a highly coding genes spread over ten chromosomes. accurate and "finished" map-based DNA Foxtail Millet sequence of the entire rice genome. Foxtail Millet (Setaria italica) is a C4 grass. It was Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) domesticated in China and is a more distant Among agricultural crops, common bread or relative to maize and sorghum.The current hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L., 2n = 6x = version of the Setaria genome loaded into CoGe 42, AABBDD) has the largest genome at 16,000 (v2.1) includes 406 megabases of sequence and Mb, ∼8-fold larger than that of maize and 40- 35,471 annotated genes. fold larger than that of rice (ARUMUGANATHAN and Two versions of the foxtail millet genome were EARLE 1991). About 90% of the wheat genome generated independently by the Beijing consists of repeated sequences and 70% of Genomics Institute and the Joint Genomes known TEs. Institute and published in the same issue of Nature Biotechnology: Barley Cotton Barley (Hordeum vulgare) was currently the single largest plant genome sequenced to date The first (potentially of several) cotton species to (weighing in at a haploid genome size of 5.1 have its genome sequenced is Gossypium gigabases, more than twice the size of the next raimonddi. G. raimonddi contributes the "D" biggest sequenced genome maize). Barley is the genome to the allotetraploid cotton species (A + fourth most widely grown grain in the world D genomes) G. hirsutum which provides the behind the big three: rice, maize, and wheat. The majority of worldwide cotton production. The barley genome was assembled using a mixture of current genome assembly represents ~750 BAC-sequencing, anchoring to a high density megabases of sequence and 98% of it is genetic map, and syntenic path assembly. incorporated into 13 pseudomolecules and another 22 large unplaced scaffolds (> 50 kb). Sorghum Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) is an important grain Chickpea species. It does not share the recent whole The chickpea genome is derived from the genome duplication seen in maize, which makes accession CDC Frontier which is member of it an excellent outgroup from studies of that the kabuli subtype. Based on kmer abundance event in maize as the common ancestor of maize the authors estimate the total genome size to be

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~740 megabases in size. Using a whole lot of genome size of 833 megabases, and includes an Illumina data (>100-fold coverage of the genome estimated 48,680 genes. While the pidgeon pea after quality trimming) the authors were able to genome is made up of 11 chromosomes, the assemble 545 megabases into contigs. Using current assembly consists of ~7,000 super genetic maps and BAC end sequences the scaffolds. authors were able to place 345 megabases on Castor Bean sequence onto eight pseudomolecules. The published castor bean genome is based on a Soybean 4.6x coverage of the genome using solexa The soybean genome was published in early sequencing. The current release consists of 2010 and contained 950 megabases of sequence 31,237 gene models spread across 25,800 as well as a predicted 46,430 protein coding scaffolds and the entire genome is estimated to genes distributed over twenty chromosomes. be ~320 megabases in size and contains 10 The ancestors of soybean went through two chromosomes. whole genome duplications since the ancient Tomato [Solanum lycopersicum]: The Tomato hexaploidy as the base of the eudicot lineage Genomics Consortium, an international with the older estimated to have occured 59 collabration report that tomatoes possess some million years ago and the more recent estimated 35,000 genes arranged on 12 chromosomes. The to have occured 13 million years ago. sequences of these genes and their arrangement Pigeon Pea on the chromosomes are described in the Nature The pigeon pea genome was published in Nature article, "The tomato genome sequence provides Biotechnology in November 2011. The genome insights into fleshy fruit evolution," which is was sequenced primarily with Illumina short information that allows researchers to move at a reads, although assembly was assisted by a quicker pace and plant breeders to produce new number of BAC send sequences produced using varieties with specific desired characteristics. The traditional Sanger-sequencing long reads. The genome size of tomato is of 950 mb. The tomato assembly contains 606 megabases of sequence, a genome is expected to work as a model little under three quarters of the estimated total reference for the solanaceae family. REFERENCES

[1]. Eckardt NA (2000). Sequencing the rice genome. Plant Cell,12(11): 2011–2017. [2]. Sasaki T., and Burr B. (2000). International Rice Genome Sequencing Project: the effort to completely sequence the rice genome. Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 3(2): 138-142.

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Silicon based defense mechanism in plants Article id: 21524 Sumit Kumar1*, Pradeep Kumar2 and Shyam Kishor Patel1 1Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005 2ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi - 110012

INTRODUCTION The most plenteous component after oxygen in Silicon induced resistance against various plant the soil, is silicon (Si) and comprises diseases incited by fungi, bacteria and pests, as approximately 28% of the earth’s crust (Epstein well as applying alleviative impacts on different 1994). Silicon is not recognized as an essential abiotic stresses like water logging, high and low component for growth and production of plants, temperature, drought stress, salt stress and but it is beneficial for plant physiological process. effects of UV in a wide range of plant species. Accumulation of Si in plants varies Application of Si prevent plant disease by extraordinarily, because of contrasts in root Si preventing entry of pathogen through structural take-up limit (Takahashi et al., 1990). Commonly, reinforcement, inhibiting the colonization of Silicon uptake in the form of orthosilicic acid [Si pathogen by stimulating systemic acquired (OH)4], through plant roots. The orthosilicic acid resistance (SAR), production of antimicrobial concentration varies from 0.1–0.6 mM in soil compounds and stimulating the resistance in solution and also affected by its dissolution from plant via activating different signaling pathways soil minerals and its adsorption or resorption by and defense-related gene expression. The the soil (Savant et al., 1997). Silicon is moves via valuable effects if silicon against disease two Si transporters mechanism, Lsi1 and Lsi2, resistance are ascribed for production of located in plasma membrane, and their function phenolic compounds, peroxidase / phytoalexins is influx transporters and efflux transporters, induction and Si accumulation in epidermal respectively. tissue to regulate the pathogen invasion and Various studies revealed that the colonization (Sakr, 2016). accumulation of Si in many plant species and plays vital role in plant physiological process, for Silicon-mediated plant disease resistance example, rice and sugarcane and some A. Physical Mechanisms cyperaceous plants (Liang, 1999). Mechanical Plant pathogen causes successful infection and physiological properties of plants is in host plant by breaking the physical barriers of improved by the silicon and known to enhance plant like wax, cuticles and cell walls. The the tolerance against various biotic and abiotic physical barriers check the penetration of stresses in different plant species. Most part pathogen and plant low in Si susceptible to absorbed Si is kept in cell walls, and play a role to enzymatic degradation incited by various fungal stress signaling systems (Fauteux et al., 2005). pathogen colonization and invasion.

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Silicon play a beneficial role to growth and Silicon application stimulates the defense- development of plant are characterized by related enzymes in plants during the contact improving the mechanical and an external with pathogen. Disease resistance is closely defensive layer (Sun et al., 2010). Silicon form a related to defense-related enzymes such as cuticle -Si double layer, when deposited beneath phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, glutathione the cuticle and check the entry of the pathogen reductase, peroxidases, and polyphenoloxidases. in the host plant. Mostly silicon plays a role in The synthesis of plant secondary antimicrobial cell wall elasticity during growth. Silicon compounds by the involvement of PAL, is decrease the disease incidence by the formation beneficial for disease resistance in plant against of double cuticular layer, formation of papilla, the pathogen (Waewthongrak et al., 2015). increasing the density of silicified long and short Silicon may regulate the gene expression epidermal cells, and complexes formed with in which are related to synthesis of various enzyme; epidermal cell walls. Silicon also linked with viz., phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and hemicellulose, which provide mechanical lipoxygenase. Silicon increase the defense- strength to prevent pathogen penetration. The related enzymes activities by the priming of JA application of silicon in wheat leaves infected inducible responses. The application of silicon is with Pyricularia oryzae, prevent the hyphael playing a beneficial role to suppressing the entry, while no Si treatment the hyphae easily pathogen infections through the enhancing the invaded several neighboring leaf cells (Sousa et defense related enzymes. al., 2013). A significant reaction in defense-related enzymes is the adjustment in antimicrobial substances; by B. Biochemical mechanisms and large, in plants low disease rate after the Silicon based biochemical resistance also application of silicon, which are related to increases the defense-related enzymes, like defense related enzymes and these defense phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), peroxidase enzyme promoting the production of and polyphenoloxidase. Silicon -enhanced antimicrobial compounds. Silicon application production of antimicrobial compounds, that reducing the basal antioxidant enzyme activity in play a role in resistance against the pathogens soybean leaves, during Cercospora sojina viz., phenolic, phytoalexins, and pathogenesis- infection. Antimicrobial compounds reduce the related (PR) proteins in plants. Systemic signals, disease in higher plants and silicon stimulate the like salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and production of these compounds during pathogen ethylene is regulated by the application of silicon attack. that enhanced biochemical resistance (Van et al., 2013). 2. Systemic signals To counteract pathogen contamination, host 1. Defense-related enzymes and plants have built up a muddled immune system antimicrobial compounds giving a few layers of constitutive and inducible protection mechanisms, which are managed by a

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 mind-boggling system of signal transduction solanacearum through the upregulating the pathways (Grant et al., 2013). Plant immunity expression of genes, which are related to and defense activities regulated by JA, SA and ET. defense and stress, like late embryogenesis rich Jasmonic acid and ethylene work against the protein, trehalose phosphatase, and WRKY1 necrotrophic pathogens and salicylic acid mostly transcription factor (Ghareeb et al., 2011). active during biotrophic pathogen infection (Pieterse et al., 2012). Silicon may regulate the CONCLUSION plant stress responses by modifying By combining knowledge on interaction of phytohormone homeostasis and signaling plant–microbes mediated by Si. The different pathways. Plant treated with silicon accumulates types of mechanism are found in plant that the phytohormones in response to pathogen inhibit the invasion and colonization of pathogen invasion and colonization. like physical, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms that attributed by silicon. First, C. Molecular approach evidence is silicon induces disease resistance by Molecular mechanism is one of the best activating the physical mechanism, which is mechanisms to reduce the development of the based on pre and post formed defense barrier. diseases in plants. Silicon is involved when plant The pre formed defense barrier work before come contact with the pathogen and activating pathogen infection, and post formed defense the defense genes of host plants by the barrier work after pathogen infection. The physiological and biochemical reactions. The accumulation the silicon induces resistance signal transductions pathway is inducing the against the biotic and abiotic stresses. Secondly, resistance response in plants to check the biochemical mechanism involves activation of pathogen invasion. Silicon regulate the defense related enzymes and which in turn expression of various defense genes related to activates, production of antimicrobial morphological variations in call walls, compound, and regulates different signaling antimicrobial compound synthesis, pathways. Finally, molecular resistance by hypersensitivity responses, and PR proteins. The activating the expression of genes, which are expression of defense genes is regulated by the involved in defense against the pathogen intracellular signaling systems of post-elicitation. infection. Understanding the different types of Various studies conducted like transcriptomic silicon based defense mechanism in plants and proteomic to represent the Si responses in reduce the plant diseases that cause economical different pathosystems. The application of Si losses and increase the crop yield by the efficient protects tomato plant from the Ralstonia use of nutrients.

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REFERENCE

[1]. Epstein E. (1994) The anomaly of silicon in plant biology. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 11–17. [2]. Fauteux, F., Remus-Borel, W., Menzies, J. G., and Belanger, R. R. (2005). Silicon and plant disease resistance against pathogenic fungi. FEMSMicrobiol. Lett. 249, 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.femsle.2005.06.034. [3]. Ghareeb, H., Bozsó, Z., Ott, P. G., Repenning, C., Stahl, F., and Wydra, K. (2011). Transcriptome of silicon-induced resistance against Ralstonia solanacearum in the silicon non-accumulator tomato implicates priming effect. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 75, 83–89. doi: 10.1016/j.pmpp.2010.11.004. [4]. Grant, M. R., Kazan, K., and Manners, J. M. (2013). Exploiting pathogens’ tricks of the trade for engineering of plant disease resistance: challenges and opportunities. Microb. Biotechnol. 6, 212– 222. doi: 10.1111/1751-7915.12017. [5]. Liang, Y. C. (1999). Effects of silicon on enzyme activity and sodium, potassium and calcium concentration in barley under salt stress. Plant Soil 209, 217–224. doi: 10.1023/A:1004526604913. [6]. Pieterse, C. M., Van, D. D. D., Zamioudis, C., Leonreyes, A., and Van Wees, S. C. (2012). Hormonal modulation of plant immunity. Cell Dev. Biol. 28, 489–521. doi: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910- 154055. [7]. Sakr, N. (2016). The role of silicon (Si) in increasing plant resistance against fungal diseases. Hell. Plant Protect. J. 9, 1–15. doi: 10.1515/hppj-2016-0001. [8]. Savant NK, Snyder GH, Datnoff LE. (1997). Silicon management and sustainable rice production. Advances in Agronomy 58, 151–199. [9]. Sousa, R. S., Rodrigues, F. A., Schurt, D. A., Souza, N. F. A., and Cruz, M. F. A. (2013). Cytological aspects of the infection process of Pyricularia oryzae on leaves of wheat plants supplied with silicon. Trop. Plant Pathol. 38, 472–477. doi: 10.1590/S1982-56762013000600002. [10]. Sun, W., Zhang, J., Fan, Q., Xue, G., Li, Z., and Liang, Y. (2010). Silicon-enhanced resistance to rice blast is attributed to silicon-mediated defence resistance and its role as physical barrier. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 128, 39–49. doi: 10.1007/s10658- 010-9625-x. [11]. Takahashi, E., Ma, J. F., and Miyake, Y. (1990). The possibility of silicon as an essential element for higher plants. Comment. Agric. Food Chem. 2, 99–102. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.11.021. [12]. Van, B. J., De Vleesschauwer, D., and Hofte, M. (2013). Towards establishing broad- spectrum disease resistance in plants: silicon leads the way. J. Exp. Bot. 64, 1281–1293. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ers329. [13]. Waewthongrak, W., Pisuchpen, S., and Leelasuphakul, W. (2015). Effect of Bacillus subtilis and chitosan applications on green mold (Penicillium digitatum Sacc.) decay in citrus fruit. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 99, 44–49. doi: 10.1016/j. postharvbio.2014.07.016.

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Concept of ideal plant ideotype Article id: 21525 Bollaveni Sathish Kumar* *Ph.D.Scholar. Department of Agronomy, Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-13

Plant’s type, climatic condition, soil type and c) Possessing more activity of roots under heavy management factors affect the production of application of fertilizers. every plant The production of the plant might be d) Availability of resistance to lodging and increased by changing plant type and increasing diseases. the period of grain filling in a certain climatic condition where management and soil factors Recent developments in plant breeding made are not limited. There is a direct relationship significant contribution towards concept of NPTs. between the plant’s type and crop yield because The successful efforts of changing the the orientation and number of leaves play an morphological architecture of crop plants and important role in photosynthesis. In recent years making them suitable for cultivation under high due to all-round efforts of agricultural scientists fertility status of soils have opened a new VISTA it has been possible to cultivate HYVs of cereal in developing the varieties suitable for good crops which are often been termed as “NEW agronomy. PLANT TYPES”. CHARACTERS OF NPT’s: They should be 1. Morphologically be dwarf in growth habit with The plant type in which morphological and hard and stiff straw. physiological characteristics are ideally suited to 2. Erect and dark green leaves remaining active achieve high production potential and yield for longer duration. reliability is called Ideotype. The concept of 3. Agronomically highly responsive to heavy ideotype was given by Donald in 1968. Ideotype fertilizer application. can also defined as “a biological model which is 4. Ability to produce more dry matter production expected to perform in a predictable manner and high yields. within a defined environment” (Singh, 2012). 5. Adaptable under different agro climatic 2. NPT’s possess the trait of high responsiveness conditions towards heavy fertilizer applications. So they are 6. Short growth duration. also called as fertilizer responsive 3. NPT’s are also referred as adaptable varieties Important features of such NPT’s of cereals in as the physiological attributes of variety grain crops are: responsible for: 1. DWARFNESS: NPT’s are dwarf in nature due to a) Controlling the assimilation of absorbed N in NORIN in wheat and DEE-GEE-WOO-GEN in rice plant body. dwarf genes. NPT’s are short, stiff, not more than b) Translocation and storage of photosynthates. knee high but could take more fertilizers without lodging.

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2. EFFICIANT LEAF ARRANGEMENT: NPTs are grain production efficiency i.e., grain yield/unit narrow, thick, erect and dark green colour with area/unit time. These short duration varieties optimum LAI composed of properly arranged can fit very well in under high cropping intensity leaves, which remain active for longer period programmes like multiple and relay cropping. after flowering due to high sunlight interception 6. ADAPTABILITY TO DIFFERENT CROP SEASONS: they play important role in supporting grain All most all NPT’s are photo insensitive and formation resulting into more number of fertile completely resistant to fluctuations in day grains per ear head. length. They can be grown under all crop seasons 3. SYNCHRONOUS TILLERING: The growth and provided inputs like fertilizers and irrigations are development of NPTs are more or less rhythmic adequately made available, so higher yields can i.e., high germination %, formation of all tillers at be obtained. However, some of the NPTs are a time (during a specific period) and timely thermo-sensitive and are affected by variation in maturity of all the tillers. temperature during season. So, they have highest synchronized coefficient as 7. ABSENCE OF SEED DORMANCY: NPTs have no regards to the development and maturity of dormancy i.e. they do not require any rest grains of different ears of a plant. period, called dormancy period. Freshly Synchronization of tillering has been found to be harvested seed can be used for sowing. This dependent on other factors like moisture, proper character is useful in seed multiplication secondary regrowth and adequate nutrient programmes of HYVs, within a short span of availability during the period (Phundan Singh, time. This along with photo insensitivity makes 2006) them quite suitable for adaptation under high 4. LOW FLORET STERILITY: Traditional tall intensity cropping programmes. varieties under heavy fertilizer application 8. EFFECTIVE TRANSLOCATION OF FOOD produce more sterileflorets. NPT’s have a very MATERIAL FROM PLANTS TO GRAIN: NPTs have low floret sterility % due to synchronized higher potentiality to absorb and assimilate tilleringinto uniform ear head formation nutrient from soil throughout the growth supported by longer physiological activity if duration which in combination with higher leaves at maturity. Low floret sterility an in NPT’s photosynthetic activities enable them for higher has also been attributed due to increased dry matter production. The built in efficient plant activities of roots at grain formation stage. mechanism in NPT’s coupled with fewer organs 5. SHORTER GROWTH DURATION: NPT’s have respiring at flowering stage permit more efficient shorter duration than tall varieties. The optimum use of respiration for growth and grain growth duration of a variety is more important production. After flowering, this enables for scheduling its irrigation and manuring for effective translocation of accumulated food obtaining higher yield. At high N application materials of straw for grain formation. longer growth duration and at low N application, 9. RESPONSIVE TO HEAVY FERTILISER short duration variety is preferred for obtaining APPLICATIONS: NPT’s possess the trait of high higher dry matter production as well as more responsiveness towards fertilizer application.

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Their optimum N requirement is 2½ -3 times production. Their grain to straw ratio is more than the requirement is so called improved approximately about1:1. Inadequate and local varieties. Similarly the P&K requirement of untimely supply of nutrients, irrigation and plant NPT’s is also 1½ -2 times more in comparison to protection measures may result into partial or local types. Under low fertility status, their complete failure of crop. yielding ability is not fully utilized and veryoften 12. DISEASE SUSCEPTIBILITY: NPT’s are more they give quiet poor yield under sub optimum prone to disease susceptibility because conditions, it is therefore necessary to supply ofluxuriant vegetative growth therefore offers adequate quantities of N, P&K in order to exploit scope for insect pests and diseases. However, their high yielding potentiality to the maximum. attempts are being made to develop disease 10. LODGINIG RESISTANCE: NPT’s are generally resistant NPT’s. dwarf in growth habit with strong and stiff stem eg: Rice: BPH resistant varieties ----- MTU-2067, whichprovides them considerable resistance MTU-2077 against plant lodging. Under heavy fertilizer Wheat: Rust resistant varieties ----- Sonalika. applications, the tallvarieties are bound to lodge Sorghum: Striga resistant varieties -----N-13, resulting in substantial decrease in yield. SPV-462. Contrary to this, dwarf HY NPT’s seldom lodge unless too heavy fertilizer application has been CONCLUSION: Ideal plant ideotype is a major made coinciding with excessive water requirement to reap the maximum profit from application. Because of incorporation of the crop. The NPT’s should be tailored in such a dwarfing genes in NPT’s, they possess the trait of way that they should suit the particular high responsiveness towards heavy fertilizer environmental conditions and also should be of application without lodging. problem oriented (i.e. varieties which can give 11. YIELDING POTENTIALITY: NPT’s are high high yields in problematic situations like drought, yielding may be due to their altered morphology waterlogging, pest incidence etc..). Even with the which results into efficient utilization of available of NPT’s if agronomic measures were resources (light, water, nutrients) and increased not taken properly can lead to less yields. metabolic activities with high dry matter

REFERENCES: [1]. Phundan Singh, 2006. Essentials of plant breeding.Kalyani publishers, New Delhi. [2]. Singh, B.D. 2012. Plant Breeding: Principles and Methods. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.

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AGROPEDIA: An Overview Article id: 21526 Shani Kumar Singh1* and Debashish Kumar1 1Department of Extension Education, BHU, Varanasi-221005 2Department of Agricultural Economics, BHU, Varanasi-221005

Agropedia is a digital knowledge repository with Agropedia has an objective to build up an the open platform for learning and sharing agricultural knowledge repository for India in information related to Indian agriculture. The the form of textual, audio and video clippings, content is semantically catalogued and easy to which is delivered through the web. find. This agricultural encyclopedia is being designed as a sub project of the knowledge It wants to make a proper knowledge management initiative of National Agricultural network among the different actors of the Innovation Project in support of agricultural agriculture community by developing an open extension and outreach. It Launched in January platform of knowledge sharing in the 12, 2009 and available in English and Hindi. agricultural domain. Agropedia 2.0, an advancement over earlier Why should it use? agropedia is a Knowledge Management • This site provides the option for more Platform, which aspires to be a one stop shop specific search on a specific agricultural for any information, pedagogic or practical topic. knowledge related to extension services in • In the agropedia one can increase his Indian agriculture. Agropedia 2.0 is deployed as knowledge as well as can share his a SaaS (Software as a Service) platform. agricultural information with others. Agropedia the project • 'Extension Material' includes different types  Sponsored by the ‘National Agricultural of content, provided or thoroughly checked Innovation Project’ of the ‘Indian Council of by the agricultural scientists. Agricultural Research’ • Beside this, anyone can create content and  Started in 2008 January share his opinion and experiences through  We are five partners wiki, blogs, forum and online chat.  IIT, Kanpur • Facilities provided in this site are  ZPD-IV, Kanpur incorporated by taking into account the  UAS, Raichur requirement of different types of users.  IIM, Calcutta • Everyone can find and use his favorable way  ICRISAT, Hyderabad for creation and sharing of agricultural knowledge as the contents are provided Objective of agropedia through different form.

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Content Providers • Sri Aurobindo Institute of Rural • The consortium partners have the Development (SAIRD)- Andhra Pradesh responsibility to upload certified (Gaddipalli) contents in 'Extension Material' like • TATA-Chemicals Library, Do's & don'ts and Crop calendar. • Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs)/ Agricultural • The scientist of GBPAUT and UAS- Research Stations (ARSs) Dharwad are the main content providers. • IITB, IITK and ICRISAT are also providing Users some content. The users are expected to be extension • The registered users are also able to add workers from KVKs and NGOs, agricultural content but the content, in that case, is researchers, scientists, experts, academic published in the site only after getting institutions, organizations, Agricultural Research approval from the agropedia Stations (ARSs), advanced farmers, traders, administrator. retailers, and self-help-group. Anyone with a However, in Interaction spaces like agro- keen interest in agriculture can access this site, wiki, agro-blog, Forum and agro-chat contribute towards it and engage in healthy each and every user can create content discussion on agricultural related issues through Other features in Agropedia sharing their views or through discussions. Openagri is a much more focused research space provided by agropedia. Openagri is a Other supportive partners content management platform for hosting Other supporting partners include agriculture documents. It has document types • Food Agricultural Organization (FAO) like Journal Articles, Conference Papers, Book, • Consultative Group on International Book Chapters, Proceedings, Preprints, Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Multimedia content etc. • Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), many ICAR organisations Agro tagging is used for indexing the content • IIT- Madras available. It automatically identifies key words • Some NGOs like WIZMIN, Shramik Bharti and tags the content accordingly. Thus, while • Central Research Institutes searching, typing a word would list all the • State Agricultural Universities like articles on that topic. User generated tags Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural together with those that are generated by University (ANGRAU) - Andhra Pradesh. Agrotagger would help link documents related • Other agricultural related institutes as to agriculture more effectively for faster National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) retrieval and for an enhanced presence in the present flair of the web.

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Knowledge Models or KMs provide a general since 2008. Agropedia has grown from strength idea about all the aspects of crops and to strength since the formal launch of its specifically about each crop. knowledge models in January 2009.Google analytics reports that the agropedia site gets an CONCLUSION average of over 1150 hits a day of which over It has been a rewarding, though uphill task to 350 are unique.It is heartening to note that build and deploy agropedia. An ongoing process agropedia is now accessed by over 140 countries all over the world each month. REFERENCES

[1]. https://naip.icar.gov.in/download/77209/c1naip-agropedia.pdf/c1naip-agropedia.pdf [2]. http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in [3]. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org [4]. http://planningcommission.gov.in

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Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) as an alternative potential pulse crop for Indian agriculture Article id: 21527 S.K. Bishnoi* ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat & Barley Research Seed and Research Unit, Hisar-125001

Since the early ages of agriculture, the major health concern in India which is expected leguminous crops have remained an integral and to increase as the availability of protein to the essential part of the human diet and have played rapidly growing population is speculated to take an important role in diet diversification of people the form of a bigger challenge in the coming around the world (Bishnoi et al., 2018). Many future. Under this scenario, grain legumes, which legume species are irreplaceable sources of are rich in essential amino acids, are affordable dietary proteins for humans directly or indirectly. and easily available alternatives of animal They have been agents of diversification for the products as source of protein. agricultural production systems since time immemorial and have contributed significantly to As far as production of pulses is the sustainability of these systems. Leguminous concerned, India holds a very unique place in that crops are natural nitrogen fixers and thus help in the country is the largest producer, consumer minimizing the soil and environmental and importer in the world. Pulses as a whole degradation by reducing the use of chemical constitutes approximately 7-10 percent of the nitrogen fertilizers in commercial agricultural total food grain production of India, however, the production systems. The sustainable area under pulses ranges to the tune of 20 developmental goals involving poverty reduction, percent of the total area under food grains, human health improvement and enhancing reflecting the poor productivity of the pulses ecosystem resilience can be ideally addressed by production systems. Chickpea, pigeonpea, green laying more emphasis on cultivation of gram, black gram, horse gram etc are major pulse leguminous crops. As a source of dietary protein, crops of India which are grown in various agro- these legumes become increasingly important ecological climates in different seasons. These especially in the developing countries like India pulse crops suffer from low realized yield and where a significant proportion of the population their sensitivity to a variety of biotic and abiotic is vegetarian. The importance becomes manifold stresses. Therefore, a need for an environmental when another significant proportion of the hardy pulse crop of high productivity and suitable population, mainly of the third world countries, for Indian growing conditions has been lately felt. founds itself unable to afford animal source of Faba bean has been proposed to be one such dietary protein due to widespread poverty. potential pulse crop particularly for regions Protein malnutrition in growing children is a

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 characterized of poor soils and abiotic stresses. by the CGIAR research programme for priority Belonging to the family fabaceae, Faba bean, is focus and continuously gaining importance as a also known as broad bean and fava bean and has grain legume for protein security of a long history of cultivation in the human demographically expanding and climatically civilization (Bishnoi, et al., 2015). It is an annual changing world. diploid plant and can be easily raised as a main pulse crop during the Rabi season in India. Faba In China, Ethiopia, the Middle-East and bean is one of the earliest domesticated plants the Mediterranean, faba bean is used as a which is believed to be domesticated during the breakfast food as soup, stews and paste made by Neolithic period. It is an important global pulse, grinding etc. In India, the green unripe pods of fodder crop and vegetable throughout the faba bean are mainly cooked and eaten as temperate world and at higher altitudes in some vegetable. Apart from being a staple human food sub-tropical regions. It is world’s fourth most in many developing countries, faba bean is also important legume crop after pea, chickpea and used to feed animals in industrialized countries; lentil, widely cultivated for human food, animal such as pigs, horses, poultry and pigeons. It is feed and fodder. It is also used as a cover crop in grown in rotation with cereal crops for improving many regions of the world. Faba bean plays an soil physical condition, breaking disease cycles important role in world agriculture because of its and controlling weeds. Moreover, faba bean has high seed protein content which ranges from 20 the potential to be developed as a functional to 40% depending upon the genotype and the food crop for the patients of the Parkinson’s environmental conditions in which it has been disease which is world’s second most important grown. It is an efficient nitrogen fixer and neurodegenerative disorder and caused by improves soil fertility through symbiotic nitrogen insufficient synthesis of the neurotransmitter fixation. It can grow well on high fertility soil to dopamine. The young pods and the leaves of faba N-deficient marginal lands. Faba bean can bean have been reported to be the most practical withstand salinity conditions especially chloride means for the direct intake of the L-DOPA (L-3, 4- and sulphate salts to a greater extent than dihydroxy phenylalanine) which serves as a chickpea and unlike chickpea it thrives well under precursor of dopamine. irrigated conditions. It has a potential yield of 60- However, the quality-limiting anti- 75 quintals per hectare with an average yield of nutritional factors, such as vicine, convicin, 40-45 quintals per hectare. tannins and phenolic compounds compromise Faba bean has been recognized as a the value of faba bean in human diets. Vicine and potential grain legume by the Indian National convicine are stored in the cotyledons and are Agricultural Research System and has been harmful for humans carrying a genetic defect included in the All India Coordinated Research glucose- 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) Network on Potential crops. It has also been deficiency. The medical condition involves identified as one of the eight major food legumes hemolytic anemia and it has been termed as

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 favism. Given the high prevalence rate of Arabian route of entry into India. Since its Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) introduction it has become a traditional legume deficiency (upto 27%) in different caste, ethnic crop in the Bihar state of India. It is also grown on and linguistic groups and high incidence small scale in Jharkhand, Eastern Uttar Pradesh, particularly in tribal population, the vicine and Chhatisgarh, Odisha and Madhya Pradesh. The convicine content need to be significantly area and production statistics are, however, not lowered before the crop can be popularized in available and neither are there any trade reports India. Alternatively varieties with lower or nil or market or prices reports. It is mainly cultivated percentage of these anti-nutritional factors need in rabi season for its green pods which are used to be developed for large scale popularization as vegetable and no traditional food use for its and adoption. seeds has been reported. The pods are easily available in the vegetable markets of these states At present faba bean is cultivated in more and elsewhere also (Kumar et al., 2017). than 50 countries of the world. The world production of faba bean was 3.4 million metric Despite the huge importance of faba bean tons in the year 2013. The major faba bean as a protein source for humans and animals in growing countries are China (1.65 Mt), Ethiopia ensuring food and nutritional security in context (0.61Mt), France (0.44 Mt), Egypt (0.29 Mt) and of global population increase and global climate Australia (0.19 Mt). China is the leading producer change, its full potential through hybrid breeding with 43% share of the world’s total faba bean remains unexploited largely due to its unique production. However, in spite of the increasing pollination biology and yield instability. At importance as a food, feed and fodder crop, the present there are five commercial cultivars world area under faba bean cultivation has available in India. Pusa Sumit and Pusa Udit declined from 5 million hectare in 1965 to less developed at the Indian Agricultural Research than half in 2007. The reasons attributed to this Institute, New Delhi, Swaran Gaurav and Swarna decrease in area are unstable yields, inability to Safal developed by ICAR-Research Complex for exploit heterosis in yield by developing hybrid Eastern Region, Patna and Vikrant developed by varieties and biotic and abiotic stresses causing CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar. The drastic yield losses (Kumar et al., 2017; Bishnoi et characteristic features of variety Vikrant are al., 2018). medium seed size, medium yield, resistant to diseases and salinity and low pod shattering. Faba bean was introduced into India through Mesopotamia probably after the advent Faba bean suffers from some major drawbacks as of the Arabian spice trade route which came in to a crop. These are yield instability, lower realized existence around 3000 B.P. It is called Baqla or yields, lodging, asynchronous maturity, pod Bakla in Hindi and its subsidiary dialects in India shattering at maturity etc. To remove these which are also the Arabic and Turkish names for defects either completely or partially are the faba bean. These names are indicative of its major breeding objectives of the faba bean

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 improvement programmes the world over along conclusion, the adaptive advantages associated with incorporation of resistance against drought, with this hardy and versatile pulse crop need to frost, fungi and other pathogens and pests. The be exploited on large scale in Indian context and improvement in seed yield and yield stability the crop need to be popularized primarily in need to be addressed through the component areas where traditional pulse crops perform traits. poorly or the marginal areas. Faba bean in such areas may prove a boon for the deprived Qualitatively, improvement in the grain quality in resource poor farming community and can the form of increase in protein content and effectively and substantially contribute towards removal of anti-nutritional factors constitute the achieving the national objective of doubling the major breeding objectives in faba bean. In farmer’s income by 2022.

Pod clusters on a faba bean plant A single pod

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Flowering in faba bean Seeds of faba bean

REFERENCES:

[1]. Bishnoi, S.K., J.S. Hooda, P. Sharma (2015). Heterotic responses in yield component traits in faba bean (Vicia faba L.) Forage Res. 41 (3): 152-159. [2]. Bishnoi, S.K., J.S. Hooda, P. Sharma and P.Kumar (2018). Analysis of gene effects for yield and yield component traits in faba bean (Vicia faba L.) genotypes. J. Anim. Plant Sci, 28(1): 187-196. [3]. Bishnoi, S.K., Hooda, J.S., Sharma, P. and Kumar, P. (2018b) Analysis of combining ability and inheritance of breeding parameters in yield component traits in faba bean (Vicia faba L.). J Pharmacogn Phytochem, 7(2), 1085-1090. [4]. Kumar, P., R.R. Das, S.K. Bishnoi and V. Sharma (2017). Inter-correlation and path analysis in faba bean (Vicia faba L.) Electron. J. Plant Breed. 8(1):395-97.

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In-situ moisture conservation techniques: It needs for dry land and rain fed farming Article: 21528 Abhishek Shori1*, Vishal Kumar2, Sudhanshu Verma3 Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Science Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005 INTRODUCTION create awareness to farmers’ on in-situ The in-situ moisture conservation is an moisture conservation (Rao et al., 2018). important moisture conservation option which The success of dryland farming mainly is comparatively easier to be adopted by depends on the evenly distributed rainfall farmers than ex-situ rainwater conservation. during crop growing period. The root zone soil This in-situ rainwater conservation in rainfed moisture is utilized for transpiration, when the areas is a way to bridge the gap between rainfall becomes insufficient to meet the potential productivity of available crop varieties potential needs to transpiration. This causes and existing crop yields by improving soil depletion in soil moisture storage and a moisture content. Conservation furrows after situation which may be designated as every two crop rows across the slope are agricultural drought. Even after achieving the recommended for rainfed crops. The other in- full irrigation potential, nearly 50% of the net situ conservation methods recommended apart cultivated dryland area will remain dependent from conservation furrow are ridges and on rainfall. In terms of crop groups, 77% of furrows which are usually practised in cereals pulses, 66% of oilseeds and 45% of cereals are like maize, jowar, bajra, etc. Whereas, Broad grown under rainfed conditions. Therefore, a bed and furrow method is adopted in the breakthrough in rainfed agriculture is an regions with a slope on a grade of 0.2 to 0.4% in imperative for poverty alleviation, livelihood black soils, having rainfall of 700-1500 mm. This promotion and food security in India (Abrol, method is more suitable for narrow spaced row 2011). The most effective form of erosion crops. Hence paired row planting with in-situ control or prevention is to practice good land conservation furrow was developed and an management techniques. Approaches to implement also was fabricated. The in-situ protect the top soil from splash effects of moisture conservation practices were not rainfall and sheet flow are best centered on adopted by farmers due to lack of suitable good in-situ conservation practices (C. George implement and lack of awareness. By Thomas, 2010). Rainfed farming plays an considering the gaps in adoption of in-situ important role in agricultural economy of India. moisture conservation technology which is the It was observed that the drought situation may main reason for low productivity the paired row arise during crop growth period which may planter developed at ICARCRIDA for wide- result in partial failure of crops. Drought spaced crops was tested in farmer’s field to situations caused due to aberrant weather and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 erratic rainfall has been routine crises in Summer ploughing is a increases water content dryland agriculture. To cope up with such of soils surface and also improve the infiltration crunch, it is necessary to find out the rate and reduces runoff. It also reduces insect possibilities to survive the crop under pest and weed infestation. The number and contingent conditions by using some of the depth of summer ploughing are depended on simple methods of insitu moisture conservation weed intensity and density. At best two (Padmanabhan, 2008). It was therefore, felt summer ploughings are done at a pre-monsoon worthwhile to adopt the proper methods of in- at an interval of 15-20 days. If the required situ moisture conservation so as to partially Third ploughing can be done once with the help meet out the adverse effect of water stress in of harrow or cultivator to friable to the soil and standing crops. The positive effects of moisture prepare field beds for sowing/transplanting conservation practices like ridges and furrows; soon after the first monsoon rain. in enhancing the plant height and yield attributes of sorghum, cowpea, bengalgram Micro catchments and sunflower have been observed A micro-catchment is a specially (Somasundaram et al., 2000). In-situ moisture contoured area with slopes and berms conservation practices viz., ridges and furrows + designed to increase runoff from rain and mulch, imparted beneficial effect on cluster concentrate it in a planting basin where it bean for getting good growth and higher yields; infiltrates and is effectively “stored” in the soil which subsequently led to higher net returns profile. The water is available to plants but and B: C ratio (Allolli et al., 2008). protected from evaporation (http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/SERG/techniques/mi In-situ moisture conservation techniques crocatch.pdf). Selection of Catchment was done Summer ploughing based on the slope of the land. The micro- Summer Ploughing it means the catchments are semi-circular/ Half-moon ploughing the field across the slope at the time shaped bund, square-shaped/ circular of hot summer season with the help of catchment, V-type bunds; the main functions of specialized tools when the land is left fallow. micro-catchments are to keep in-situ soil The primary objective of summer ploughing is moisture and also reduce the soil loss. Circular opening of the soil crust accompanied by deep basin of one meter diameter for level lands ploughing and simultaneously overturning of depending upon infiltration and rainfall‘V’ the soil down to disinfect it with the help of ditches of size 5m x 5m with trees planted penetration of sun rays. Execution deep centre and height according to the rainfall and summer ploughing (off season tillage) with pre- slope of sloppy lands Saucer basins / semi- monsoon rainfall (during May) is well for circular bunds with 2m diameter to a height of moisture conserve and recharge to the soil 15-20cm across the slope. profile. It helps the sow the crops immediately Broad beds and furrows after the onset of southwest monsoon.

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Broad bed and furrow (BBF) system sowing can be done directly on the same beds involves preparation of a broad bed of 90 cm, without field preparation. If wheat follows rice furrow of 45 cm and sowing of crop at a row then it requires a fine seed bed preparation spacing of 30 cm. The BBF technology has many followed by sowing of wheat on raised beds. advantages including in-situ conservation of The sowing on raised beds is done with the rainwater in furrows, better drainage of excess help of the raised bed planter. water and proper aeration in the seedbed and root zone. Contour bund FIRBS (Furrow irrigated raised bed system) It is the most popular in the country. The Furrow Irrigated Ridge-till Bed- Contour bunding consist of narrow based planting System (FIRBS)/ bed planting / ridge trapezoidal bunds on contour to improve runoff planting is a synonyms word used for a method water behind them such that it can gradually where cultivation of crops is done on raised infiltrate into the soil for crop use. It is beds. This system is suitable for the wheat generally recommended for areas receiving less crop. In the crop sequences where wheat than 600 mm rainfall and for permeable soils follows soybean, maize or cotton, a system of up to slope of about 6 percent in agriculture reduced tillage can also be followed whereby lands.

Table No.1 Specification for bund cross section. Specification for bund cross section Depth of soil Base width Top width Height Side slop (m) Area cross (m) (m) (m) (m) section (sq. m) Shallow soils 2.67 0.38 0.75 1.5 : 1 1.14 (7.5-22.5 cm) Medium soil (22.5 – 45 3.12 0.60 0.85 1.5 : 1 1.56 cm) Medium 4.25 0.60 0.90 2 : 1 2.18 deep soils

Table No.2 Situations for various bunding options. Bunding options Soil type Rainfall (mm) Slope (%) Contour bund Light soil <600 >1.5 Graded bund All soils >600 1.5 Bench terraces Deep soil >1000 6.0 Graded boarder strip Deep alfisol and >800 >1.5 related red soil

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Table No.3 In-Situ Moisture Conservation Techniques in red and black soil. Soil type Rainfall In-situ moisture conservation techniques Red soil Low Dead furrow at 3-6 m interval Medium Sowing on flat bed and riding later with eventual cultivation High Graded border strips Low Contour cultivation Medium Dead furrows at 3-6 m interval Black soil High Graded open furrow (0.2 to 0.3 m3) at 10 m interval across the slope monsoon so the flow of water goes in slow Improving soil moisture storage down and erosion may be controlled to The extra Addition of silt, clay, organic minimum. In rainy season some crop is grown matter into the soil, increases field capacity and on the ridges and some legumes like green also raises wilting point to marginal increase in gram, black gram etc may be grown in ridges. available moisture holding capacity. After the monsoon, the land is again levelled. This way the furrow are used to accumulate Compartmental bund maximum water which will supply moisture for They convert the area into small square/ rabi crops. rectangular block. They are useful for Tie-ridging temporary impounding water and improving The practices of tie-ridging, where the moisture status of soil. These can be made adjacent ridges are joined at regular intervals with bund formers or country plough. Size of by barriers or ties of the same height, allow bunds depends on inter bunded land area. Area infiltrating and preventing runoff except during having a slope of 1% or less suitable for intense storm. This practice is good for low and compartmental bunding. moderate rainfall areas, except on very low Dead furrow slope. Dead furrow on contour at 2.4 to 3.6 m Bedding system are effective in shallow red soil for increasing In this system, small furrow are opened the groundnut yield. Dead furrow between two and soil from furrow is uniformly spread in rows of the crop before start of heavy rains. space left between the furrows. The inter- They increase infiltration opportunity time furrow space from raised beds of about 4-5 m besides reducing soil erosion. width. This help in conservation soil moisture Opening ridge and furrow and checking excess runoff. Raised bed are In this practices, in all field converted used for growing such crop which need less into ridges and furrow opposition to the slope. water like legumes and oilseed crops, while Ridge and furrow are open before the onset of

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 furrow are used for crop which need more from the field. Scooping should be before start water. of monsoon rains. Inter-row water harvesting Subsurface moisture barrier In this system furrow of about 30-40 cm An artificial layer of a material with less width (15 cm deep) are alternated by ridges of permeability placed at 60-70 cm depth, can 60-70 cm. The furrow and ridges are formed retain water over the barrier for longer period with ridger at right angles to the slope. It of crop use, this concept is based on the reduces runoff and water is conserved in observation that sandy soil with clay subsoil are furrows. It is particularly suitable for heavy more productive soils. Subsurface barrier of textured soils. In light soils, crops are grown in bentonite clay and pond or tank sedimentation furrow where as in heavy soils. can be effectively used for orchard crops and Inter-plot water harvesting establishment of trees in arid region, though In this method runoff water is made not for field on large scale. available to crop plot from adjacent bare plots either on one side. Adjacent plots are given CONCLUSION certain slope to augment runoff towards cropped plot for improving profile moisture In-situ moisture conservation storage. Slope on both sides of cropped area techniques give positive results in dry -land appear to be more appropriate for arid farming. In case of summer ploughing also horticultural crops. Catchment with strips of control insect pest and weed infestation. 0.75 m width on either side of 3.0 m wide Furthermore, reduces the multiple factors like levelled area are desirable catchment to soil erosion, runoff and loss of nutrients. Many cultivated area ratio of 0.5 could be optimum cereals, millets and oilseeds (sorghum, finger for most crops. millets, maize, foxtail millets safflower and Scoop on land surface mustard) affected by drought stress. They are small pits on soil surface. Main Furthermore, this technique is very use-full to aim of forming small scoop is to increase mitigate yield losses as well as many farmers opportunity time for water to infiltrate into the adopted in situ moisture conservation soil and to reduce soil erosion by trapping the techniques to take more yield as compare to eroded sediment that would otherwise lost other techniques like ex situ technique.

REFERENCE: [1]. Allolli, T. B., U. K. Hulihalli and S.I. Athani 2008. Influence of in situ moisture conservation practices on the performance of Dryland cluster bean. Karnataka Journal Agriculture Science, 21(2): 250-252 [2]. Bhuyan, M. H. M., Mst R. Ferdousi, and M. T. Iqbal. "Yield and growth response to transplanted aman rice under raised bed over conventional cultivation method." ISRN Agronomy 2012 (2012).

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[3]. George Thomas, C., 2010. Land husbandary and watershed management. Kalyani publishers, New-Delhi, India. [4]. http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/agri_majorareas_dryland_insitumoisture.html [5]. http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/SERG/techniques/microcatch.pdf [6]. Muthamilselvan, M., R. Manian, and K. Kathirvel. "In situ moisture conservation techniques in dryfarming-A review." Agricultural Reviews 27.1 (2006): 67-72. [7]. Padmanabhan, M. V., 2008. Assessing effectiveness of soil and water conservation practices by EPIC model. Technological advances in conservation of natural resources in rainfed agriculture, CRIDA, Hyderabad, 290- 298. Principle of agronomy – SR Reddy [8]. Rao, K. V., S, Vijayakumar., I. Srinivas., G. Pratibha., M. Udaikumar., and K. Sammi Reddy.,"On Farm Study on In-Situ Soil Water Conservation Practices for Enhancing Productivity of Pigeon Pea." Indian Journal of Dryland Agricultural Research and Development 33.2 (2018): 10-13. [9]. Somasundaram, E., Jauhar Ali. A., Manoharan M. L. and Arokiaraj A. 2000. Response of crops to different land management practices under sodic soil conditions, Indian Journal of Agronomy, 45, 92-96.

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Soil Solarization Article id: 21529 Ashwini Kumar1, M. Surya Prakash Readdy2, Someshree Mane3, B. Sundar4 1B. M, College of Agriculture, RVSKVV

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 bring about effective solar heating of soil, transparent to light. Polyethylene reduces provided climatic conditions are adequate. heat convection and water evaporation from  Transparent, not black, polyethylene should the soil to the atmosphere. Plastic mulching be used since it transmits most of the solar of the soil can be done either manually or radiation that heats the soil. mechanically.  Soil mulching should be carried out during The soil heating method for disease the period of high temperatures and intense management is similar in principle to that of solar irradiation. artificial soil heating by steam or other  Soil should be kept wet during mulching to means, which are usually carried out at 60- increase thermal sensitivity of resting 0 structures and improve heat conduction. 100 C. With soil solarization, there is no need  The thinnest polyethylene trap possible (25- to transport the heat from its source to the 30 m) is recommended, since it is both field. It can, therefore, be carried out directly cheaper and somewhat more effective in in the open field. The extent of soil heating by heating due to better radiation means of an “Ideal plastic mulch” i.e. 100% transmittance than the thicker ones. transparent to solar radiation and completely  The mulching period should be sufficiently opaque to long wave radiation. This ideal extended usually 4 weeks or longer in order mulch increases soil temperature by 6-80C to achieve pathogen control at the desired over ordinary polyethylene. depths. Polyethylene (also known as Disease management polythene), one of the most important plastic In general, soil solarization was materials use in agriculture was first effective against several soil borne pathogens introduced on a commercial scale in the year under varying conditions. Reduction in 199. The characteristics that led to its disease incidence was statistically significant widespread use are it’s relatively low cost, and usually remained so throughout the easy processibility, excellent chemical growing season. Disease control was usually resistance, toughness and flexibility, freedom accompanied by an increase in yield. A list of from odor and toxicity, low water vapor pathogens controlled by solarization is given permeability and , in thin films, transparency. in table 1. Its density is about 0.92 g/cm3. It is highly Pathogen Diseases and crop Bipolaris sorrokiniana Didymella lycopersici Crater disease of wheat F. oxysporumf.sp. melonis A tomato disease F. oxysporumf.spvasinfectum Wilt of water melon F. oxysporumf.sp. ciceri Wilt of cotton F. oxysporumf.sp. lentis Wilt of chickpea

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Phytophtora scinnamomi Wilt of lentil Pyrenochaeta lycopersici Root rot of several plants Pyrenochaeta terrestris Brown root rot or corky root disease of tomato Pythium ultimum Pink root rot of onion Rhizoctonia solani Damping off and root rot of several crops Sclerotium cepivorum Root rot of several crops Sclerotium oryzae White rot of onion Sclerotium rolfsii Stem rot of paddy Thielaviopsis basicola Root rot of several crops Verticillium dahliae Root rot of several crops Ditylenchus dipsaci Wilt of cotton, tomato, potato and egg plant Nematodes Globodera rostochiensis Garlic bulb nematode Helicotylenchus digonicus Golden nematode of potato Heterodera trifolii The sporal nematode Meloidogyne hapla Clover cyst nematode of carnation Meloidogyne javanica Root knot nematode Pratylenchus thornei Root knot nematode Pin nematode of potato and other crops

Mechanisms of disease control hours of the day. However, other Absorption of solar radiation varies accompanying processes such a shifts in according to the colour, moisture and texture microbial populations, charges in chemical of the soil. In general, the soil has a relatively composition and physical structure of the soil, high thermal capacity and is a poor heat high moisture levels maintained by the conductor. This results in a very slow heat polyethylene mulch and changes in gas penetration. On an average, one square composition of the soil should also be centimeter area outside the earth’s considered when analyzing. atmosphere and parallel to its surface receives 2 cal/cm2/min (solar constant) of The physical effect: Whenever organisms are energy in the form of solar radiation, but only subjected to moist heat at temperatures about half of it finally reaches the ground. exceeding the maximum for growth, their The heat that does penetrate the soil surface viability is reduce. The thermal death rate of is stored in the soil and at night, when the population of an organism depends on both thermal gradient is reversed, it is lost again, the temperature level and exposure tine resulting in a cyclic reversal in the direction of which are inversely related. In practice, heat flow. The most pronounced effect of soil populations of soil borne fungal pathogens mulching with polyethylene is a Physical one are greatly reduced at temperature of 40- i.e. an increase in soil temperature for several 500C and upto days for the lower ones. This

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 temperature range matches the one recorded B. Reduced inoculums potential due to at the upper soil layers 30 cm in successful antibiosis or competition enhanced by solarization experiments. The most obvious solarization. and easily measured effecthigh temperature C. Diminished competitive saprophytic on pathogen is their mortality and the ability of the pathogen in the absence of consequent reduction in inoculums density the host, due to antibiosis or calculated by estimating the number of competition. surviving organisms. (i) Suppressing inoculums introduced to soil after solarization from deeper soil layers Biological control: Microbial processes or adjacent no treaded plots. inducted by solarization may contribute to (ii) The effect on the host due to cross disease control. If induced by solarization, protection. biological control may affect the pathogen by increasing its vulnerability to soil Volatiles and other mechanisms microorganisms or increasing the activity of Permeability of polyethylene to many soil microorganisms towards pathogen or gases is not very high. CO2 accumulates plant which will finally lead to a reduction in under plastic mulch upto 35 folds over non- disease incidence, pathogen survivability or mulched soil. Analysis of solarized soil of both. Biological control may operate at any various types showed a significant increase in stage of pathogen survival or disease Ca+ and Mg concentration to non treated development survival or disease development soils. Since Ca+ ions play a role in plant during or after solarization, through resistance to various pathogens, it is antibiosislysis parasitism or competition. The worthwhile to evaluate the resistance of mechanisms of biological control which may plants grown in solarized soils. be created or stimulated by solarization are summarized as follows: Beneficial side effects Control of weeds and 1. The effect on the inoculum exiting in other pests: Solarizaiton result in an effective soil weed control lasting in some cases for a A. Reduction in inoculum density through. whole yea or even longer. Transparent (i) Microbial killing of the pathogen already polyethylene was found to be more effective weakened by sub lethal heat. than the black film in weed control. In general (ii) Partial or complete annulment of most of the annual and many perennial fungistasis and subsequent lysis of the weeds were mechanisms of weed control are germinating propagules. direct killing of seeds weakened by sub lethal (iii) Parasitism or lysis by antagonists heating. Soil mite populations are drastically stimulated solarization. reduced by solar heating. Soil borne pests such as bacteria, contain nematodes and viruses are also controlled.

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Advantages large areas by machines or manually in  Soil solarixation as a disinfestations small plots. method is a non chemical method which  It may have long term effect, since is not hazaedous to the users and does effective disease control lasted for more not involve substances toxic to the than one season. consumer, to the host plant or to other  This method has the characteristics of an organisms. integrated control since physical  It is less expensive than other methods. chemical and biological mechanisms are  This method is easy to teach to less involved and because control of a variety educated farmers and it can be applied in of pests is achieved.

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Management strategies for improving nitrogen use efficiency in rice based cropping system Article id: 21530 1Meenakhi Prusty and 2Monica Ray 1Junior Scientist (Soil Science), RRTTS (OUAT), Mahisapat, Dhenkanal 2Junior Scientist (Agronomy), RRTTS (OUAT), Keonjhar

Nitrogen (N) is the most important nutrient deposition and between soil and hydrosphere for plant growth, yield, quality and the through leaching, erosion, runoff, irrigation. environment. It is the key component of amino acids, auxins, cytokinins; alkaloids and Nitrogen Use Efficiency: proteins .Adequate supplies of N are needed The term Nitrogen use efficiency(NUE) relates to support photosynthesis and to produce only to applied fertilizers N,although crops proteins in harvested crops. It exists in nature absorb N from different sources. NUE gives primarily as N2 gas ,which makes up about 78 the ratio of output N to input N indicating % of Earth’s atmosphere .But it must be how well the given N-management strategy converted to ammonium or nitrate to be performs in recovering the applied N. utilized by the plants . Low soil N availability is Nitrogen use efficiency is differed as per the often the major nutrient factor limiting the farming operations and management growth and yield of crops. practices like tillage, seeding, weed and pest control, irrigation and harvesting. Nitrogen The Nitrogen Cycle: recovery in crops grown by farmers rarely The N cycle refers to the circulations of N exceeds 50% and often much lower. Nitrogen compounds through the Earth’s atmosphere, recovery mainly found 20 % to 30 % under hydrosphere, biosphere and pedosphere .At rainfed condition and 30 % to 40 % under various points of cycle, nitrogen compounds irrigated condition. Fertilizer nutrients affect human health and the environment in applied but not taken up by crop are both positive and negative ways .Nitrogen vulnerable to losses from leaching, erosion moves from soil to the plant and back from and denitrification or volatilization in case of the plant to the soils, often with animals or N or they temporarily immobilized in soil humans as intermediates .The real situation is organic matter. more complex as N compounds undergoes number of transformation in soil like Fertilizers use efficiency can be mineralization, immobilization, nitrification optimized by fertilizer management practices and denitrification and exchange between i.e. by the application of nutrients at the right soil and atmosphere through volatilization, rate, right time & right place .The highest biological N –fixation & atmosphere nutrient use efficiency always occurs at the

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 lower parts of the yield response curve where optimize indigenous soil N supply . Further fertilizer inputs are lowest. improvement can be achieved only by planning strategies for fertilizer N Strategies to increase nitrogen use management responsive to temporal efficiency: variation in crop N demand and field to field  Nitrogen management is the key for variability in soil N supply. Site specific sustainable and profitable rice production management requires quantitative in India. The fertilizer N use efficiency knowledge of crop nutrient need and depends upon potential cultivars, time, expected indigenous nutrient supply and can method, rate and source of N fertilization be aimed at improving the recovery efficiency and rice ecologies. Traditional cultivars of applied fertilizers. Management decisions generally grown in waterlogged lowlands that increase fertilizers N-use by crops with low doses of N fertilizers which focuses on two approaches causes low yield. So, many strategies have 1. Increase fertilizer N –Used during the been developed to increase the efficiency growing season when the fertilizer is applied . of N through proper timing, rate, placement, modified forms of fertilizers 2. Decrease fertilizer N losses thereby and use of nitrification and urease increasing the potential recovery of residual inhibitors. fertilizer N by subsequent crops. (a) Right Rate: Rice is grown in different ecologies depending (c) Chlorophyll Meter: on cultivars, management practices, climate The SPAD –Chlorophyll meter offers relative etc. Less application of nitrogenous fertilizer measurement of leaf chlorophyll content. will result in reduced nutrient use efficiency Chlorophyll meter have their greatest or losses in crop yield. Soil testing remains sensitivity in deficient to adequate range of N one of the most powerful tools available from nutrition and have an advantage of being self determining the nutrient supplying capacity –calibrating for different soils. The linear of soil. As per the soil testing results fertilizer relationship of SPAD value and N status in recommendation should be done to rice. crops varies, depending on growth stages and (b) Right time: cultivars. The most efficient management practice to maximize plant uptake and minimize losses is (d) Leaf colour chart: to synchronize the N supply with the plant demand. Nitrogen use efficiency can be The LCC, a plant health indicator has been improved by adopting fertilizer, soil, water found to be ideal tool to optimize the N and crop management practices that will supply in rice cropping irrespective of the maximize crop N uptake, minimize N loss and source of N applied either organic or inorganic. LCC is based on the chlorophyll

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 content and leaf N content over different ammonia the least and urea moderately growth stages. Farmers have always used susceptible. Ammonium and urea are more their eyes as subjective indicators for rice susceptible to volatilization than nitrate crop N status. With LCC, they can make fertilizers. Controlled release of N fertilizers proper decision regarding the need for improves NUE and reduces N-loss. fertilizer application. (g) Nitrification Inhibitors: (e) Placement Technologies: As ammonia or ammonium producing Deep point placement of urea super granule compounds are main source of fertilizer N, at 5-10 cm depth (reduced soil layer )is one of maintenance of applied N in ammonium form most efficient N-management techniques can reduce N loss. One of the mechanisms is developed for rice crop. Deep point to add nitrification inhibitors which inhibit placement of urea fertilizers is the most nitrification process. Nitra pyrin can be effective application method in reducing injected directly into the soil with anhydrous nitrogen loss mechanism like ammonium ammonia or coated into solid N-fertilizers or volatilization. Deep placement of USG has mixed with manure. It usually broken down greater benefit over surface split application within 30 days in warm soils. Dicyanamides on soil with moderate to heavy texture, low (DCD)can be coated on solid fertilizers to permeability and percolation rate, high cation reduce nitrate leaching. Its inhibition effect exchange capacity & pH. Improved N remains upto 25- 55 days. These inhibitors recovery and efficiency of USG has been are compounds that delay nitrate production observed in lowland areas. Agronomic, by depressing the activity of Nitrosomonas economic and environmental advantage of bacteria. deep placement of USG have been well established along with saving of 20 -40 % of (h) Integrated nutrient management : urea –N for the same grain yield compared Integrated nutrient management is another with conventional urea application. approach to enhance NUE. The Basic concept of INM is the maintenance and possible (f) Slow Release Fertilizers: improvement of fertility and health of the soil for sustained crop productivity on long term Slow release fertilizers developed by coating basis and use fertilizer nutrients as urea granules with Sulphur, reduced losses of supplement to nutrients supplied by different nitrogen. It has also been established that organic sources available at the farm to meet neem products when applied along with urea the nutrient requirement of crops. Legume as are capable of enhancing NUE in Rice. The a green manure or a dual purpose crop (grain form of N added plays a role in regulating N + green manure ) such as mung bean and loss and influencing NUE. Among these forms cowpea residue left after one picking of pods nitrate is most susceptible to leaching, applied to rice can contribute up to 40-120 kg

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N/ha and thus reduce fertilizer N application agricultural systems and can become a to the crops. Legume residues decompose serious pollutant. High NUE can be achieved fairly fast under subtropical and tropical by choosing the most suitable type and rate conditions especially under submerged of N fertilizer and the most appropriate condition and make the N in them readily application technique. Nitrogen management available to the growing crop. Similarly, should make possible to partly fill the gap application of different organic manures can between current relatively low NUE levels supply 40 to 120 kg N /ha in different rice observed in farmer’s field & results achieved based cropping system. Apart from soil, in well managed research plots. N is an climatic condition and cropping system, the N essential part of agriculture, options to supply from organic sources depends on their minimize N loss at many different levels are C : N ratio and rate of application. improvement in fertilizers/ bio fertilizers formulations, enhancement of N-use CONCLUSION: efficiency of our crops, improved fossil fuel Use efficiency of fertilizer N is very low in quality, reduction Nitrogen oxide emission India, 30-40 % in rice and 40- 60 % in other from farming ,better management of wetland crops. It is reasonable to assume that at least ecosystem. 50 % of the fertilizer N applied is lost from

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Nutraceutical properties of mushrooms Article id: 21531 Darshana Uikey1*, Someshree Mane and Pravin Khaire Ph. D Scholar, Deptt. of Plant Pathology and Agril. Microbiology, MPKV, Rahuri, MH, 413722

INTRODUCTION Mushrooms offer unique nutrition and What is a Mushroom? health benefits, quite different to those Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies provided by fruit and vegetables. Mushrooms produced by some fungi. Not all fruit bodies are are high in antioxidants, being in the top five true mushrooms. Puffballs and morels are highest antioxidant foods when compared to edible fruit bodies that are sometimes called common vegetables. Mushrooms are the best "mushrooms". The function of this visible part food source of ergothioneine, an antioxidant of some fungi is to produce and disperse the that has its own blood protein transporter. largest possible number of spores in the Mushrooms are the only non-animal fresh food shortest possible time. Spores create new source of vitamin D. Subjecting mushrooms to a individuals after being carried away on the wind small amount of UV light will increase the and landing in a good place for growth. True vitamin D content to a level that will match the mushrooms typically look like umbrellas. They RDI for adults. Further research on UV light and consist of a stalk topped by a flat or cup-shaped mushrooms is being conducted in the US and cap. Their spores are produced on special cells Australia. called basidia, located on the underside of the The Romans regarded mushrooms as a cap. The class of fungi whose spores are gift from God and served them only on festive produced by basidia are called Basidiomycetes. occasions, while the Chinese treasured them as People often ask about the difference between a healthy food. Mushrooms growing in the wild toadstools and mushrooms. Any mushroom can have been found to be nutritious and important be called a toadstool, but this word usually for medicinal purposes. Mushrooms would be refers to a poisonous mushroom. valuable sources of antioxidant and antitumor Nutraceutical can be defined as “ A food compounds. Investigations also revealed that or part of food or nutrient, that provides health they had significant antimutagenic and benefits, including the prevention and anticarcinogenic activities three mushrooms treatment of a disease.”The term have been studied for their ability to trigger the “Nutraceutical” was coined from “Nutrition” & immune system to be on the alert for incoming “Pharmaceutical” in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice,( antigens. MD, Founder and Chairman of the Foundation for Innovation in Medicine (FIM)).

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Important properties of Mushrooms A. Nutritional properties B. Medicinal properties A. Nutritional properties 1. Energy  A modest, practical serve of mushrooms is 100 grams serve a day to their diet they would be adding 103 kJ (24 Cals), about 1% of the energy requirements of a moderately active adult.  There is mounting evidence that mushroom consumption attenuates subsequent energy intake, so including l00g of mushrooms may cause an overfill decrease in energy consumption due to their satiation effect. When mushrooms replaced meat in a series of test meals, subjects ate an average of 1550 kJ less each day over four days.

2 Vitamins  The l00g serve of mushrooms will provide a significant amount of B group vitamins and essential minerals.  The mushroom being a major source of vitamin D. The action of sunlight on mushrooms increases their vitamin D to a level that has significant human nutritional benefits.

3 Minerals  Mushrooms are also a significant contributor to our essential minerals.  A serve of mushrooms will provide a quarter of the daily needs of selenium and copper, while providing a modest amount of phosphorus and potassium.

4. Fibre

 Fresh mushrooms contain both soluble and insoluble fibre. The soluble fibre is mainly beta- glucans and chitosans, which are components of the cell walls.  Soluble fibre has been shown to help prevent and manage cardiovascular disease by lowering total and LDL cholesterol levels. It also helps regulate blood sugar levels.

5 Bioactive compounds

 Mushrooms are particularly high in antioxidant activity, being placed in the top five when compared to vegetables and being exceptionally high in the antioxidant ergothioneine.  As research on mushrooms is in its infancy, it is quite likely that future research will reveal more bioactive compounds with a specific health benefit. For example, one paper

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showed that mushrooms inhibited enzymes associated with the progression of both breast and prostate cancer, work that initiated human clinical trials in the US.  In summary, a 100g serve of mushrooms will provide at least 10% of the RDI for phosphorus and potassium, and around 25% of the RDI for riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, copper and selenium — eight essential nutrients in all. It is quite unique for a fresh food to provide such a range of essential nutrients, particularly at these levels.

6 Other nutritional considerations  Mushrooms have virtually no sodium, cholesterol or fat. The GI of the mushroom cannot be determined because of its low carbohydrate content.

B. Medicinal properties

Not only do mushrooms have nutrition value but they also have valuable medicinal value. One of the greatest medicinal values of mushrooms is the essential sugars they provide. These sugars give the immune system a boost. Penicillin may have been discovered in bread mold but other natural antibiotic substances are contained in many mushrooms.

More than 270 mushroom species that exhibit medicinal properties, only a few have been studied for their chemical constituents. Although mushrooms vary widely in biology, it is likely that many of the medicinal compounds are shared among different species. Important compounds discovered to date include polysaccharides (long chains of sugar-like molecules), beta-D-glucans, and proteoglycans.

Medicinal properties of mushrooms stated below: 1. Antitumor properties Symptom/condition Species Cancer (breast) Chaga,shiitake,coriolus Cancer (esophagal) Artist’conk, coriolus Cancer (gastric) Spit gill, coriolus Cancer (skin) stinkhorn Cancer (liver) coriolus Cancer (preventative) Red-belted polypore.shiitake,Coriolis.maitake Cancer (uterine) Chaga, coriolus

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2 Antiviral

Symptom/condition Species Viral infection Shiitake,Coriolis,birch polypore HIV Enokitake,chaga,lion`mane Hepatitis Reishi,hoelen,shiitake,coriolus Cold and flu shiitake

3 Antihypertensive

Symptom/condition Species High blood pressure Maitake,shiitake,reishi Diabetes Coriolis, Maitake,shiitake,reishi Insomnia Reishu, Honey mushroom

4 Immune properties

Symptom/condition Species Immunostimulating Trametes versicolor, Reishi Immunomodulating Shiitake

5 Inflammatory properties

Symptom/condition Species Bronchial inflammation shiitake Eye inflammation Tremella

6 Gastronomic properties

Symptom/condition Species Gastritis Honey mushroom ,chaga Indigetion True tinder polypore

7 Cholesterol-lowering

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8 Antifungal 9 Antibacterial properties 10 Antioxidant activity

Mushrooms are known to contain various types of antioxidant compounds. Chemical analysis has shown that a specific antioxidant found in some mushrooms like Flammulina velutipes and Agaricus bisporus is ergothioneine.

IMPORTANT SPECIES OF MEDICINAL MUSHROOMS For the last two decades, the derivatives from medicinal mushrooms, e.g., Ganoderma lucidum , Coriolus versicolor and Lentinula edodes etc, have received great attention for being products of improving biological functions, thus making people fitter and healthier. Some of important medicinal species of mushrooms are discuss below;

1 Shiitake: Botanical name: Lentinula edodes

Properties: Lentinan, an isolate of Shiitake mushrooms, is used as an intravenous anticancer agent in some countries. Clinical research with lentinan includes studies with 78 hepatocellular carcinoma patients, 32 gastric cancer patients, a multi-institutional study of lentinan and gastric cancer, a meta-analysis of lentinan and gastric cancer, 80 colorectal cancer patients, 20 gastric cancer patients, 36 hepatocellular carcinoma patients, and 29 pancreatic cancer patients. 2 Maitake:

Botanical name: Grifola frondosa,

Properties: It is prized for both its nutritional and medicinal properties.

3 Reishi: Botanical name: Ganoderma lucidum

Properties: Cellular and animal research has shown Ganoderma may contain anticancer and immune system enhancing properties. Researchers have noted Ganoderma appears to have antibacterial,

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4 Oyster mushroom: Common name: Oyster mushroom

Botanical name: Pleurotus ostreatus Properties: The oyster mushroom naturally contains the statin lovastatin, which, in its purified or synthetic form, is used to lower elevated cholesterol. Research with Pleurotus ostreatus demonstrated activity against various cancer cell lines and animals studies have shown an anticancer effect.

5 White button mushroom: Botanical name: Agaricus bisporus

Properties: Research demonstrated in vitro, the mushroom may inhibit the enzyme aromatase, which is used by the body to create estrogen. The FDA and the National Cancer Institute have also shown interest in this mushroom's relation to breast cancer development. In vivo research has shown potential immune system regulation, while in vitro research demonstrated activity against various cancer cell lines.

6 Bearded tooth mushroom: Botanical name: Hericium erinaceus

Properties: Lion’s mane can be marketed for both culinary and medicinal purposes. Cooked lion’s mane reportedly has the flavor of lobster.

7 Cordyceps: Botanical name: Cordyceps sinensis

Properties: It is considered a medicinal mushroom that increases energy, stimulates the immune system, and acts as an overall tonic to the body.

8 King Stropharia: Botanical name: Stropharia rugoso-annulata

Properties: King Stropharia is noted for its culinary uses.

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CONCLUSION:

• The reports suggest that consumption of mushrooms provide health benefits such as reducing the possibility of cardiovascular diseases, preventing the occurrences of cancer and alleviating inflammatory conditions. • Mushrooms are the only non animal fresh food source of vitamin D, so vegetarian peoples can preferably consumes them for vitamin D. • Mushrooms like Ganoderma lucidum, Phellinus rimosus, Pleurotus florida and Pleurotus pulmonaris possessed profound antioxidant and antitumor activities. This indicated that these mushrooms would be valuable natural sources of antioxidant and antitumor compounds. • However, intensive and extensive investigations are needed to exploit their valuable therapeutic use.

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Male sterility in vegetable crops Article id: 21532 Dodla Rajashekar Reddy Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, SKLTSHU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad–500030, Telangana, India.

INTRODUCTION Martin and Grawford in1951. Genic male Hybrid varieties play a vital role in increasing sterility has been reported in cabbage and vegetable production due to their high yield cauliflower by Nieuwhof in 1961. potential, early maturing, superior quality, disease and pest resistance attributes. Male Classification of male sterility sterility in vegetables is commercially utilized There are three basic types of male sterility: to develop hybrids and substantial progress (1) Genetic male sterility, has made in understanding the mechanism of (2) Cytoplasmic male sterility and male sterility. This review describes different (3) Cytoplasmicgenetic/genic male sterility. types of male sterility involving GMS, CMS and 1. Genetic Male Sterility (GMS): The pollen CGMS, respectively are outlined. GMS sterility is caused by nuclear genes is termed as commercially utilized in chilli and cucurbits genic or genetic male sterility. This type of crops, while CMS utilized in cole crops and root sterility has been reported in several crop crops. It is of special interest for plant breeders plants like tomato, pepper, brinjal and to produce more efficient and economic hybrid cucurbits, cole crops seed trough male sterility. Male sterility helps much to reduce the cost of hybrid seed 2. Cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS): This type production in vegetables. of male sterility is determined by the cytoplasm. Since the cytoplasm of a zygote Male sterility comes primarily from egg cell, the progeny of Male sterility refers to a condition in which such male sterile plants would always be male pollen is either absent or non-functional in sterile. CMS can be utilized for hybrid seed flowering plants, while female gametes production in those vegetables where function normally. vegetative part is of economic value e.g. onion, History of male sterility carrot, radish, cole crops, etc. In flowering plants, the first report of male 3. Cytoplasmic genic male sterility (CGMS): sterility by Koelreuter in 1763. First report of This is a case of cytoplasmic male sterility male sterility in onion is reported by Jones and where a nuclear gene for restoring fertility in Clarke in1943. Male sterility in carrot was first the male sterile line is known. The fertility reported by Welch and Grimball in 1947. Male restorer gene, RR is dominant and is found in sterility in pepper was first documented by

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 certain strain of the species or may be 2. Cucurbitaceous vegetables transferred from a related species. The sterility factor is determined by interaction of nuclear The cucurbit vegetables have larger size of genes and cytoplasm but none of them singly male and female flowers and allow following can control sterility. This type of sterility is other systems of pollination control strategies. reported in carrot, onion, chilli, capsicum and Most of the genetic male sterile mutants in Brassica napus. cucurbits are monogenic recessive. There are several male sterile types are identified, but Role of male sterility in vegetable crops commercial exploitation is still lacking. Among the cucurbits male sterility is commercially 1. Chilli (Capsicum annuum L.): In chilli, the exploited and utilized in musk melon. Five Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) has male sterile genes (ms-1, ms-2, ms-3, ms4, and developed MS-12 line, which carries genetic ms-5) have been identified in melon (Cucumis male sterility (GMS) controlled by recessive melo L.) and all of them are recessive and non- gene (msms). The male sterile line (MS-12) was allelic. In a greenhouse study (24°C night, 32°C developed by transferring sterility gene (ms- day), it has been observed that male-sterile 509, renamed as ms-10) from capsicum plants in ms-1 and ms-2 progenies are difficult (imported from France) into the cultivar to identify as the aberrant flowers are „Punjab Lal‟ through back crossing (Singh and observed on genetically fertile siblings and thus Kaur, 1986). By using this male sterile line (MS- the expression of these genes is unstable 12), PAU has released two chilli hybrids viz. CH- (McCreight, 1984), which could lead to genetic 1 (Hundal and Khurana, 1993) and CH-3 impurity in F1 hybrid seed. In India, male- (Hundal and Khurana, 2001), showing heterosis sterile gene ms-1 was introduced in 1978 and of 80- 100% and out yielded all the used to release two commercial cultivars recommended chilli varieties. The male sterile „Punjab Hybrid‟ (Nandpuri et al., 1982) and line (female), MS-12, is common in both these „Punjab Anmol‟ (Lal et al., 2007). The first male hybrids. The male parents are Ludhiana Local sterility in Watermelon, Citrullus lanatus Selection (LLS) and Selection-2530 (S- 2530) in (Thunb.) was reported by Watts (1962) who CH-1 and CH-3, respectively. On the basis of found a male sterile mutant in the X2 their high yield potential, multiple disease generation of 'Sugar Baby' irradiated with resistance and quality attributes, their gamma rays. The mutant was described as a acceptance has been very fast and, glabrous male sterile (gms) due to the consequently, the acreage under chilli associated lack of hairs on the plant foliage increased about 3 folds in the last 6-7 years in (Watts, 1962). Glabrousness and male sterility Punjab State and is likely to increase further in were inherited together as a single recessive the near future. There is great acceptance of nuclear gene, suggesting very close linkage or a CH-1 in other states especially Haryana and pleiotropic effect of the locus involved (Watts, Rajasthan. 1967). The gms gene not only disrupts the male

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 reproductive function, but also reduces female from broccoli to cauliflower. In India this sterile reproduction (Watts, 1967). Therefore, there cytoplasm from broccoli was transferred and has been little commercial application of the established in three different maturity genetic gms gene (Zang et al., 1994). backgrounds of Indian cauliflowers viz., early, mid and mid late through hybridization. Cole crops (Brassica oleracea L.) The curd yield is increased 40-75% compared In cole crops, F1 hybrids are advantages to SI system from different maturity groups especially in uniform maturity, high early and (Pritam Kalia, 2008). Recently Ogura based total yield, better curd/ head quality with CMS lines developed in snowball cauliflower respect to compactness, color, resistance to viz., Ogu1A, Ogu2A and Ogu3A for hybrid insect- pests, diseases and heat tolerance. In development in cauliflower. In India, IARI Brassica oleracea L. first CMS system was regional station Katrain develops two cabbage developed by Pearson (1972) through inter- hybrids H-64 and KCH-4 using cytoplasmic male specific hybridization between B. nigra and B. sterility. oleracea var italica. Back crosses were also made between the amphidiploids and cabbage Carrot (Daucus carota L.) cultivar Green Globe and from these materials Pearson established two CMS systems, viz., Cytoplasmic male sterility in carrot can occur petaloid and vestigial anther male sterility. in two morphologically distinct phenotypes. Flowers of petaloid male sterile plants were Brown anther type: The brown anther (ba) less attractive to the pollinating insects, since male sterility was first discovered in the pistils were enlarged, malformed and were cultivar Tendersweet and reported by Welch lacking in nectarines (Pearson, 1972). In and Grimball in 1947. The results of Hanshe vestigial anther types, although flowers were and Gabelman (1963), and Banga et al., (1964) smaller, normal and with functional nectarines, suggested that expression of the brown anther homozygous plants could not be recovered sterility was due to a homozygous recessive even after six generations of backcrossing in locus Ms5 or a dominant allele for Ms4, but broccoli (Dickson, 1975). dominant allele of either of the two Ogura cytoplasm complimentary loci would restore the fertility.

CMS has been reported in an identified cultivar Petaloid male sterility: Petaloid sterility is of Japanese radish by Ogura (1968) and first commercially used for hybrid seed production alloplasm was introduced by introgression of in the world. It is homeotic mutation. This is this sterility cytoplasm to Brassica oleraceae manifested as the replacement of stamens genome through repeated backcrosses with with petals (white petaloidy) or both stamens broccoli (Bannerot et al., 1974). Later Dickson and petals with green bract like structures (1975) and Hoser- Krauze (1987) transferred it (green petaloidy) (Kitagawa et al., 1994). It is

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 stable across a wide range of environments (Jones and Emsweller, 1936) and male sterility through flowering and seed production. CMS was under the control of single recessive system has been established for the first time nuclear restorer locus (Jones and Clarke, in asiatic carrot germplasm in India at IARI. The 1943).The first CMS source in onion was CMS-S first public sector tropical carrot hybrid Pusa type. This CMS source is more likely an alien Vasudha has been developed by IARI, New cytoplasm and differs from N cytoplasm for Delhi. This male sterility utilized and developed many polymorphisms in the chloroplast and a first in temperate carrot hybrid Pusa mitochondrial genome. The CMS-S system has Nayanjyothi, at IARI regional station, Katrain. been widely used because of its stability in CMS was introduced in to carrot breeding various environments. The CMS line (S ms/ms) materials, provides a very efficient tool for and its near isogenic maintainer line (N ms/ms) mass scale pollination control. are essential to breed the F1 hybrid using the CMS system. Worldwide more than 50% onion Radish (Raphanus sativus L.) varieties currently cultivated are F1 hybrids As in all other cruciferae members, cytoplasmic derived from S-cytoplasm. In India, the work male sterility is reported in radish also. Ogura gained momentum in the eighties at IIHR cytoplasm was first identified in Japanese (Bangalore), IARI (New Delhi) and MPKV radish and is controlled by single recessive (Rahuri). At IARI, male sterility was found in a gene and this is one which is extensively commercial variety Pusa Red. Only two studied and is used for the production of hybrids, Arka Kirtiman and Arka Lalima have hybrid seeds in radish. Male sterility been released by IIHR after development of expressions in the most of the populations CMS lines along with the maintainer. have been reported to be stable, except on The research on male sterility in vegetables is some population reversible temperature effect a never ending process due to rapid has been reported by Nieuwhof (1990). advancement of molecular techniques and Bulb crops – Onion (Allium cepa L.) their implementation. Substantial progress has been made in understanding the mechanism of First CMS plant was reported within the male sterility in selected vegetable crops. progenies of an onion cultivar Italian Red

REFERENCES

[1]. Banga, O., Petiet, J. and Van Bennekom, J. L. 1964. Genetical analysis of male sterility in carrots, Daucus carota L. Euphytica 13: 75-93. [2]. Bannerot, H., Boulidard, L., Cauderon, Y. and Temp, J. 1974. Transfer of cytoplasmic male sterility from Raphanus sativus to Brassica oleraceae. In: Proc. Eucarpia Meet. Cruciferae, Scott. Hort. Res. Inst., Dundee. Pp.52-54.

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[3]. De LC and Bhattacharjee SK. 2011. Handbook of Vegetable Crops. Pointer Publisher, Jaipur. Pp.76-81. [4]. Dickson, M. H. 1975. G1117A, G1102A and G1106A cytosterile broccoli inbreds. HortScience 10: 535. [5]. Geng, S. S., Chen, B. and Zhang, X.F. 2005. A new hot pepper F1 hybrid “Jingla No. 2”. China Veg. 10/11: 41-42. [6]. Hansche, P. E. and Gabelman, W. H. 1963. Digenic control of male sterility in carrots, Daucus carota L. Crop Sci. 3: 383-386. [7]. Hoser- Krauze, J. and Antosik, J. 1987. Horticultural value and seed setting of cytoplasmic male sterile cauliflower line with Raphanus sativus CMS (Bannerot). Eucarpia Cruciferae Newsl. 12: 34. [8]. Hundal, J. S. and Khurana, D. S. 1993. „CH1‟-A new hybrid of chilli. Prog. Fmg. 29: 11-13. Hundal, J. S. and Khurana, D. S. 2001. A new hybrid of chilli „CH-3‟- Suitable of Vegetable Research) 2013. Vision 2050. Pp 1. IARI (Indian Agriculture Research for processing. J. Res. Punjab agric. Univ. 39 (2): 326. IIVR (Indian Institute Institute) 2013. Annual report 2012-2013. Pp 19. [9]. Johns, H. A. and Clarke, A. E. 1943. The story of hybrid onion. Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 43: 189- 194. [10]. Jones, H. A. and Emsweller, S. L. 1936. A Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci (2017) 6(7): 134- 141 [11]. Male sterile onion. Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 63: 443. [12]. Kalloo, G. 1988. Vegetable Breeding. Vol. I. CRC Press, Inc., Flordida. 23 p. [13]. Kitagawa, J., Gerrath, J., Posluszny, U. and Wolyn, D. J. 1994. Developmental and morphological analysis of homeotic cytoplasmic male sterile and fertile carrot flowers. Sex. Plant Reprod. 7: 4150. [14]. Kumar, S., Singh, V., Singh, M., Rai, S.K., Kumar, S., Rai, M. and Kalloo, G. 2007. Genetics and distribution of fertility restoration associated RAPD markers in pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Hort. Sci. 111: 197-202. [15]. Lal, T., Vashisht, V. and Dhillon, N. P. S. 2007. Punjab Anmol – A new hybrid of muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.). J. Res. Punjab agric. Univ. 44: 83. [16]. Nandpuri, K. S., Singh, S. and Lal, T. 1982. „Punjab Hybrid‟ a variety of muskmelon. Prog. Fmg. 18: 3-4. [17]. Nieuwhof, M. 1961. Male sterility in brusselsprout, cauliflower and cabbage. Euphytica 10: 351-356. [18]. Nieuwhof, M. 1990. Cytoplasmic-genetic male sterility in radish (Raphanus sativus L.), identification of maintainer, inheritance of male sterility and effect of environmental factors. Euphytica 47: 171-177. [19]. Ogura, H. 1968. Studies of the male sterility in japanese radish with special referance to the utilisation of this sterility towards the practical raising of hybrid seeds. Meum. Fac. Agriculture, Kagoshima University. 6: 39-78.

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[20]. Pearson, O. H. 1972. Cytoplasmically inherited male sterility characters and flavor component from the species Brassica napus. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 392-402. [21]. Peterson, P. A. 1958. Cytoplasmically inherited male sterility in Capsicum. Am. Naturalist 92: 111-19. [22]. Singh, J. and Kaur, S. 1986. Present status of hot pepper breeding for multiple disease resistance in Punjab. Proceeding of VI EUCARPIA Meeting on Genetic and Breeding on Capsicum and Eggplant, Zaragoza (Spain). Pp.111-114. [23]. Stanghellini, M. S., Ambrose, J. T. and Schultheis, J. R. 1998. Seed production in watermelon: A comparison between two commercially available pollinators. Hort- Science 33:28–30. [24]. Watts, V. M. 1962. A marked male-sterile mutant in watermelon. Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 81: 498-505. [25]. Watts, V. M. 1967. Development of disease resistance and seed production in watermelon stocks carrying msg gene. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 91: 579-580. Walters, S. A. 2005. Honey bee pollination requirements for triploid watermelon. Hort Science 40:1268–1270. [26]. Welch, J. E. and Grimball, E. L. 1947. Male sterility in the carrot. Sci. 106: 594. [27]. Zhang, X. P., Skorupska, H. T. and Rhodes, B.B. 1994. Cytological expression in the male- sterile ms mutant in watermelon. J. Hered. 85: 279-285.

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Diseases of mushroom and their management Article id: 21533 H. V. Parmar* and H. B. Sodavadiya Ph.D. Scholar Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat.

The ‘mushroom’ or ‘toadstool’ which first fat. Edible mushroom also have significant attracted the attention of man towards fungi. content of vitamins B1, B2, B12, C, D and E Man, ‘the hungry creature of food’ soon (Heleno et al., 2010). Mushrooms are not only discovered that these mushrooms were edible source of nutrients but also have been and human use of mushrooms extent as early reported as therapeutic foods, useful in to 5000 BC., in fact the word mycology means preventing diseases such as hypertension, the study of mushrooms (mykes = mushrooms, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia and cancer logos = study). (Bobek, 1999). “Mushroom is a macro fungus with a The ultimate aim of each mushroom distinctive fruiting body, which can be either grower is the combined production of epigeous or hypogenous and large enough to mushrooms for human food, health care, be seen with naked eye and can be picked up animal feed and soil fertilizer to obtain a by hand” (Chang and Miles, 1997). The maximum yield of mushroom with excellent mushroom comprises of large heterogeneous quality and minimum expenses. Like all other group having various shapes, sizes, colors and crops, mushrooms are also affected adversely edibility. They lack the green pigment by a large number of biotic and abiotic factors. (chlorophyll) present in plants and grow on Among the biotic agents, fungi, bacteria, dead and decaying organic materials. viruses, nematodes, insects and mites cause Mushrooms have been important in human damage to mushrooms directly or indirectly. It history as food, as medicine, religion and in is important to see the first sign of mushroom folklore as ‘fairy egg’ and ‘witches egg’. diseases in time, and take measures to control Traditionally in India, Mushroom growth them. is carried out in a specific type of compost. The Diseases of mushroom straw of different cereals and grasses are  Fungal diseases utilized for composting according to availability  Bacterial diseases and cost. Long method and short methods are  Viral disease two methods for compost preparation.  Nematodes IMPORTANCE: Mushrooms have a great nutritional value; they are quite rich in protein Fungal diseases with an important content of essential (1) Dry bubble carbohydrates, amino acids, fibre and poor in Pathogen: Verticillium fungicola

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Common name: Verticillium disease, brown resembling like Small Brains. At maturity they spot, fungus spot, dry bubble. become pink, dry and reddish and finally Dry bubble is most common and serious fungal disintegrating into a powdery mass emitting disease of mushroom crop. If it is left chlorine like odour. uncontrolled, disease can totally destroy a crop in 2-3 weeks. (4) Green mould Symptoms: Muddy brown, often sunken spots Pathogen: Trichoderma viride, T. hamatum, T. on the cap of the mushrooms and greyish, harzianum T. koningii, Penicillium white mouldy growth seen on cap, if infection cyclopium, Aspergillus spp. takes place in an early stage, typical onion Common name: Trichoderma spot, shaped mushrooms are produced, remain Trichoderma blotch, Trichoderma mildew, small. Later stage mushroom becomes dry. Green mould One of the most common and destructive (2) Wet bubble disease in mushroom cultivation is the green Pathogen: Mycogone perniciosa mould which induce significant quantitative Common name: Wet bubble, White mould, and qualitative losses. bubble, Mycogone disease. Symptoms: Pure white growth of mycelium Symptoms: Fungus covers the mushroom with appear on casing surface or in compost which white mat of mycelium, which look like resembles to mushroom mycelium. Later on cauliflower and it becomes creamy brown after mycelial mat turns to green colour because of few days. Small amber (yellowish brown) to heavy sporulation of causal agent which is a dark brown drop of liquid develops on the characteristic symptom of the disease. surface of the undifferentiated tissue in very high humid conditions. At this stage an Bacterial diseases unpleasant odour comes out from the infected The bacterial diseases have been reported beds. from all over the world on fruit bodies of A. bisporus, A. bitorquis, Pleurotus species, (3) False truffle Volvarella species, Lentinus edodes, Pathogen: Diehliomyces microspores Flammulina velutipes and Auricularia species. Common name: Truffle disease False truffle is a limiting factor in the (1) Bacterial blotch production of A. bisporus in India because of its Pathogen: Pseudomonas tolaasii higher temperature requirements. Common name: Brown blotch, bacterial spot. Symptoms: Initially the colour of the mycelium Symptoms: Brown spots or blotches on the is white, gradually the mycelial growth become cap, In case of severe infection on the stipes thicker and develops into whitish, solid, circular or irregular yellowish spots develop on wrinkled, rounded to irregular fungal masses or near the margins of the cap which enlarges rapidly under favorable conditions and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 coalesce to form rich chocolate brown for nematodes. These nematodes survive in a blotches. state of anabiosis for up to two years, if the compost is dried gradually but they die if the (2) Mummy disease compost is dried rapidly. Pathogen: Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Symptoms: Fruit bodies have tilted caps and Common management strategies curved stalk. Base of the stem enlarged and Sanitation and hygiene: Proper hygiene and tissue of the mushroom becomes spongy giving sanitation are essential to avoid primary mummified appearance. Infection which includes use of clean compost, Many selective bacteriophages are effective pasteurization or sterilization of casing soil. against P. tolaasii. Spraying the casing soil with Floor for the preparation of compost should be a mixture of P. fluorescense and bacteriophage cemented or tiled and covered with a roof. is useful (Sharma et al., 2007). Regular cleaning, removal of cut mushroom Viral disease stems and young half dead mushrooms after Several viruses of different shapes and sizes each break before the fruit bodies turn brown have been reported on different mushrooms. and spores are ripe also rogue out the weed In India, virions measuring 29 nm and 35 nm in fungus to avoid its further spread. Initial diameter have been found associated with a infection can be checked by treating the virus disease of button mushroom. affected patches with formaldehyde (2%) When infected cultures were grown at 33°C for solution. Controlling temperature and humidity 2 weeks, and returned to 25°C, many of the helps in controlling the disease. Avoid latter showed normal growth and did not excessive watering. contain virus (Gandy and Hollings, 1962). Jatav et al. (2014) observed the effect Nematodes of temperature and relative humidity on Nematodes are one of the most dangerous development of dry bubble disease (V. pests of mushroom, which once enter the beds fungicola) of Agaricus bisporus. 100c cannot be eradicated completely, until and temperature and 70% relative humidity reduce unless crop beds are destroyed and disposed the disease while 200c temperature and 90% off completely. relative humidity favoured maximum disease. Total 21 nematode species have been reported He also observed effect of date of spawning on to be harmfully associated with mushroom the development of dry bubble (V. fungicola) cultivation from various parts of the world. In disease. Higher yield was recorded in 5th India, occurrences of species of Aphelenchoides October (early spawning) and lowest yield was composticola and Ditylenchus myceliophagus recorded in 25th October (late spawning). have been recorded from mushroom beds. Use of chemicals: There are only a limited Nematodes can swim easily in the surface film number of chemicals useful for mushrooms. of water in casing and compost and mycelium This is because mushrooms themselves are of the mushroom is favourable source of food fungi and most of the pathogens are also fungi

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 thereby making the choice of fungicides very substrate on incidence of Trichoderma viride difficult. Moreover because of short cropping and on yield of P. sajor-caju. Among five tested cycle, residual toxicity of different chemicals is fungicides Carbendazim at 0.05% showed 0% of great concern and it must be kept below the incidence of T. viride with 1216 g. yield tolerance limit. Mushrooms are very sensitive followed by Mancozeb at 0.05% showed to fumes, toxic gases and several chemicals. 11.49% incidence of T. viride with 1090 g. yield. Bhatt and Singh (2001) studied efficacy Pervez et al. (2012) studied in vitro of fungicides for fungal patch treatment against efficacy of ethanol extract of various botanicals three mushroom diseases viz, dry bubble, wet on inhibition of mycelial growth of Trichoderma bubble and cobweb disease in mushroom beds harzianum. Among tested eight extracts of A. bisporus. Among five fungicides against Lantana camara showed 51.25% inhibition three diseases wet bubble, dry bubble and cob over control followed by neem with 47.75% web disease, in wet bubble disease prochloraz inhibition over control. at 150 ppm showed 12.00 kg q-1 compost yield followed by carbendazim + formaldehyde at CONCLUSION 75+100 ppm showed 10.63 kg q-1 compost Mushroom is a macro fungus which is rich in yield, while in cobweb disease carbendazim at nutrients and possesses medicinal properties 150 ppm showed 14.02 kg q-1 compost yield and during cultivation of mushroom, various followed by carbendazim + formaldehyde at pathogens causing different diseases. Hygiene 75+100 ppm showed 13.17 kg q-1 compost and sanitation play a major role in the yield and in dry bubble disease prochloraz at management of these diseases while proper 150 ppm showed 15.00 kg q-1 compost yield temperature, moisture, ventilation are also followed by carbendazim at 150 ppm showed important. Various fungicides and plant 14.00 kg q-1 compost yield. extracts are also effective in increasing the Jamir and Kabitarani (2007) studied on yield of mushroom as well as in the comparative effects of fungicide dip of management of some diseases.

DISEASES OF MUSHROOM

Dry bubble Wet bubble False Truffle

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Cob web Green mould Brown plaster mould

Nematode infected casing Bacterial blotch Mummy disease soil

COMMON CULTIVATED SPECIES OF MUSHROOM

Agaricus bisporus Pleurotus spp Volvariella (Button Mushroom) (Oyster/Dhingri mushroom) (Paddy straw mushroom)

Lentinus edodes Calocybe indica Flammulina velutipes (Shitake/shiang-gu) (Milky mushroom)

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REFERENCES [1]. Bhatt V. and Singh R. (2001). Edible mushroom of the northwestern himalaya. Mycosphere. 5(3): 440-461. [2]. Bobek P. (1999). Effect of oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) in rabbit, Nahrung. 43:339. [3]. Chang S., and Miles P. (1997). Mushroom Biology: Concise Basics and Current Developments. World Scientific Publishing. pp: 1-9. [4]. Gandy D. and Hollings M. (1962). Viruses associated with a die back disease of cultivated mushrooms. Nature. 196: 962-965. [5]. Heleno S., Barros L., Sousa M. and Martins A. (2010). Tocopherols composition of portuguese wild mushrooms with antioxidant capacity. Food Chem. 119: 1443-1450. [6]. Jamir S. and Kabitarani S. (2007). Effect of fungicide on incidence of Trichoderma in pleurotus sajor kaju. Mycoscience. 18(2): 5-9. [7]. Jatav, N., Rana, R., Agarwal, V., Tiwari, G. and Koli, R. (2014). Effect of temperature relative humidity and date of spawning on development of dry bubble disease in white button mushroom. Mushroom research. 23 (2): 221-224. [8]. Pervez, Z., Islam, M. and Islam, S. (2012). Evaluation of some plant extracts in controlling green mould associated with substrate of oyster mushroom. Bangladesh Research Publications Journal. 7(3): 194-200. [9]. Sharma, S., Kumar S. and Sharma V. (2007). Diseases and competitor moulds of mushrooms and their management. DMR-Solan. Pp. 1-81.

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Technological interventions for climate resilient agriculture Article id: 21534 Bishal Mukherjee Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal

ABSTRACT importance for protecting livelihoods of small Planned adaptation is essential to and marginal farmers. increase the resilience of agricultural production to climate change. Several improved INTRODUCTION agricultural practices evolved over time for Enhancing the resilience of Indian diverse agro-ecological regions in India have agriculture to meet with climate changes potential to enhance climate change and variability is imperative to the adaptation, if deployed properly. Climate livelihood security of millions of poor and change is recognized to be one of the most marginal farmers in the country. Climate serious challenges facing mankind today. change is recognized to be one of the most Climate change will affect irrigation water serious challenges facing mankind today. demand of crops via changes in physiology and Climate change pertains to increase in phenology, soil water balances, atmospheric concentration of carbon evapotranspiration and effective precipitation. Some important technological interventions for dioxide (CO2) and global warming. Present ensuring crop security and sustainable day atmospheric CO2 level ranges around agriculture are rejuvenation of farming in 395 ppm which is a significant increase over cyclone and flood prone coastal agro- the pre-industrial level of 280 ppm. ecosystems through land shaping, community Increase in the concentration of paddy nursery as a contingency measure for carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases delayed planting, alternative wetting and drying in the atmosphere will certainly affect (AWD) System for rice, direct seeded rice for hydrological regimes. Agriculture is the promoting water use efficiency, Drought major user of the available fresh water. tolerant paddy cultivars to tackle deficit rainfall Climate change impacts on the availability condition, Short duration crop varieties suitable of future water resources are uncertain, but for late sowings, crop diversification for livelihood security, flood tolerant varieties, the frequency of extremes (floods and water catch ponds etc. Enhancing resilience of droughts) is expected to increase (Narula agriculture to climate risk is of paramount and Lall, 2009).

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The decline in water availability may affect the agricultural productivity as well as national economy also. A consequence of increased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is the entrapment of heat within the earth's atmosphere leading to an alarming rate of global warming. Global average increase in mean annual temperatures is estimated at 0.8°C till now. Increased frequency in occurrence of extreme weather events such as cyclones, heat wave, cold wave, frost and hail storm over short periods exert adverse influence on crop performance. Besides that climate change will affect irrigation water demand of crops via changes in physiology and phenology, soil water balances, evapotranspiration and effective precipitation. Farmers need to intelligently adapt to the changing climate in order to sustain crop yields and farm income. Enhancing resilience of agriculture to climate risk is of paramount importance for protecting livelihoods of small and marginal farmers.

Technological innovation 1: Rejuvenation of farming in cyclone and flood prone coastal agro- ecosystems through land shaping

Farmers in this village predominantly practice paddy-fallow cropping system. During the rabi-summer season, scarcity of water for irrigation and soil salinity are the main problems limiting the possibility of a second crop. In order to overcome submergence during kharif, salinity problem in rabi and augment availability of irrigation water during the rabi-summer season, an engineering solution was promoted by the KVK, Nimpith. Land shaping for rainwater harvesting, utilization & integration of farm enterprises can be some effective options. These innovative techniques can be helpful in coastal regions of West Bengal, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu.

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Technological innovation 2: Community paddy nursery as a contingency measure for delayed planting Establishing a staggered community nursery was explored as a local adaptation strategy at the village level to combat the problem experienced by farmers during deficit rainfall seasons in lowlands. This technique involves raising a staggered community nursery under assured irrigation in the village at an interval of 2 weeks. In the anticipation of a two weeks delay in monsoon the first nursery is taken up as a contingency measure by 15 June Fig. Alternate Wetting and drying with the long duration variety (>140 days) in method in rice cultivation order to transplant 3-4 weeks old seedlings by first fortnight of July. If the monsoon delay extends by 4 weeks, the second nursery is raised with medium duration varieties (125-135 days) by 1st July to supply 3-4 weeks old seedlings for transplanting in the 3 or 4 week of July. Community nursery was demonstrated in 565 ha covering 1274 farmers in Ropar (Punjab); Saran, Jehanabad, Nawada, Saran (Bihar); Chatra, Gumla, Koderma (Jharkhand); Umain, Ri-bhoi (Meghalaya); Linglei (Mizoram); Dhubri (Assam); Sonepur (Odisha); Dantewada (Chhattisgarh) etc. and had an yield advantage of 9.4 to 80.2% compared to traditional practices.

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Technological innovation 3: Alternative Technological innovation 4: Direct seeded Wetting and Drying (AWD) System for rice rice for promoting water use efficiency There is also much evidence that Researchers have developed water scarcity already prevails in rice suitable direct seeding alternatives to growing areas, where rice farmers need transplanted paddy. In case of delay in technologies to cope with water shortage monsoon or shortage of water, DSR gives and ways must be sought to grow rice with the farmer flexibility to take up direct lesser amount of available water (Tuong sowing of paddy with a suitable duration and Bouman, 2002). Rice systems such as variety to fit into the left over season. This alternative wetting and drying (AWD) allows timely sowing of the succeeding rabi system, bed planting, aerobic culture, wheat. Direct seeding of rice is done with a system of rice intensification (SRI) and zero till drill. The quantity of seed required ground-cover rice production system is 20-25 kg/ha compared to transplanted (GCRPS) are very effective in this regard. paddy which required 60-80 kg/ha. DSR Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) is a with reduced tillage is an efficient resource type of water-saving rice production system conservation technology that holds great where the field is irrigated with enough promise in the Indo-Gangetic Plains in view water to flood the paddy for 3-5 days, and of the following advantages: as the water soaks into the soil, the surface is then allowed to dry for 2-4 days before  Saving in water up to 25% in DSR. getting re-flooded. Key points of this  Saving of 35 to 40 man days / ha. technology are to Transplant 2-3-week-old  Enhanced fertilizer use efficiency due to seedlings into puddled soil and keep a placement of fertilizer in the root zone. standing water layer of 5 cm in the field.  Early maturity of crops by 7-10 days Install a PVC pipe (20 cm in diameter and 40 helps in timely sowing of succeeding cm in length) with holes (5 mm in diameter crops. spaced at 2 cm) in the rice field (15 cm  Reduction in methane emissions and above and 25 cm below the soil surface) global warming potential. after transplanting to monitor groundwater.  Little disturbance to soil structure. Start AWD at 10 days after transplanting Direct seeded rice is relatively more popular and allow the field to dry out. Continue in the rainfed rice growing states like AWD cycles after flowering until harvest. Chhattisgarh.

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Technological innovation 5: Drought tolerant paddy cultivars to tackle deficit rainfall condition

In recent years, deficit rainfall in July is conditions. Increasing frequency of rainfall affecting the timely transplanting of paddy in changes leading to early, mid and late season the eastern region in several rainfed districts droughts is affecting the production of these in Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha. However, due crops grown under resource constrained to deficit rainfall situation in July, farmers situations. Improved high yielding short wait for transplanting till August. This results duration varieties along with proper in low productivity and can affect the timely management practices are to be introduced sowing of succeeding rabi crop on the same and promoted so as to improve the resilience land. The remedy therefore lies in the of farming in the drought prone areas. Short promotion of stress tolerant paddy varieties duration varieties of pulse and oilseed crops of shorter duration that are amenable both need to be included in the seed supply chain for transplanting and direct sowing. Short for making them available under NFSM. duration and drought tolerant varieties fit well into contingency plans for all types of farming situations (upland, midlands and Technological innovation 7: Crop lowlands) prevalent in the eastern states. diversification for livelihood security However, short duration varieties serve as best bet options for drought proofing in In scarce rainfall zones of India, rainfed rice cultivation as they provide a practice of sole cropping is predominant but significant yield advantage in drought years is risky and often results in low yields or over the traditional long duration varieties. sometimes even in crop failure due to erratic Yield advantage with these varieties in monsoon rainfall and skewed distribution. In drought years ranged between 8.3 to 38.4% such areas intercropping is a feasible option with a benefit cost ratio of 1.5 to 3.2 when to minimize risk in crop production, ensure compared to the existing practice of growing reasonable returns at least from the intercrop long duration varieties. Scope exists for and also improve soil fertility with a legume promotion and up-scaling of drought tolerant intercrop. Cotton, soybean, pigeon pea and varieties in the rainfed areas in Bihar, millets are the major crops in the scarce Jharkhand, Odisha, Jharkhand and the north- rainfall zones. Intercropping of these crops is eastern states. more profitable and is a key drought preventing strategy. In contingency situations Technological innovation 6: Short duration such as delay in onset of monsoon, adoption crop varieties suitable for late sowings of intercropping for delayed plantings can be Pulse and oilseed crops are remunerative instead of sole cropping. predominantly grown under rainfed

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Technological innovation 8: Flood tolerant improving drainage facilities, farmers can also varieties impart resilience to farmers in mitigate this problem by adopting flood flood-prone areas tolerating varieties of crops. Rice varieties like Swarna-sub1, MTU-1010, MTU-1001 and Flooding is a major challenge for rice MTU-1140 are high yielding with good grain production in the country. Heavy and intense quality apart from possessing submergence rainfall events cause flash floods due to tolerance and perform better under flood overflow of rivers and canals or sometimes situation. Flood tolerant varieties of paddy tidal movements in coastal areas. Continuous were demonstrated in 232 ha covering 957 high rainfall in a short span leading to water farmers in Jehanabad, Supaul (Bihar); logging and heavy rainfall with high speed Coochbehar, Nimpith (West Bengal), Dhubri winds in a short span due to cyclonic storms (Assam), West Tripura (Tripura) etc. and an cause inundation of paddy fields and lodging impressive yield advantage of 18-77% was of the crop at grain filling and maturity stages observed compared to other varieties. causing huge losses to the farmer. Apart from

Technological innovation 9: Water catch pond - low cost rainwater harvesting structures

Unavailability of adequate amount of water during the dry season is a serious problem for successful farming in high rainfall areas. This problem can be minimized by rainwater harvesting and its judicious use for crop production. Direct rainfall collection through water catch ponds/pits (Jalkund) can be highly beneficial to farmers for providing irrigation to crops during moisture scarcity conditions during dry seasons. Stored water can also be utilized for animal husbandry activities, Piggery, Poultry and Duckery. Fish rearing can also be taken up in the harvested water. Harvested water can be used for cultivating high value vegetable crops such as Brinjal, Chilly, Tomato, Radish, Amaranthus, Coriander, and Cowpea etc.

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Technological innovation 10: System of Rice Intensification (SRI)

The system of rice intensification was developed in Madagascar by Henri de Lau Lanie in association with NGO- association Tefy Saina (ATS) and many small farmers in the 1980s is becoming popular in many countries including India. SRI is a system rather than a technology. It is based on the insight that rice has the potential to produce more tillers and early transplanting along with optimal growth condition like wide spacing, optimum humidity, a vibrant healthy soil and aerobic soil conditions during vegetative growth can fulfill this potential. Water saving in SRI may be as high as 40 percent as compared to conventional practice. In a field trial at Directorate of Rice Research (Hyderabad, India), SRI gave 166 percent higher grain yield than normal transplanting method.

CONCLUSION Climate change impacts on agriculture are being witnessed all over the world, but countries like India are more vulnerable in view of the huge population dependent on agriculture and thus excessive pressure on natural resources. Since agriculture makes up roughly 15% of India's GDP, a 4.5 to 9.0% negative impact on production implies cost of climate change to be roughly at 1.5% of GDP per year. So, for mitigating such problems, some village level technical improvisations like building resilience in soil, climate adaptive cropping systems, rainwater harvesting and recycling, crop contingency planning, livestock and fisheries interventions, research institutional interventions are immediately needed. The adoption of newer and scientific technologies can be so much beneficial for improving farmers’ income and national economy. REFERENCES: [1]. Narula, K.K. and Lall, U. 2009. Challenges in Securing India's Water Future. Journal of Crop [2]. Improvement 24 (1): 85-91. [3]. Tuong TP and Bouman BAM 2002. Rice production in water scarce environments. Paper presented at the Water Productivity Workshop, 12-14 November 2001, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

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Climatic requirement of cashew Article id: 21535 Babli Mog * ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, D.K. 574202, Karnataka

Cashew, a hardy tropical tree crop, has resulted in deficiencies of major nutrients gained considerable importance in Indian and also depletion of available soil nutrients Horticulture due to its multiple roles such as and soil organic carbon content due to low valuable foreign exchange earner and or unbalanced fertilization with reduced nut upliftment of economic conditions of small yield. and marginal farmers by employment opportunities. However, the low Replacement of senile or seedling productivity, shortfall in domestic originated cashew orchards with improved production to meet the demand of varieties, adoption of proper management domestic industries and drainage of practices and identifying most suitable valuable foreign exchange for importing areas for its growth are few approaches for raw nuts from other countries are the major Indian cashew sector to become self setbacks for cashew production and sufficient in production. Maharashtra, Goa productivity in India. Hence, it is essential and Karnataka along the west coast, and to consider cashew as a prospective crop of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and future and enhance production and West Bengal along the east coast are major productivity by extending its cultivation in cashew growing areas in India. However, it all the potential traditional and non- is now fast spreading even in nontraditional states. However, in spite of traditional areas such as Gujarat, economic importance of cashew, it is still a Jharkhand, North Eastern Hilly (NEH) neglected horticultural crop among farmers Region, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Bastar and usually grown on marginal soil, region of Chhattisgarh and Kolar (Plains) degraded land and also on wasteland. region of Karnataka. While selecting any Acidity, poor soil fertility and nutrient new area, land suitability and climate play mining are the characteristics features of an important role in achieving sustainable bulk of cashew growing soils in India. These production.

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Table 1: Environmental rating for selection of site suitable for cashew growth Parameter Very good Good Fair Poor Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V Altitude (m) <25 25-250 250-500 500-750 >750 Rainfall 1200- 900-1200 700-900 500-700 <500 (mm/year) 2500 Maximum 33-37 37-39 39-41 41-43 >43 temperature (summer) (0C) Minimum 16-18 13-16 10-13 8-10 <8 temperature (winter) (0C) Max relative 70-75 75-80 80-85 85-90 >90 humidity (%) Min relative 70-75 60-70 30-60 25-30 <25 humidity (%) (Source: Devanandam, 1983; Mishra, 1984)

Cashew is generally grown as rainfed crop along neglected lands unsuitable for other crops. With climate change there may be variation in yields, flowering, fruit setting, nut development, kernel quality, diseases and water stress.

Temperature: cultivation since large proportion of cashew The mean annual temperature for the country plantation exists in Eastern and Western as a whole has risen by 0.56 0C during 1901- coastal region of India. There was a significant 2009. Since 1990, the minimum temperature is variation in heat unit requirement of cashew steadily rising and rate of its rise is slightly more depending upon genotype. It was interesting to than that of maximum temperature (IMD note that early season types require less heat Annual Climate Summary, 2009). Cashew is a units (1953 day oC) while late season type tropical plant and thrives at high temperatures. requires more heat units (2483 day oC) and the Though cashew exhibits tolerance to wide heat units (2245 day oC) requirement of the range of temperature, the optimum monthly mid season types are intermediary. temperature is between 24°C to 28°C. High temperature (>34.4°C) and low relative Relative humidity humidity (<20%) during afternoon causes Cashew requires a mild humid tropical climate. drying of flowers. The sea water level rise due The humidity of suitable region ranged from to melting of glaciers as a result of increase in 60-80%. The variation in relative humidity temperature may pose problem for cashew during pre-flowering period influences the yield

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 of cashew. Excessive relative humidity is also well defined dry season for 4-5 month. Dry spell unfavourable to cashew as it favours the from January to May with occasional light summer growth of fungi such as Collectortrichum rains ensure better cashew productivity. On an gloeosporoides, which may seriously affect average, a dry spell of seven days may require 30 cashew in humid areas. Humid climate also days prior to bud break along with a minimum bright sunshine of six hours per day. The dry spell tend to harbour more insect pests than dry with bright sunshine may have stimulatory effect on climates. triggering the hormonal activities leading to bud break. The soil moisture stress has no relevance as Rainfall the bud break of cashew begins much earlier before It is often stated that cashew can be grown soil moisture stress starts. However, the influence under rainfed ranging from 50 to 400 cm, but of dry spell and bright sunshine in the mechanism of can stand extremes of rainfall from 30cm to bud break of cashew is yet to be understood. 400cm as seen in the East and West coasts of India. Cashew can be resistant to drought, but Altitude and Latitude only under conditions where its roots can Cashew is grown up to about 1000m, but in Assam( penetrate deeply into the soil and draw from India) at 250 North, it was found that altitude water reserves that are not available to other exceeding 700m above sea level were not favourable to the crop. The minimum temperature crops. In clayey soils, where cashew penetrates should not drop below 70 C. lower the temperature with difficulty and the root system is less as higher altitudes affect the development of the developed, cashew may suffer from drought in trees. In India across the west coast at lower the dry season, while in the same region; on latitudes, cashew is spread from coastal belt to hill deep sandy soils trees may not be affected. The slopes, extending up to 1000m (AMSL). The cashew volume of available soil per tree and the water cultivation is also extended in the extreme holding capacity of that soil, as well as the Southeast of Chhattisgarh (Jagadalpur) and the possibility for the roots to reach the prelatic inland plateau of Karnataka (Chintamani). There is a level are the three most important factors significant gap in cashew yield across the cashew determining the performance of cashew in the tract of India, as it is highly sensitive to weather. dry season. Cashew is a crop of tropics. In India cashew exists across the west and east coasts of India from A well distributed rainfall during growing South to North, lying between 09oS and 23oN and pre-flowering phase (from September to latitude. Though it grows beyond 23oN of latitude in November) favours higher productivity (Venugopal north eastern States of India, the area under and Khader, 1991). Any unusual rains during cashew is less and its contribution in terms of November and December inordinately delay the production is relatively low. The cashew tract lies reproductive phase of late season varieties (Rao, within the tropical belt of India as a tropical crop as 1994; Rao, 1999). Prolonged and unseasonal rainfall the low night temperature during the reproductive accompanies with high velocity wind during flushing phase (December to February) may not be and flowering period of cashew adversely affect the conductive in subtropics. yield (Yadukumar et al., 2010). Cashew also need

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Sunlight 80 %) when compared to the North (20 to 40%) of a Cashew is a sun-loving tree and probably does not cashew tree. tolerate excessive shade. Sunshine on the west coast of India averages above 9 hr/day from It was also noticed that there was a delay of December to May with reduced sunshine during the one week to ten days in all the biotic events of S.W & N.E monsoons from June to November. cashew towards North within the cashew tree. Also, cashew appears to be photosensitive as the Day length reproductive phase is confined to season bound, Equal day and night lengths are most favourable to varying between October and May across West and cashew. Flowering of cashew is more influenced by East coasts of India. However, the harvest (<10- the occurrence of rainy and dry seasons than by 20%) falls in June/July at higher altitudes length of day light. In regions with two dry seasons, (Ambalavayal and Chintamani).Of course, the de- the cashew may flower throughout the year. In colouration of nut, its weight and quality will be regions with a well defined dry season, flowering very poor as regular rains start by that time. Though occurs only once at the beginning of the dry season. the delays in bud break and flowering was seen The south-west (S.W) monsoon on the west coast is towards North (Bapatla, Bhubaneswar and preceded by a prolonged dry spell of five to six Jhargram), the crop matures early and ends up by months. The coolest months are December and the end of April or fi rst week of May. This could be January when the average minimum temperature attributed to high maximum temperature (35 to varies around 20o C. On the east coast maximum 40oC) that prevails during the summer (March to rainfall is received by north east monsoon. Average May). It appears that cashew is not only minimum temperature varies around 17o C during photosensitive but also thermo sensitive as the December to January in this region. The maximum biotic events responds to low minimum and high temperature during the summer months varies maximum temperatures. around 32-34o C on the west coast and around 34- 38oC on the east coast. Points to remember The climatic factors which influence cashew are as Phototropism in Cashew follows: Cashew shows a tendency to grow more towards South in response to sunlight in the Northern  Dry spell during flowering and fruit setting Hemisphere. The biotic events on direction wise ensures better harvest indicated that there was a clear-cut difference in  Cloudy weather during flowering enhances the number of flushes produced, number of scorching of flowers due to tea mosquito panicles and the number of fruits set/m2 within the infestation. canopy of cashew tree. The branches of cashew in  Heavy rain during flowering and fruit set South produced maximum number of fruits decreases production (54.28/m2), followed by West (44.43/m2) and East  High temperatures (39-42o C) during the (42.57/m2). The biotic events occurred towards marble stage of fruit-development causes North was the least. It showed the cashew responds fruit drop well to sunlight which indicated that it has a  Cashew performs better when the period of predominant phototropism character. Interestingly, drought is shorter. harvest was estimated to be more in South (60 to

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Future thrusts  Research work needs to be strengthened on  Need to generate detailed information on nutrient constraints in cashew growing soils soil scenario of cashew growing regions in and their remedial measures India and to develop nutrient diagnostic  Development of climate resilient agro- norms in cashew growing soils techniques in order to suit unfavourable abiotic stresses

REFERENCES [1]. Devanandam, M. (1983). Soils for cashew. Cashew Causerie, 5(1): 1-6 [2]. Mishra, R.C. (1984). Land suitability classification of cashew I The Criteria. Cashew Causerie, 6(4): 12-20 [3]. IMD. (2009). Annual Climate Summary (2009). Published by National Climate Centre, Pune [4]. Venugopal, K. and Khader, K. B. A. (1991). Effect of soil and climate on the productivity of cashew. Ind. Cashew J., 20(3): 19-24 [5]. Rao, G.S.L.H.V.P and Gopakumar, C.S. (1994). Climate and cashew. The Cashew, 8(4): 3-9 [6]. Rao, G.S.L.H.V.P. (1999). Weather inflicted damage on cashew production- a remedy. The Cashew, 3(4): 36- 43 [7]. Yadukumar, N., Raviprasad, T. N. and Bhat, M.G. (2010). Effect of climate change on yield and insect pests incidence on cashew. Challenges of Climate Change - Indian Horticulture. (Eds.) Singh, H. P., Singh, J. P. and Lal, S. S. Westville Publishing House, New Delhi. pp.224 [8]. Cashew: Production, Processing and Utilization of By-products: Directorate of Cashewnut and Cocoa Development [9]. The cashew by P .L. Saroj and K. R. M. Swamy

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Scientific cultivation of dragon fruit Article id: 21536 Jitendra Kumar, Mohit Lal and Atul Yadav Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science And Horticulture, College of Horticulture and Forestry NDUAT., Kumarganj, Ayodhya- 224229

Scientific name: Hylocereus Undatus Family: Cactaceae Origin: South America

Sweet pitayas come in three types, all with leathery, slightly leafy skin:  Hylocereus undatus, the white-fleshed pitahaya, is a species of Cactaceae and is the most cultivated species in the genus. It is used both as an ornamental vine and as a fruit crop - the pitahaya or dragon fruit. The native origin of the species has never been resolved.  Hylocereus costaricensis, the Costa Rican pitahaya or Costa Rica nightblooming cactus, is a cactus species native to Costa Rica and Nicaragua.The species is grown commercially for its pitahaya fruit, but is also an impressive ornamental vine with huge flowers.  Hylocereus megalanthus is a cactus species in the genus Hylocereus that is native to northern South America, where it is known, along with its fruit, by the name of Pitahaya. The species is grown commercially for its yellow fruit, but is also an impressive ornamental climbing vine with perhaps the largest flowers of all cacti.

Another name for dragon fruit: 1. Indonesia buah naga 2. Khmer sror kaa neak 3. Thai kaeo mangkon 4. Nanettika fruit 5. Kaktus madu 6. Long guo 7. Cereus triangularis 8. Thanh long 9. Strawberry Pear 10. Cactus fruit

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Dragon Fruit Image

INTRODUCTION – This fruit is famous in Major Types of Dragon Fruit: – There are 3 Thailand, Vietnam, Israel and Sri Lanka. In types dragon fruit based on their colour. India,commercial cultivation of this fruit is 1. Red colour fruit with white colour flesh. picking up and market price of this fruit in India 2. Red colour fruit with red colour flesh. is 200 to 250 Rs / kg.This fruit cultivation is 3. Yellow colour fruit with white colour excellent in regions where less rainfall is flesh. expected. This fruit plant is treated as an ornamental plant as well as fruit producing Climate:- This fruit plant survives in poor soil plant. Dragon fruit is consumed as a fresh fruit conditions and temperature variations. or can be used in jams, ice creams, jelly However, tropical climatic region are best for its production, fruit juice and wine. This fruit also cultivation. This plant requires minimum annual used in face packs. rainfall of 50 cm and temperature about 20 °C to 30 °C. Too much of sunlight is not good for its Health Benefits of Dragon Fruit: – cultivation, in high sunlight areas, shading can  This fruit helps in lowering cholesterol. be provided for better yield.  This fruit is high in fats and proteins.  This fruit is a good source of Soil:- This fruit can be grown on wide range of antioxidants. soils from sandy loam to clay loam. However,  This fruit helps in controlling diabetes. sandy soils with good organic matter and  This fruit helps in preventing arthritis. internal drainage are best for its cultivation. Soil  This fruit helps in improving heart pH of 5.5 to 7 is best for Dragon fruit cultivation. health. Land Preparation:- Land should be ploughed till soil achieves the fine tilth and weed free. As

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 part of land/field preparation apply any organic the field. Pile up these cutting two days before compost in proportionate ratio. the potting.Then these cuttings should be potted with planting mixture of Dry cow dung: Propagation- The most common propagation Top soil: Sand as 1:1:2. Make sure these pots methodin dragon fruit Cultivation is by cuttings. are placed in shade before planting. Keep the However it can also be propagated by seeds. Plant-to-Plant space of 2 meter x 2 meter.Dig But as seeds take longer time and will not the pits size of 60 cm x 60 cm x 60 cm. These continue with mother plant characteristics, this pits should be filled with top soil and compost method is not suitable for commercial with 100grams of super phosphate. cultivation. You should get the plant cuttings from the quality mother plants. An about 20 cm Plant Density :- An about 1700 plants can be length cuttings should be used for planting in accommodated in 1 acre of land. Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 268 kcal (1,120 kJ)

Carbohydrates 82.14 g

Sugars 82.14 g

Dietary fiber 1.8 g

Protein 3.57 g † Vitamins Quantity%DV

Vitamin C 11% - 9.2 mg

Calcium 11% - 107 mg

Sodium 3% - 39 mg

Training of the plants:- To get the proper up right growth and development of the plant, Manures and Fertilizers- Organic Matter plays these should be supported by concrete or key role in dragon fruitdevelopment and wooden columns. Immature plant stems are growth. Each plant should be applied with 10 required to tie with these columns. Lateral to 15 kg of organic compost/organicfertilizers. shoots should be limited & 2 to 3 main stems Thereafter, increase the organic fertilizer should be allowed to grow.(Make sure the amount by 2 kg per year. This crop also lateral buds are from time to time). It is requiresinorganic fertilizers for vegetative recommended to have round/circular metal growth. In the Vegetative stage, this fertilizer frame to maintain the balanced dragon shrub.

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ratio is as follows. Muriate of potash: Super starts flowering in May to June month and phosphate: Urea = 40:90:70 grams /plant. bears fruits from Aug to Dec month.Dragon fruits become ready for harvesting after 1 Irrigation in Dragon Fruit Cultivation:- These month of flowering. Fruiting time continues plants require less water compared to other till December. plants. Picking up these fruits can be done up to 6 However at the time of planting, flowering, times within this period. Identifying fruit fruit development stage and hot dry climatic harvesting stage is verysimple as immature conditions, frequentirrigations are required. fruit colour is in bright green colour and will Drip irrigations can be used for effective water turn into red colour once it is ripened. usage. Exacttime for harvesting is after 3 to 4 days of Pests and Diseases:- There are no pests and colour change. But in case of exporting, they diseases found or reported indragon fruit should be harvested1 day after colour change. cultivation. Use the sickle or hand to pick the fruits.

Harvesting:- These plants start bearing fruits Yield:– An average yield of 5 to 6 tonnes per in the first year itself. Generally, theseplants acre can be expected.

REFERENCES [1]. University of Florida Extension: Pitaya Growing in the Florida Home Landscape [2]. Purdue University: Strawberry Pear [3]. Tradewinds Fruit: Dragon Fruit - Hylocereus Undatus [4]. San Marcos Growers: Hylocereus Undatus - Pitaya, Dragonfruit [5]. Desert Tropicals: Nightblooming Cactus (Hylocereus Undatus)

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ARTHROPODS VENOM: As Bio-Pesticides Article id: 21537 Niyati Pandey 1* and Kariyanna B2. 1 National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, Odisha, India 2University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka

The use of chemical insecticides to pest because of slow action. To overcome control agricultural pests poses threats to this drawback, baculoviruses have been non-target species viz., pollinators, soil- modified genetically to eliminate or express dwelling micro-organisms, even on human anti-insect proteins to increase its insecticidal health and the environment. Because of efficiency. Strategies to increase indeterminate use chemical pesticide results pathogenicity are based on the expression of in insecticide resistance in many key pests. enzymes or toxins, notably from an Hence, growing awareness of ecological and arthropod (scorpion, spider, centipedes and environmental problems posed by chemical mite). insecticides switched to biologically-based, Arthropods are the most diverse environmentally benign alternatives. animal group on the planet and occupy Biological controls by employing bacteria, almost all ecological niches. Venomous fungi and baculoviruses have been arthropods are a rich source of bioactive considered the best alternative chemical compounds evolved for prey capture and insecticides. defense against predators and/or Baculoviruses are pathogens that only microorganisms. During evolution, the infect certain specific arthropods, particularly venom components have been selected to Lepidoptera and Diptera, but not vertebrates best suit their function. At least four basic and plants. The genus has three subgroups of strategies of venom composition viral types viz., Nuclear polyhedrosis viruses development have been proposed: (i) (NPVs), (Granulosis viruses (GVs), and Non- increase in the number of functionally occluded baculoviruses. The most common diverse compounds, (ii) production of highly route of entry of a virus into an insect host is speciﬁc and efﬁcient molecules; (iii) oral. Once these natural pathogens are synergism between compounds and (iv) ingested by a suitable insect host, they biomolecular diversity of compounds, i.e. an reproduce within gut cells till insect get ill increase in the number of functionally similar and die. The main drawback of baculoviruses compounds. is delayed effectiveness due to a lag period The venoms of scorpions in the family from initial infection to the ultimate Buthidae are a rich source of insecticidal appearance of larval mortality which peptides and have been shown to contain impedes its applications and resistance by two main categories of toxins: `short toxins'

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(20-35 aa) cross-linked by three or four these insecticidal toxins are the calcium or disulphide bridges; toxic for vertebrates and sodium voltage-gated channels or, rarely on acting on different classes of potassium potassium channels, activated by calcium or channels and `long toxins' (64-80 aa) cross- the ionotropic glutamate receptors. linked by four disulphide bridges which act However, 50% of these toxins do not have on the voltage-dependent sodium channels their molecular targets characterized yet. In of both vertebrates and insects. Scorpion spiders, venoms typically contain proteins, toxins exhibit a wide range of biological peptides and low-molecular-mass properties and actions. It also has toxicity, substances; peptides usually constitute the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic major part of the whole venom. In general characteristics. Based on specificity the spider venom peptides divided into two toxins also grouped into insect and mammal broad groups viz., the disulfide-containing toxins. Insect toxins are primly excitatory neurotoxins which form inhibitor cystine neurotoxins for instant AalT of African knot and linear cytolytic peptides (Corzo and scorpion Androctonus australis (Zlotkin et al., Escoubas, 2003). The size of spider 1991), LqhlT3 from yellow Israeli scorpion neurotoxins varies in the ∼3–7 kDa range, Leiurus quinquestriatus hebraeus and the whereas cytolytic peptides are typically depressant neurotoxins (LqhlT2 ) from L. rather small (∼3 kDa) (Bonningand quinquestriatus hebraeus (Zlotkin et al., Hammock, 1996). Peptide neurotoxins 1991). Mammalian toxins are represented by constitute natural combinatorial libraries that the ct neurotoxins (such as AaHn from A. have been well-tuned in the course of spider australis and the fl neurotoxins (such as Csstl evolution to select for the best-acting from Mexican scorpion Centruroides suffusus molecules that hit different targets in the suffuses). The ct and fl toxins are the main prey/aggressor nervous system. In contrast, factors in scorpion venom responsible for linear cytolytic peptides found in spider envenomation of vertebrates, but they also venoms are considered to play a more affect insects (Rathmayer et al., 1978). accessory role provided that they do not Another group of arthropod is spiders belong target a specific receptor, but rather affect to the order Araneae (Arachnida) and cell membranes with broad specificity. considered as one of the most diverse groups Several studies reported the exact function of terrestrial animals. Spiders are thought to of these peptides, for example, direct toxic mainly rely on the neurotoxic part of their effect on prey was proposed for lycotoxins venom arsenal for defense. So far, there is from the venom of the spider Lycosa about 100 spiders’ peptide toxins described carolinensis (Lycosidae), cupiennins from on the Arachno Server database14 with Cupiennius salei (Ctenidae) and oxyopinins action on insects of different orders from Oxyopes kitabensis (Oxyopidae), just as (Lepidoptera, Diptera, Orthoptera, Blattaria originally for melittin, the major component and Coleoptera). The molecular targets of of the honey bee venom. However, this

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 effect is rather moderate compared with the lethality in infected lepidopterous larvae. action of neurotoxins. Venom cytolytic Similarly, µ-Aga IV insect-selective agatoxin peptides may act as a spreading agent that derived from the spider Agelenopsis aperta, facilitates neurotoxin passage through which has been shown to shift sodium cellular barriers and eventually ensures its channel activation, has similarly yielded a access to the target neurons. Positive co- recombinant AcNPV virus with about 37–38% operativity with neurotoxins has been enhancement of insecticidal activity reported for cupiennins and oxyopinins. A compared to wild-type virus (Prikhod et al., direct antiseptic role has been suggested for 1996). lycotoxins, cupiennins, latarcins. Centipedes are among the earliest Recently the insect pathogenic virus terrestrial animals and their venoms have Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis been poorly characterized so far. Esterases, virus (AcNPV) was genetically modiﬁed to proteinases, alkaline and acid phosphatases, increase speed of kill by the introduction of cardiotoxins, histamine, and genes encoding insect-selective toxins into neurotransmitter releasing compounds were the viral genome. These genes are tox34 (or reported in Scolopendra venoms (Malta et the tox21a homolog), which encodes the al., 2008). A Scolopendra sp. venom fraction paralytic TxPi toxin found in the venom of the (SC1) induced an increase in the leak current straw itch mite Pyemotes tritici, which on the cockroach giant axon, which was encodes the excitatory insect-selective correlated with the decrease in the neurotoxin. Expression of these genes with a membrane resistance (Stankiewicz et al., very late viral promoter, the p10 promoter or 1999). A venom of Scolopendra viridicornis an enhanced polyhedrin promoter, results in nigra causes legs and wings retraction in a 25–40% reduction in the time (ET50) it houseﬂies and is capable of instantly takes for 50% of infected insects to be paralyzing cockroaches (Periplaneta paralyzed or die after infection. The interest americana) and crickets (Acheta domesticus). surrounding these genetically engineered But till date, no insecticidal peptides isolated biopesticides has triggered some recent from the Scolopendra genus venom (Rates et developments in the design of insecticidal al., 2007). recombinant baculoviruses. Synthetic genes Use of arthropod venom is other best of site 3 sodium channel toxins, namely those alternative to the pest resistant to insecticide of the sea anemone, Anemonia sulcata or to the individual employed bio-agent. (ATxII), and Strichodactyla helianthus (ShI), Biological gene pyramiding using venom with when inserted into a nonessential site in the target bio-agent will certainly help in better genome of the Ac-NPV under the control of a control of the pest by dual mode of action. polyhedrin promoter, have resulted in The selective activity of venom made it more recombinant viruses that produce toxins in environment-friendly and sustainable in infected cells and induce an enhanced early nature.

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REFERENCES [1]. Bonning, B.C. and Hammock, B.D. (1996). Annu. Rev. Entiomol. 41, 191-210. [2]. Corzo, G. and Escoubas, P. (2003). Pharmacologically active spider-peptide toxins. Cell. Mol. LifeSci. 60, 2409–2426 [3]. Malta, M. B.; Lira, M. S.; Soares, S. L.; Rocha, G. C.; Knysak, I.; Martins, R.; Guizze, S. P.; Santoro, M. L.; Barbaro, K. C. (2008). Toxicon, 52, 255–263. [4]. Prikhodko, G., Robson M, Warmke, W., Cohen, J., Smith, M., (1996). Properties of three baculovirus-expressing genes that encode insect-selective toxins: Biol. Control, 7:236–44. [5]. Rathmayer, W., Ruhland, M., Tintpulver, M., Walther, Ch. and Zlotkin, E. (1978). The effect of toxins derived from the venom of the scorpion Androctonus australis Hector on neuromuscular transmission. In: Toxins: Animal, Plant and Microbial Toxins. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 629~37. [6]. Stankiewicz, M., Hamon, A., Benkhalifa, R., Kadziela, W., Hue, B., Lucas, S., Mebs, D., Pelhate, M. (1999). Toxicon, 37, 1431–1445. [7]. Zlotkin, E., Eitan, M., Bindokas, V. P., Adams, M. E., Moyer, M., Burkhart, W. and Fowler, E. (1991). Functional duality and structural uniqueness of depressant insect-selective neurotoxins. Biochemistry 30, 4814~4820.

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Gamma irradiation used to preserved food for longer time Article id: 21538 Sushma Tamta1 and Annu Rani2 1Research Scholars, Department of Soil and Water Conservation Engineering 2Research Scholars, Department of Farm Machinery and Power Engineering Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar

INTRODUCTION pressure food preservation, bio preservation, Food preservation prevents the growth hurdle technology. The benefits of an extended of microorganisms as well as slowing shelf life for manufacturers are wide-ranging: the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity and the product can remain on sale on the shelf for increased shelf life of food. Food preservation longer, wastage and product returns from the may also include processes that inhibit visual retailer are reduced, more extensive deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning product distribution is possible and reaction in apples after they are cut during food highly seasonal products can be stockpiled, to preparation. The shelf life of a food is the name just a few. length of time a food can keep before it begins In modern society, irradiation is to deteriorate or, in some cases, before the routinely used to sterilize medical equipment, food becomes less nutritious or unsafe. A range including most of the disposable items used in of traditional methods for extending the shelf hospitals every day. Nor is irradiation of food life of foods have been successfully used for itself a new development. Irradiation of food is example – salt curing, cooling, boiling, smoking, the exposure of food to ionizing radiation. pickling, freezing, heating, commercial Multiple types of ionizing radiation can be used, sterilization, sugaring , pickling , fermentation including beta particles and gamma rays. and canning. Irradiation can kill bacteria, molds, and insect Within the past decade, food safety has pests, reduce the ripening and spoiling of fruits, been an increasing concern for consumers, and at higher doses induce sterility. The retailers and all production and processing technology may be compared to pasteurization; areas of the food industry. Food safety is also of it is sometimes called "cold pasteurization", as crucial importance to a nation’s economy and the product is not heated. Irradiation may allow health system. Now different modern method lower-quality or contaminated foods to be is to be used for the preservation of food for rendered marketable. the longer time and increased the shelf life of Consumers may have a negative view of food. For example pasteurization, Vacuum irradiated food based on the misconception packing, artificial food additives, irradiation, that such food is radioactive; in fact, irradiated pulsed electric field electroporation, modified food does not and cannot become radioactive. atmosphere, non-thermal plasma, high-

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Activists have also opposed food irradiation for TOMATOES - Tomatoes were treated with other reasons, for example, arguing that gamma radiation doses of 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, 1.5, irradiation can be used to sterilize 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 kGy. Shelf life of unirradiated contaminated food without resolving the and irradiated tomatoes was evaluated under underlying cause of the ambient (temp. 25±2°C) and refrigerated contamination. Approximately 500,000 tons of (temp. 4±1°C) storage conditions to determine food items are irradiated per year worldwide in the optimum dose for control of rotting. over 40 countries. Gamma irradiation at 0.75 to 1.0kGy was EXTENSION OF SHELF LIFE effective in reducing rotting and enhancing the The shelf life of many fruits and shelf life of tomatoes. vegetables meat poultry fish and seafood can be considerably prolonged by treatment with BANANAS - Bananas were treated with three combination s of low dose irradiation and gamma radiation doses of 0.30kGy; 0.40kGy refrigerator that do not alter flavor or texture. and 0.50kGy for 5mins respectively and stored Maintaining or creating nutritional in a dry place under room conditions (25±2°C/ value, texture and flavor is an important aspect 80± 5% RH). The physical conditions of the of food preservation. Many spoilage radiation treated and control bananas were microorganisms, such as pseudomonas are observed at every 2 days interval for their relatively sensitive to irradiation. Extension of organoleptic properties till spoilage. The the very short shelf life of many commercially control bananas ripened within 6 days banana important plant commodities is highly desirable was extended by 20 days thereby delaying and in some case, critical. Exposure to a low banana ripening. dose of radiation can slow down the ripening of some fruits. Control fungal rot in some other STRAWBERRIES - The strawberries were and maturation in certain vegetables, thereby treated by low-dose gamma – rays (1kGy) extending their shelf-life. Not all fruits and increased their post-harvest life from 5 to 7 vegetables are suitable for irradiation because days, without any attack of fungus or any undesirable changes in color or texture or both changes in their external appearance. Mold was detected in non-irradiated strawberry samples. limit their acceptability. The time of harvest and the physiological states also affects However no mold growth was detected after 14 response of fruits and vegetables to irradiation. days of storage in the sample irradiated and For example - If strawberries are irradiated stored under active EMAP1 at 4°c. before they are ripe; the red color does not develop satisfactory. For delaying to irradiate GINGER - A 5 kGy radiation dose and 10°c them before ripening starts. storage temperature were found to keep peeled ginger sample microbes free and SHELF LIFE EXTENSION OF SOME FOOD ITEMS acceptable until 70 days of storage, whereas

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 non-radiated peeled ginger spoiled within 40days under same storage condition. APPLE - Research in Shri Ram Institute has enabled shelf-life extension of apple up to 7- SUGARCANE JUICE - Sugarcane juice turns months at 4°c using less than 1kGy exposure brown soon after its extraction and gets spoiled dose. due to fermentation within hours. A combination of gamma –irradiation (5 kGy) LITCHI - Litchi has a very short shelf-life of 2-3 with permitted preservation and low days at ambient temperature limits its temperature storage (10°c) could preserve raw marketability scientist at BARC have been Sugarcane juice for more than a month. The successful in shelf life extension to low dose preservation used was citric acid (0.3%), (0.5 kGy) gamma-radiation which increase its sodium benzoate (0.015%), potassium sorbate shelf life up to 28 days. (0.025%) and sucrose (10%). World-wide Utilization of Food Irradiation

Countries which apply food irradiation for commercial purposes Do not yet apply food irradiation

REFERENCES-

[1]. Antaryami Singh, Durgeshwer Singh, Rita Singh 2016. Shelf Life Extension of Tomatoes by Gamma Radiation. Radiation Science and Technology. Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 17-24. [2]. Majeed, A., Muhammad, Z., Majid, A., Shah, A.H. and Hussain, M., 2014. Impact of low doses of gamma irradiation on shelf life and chemical quality of strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) cv.‘Corona’. Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences, 24(5), pp.1531-1536. [3]. Prejean, J., 2001. Food Irradiation: Why Aren't We Using It? [4]. Zaman, W., Paul, D., Alam, K., Ibrahim, M. and Hassan, P., 2007. Shelf life extension of banana (Musa sapientum) by gamma radiation. Journal of Bio-Science, 15, pp.47-53.

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Preparation of land for upcoming season Article id: 21539 Sahaja Deva Subject Matter Specialist (Crop Production), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi

With the onset of monsoons Kharif season is going to be started. Farmers has to follow some measures in order to make the land ready to sow.

1. Organic manures: a. Broadcasting: 2. Deep ploughing:

Broadcasting of farm yard manure, With the receipt of first showers land poultry manure, sheep manure, goat should be prepared with ploughing deeply manure or vermicompost will increase the upto 25-30 cm with mouldboard plough or disc soil physical, chemical and biological plough. This should be repeated for every properties which in turn led to increase soil three years as deep ploughing will makes soil fertility. With the increase in soil fertility loose and fragile which inturn increase water status orgnic carbon content will also be and nutrient holding capacity of soils. Deep increases which will increase water holding ploughing will turn the soil so that upper layers capacity of soil and also makes soil loose will go to deeper layers and deeper layers will and fragile for better root growth. come to top which lead to increased soil fertility and also crops in the coming season b. Penning: can absorb more portion of nutrients from Penning means leaving the cows or goats soil. Deep ploughing also brings the weed or sheeps in the fields throughout the day seeds, insects to the top layers which will later and night and letting them release urine in be killed due to sun scorching or eaten by the fields which will later incorporate into birds. Not only insects and weeds different the soil and makes land more fertile. disease causing organisms will also get killed by deep ploughing

3. Plant residues:

Traditionally farmers will burn the stubbles after harvesting of crop which increases the emission of green houses gases leading to environmental pollution. Instead of burning breaking the stubbles with rotavator and incorporating in field will increase the nutrient status of soil as the nutrients available 180

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 in the stubbles will also gets incorporated in water during season which can be used during soil. It also increases organic carbon of soil critical stages for crop which led to increased water and nutrient holding capacity. This stubbles can also be 6. Selection of seed and fertilizers: used as food for earthworms for preparation Purchasing of seed from certified agencies and of vermicompst. This vermicompost can be obtaining receipt is compulsory used in own fields or can gain extra income by selling te compost 7. Soil testing:

4. Green manuring: Soil test based nutrient management is a very important practice in organic farming. Growing of green manure crops like Excessive usage of fertilizers leads to increased sunnhemp, daincha and pillipeasra and cost of cultivation and also leads to soil and incorporating at flowering stage (45-60 DAS) environmental pollution. So using the chemical will increase nutrient status of soils and also fertilizers according to soil health cards will reduce alkalinity of soils. give good yields and quality products and also 5. Cleaning of farm ponds: reduce cost of cultivation

Farm ponds should be cleaned before onset of monsoon in order to collect more

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Crop Diversification Article id: 21540 Sudhanshu Verma*1, Shani Kumar Singh2, Kamal Ravi Sharma3 and Vishal Kumar1 1Department of Agronomy, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221 005 2Department of Extension Education, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221 005 3Department of Entomology & Agril. Zoology Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221 005

INTRODUCTION 6. Risk Coverage In agricultural context, diversification can be regarded as the re-allocation of some of a Similarly there are many reasons that has led to farm’s productive resources, such as land, capital, the adoption of diversification such as market and farm equipment and paid labor, into new activities. price risks, risk associated with existing crop- These can be new crops or livestock products, management practices, adverse changes like value adding activities, provision of services to degradation of natural resources and environment other farmers. In general it refers to the shift from and socioeconomic needs like attaining self the regional or temporal dominance of one crop to sufficiency in some crops etc. a production of number of crops, to meet ever Approaches to Crop Diversification increasing demand for food grains, oilseeds and 1. Horizontal diversification- It includes the farm fodder etc. Crop diversification is not only the shift diversification through crop intensification and from traditional and less remunerative to more crop substitution. It is the primary approach to remunerative crops, but it is demand driven, need crop diversification in production agriculture. Here, based situation specific and national goal seeking diversification takes place through crop continuous and dynamic concept and involves intensification by adding new high-value crops to spatial, temporal, value addition and resource- the existing cropping systems or to suit the defined complementary approaches. It implies the use of objective like use of gap between 2 crops, utilize environmental and human resources to grow a mix the space available in the fields or bunds, as a way of crops with complementary marketing to improve the overall productivity of a farm. A opportunities, and it implies a shifting of resources tendency towards cereal specialization was from low-value crops to high-value crops, usually observed during 1967-76 replacing coarse cereals. intended for human consumption such as fruits Similarly, replacing tendency continued by giving and vegetables (Birthal et al., 2005). space to oilseeds and other high value crops when Need for Crop Diversification income from food grain plateaued. It has become an important option to attain 2. Vertical diversification- In this approach, farmers several objectives- and others, add value to products through 1. Natural resources sustainability processing, regional branding, packaging, 2. Ecological Balance merchandizing, or other efforts to enhance the 3. Output Growth marketable access of the product. 4. Buffer Stocks 5. Employment generation

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Crop diversification For Pest management- Intercropping can be For export- Crops like basmati rice and spices have practiced in widely spaced crops to reduce weed demand for export and there is need for infestation apart from increasing overall diversification with high quality basmati rice and productivity. Crops with different botanical spices to meet the demand. Similarly, there is relationship should be altered for control of weed, demand for cut flowers, onion and other vegetable pest and diseases. crops. So there is need to rationalize area under these crops to avoid scarcity and excess in the Example for Crop diversification domestic market to ensure price stability. Conventional method For Nutritional Security- Intervention of legumes •Rice -Wheat and genetically fortified genotypes of cereals such as golden rice, etc. can help to tackle the problem Crop diversification of malnourishment. • Rice-potato-sunflower • Hybrid rice – vegetable pea – wheat - Veg. For Nutrient management- The crop with deep cowpea root system must be followed by crop with fibrous • Maize + vegetable cowpea + sesbania – lentil + root system. This helps in proper and uniform use mustard - greengram of nutrients from the soil. The leguminous crops • Maize + cowpea – wheat - greengram must be sown after non-leguminous crops as they • Sorghum + cowpea – maize + blackgram - onion help in the fixation of atmospheric N into the soil.

Crop Diversification for States Karnataka Oilseeds, Jowar, Rice, Pulses, Maize Kerala Fruits and Vegetables, Jowar/Oilseeds, Rice, Pulses Maharashtra Jowar, Oilseeds, Cotton, Pulses, Fruits and Vegetables Goa Rice, Pulses, Coconut, Fruits and Vegetables, Oilseeds Rajasthan Bajra, Oilseeds, Pulses, Wheat, Maize Gujarat Oilseeds, Cotton, Rice, Pulse, Wheat, TamilNadu Rice, Fruits & Vegetables, Oilseeds, Pulse Meghalaya Rice, Fruits & Vegetables, Maize, Oilseeds, Cotton Andhra Pradesh Rice, Oilseeds,Pulses, Cotton,Fruits & Vegetables Source: Statistical Aspect of India & Dept. of Agri. & cooperation, Govt. of India, 2008.

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Steps in crop diversification

Delineate area

Choice of alternatives

Input & credit supply

Share the risk

Market support

Drivers of Diversification into crops that can meet export market It is a response to both Opportunities and demand. Threats. 4. Adding Value- People are shifting to Ready-T0-Go meals and labor saving Opportunities packaging. This provides the opportunity for 1. Changing consumer demand- As farmers to diversify into value-addition. consumers become richer, food 5. Improving Nutrition- Diversifying from consumption pattern changes. People move the monoculture of traditional staples can away from a diet based on staples to one have important nutritional benefits for with greater content of animal products farmers in developing countries. and fruits and vegetables. Threats 2. Changing demographics- With rapid 1. Urbanization- With expansion of cities urbanization, no. of farmers are reducing there is pressure on the land resources. while the consumers are increasing. This 2. Risk- Farmers face the risk from bad calls for the change in agronomic practices. weather and from fluctuating prices. A 3. Export potential- Developing countries diversified portfolio of products should had considerable success by diversifying

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ensure that farmers do not suffer Strategies for Crop Diversification complete ruin when the weather is bad. 1. Replacement of low yielding value crops 3. External and Domestic Threats- with high yielding high value crops with Agricultural production is sometimes longer shelf life. undertaken as a consequence of 2. Intercropping in rainfed areas. government subsidies, rather than 3. Diversion of high water requiring crops because it is profitable. The reduction or with less water requiring crops. removable of those subsidies can have a 4. Legumes intervention. major impact on farmers. Similarly trade 5. Inclusion of crops having both domestic can have impact on farmers. and international demands. 4. Climate Change-The type of crop being 6. Inclusion of energy efficient crops. grown is affected by changes in 7. Systems with high productivity, temperatures and the length of the profitability and sustainability. growing season. It can modify the 8. Shift high risk crops with short duration availability of water for production. pulses and drought resistant oilseed crops. Challenges in Crop Diversification The major constraints are: Government Policies 1. Majority of the cropped area in the 1. Implementing National Agriculture country is completely dependent on Insurance Scheme rainfall. 2. Creation of Watershed Development 2. Sub-optimal and over-use of resources Fund like fertilizers, land and water, causing 3. Strengthening Agricultural Marketing negative impact on the sustainability of 4. Seed Crop Insurance agriculture. 5. Seed Bank Scheme 3. Fragmentation of land holding, less 6. Cooperative Sector Reforms favoring modernization and mechanization of agriculture. CONCLUSION 4. Very weak agro-based industry. Crop diversification is not only a 5. Inadequately trained human resources shift from traditional and less remunerative together with persistent and large scale crops to more remunerative crops but it is a illiteracy among farmers. demand driven, need based situation 6. Decreased investment in agriculture specific and national goal seeking sector over the years. continuous and dynamic concept and involves spatial, temporal, value addition and resource complementary approaches.

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REFERENCES [1]. Birthal, P.S., P.K. Joshi and Ashok Gulati 2005. Vertical Coordination in High Value Commodities: Implications for Smallholders. Markets, Trade and institutions Division Discussion Paper No. 85,Washington D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute [2]. Directorate of Economics and Statistics (DES), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India (GOI), New Delhi [3]. Government of India 2008. National Accounts Statistics, Central Statistical Organization, Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation, Government of India (GOI).

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Vermicompost: an enriched source of nutrients for better soil health Article id: 21541 Anil Kumar*, Bhanu Prakash Ch. and Balwinder Kumar Farm Science Centre Guru Angad Dev Veterinary & Animal Sciences University, Tarn Taran, Punjab enhance cation exchange capacity, microbial INTRODUCTION activities, microbial biomass carbon and Vermicompost is the method of using enzymatic activities. earthworms to transform organic waste into nutrient rich compost. As we know, soil Suitable earthworm species and raw material earthworm play an important role in for vermicomposting agriculture, it decomposes dead organic litter The best types of earthworms for vermiculture by consuming them and release as castings. and vermicomposting are Eisenia fetida and The earthworms accelerate decomposition of Eudrilus eugeniae. These worm species like to plant litter and organic matter and improve settle on top soil and prefer to eat organic soil fertility by releasing mineral elements in scraps such as vegetable waste, compost and the forms that are easily uptake by plants. organic bedding and produce richer casting Vermicompost is usually rich in microbial than those that feed on plain soil. They work populations and diversity particularly fungi, efficiently in breaking down and decaying bacteria and actinomycetes. The compost natural remains and turning these scraps into prepared by earthworms contain several types high-quality organic compost. Moreover, these of enzymes, hormones, vitamins, antibiotics species multiply rapidly and remain active and many essential nutrients needed for plant throughout the year and are resistant to growth and also play important role in temperature and moisture fluctuations. Cattle improving soil structure and water holding dung or farm yard manure (FYM) is used as capacity, thereby improving crop productivity raw material for vermicomposting, beside that and quality. Moreover, due to large surface any material that can be decomposed easily area, vermicompost offers several micro sites such as weeds, wastes (leaves and rind) of for nutrient retention and exchange and vegetables and fruits, crop residue, roughage microbial activity. Thus, application of of the animals as well as municipal wastes of vermicompost as organic manure in soil built- organic origin could also be utilized for up organic carbon, improve nutrient status, vermicompost preparation.

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Eisenia fetida Eudrilus eugeniae

Selection of site for vermicompost unit i. Select a shady and moist spot preferably under the tree or below the ventilated shed. ii. Ensure proper drainage across the vermicompost bed or unit and source of water should be closure to the unit. iii. Vermicompost unit should be far away from biogas plant, otherwise earthworm utilise the carbon of biogas as their food and will not decompose material rapidly used for vermicomposting.

Vermicompost unit

Methodology of vermicompost preparation i. After selection of site for vermicompost preparation, smoothen the surface. Now, make a bed of approximately 10 x 3 x 3 feet (L x B x H) with bricks. However, size of the bed may be decreased or increased as per the quantity of material available and need. ii. Moisten the surface of the bed by sprinkling the water. Now, at the base of the bed, spread 2-3 inch thick layer of dry leaves or paddy straw, etc.

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iii. Again sprinkle some amount of water over layer of dry material. Spread about 1-1.5 feet thick layer of farm yard manure or cow dung uniformly over above layer and sprinkler water to make it sufficient moist. The cow dung should not too fresh. It should be at least 10-15 days old because fresh cow dung produce lot of heat and it may kill the earthworms. Similarly, cow dung should not be too old as it got decomposed and earthworm will not get any food from it. iv. Now, add the kitchen waste such as leaves of vegetables, fruits rind and or grasses, roughages of animals, etc. by chopping them into small pieces. Again, spread about 1- 1.5 feet layer of cow dung uniformly over leave layer and sprinkler sufficient quantity of water. Spread about one kg vermiculture (contain about 800 – 1000 earthworms) over the layer of cow dung. v. Now, cover the vermicompost bed with the help of jute/gunny bags. For maintaining optimum moisture and temperature conditions in the vermicompost bed regularly sprinkler the water over the gunny bags. vi. There should be about 35-40% moisture in the bed. Hence, regularly sprinkle water to maintain optimum conditions for earthworm growth and functioning.

By following above steps, vermicompost is ready in about 8–10 weeks time. The vermicompost appear dark brown in colour on maturity and is very porous, granulated and free of any foul smell. When vermicompost is ready, then stop watering about one week ago and make a heap of the compost on the bed itself. Now, earthworm will start moving downward and gathered at low layer of the heap. Remove the upper portion of material from heap and put it in shadow for further processing i.e. sieving and packing. Now, sieve the vermicompost and transfer the earthworm, if any to next new bed. The lower portion of vermicompost heap contain lot of earthworm, it could be used a vermiculture for preparation of vermicompost again.

Nutritional value of vermicompost The nutrients content in vermicompost generally depends on the waste material or base substrate that is being used for vermicompost preparation. However, average nutrient concentration in the vermicompost is given below:

Nutrient Content Organic carbon 9.15 - 17.98 % Total nitrogen 1.5 - 2.10 % Total phosphorus 1.0 - 1.50 % Total potassium 0.60 % Ca and Mg 22.67 - 47.60 meq/100g

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Available S 128 - 548 ppm Copper 2 - 9.5 ppm Iron 2 – 9.30 ppm Zinc 5.70 – 11.5 ppm holding capacity of the soil and save Vermicompost can be applied to any irrigation. crop including field and horticultural crops. A iii. Vermicompost contain sufficient amount simple method of applying vermicompost is of vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, adding it as a thin layer to soil around the enzymes and hormones that are helpful plant and mixing with the soil. Apply 5–6 t in growth and development of plants and ha-1 vermicompost in field crops, 10-12 t ha- also create resistance in plants against 1 for vegetables and 8-10 kg per fruit tree insect–pest and diseases. depending on age of tree, whereas in flower iv. Many harmful weeds including pot apply 100-150 g of vermicompost per Parthenium, Lantana, etc. could be pot. utilised in vermicompost production.

Benefits of vermicompost Precautions for vermicompost production i. Vermicompost is a good quality manure i. Maintain optimum moisture and that contain several essential nutrients temperature conditions in the needed by the crops such as nitrogen, vermicompost bed/unit by sprinkling phosphorus, potassium, calcium, water regularly over the gunny bags. magnesium and micronutrients viz. iron, ii. Avoid spraying of any kind of insecticides zinc, copper, manganese in sufficient and fungicides over the vermicompost quantity that increase the productivity bed. and quality of crops. iii. The height of vermicompost bedding ii. Application of vermicompost in soil material should not exceed 3 – 3.5 feet improves physical, chemical and as it may increase the temperature inside biological properties of the soil. It the bed and also create aeration problem improves soil structure due to which soil inside and led to death of earthworm. become porous and permeable to soil iv. To escape the earthworm from hen, and water. Vermicompost increase water birds, etc. cover the vermicompost bed with sieve.

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Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative: A potential tool to boost up sugarcane productivity Article id: 21542 Arya kumar Sarvadamana1* M. Sc. Agriculture (Agronomy)1, Department of Agronomy, G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.

INTRODUCTION binding agent for brick production and Sugarcane is the second most reclamation of acid soils, green tops are important cash crop of India next to cotton excellent fodders for animals and used as a and sugar industry is the second largest agro bedding material also. It is estimated that industry next to textile industry. Presently, emerging energy need of ethanol for blending India has 5.06 million ha area, 361 million with petrol will require additional amount of tones of production and 71t/ha of sugarcane over and above the cane productivity under sugarcane, with a sugar requirement to produce 33 million tones of recovery of 10.71% (Directorate of Economics sugarcane in 2020 (IISR Vision, 2030). and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, 2016- 17). By 2030, India will need 520 million tones The sugarcane production system has of production from 5 million ha production, various types of sustainability issues. The first 100t/ha productivity and 10.75% of sugar one is raising cost of cultivation. The cost of recovery (IISR Vision 2030). To achieve this cultivation rises due to intensive tillage and huge target Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative high cost of planting materials. As all the can play a potential role. sugarcane matures simultaneously, the sugarcane crushing season becomes shorter. There are diverse uses of sugarcane. It Sugarcane is a long duration crop with very provides livelihood of 30 million sugarcane high water requirement. Hence, irrigation is farmers. This crop provides raw material to done by using ground water. This leads to 600 sugar mills and jiggery units. It also depletion of ground water table. Improper contributes 1% to national GDP. Sugarcane cultivation practices also leads to has no economic substitute in India, because sustainability problems in long run. Quality we have a tropical climate and we cannot go planting material availability is also a big issue for production of sugarbeet. Sugarcane in sugarcane cultivation. India is a country crushing produces by products like molasses, where every year we face climatic hazards like bagasses, pressmud, green top etc. the drought, flood, cyclone, tsunami etc, which molasses are used for production of alcohol leads to loss in sugarcane crop. Sugar recovery and citric acid from it. Bagasses are used as depends on a factor called as relative raw material in paper industry. Press mud as temperature disparity (RTD). The region

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 having high diurnal temperature variation will input use efficiency can be increased by have higher RTD and lower sugar recovery. As increasing the production. Crop duration is previously discussed that sugarcane crop reduced by nursery raising. If we go for matures simultaneously, leading to distressed nursery the germination is completed in one sale, so face lower price. The price and yield week, which otherwise takes one and half fluctuation takes place due to several natural month in conventionally planted sugarcane. and anthropogenic factors. Crushing season is increased by providing canes early in the season to sugar mills. There are several types of crop According to survey conducted by establishment methods have been developed Srivastava(2011) in IISR, Lucknow adopting SSI for sugarcane. Among these methods flat bed, can give an yield increment up to 20% over furrow, trench, paired row, trench, ring conventional method, along with increasing planting, FIRB, polybag nursery and SRI are water use efficiency by 30% and reducing major. Each method is developed for some chemical use by 25%. specific conditions and each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. Here the The history of SSI starts from 1952, SSI method is discussed in details. when the famous sugarcane researcher Van Dillewijn stated that a small volume of tissue Main content and a root primordia adhering to the bud are SSI is a method of sugarcane enough to ensure germination in sugarcane. production which includes sugarcane In the year 1977, Andhra sugar has fabricated production using budchips as planting bud chip machine and Ramiah et. al. material, less water and optimum utilization demonstrated budchip technology using three of fertilizer and land to achieve higher yield. varieties i.e. CO 419, CO 975 and CO 997. The SSI method is based on thr principal Tiano in 1995 in Phillipines and Iqbal et. objective of “More with less”. al.(2002) in Bangladesh reported that polybag raised seedling is best for planting of SSI has four major aims. These are sugarcane. From there the transplanting improvement of land, water, labor use concept of sugarcane came into existence. efficiencies, reduction of crop duration, longer Finally SSI was developed by Biksam Gujja crushing season, employment generation. The (2009) under WWF-ICRISAT project.

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Bud chipper bud chips

Bud chips in protray transplanting

By doing a comparative study between maintained in SSI. In SSI method 15-20 conventional and SSI method, we can find that tillers/plant plant is there. 16000 three budded i.e.48000 buds are needed per hectare in conventional method, where as in Quality planting material selection is vital SSI 5000 bud chips per hectare is enough. In SSI for getting a higher yield. 7-9 months old cane 25-35 days old seedlings are transplanted to having 15cm internode and 10-15 cm girth main field. A high spacing of 5ft between rows is should be selected as planting material. Upper one third portion of cane is best for planting

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 purpose. As it contain high glucose and moisture cones are needed. Nursery is raised under 50% give better germination. Yadav et. al. (2006) shade net to avoid scorching heat of sun. reported that by using upper 1/3rd portion of chlorpyriphos 50EC treatment (5ml/L) is done to cane as planting material we can get a avoid termite attack. Cocopith, saw dust, FYM, germination percent of 43% at 45 days after vermicompost can be used as growing media. planting with a yield of 52.6 t/ha. Disease pest 1:1 mixture of cocopith+saw dust gives a infested and ratoon crops should be avoided as germination percentage of 88%, followed by planting material. Then semicircular budchips 85% germination in cocopith+vermicompost and are removed by using budchipper. The sett 84% in saw dust+press mud (Longadhan et borne diseases are eliminated by removing the al.,2012). internodes. Use of bud chips can be helpful for research purpose, where germplasm is limited. As sugarcane has a deep root system, As planting material accounts for 30% of cost of deep ploughing is done in it. Gentle slope is cultivation, it is reduced by using budchipds. provided to avoid stagnation of water. Organic Easy transport occurs due to less bulky in nature manure is incorporated at the time of final land and remaining cane can be used for crushing. preparation. Sub soiling is done if required. Transplanting is done manually with 2×5 ft2 Sett treatment is very much essential to spacing in N-S direction, for better sunlight promote germination and avoid sett borne interception. Air gap should be avoided during diseases. In a drum of 50L capacity, 20L water transplanting, otherwise root growth will be along with 40ml malathion, 10g carbendazium, 1 poor. kg of Trichoderma or Pseudomonas and 3-4 litres of cow urine along with bud chips for 1 Water management is very important for acre was soaked for 20 minutes and planted in sugarcane. Moisture should be maintained at main field. 0.1% carbendazim treatment iproves field capacity. Irrigation should be applied once germination up to 39%, NMC up to 102300/ha in 10 days in tillering period, once in 7 days in and yield 71.5 t/ha in spring planted sugarcane grand growth period and once in 15 days during (Yadav, 2012). In another experiment Jain et. maturity. Irrigation should be stopped one al.(2011) found that furrow application of 400 month before harvest to increase sugar content ppm ethephon over the setts at the time of in juice. In drip irrigation total 1000mm water is planting increases sprouting up to 35% in 30m required against 200mm in conventional DAP and 48% in 60 DAP. In other experiment it method. was also witnessed that sett treatment improves In SSI organic method of nutrient germination up to 90%. management is emphasized. INM can also be Nursery raising is the most important followed. FYM @ 15-20 t/ha is incorporated at aspect of SSI method of sugarcane cultivation. the time of final land preparation. Navdhanya (a For one acre of main field 120 trays each with 50 type of green manuring) and amritpani are also used as nutrient supplements.

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SSI has a great scope of intercropping varieties, requirement of skilled labourers, due to wider spacing. Beans, cauliflower, untimely transplanting etc. cabbage, tomato, chillies, tomato, groundnut can be taken as inter crop with sugarcane. Scope and conclusion Intercropping with cabbage gives a yield of SSI will be a suitable option to solve the 20t/ha and a net income of 12000t/ha (Shanty, present problems of increasing seed cost, labour 2014). cost and other soil fertility and productivity related issues. Due to wider spacing intercultural According to an experiment conducted options becomes easy, thus retarding the by Mohanty et. al (2014) in Odisha, the drudgery of women labourer. Mechanical germination percent, NMC (000/ha), length of harvesting becomes possible due to wider cane (cm), cane yield (t/ha) of conventionally spacing. planted cane was 55.81, 92.66, 197.1, 89 respectively. Where as in SSI it was much higher SSI cuts the input cost about 30% and i.e. 88, 116.13, 205.2, 105 respectively. increases the overall productivity as well as maintains sustainability of the ecosystem. SSI has various constraints in nursery as Hence, SSI stands as a potential tool to boost up well as in field like non availability of proper the sugarcane productivity and sustainability maintenance.

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Soil testing – A boon for the Indian farmers Article id: 21543 Dr. Sahaja Deva SMS (Crop Production), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi, ANGRAU

INTRODUCTION: 4. Keep the soil on clean plastic sheet. Farmers are using fertilizers Avoid urea or any other fertilizer bags. indiscriminately which not only causing 5. Mix the soil well and divide the soil into water and environmental pollution but also four parts. Remove the opposite and increase cost of cultivation. Soil will supply then mix the remaining two parts. their native nutrients and also nutrients 6. Again divide the soil into four parts and supplied through organic and inorganic remove the other opposite two parts. fertilizers to plants. So it is very important to Continue this procedure until we get half know the nutrient status of soil so that cost kilo soil can be reduced by using proper dose of 7. Remove the stones, roots, plant debris if fertilizers, soil fertility will be increased and any and then let it shade dry. more and steady yields will be received. It 8. After shade drying fill the soil in any will be better if soil testing will be done once polythene or cloth bag and send it for in two years. Soil testing not only give results testing to any nearest soil testing of nutrient status but also about soil laboratory with the following details: pollution, type of soil, problems in soil, pH,  Name of the farmer, survey number, electrical conductivity. village,mandal Procedure of soil collection for Agriculture  Type of testing (alkalinity crops: test/nutrient test/fruit crops) 1. Divide the field into different  Previous crop and fertilizers used homogenous units and remove the  Crop to be sown surface litter at sampling spot 9. Normally farmers will fill this details on 2. Drive the auger to 15 cm depth in V paper and send for testing. It will be shape and collect the soil from top to better if the same details are enclosed on bottom from one side top of the cover also and filling details 3. Collect the soil in the same way at 8-10 with pencil will be better. places and bring the soil collected to one place.

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Source: Hanuman Prasad Pranewa

Precautions while collecting soil sample: Procedure of soil collection for fruit crops:  Avoid bunds and water ways while To know the suitability of soil for growing fruit collecting sample crops and to know the nutrient status of soil  Avoid area under tree shadow where fruit crops are being to be grown collect  Avoid places where compost heaps were the sample as follows: placed (farm yard manure, vermicompost,  Normally depending on the crop drive the green manures) auger for 3-5 feet (1-2 m) and collect soil  Avoid places where there is constant water from every one feet and send for testing stagnation  If you find any hard layers while driving  If land is very slopy then collect soil from auger take care of the depth and top and bottom separately and send fro characteristics of that soil testing separately.  Collecting the sample from 2-4 places is  If you have doubt that soil is alkaline in one sufficient for fruit crops. part of land then collect the soil of that  While sending for testing mention that this area separately soil is for fruit crops  Follow the same procedure as for agriculture crops for sampling and then send for testing

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Importance of water quality parameters in fresh water ponds for better fish production Article id: 21544 Bhanu Prakash. Ch, Anil Kumar and Balwinder Kumar Farm Science Centre, Tarn Taran, Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Punjab, Ludhiana

INTRODUCTION compared to similar molecules and its Fish is an inexpensive source of protein and freezing point quite low. Therefore, water an important cash crop in many regions of exists as a liquid over a rather broad range of world and water is the physical support in temperature making it a most suitable which they carry out their life functions such medium for the support of life forms. The as feeding, swimming, breeding, digestion maintenance of good water quality is and excretion. Water quality for essential for both survival and optimum aquaculturists refers to the quality of water growth of culture organisms. The levels of that enables successful propagation of the metabolites in pond water that can have an desired organisms. The required water quality adverse effect on growth are generally an is determined by the specific organisms to be order of magnitude lower than those cultured and has many components that are tolerated by fishes for survival. Good water interwoven. A guiding principle of quality is characterized by adequate oxygen aquaculture is that water quality and hence and limited levels of metabolites. The culture efficient production are a direct consequence organisms, algae and microorganisms such as of good water chemistry. Water may be bacteria produce metabolites in a pond. The considered as a ‘binder’ or ‘matrix’ in which major source of nutrients in aquaculture is the dissolved gases, inorganic substances the feed. Because large quantities of feed are (minerals), as well as organic matter prevails. loaded in ponds, excess feed, fecal matter In addition to dissolved substance, the water and other metabolites become available in matrix gives support to microorganisms, plant large quantities for the growth of algae and and animal life forms and provides a medium microorganisms. for chemical exchange among these The Optimum fish production is totally populations. However, water is itself dependent on the physical, chemical and relatively chemically inert, physically water biological qualities of water to most of the has a high heat capacity (holds heat extent. Hence, successful pond management efficiently), is relatively ‘polar’ affording it the requires an understanding of water quality. ability to act as an excellent solvent and is Water quality is determined by variables like also quite dense. Its boiling point is quite high temperature, transparency, turbidity, water

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 colour, carbon dioxide, pH, alkalinity, have supersaturated with oxygen. There is hardness, unionised ammonia, nitrite and above 21% oxygen content in the air. Air acts nitrate. a big reservoir for oxygen concentration in 1. Temperature water is limited by its solubility. The solubility Aquaculture organisms are cold-blooded of oxygen: animals. They can modify their  Decreases as the temperature increases. bodytemperature to the environment in  Decreases exponentially with increase in normal condition, unlike the warm-blooded salinity. animals,which can react to maintain the  Decreases with lower atmospheric optimum body temperature. According to pressure and higher humidity. Delince (1992) 30-350C is tolerable to fish,  Increases with depth. Bhatnagar et al. (2004) suggested the levels According to Banerjea (1967) DO of temperature as 28-320C good for tropical between 3.0-5.0 ppm in ponds is major carps unproductive and for average or good production it should be above 5.0 ppm. 2. Turbidity Ability of water to transmit the light that 4. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) restricts light penetration and limit BOD is the measurement of total dissolved photosynthesis is termed as turbidity and is oxygen consumed by microorganisms for the resultant effect of several factors such as biodegradation of organic matter such as suspended clay particles, dispersion of food particles or sewage etc. The excess entry plankton organisms, particulate organic of cattle and domestic sewage from the non matters and also the pigments caused by the point sources and similarly increase in decomposition of organic matter. According phosphate in the village ponds may be to Santhosh and Singh (2007) the secchi disk attributed to high organic load in these ponds transparency between 30 and 40 cm indicates thus causing higher level of BOD. optimum productivity of a pond for good fish Clerk (1986) reported that BOD range culture. of 2 to 4 mg L-1 does not show pollution 3. Dissolved Oxygen while levels beyond 5 mg L-1 are indicative of Atmospheric oxygen crosses the air-water serious pollution. According to Bhatnagar et boundary and dissolves in the water matrix. al. (2004) the BOD level between 3.0-6.0 ppm The only way that oxygen can be introduced is optimum for normal activities of fishes; 6.0- from air to water is by diffusion. Atmosphere 12.0 ppm is sublethal to fishes and >12.0 ppm contains vast amount of oxygen, some of can usually cause fish kill due to suffocation. which diffuse into pond waters when they are 5. pH (measure of acidity or alkalinity) unsaturated with oxygen. Likewise, oxygen is pH or the concentrations of hydrogen ions lost to the atmosphere when pond water (H+) present in pond water is a measure of acidity or alkalinity. The pH scale extends

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 from 0 to 14 with 0 being the most acidic and effects of heavy metals such as copper or zinc 14 the most alkaline. pH 7 is a condition of which are in general toxic to fish. The neutrality and routine aquaculture occurs in hardness is a vital factor in maintaining good the range 7.0 to 9.0 (optimum is 7.5 to 8.5). pond equilibrium. Exceedingly alkaline water (greater than pH 9) 8. Turbidity is dangerous as ammonia toxicity increases Water turbidity refers to the quantity of rapidly. At higher temperatures fish are more suspended material, which interferes with sensitive to pH changes. It is an important light penetration in the water column. In chemical parameter to consider because it prawn ponds, water turbidity can result from affects the metabolism and other planktonic organisms or from suspended clay physiological processes of culture organisms. particles. Turbidity limits light penetration, 6. Ammonia thereby limiting photosynthesis in the bottom Ammonia is the second gas of importance in layer. Higher turbidity can cause temperature fish culture; its significance to good and DO stratification in prawn ponds fishproduction is overwhelming. High Water quality parameters should be ammonia levels can arise from overfeeding, monitored to serve as guide for managing a protein rich, excess feed decays to liberate pond so that conditions that can adversely toxic ammonia gas, which in conjunction with affect the growth of fishes can be avoided. In the fishes, excreted ammonia may cases where problems are encountered, accumulate to dangerously high levels under these parameters can help in the diagnosis, certain conditions. Additionally, ammonia is so a remedy can be formulated. Individual converted from toxic ammonia (NH3) to parameters usually do not tell much, but nontoxic ammonium ion (NH4 +) at pH below several parameters put together can serve as 8.0. indicators of dynamic processes occurring in 7. Hardness the pond. Most of the water quality problems Numerous inorganic (mineral) substances are can be solved with adequate water exchange. dissolved in water. Among these, the metals Thus, if large quantities of water suitable for calcium and magnesium, along with their aquaculture were available, monitoring would counter ion carbonate (CO3 -2) comprise the not be as critical and high production levels basis for the measurement of ‘hardness’. can be targeted. If water is limited, the risk of Optimum hardness for aquaculture is in the encountering water quality and disease range of 40 to 400 ppm of hardness. Hard problems increases as one goes for more waters have the capability of buffering the intensive culture.

Optimum ranges of water quality parameters suitable for fish farming S.No. Parameter Optimum range 1 Temperature (Air) 24-38 0C 2 Temperature (Water) 25-35 0C

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3 Transparency 25-70 cm 4 pH 6.5 - 8.5 5 Dissolved Oxygen 4.0 - 8.0 ppm 6 Free Carbondioxide 0.0 - 16.0 ppm 7 Total Alkalinity 40.0-200 ppm 8 Total Hardness 20-200 ppm 9 Free Ammonia Less than 0.5 ppm 10 Phosphate 0.6 - 0.1 ppm 11 Iron Less than 0.01 ppm

12 Zinc Less than 0.01 ppm 13 Copper Less than 0.01 ppm

REFERENCES [1]. Banerjea, S. M., (1967), Water quality and soil condition of fishponds in some states of India in relation to fish production, Indian journal of fisheries, 14, pp 115-144. [2]. Bhatnagar, A., Jana, S.N., Garg, S.K. Patra, B.C., Singh, G. and Barman, U.K., (2004), Water quality management in aquaculture, In: Course Manual of summerschool on development of sustainable aquaculture technology in fresh and saline waters, CCS Haryana Agricultural, Hisar (India), pp 203- 210.

[3]. Clerk, R.B., (1986), Marine Pollution. Clarandon Press, Oxford, pp 256. [4]. Delince, G., (1992), The ecology of the fish pond ecosystem, Kluwer Acadmic Publisers London, pp 230. [5]. Santhosh, B. and Singh, N.P., (2007), Guidelines for water quality management for fish culture in Tripura, ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Tripura Center, Publication no.29.

Cultivation practices and economical importance kokum

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Article id: 21545 Virkar A. M., Bahiram, V. K. and Mahorkar K. D. Ph.D., Scholar, Department of Horticulture, Post Graduate Institute, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri-413 722 Maharashtra

Botanical Name: Garcinia indica cholsy Family: Guttiferae Origin: India It is also known as Amsul , Ratamba , Katambi. It is cultivated in Tropical climate India & Zanzibar are important countries for cultivating Kokum in India it is cultivated in M.S.K.S Kerala It is perennial slender plant having spreading downward branches. More of branches dark brown color. New shoots are cylindrical & glabrous in nature. Leaves are opposite to each other 2-4 inch long & soft & dark green in color new growth of leave is reddish color. Male flowers are terminally or leaf axils. Fruits are soft Reddish purple type& indehiscent & 1.5 inch diameter. Fruit contains 3-8 seeds.

Uses: It has various uses as follows 1. Kokum butter used in chocolate & sweet & candle preparation. 2. It is used in piles. 3. It is used as antacid. 4. Fruit contains citric acid, malic acid. 5. Beverage , sherbet. 6. It is used is cardio tonic.

Chromosome number: 2n = 48 Varieties: Kokum Amrita & Kokum Hatis

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Climate: It is tropical crop requires warm humid climate for growth development. It is grows areas having high rainfall & average temperature range 25c-35c with 80% R.H.

Soil: Red lateritic and sandy loam clay soil are good for cultivation.

Propagation: It is propagated through suckers & grafting seeds soaked 12 years in water. After germination when they are of 5-10 cm. It transferred in polythene bags when 1 yr. old seedlings used for planting.

Spacing: 6×6 m or 7×7 m or 8×8 m 30cm3 pits

Manures & Fertilizer: 1st years 2kg FYM 50:25:25gm NPK, this dose increased up to 10 years. After 10 years the recommended dose is 2 kg FYM, 500:250:250gm NPK/plant.

Irrigation: 1st two years irrigation should be given regularly. Water lodging conditions avoided Intercultural operations .

Harvesting: After 7-8 years starts flowering & Fruiting. Fruits are harvested when fully ripen, Showing color change during April-May .

Yield: 100 – 120 kg /plant.

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REVERSE BREEDING: A novel breeding approach and its applications Article id: 21546 Jeet Ram Choudhary,1 Anita Burdak, 2 1Ph.D. Research scholar, Division of Genetics, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi-110012 2Ph.D. Research scholar, SKN College of Agriculture, SKNAU, Jobner-303329

INTRODUCTION:- breeders with a breeding tool that, when applied to plants of known backgrounds, As we knew that heterosis is confined allows the rapid generation of chromosome to F1 and it associated with heterozygosity so substitutions that will facilitate breeding on it requires proper maintenance of inbreds to an individual chromosome level. After a brief produce desirable hybrids. Favourable allele introduction to the RB breeding scheme, we combinations of the elite heterozygote are first elaborate on the basis of RB: the unique lost in the next generation due to segregation character of chiasmatic meiosis. of traits. Because of this difficulty, the development of methods for easy Reverse breeding preservation of heterozygous genotypes is Reverse breeding comprises two one of the greatest challenges in plant essential steps: the suppression of crossover breeding. Apomixis, Polyploidy, Balanced recombination in a selected plant followed by lethal system and asexual reproduction the regeneration of DHs from spores method have repeatedly been proposed as a containing non-recombinant chromosomes. ways to preserve heterozygous phenotypes, Figure 1 shows an idealized crossing scheme but has not yet led to breeding applications. that employs RB. It depicts the generation of Reverse breeding, meets the a segregating population (in this case a challenge of fixation of complex heterozygous segregating F2), from which a genotypically genomes by constructing complementing uncharacterized plant with a favourable homozygous lines (Dirks et al., 2003). This is combination of traits is selected. Crossing accomplished by the knockdown of meiotic over is suppressed in this plant and crossovers and the subsequent fixation of achiasmatic gametes are collected, cultured, non-recombinant chromosomes in and used to generate DHs. The DH lines can homozygous doubled haploid lines (DHs). The then be used to recapitulate the elite approach not only allows fixation of heterozygote on a commercial scale. uncharacterized germplasm but provides

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Many interesting characteristics in Application of Reverse Breeding crops are based on polygenic gene 1. Reconstruction of heterozygous interactions, very often located on different germplasm chromosomes. These quantitative traits are For crops where an extensive therefore not easy to breed on. These collection of breeding lines is still lacking, RB homozygous chromosome substitution lines can accelerate the development of varieties. provide novel tools for the study of gene In these crops, superior heterozygous plants interactions. When crossed with one of the can be propagated without prior knowledge original parents, hybrids can be formed in of their genetic constitution.The number of which one of the chromosomes is DHs that is required is surprisingly low. For homozygous, whereas it is also possible to instance in maize (x = 10) just 98 DHs are produce hybrids in which just one expected to contain a set of two reciprocal chromosome is heterozygous. The former genotypes (P = 99%). allows the study of epistatic interactions between the background and genes 2. Breeding on the single chromosome level contributed by the substitution chromosome. Offspring of plants in which just one

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 chromosome is heterozygous, will segregate screening of populations that segregate for for traits present on that chromosome only. traits on a single chromosome allow the quick Selfing plants that carry a substituted identification of QTLs, when genotyping is chromosome (or using recurrent backcrosses) combined with –for example- transcriptome will allow breeders to fine-tune interesting or metabolome profiling. Such HIFs further aid characteristics on a single chromosome scale. the generation of chromosome specific This could bring forth improved breeding lines linkage maps and the fine mapping of genes carrying introgressed traits. The few examples and alleles. RB can as such provide highly were shown here demonstrate that RB valuable insights into the nature of heterotic presents breeders with full control over effects. homo- or heterozygosity at the single 4. Backcrossing in CMS back ground chromosome level. In several vegetable crops such as Note that finding specific substitution cabbages and carrots, breeders make use of lines may be difficult, since they are rare cytoplasmic male sterility (CMS) (Chase, occurrences. Depending on the efficiency of 2007). In these systems, the presence of male the DH system, especially crops with high sterility presents a special challenge to RB. In chromosome numbers may pose problems. In these cases, gynogenesis rather than these cases backcrossing a DH line carrying androgenesis can be used to obtain DH plants. the desired substitution in addition to another This is perfectly compatible with RB in the (undesired substitution) with one of the sense that the chromosomes from the original parents may be helpful. Using marker maintainer line can be recovered directly in assisted breeding the desired chromosome the cytoplasm of the sterile line in one step. substitution can be obtained with relative Gynogenesis has been described in several ease. crops such as Brassica, maize, sugar beet, cucumber, melon, rice, onion, sunflower, and 3. Reverse breeding and marker assisted barley (Keller and Korzun, 1996) . However, breeding the development or improvement of the Especially in combination with (high protocol for many species was often throughput-) genotyping, reverse breeding abandoned when anther and microspore becomes a versatile tool. Evidently, high culture techniques were developed. In cases throughput genotyping speeds up the process where the efficiency of gynogenesis is too of identification of complementing parents in low, it is possible to cross the male sterile (A) populations of DHs in early stages. But lines with maintainer lines (B) that carry one perhaps more powerful is its use in the study copy of a restorer gene. The AB combination of gene interactions of the various will be fertile and RB can be performed. In heterozygous inbred families (HIFs) that can rice, restorer genes have been successfully be produced by crossing and backcrossing the transformed (Wang et al., 2006) . It should products of RB (as was explained above). The

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1. Dirks, Rob et al. “Reverse breeding: a novel breeding approach based on engineered meiosis.” Plant biotechnology journal vol. 7,9 (2009): 837-45. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 7652.2009.00450.x. 2. Palmer, C. E., et al. "Vitro Haploid Production in Higher Plants." (1996).

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Effect of nutrients on citrus diseases Article id: 21547 Darshana Uikey1*, Someshree Mane and Pravin Khaire Ph. D Scholar, Deptt. of Plant Pathology and Agril. Microbiology, MPKV, Rahuri, MH, 413722

INTRODUCTION Mineral nutrients are essential for plant may also interfere with nutrient and water growth and development, and are important movement or water use in the plant, inducing factors in plant-disease interactions. In additional stresses. Such infections can cause general, healthy, well-nourished plants resist root starvation, wilting and plant decline or or tolerate diseases better than weak, death, even though the pathogen itself may malnourished plants. How each nutrient not be directly harmful. affects a plant’s response to disease is unique Still other pathogens may themselves to each plant-disease complex. The purpose of utilize nutrients, which reduces nutrient this article is to briefly summarize some of availability and increases the plant’s what we know about plant mineral nutrition susceptibility to infection. Soil-borne and how different nutrients affect citrus pathogens commonly infect plant roots, diseases, pests and overall tree performance. reducing the plant’s ability to take up water Although nutrient-pathogen and nutrients. The resulting nutrient interactions are not well understood, plant deficiencies may, in turn, lead to secondary nutrients may affect disease susceptibility by infections by other pathogens. changing internal functions that create a more In addition, some disease-resistant genes in favorable environment for disease. Pathogen plants will only activate via specific infection alters the plant’s physiology, environmental stimuli. Mineral nutrition is an particularly the uptake, transport and use of environmental factor that can be easily mineral nutrients. Pathogens may immobilize controlled in agricultural systems through nutrients in the soil or in infected tissues. They fertilizer management.

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PLANT DISEASES

ALL DISEASES CYCLES

Include 3 or 4 parts, as shown in the mineral nutrients affect disease resistance in accompanying illustration. Where all of the plants. Altering how plants respond to attacks condition is met, the infection occurs and the by pests or diseases can increase resistance. diseases spreads. If any part of the cycle can be There are three primary resistance mechanisms interrupted, diseases can be prevented and that mineral nutrition can affect: damage limited. Some pathogens, such as viruses required vectors, or carriers, to 1. Formation of mechanical barriers to resist introduce them into the host plants. If the attack primarily through the development of activity vector can be interrupted, the diseases thicker cell walls. can be control without directly attacking the 2. Synthesis of natural defense compounds pathogen. such as phytoalexins, antioxidants and flavonoids that provide protection against Nutrient and other mineral element can pathogens. have a significant impact on all aspect of the 3. Activation of systemic plant defense diseases cycle. It may seem extravagant to mechanisms. claim that mineral elements can affect the Susceptibility increases as nutrient environment. However, fertilizer affect the soil concentrations deviate from this optimum. environment. And nutrients affect the plants Since the roles of mineral nutrients are well ability to withstand adverse weather established in host-disease interaction of many conditions. crops, citrus growers should recognize the existence of such interactions and see the Defence mechanism of plant against pathogen possibilities and limitations for disease and pest In order to complement disease and pest control by mineral nutrition and fertilizer control methods, we must understand how applications.

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RELATIVE NUTRIENT BALANCE FOR CITRUS

Effect of different nutrient on citrus diseases NITROGEN:- There are two situations where abundant N may increases the incidence or severity of diseases. A. When N availability is greater than the crop ability to efficiently use it for more growth, due to other growth limiting factor. B. When N availability is significantly greater than the availability of other nutrients. This is especially true for potassium (K) in most crops , and sometimes calcium (Ca) in fruit.

Correlation of factor influencing the form of N in soil and severity of diseases take all FACTOR NITRIFICATION DISEASES Nitrate nitrogen - Decreases Ammonical nitrogen - Increases Liming Increases Increases Acid soil Decreases Decreases Chloride Decreases Decreases

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Effect of two different form of nitrogen on 2. Highly specialized pathogens may attack severity of diseases vigorous plants, while less specialized pathogens attack weak plants. 1. Root rot of citrus was shown to 3. Increases plant defense mechanisms. increases in the presence of ammonium N but 4. Increase in plant maturity that attacks increases by nitrate form. young plant tissue. 2. Root rot of citrus are also caused by Rosellina spp. they are also fevered by acidic EFFECT OF PHOSPHORUS ON P. PARASITICA condition. 1. Growth of colonies of P. parasitica was not affected by phosphorus. POTASSIUM (K) 2. Germination of sporangia however. Potassium deficiency can cause cell were more sensitive and was inhibit by walls to leak cell contents, creating an phosphorus environment that stimulates fungal growth. 3. A significant reduction in the release of When K, Ca and often nitrogen (N) are zoospore was detected in solution with deficient, plants are more susceptible to 50 mg P/L water and 600mg P/L water. bacterial attack. Long-term research with K has No sporangia release zoospore. shown that sufficient K reduced bacterial and fungal diseases 70 percent of the time and CALCIUM injury from insects and mites 60 percent of the time. MECHANISM OF CA IN PLANT DISEASES Effect of potassium on citrus diseases:- RESISTANT 1. Citrus plant susceptible to diseases if they 1. The proper stricter and function of plant are suffering from K difficiency. membranes is not the only role that Ca plays in 2. Phtopthora spp. (Phytopthora parasitica) of reducing the occurrence or severity of diseases. citrus was increases by potassium fertilizer As fungi and bacteria invade the plant tissue, because high potassium uptake caused they release pectolytic enzyme that dissolve shortage of Ca. parts of the plant tissue. This damages the 3. Shortage directed resulted in improper plant and enhances the spread of the infection. formation and or function of the cell wall. The activity of this enzyme is inhibited by the

calcium ion (Ca). PHOSPHORUS (P) 2. As the pathogen release enzyme that dissolves plant tissue, K is lost from the tissue, Why P Affects Disease? with likely loss of the benefits that K provides. 1. Increased plant vigor with adequate P.

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ROLE OF MICRONUITRIENT ZINC BORON 1. Zinc is a essential integrity and stability B has been reported to reduce diseases of plant membranes and it is thought to infection, or lessen it effects, its exact role is help prevent “leakage“ of essential not clear. There appear to be the three primary element s or compound from plant cells. areas that are more widely accepted. 2. It is known that Zn shortage contribute to the accumulation of unused sugar 1. Its role in the formation of within the plant. carbohydrate- borate complex, which control carbohydrates transport and cell 3. It has been found in some plants that a wall protein metabolism. Zn deficiency caused a leakage of sugars 2. Its function in cell membrane into the surface of the leaf. permeability or stability. 4. This excess sugar, plus some leakage of 3. Its role in the metabolism of phenolics, sugar ,plus some leakage of sugar into and a primary role in the synthesis of the plant surfaces, can enhances the lignin. successful invention of fungus and bacteria . In summary, it can safely be MANGANESE concluded that improving the Zn Mn plays a key role in the production of nutrition of crops will be helpful against phenolics compound and lignin formation, two Huanglongbing and Nutrition. of the major items in the plant are against diseases. Role of plant nuitrient in diseass devlopment  .When a plant become infected by a relation with citrus and huanglongbing fungus, its natural defense are 1) Change in plant nutrition associated triggered. The infection caused with Huanglongbing HLB. increases production of fungus 2) HLB accumulate large amount of starch inhibiting phenolic compound and because bacterium caused phloem flavonoids, both at the site of infection plugging. and in other parts of the plant. 3) High leaf starch disturbed chloroplast  Therefore shortage of key nutrient such and loss of chlorophyll. as K , Mn, Cu, Zn and B reduced the 4) HLB increases K while Mg, Ca and B amount of the plant natural antifungal decreases. compound s at the site of infection . 5) K increases in clay loam.  Phenolics compounds are toxic to many 6) K decreases in sandy soil. diseases pathogens and lignin is a physical barrier to penetration by diseases organism.

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Overall NPK and Zn status in plants tested for HLB Element Status No. of Plants % N Deficient 83 71.55 Satisfactory 33 28.24 P Deficient 99 85.34 Satisfactory 17 14.65 K Deficient 70 60.34 Satisfactory 46 39.65 Zn Deficient Nil Nil

CONCLUISION:

1. All essential nutrients are critical for the proper metabolic functioning of citrus trees. 2. A balance between macronutrients and micronutrients is needed to optimize yield of high quality fruit and maintain trees healthy and tolerant to pests, diseases and other stresses. 3. Maintaining appropriate levels of nutrients will maintain productivity and inhibit disease. 4. Many interaction occure that have resulted in the nutrient recommendation we currently use.

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Adverse effects of Pesticides in crop plants Article id: 21548 Rakesh sil Sarma, Kamal Ravi Sharma Institute of Agricultural Sciences, BHU, Varanasi.

Introduction: Harmfull effect of pesticides: Pesticides taken up by plants from the soil or All pesticides are designed to kill or otherwise interstitial (pore) water can cascade to higher control specific plants or animals, so a great trophic levels, which are expected to be more deal is known about the acute biological affected due to cumulative bottom-up effects. effects of these chemicals on their target Knowledge about the impact of indirect organism. The use of agrochemicals entails exposure to pesticides on non-target both benefits and potential risks. These terrestrial trophic chains, however, is still benefits are balanced by an increased risk of lacking. Therefore, we examined the direct phytotoxicity, since treated seeds are often and indirect effects of three concentrations of exposed to significantly higher chemical the herbicide 2,6-dichlorobenzonitrile (DCBN) concentrations than occur in foliar treatments and an insecticide with a similar molecular applied to established plants. Pesticides structure (1,4-dichlorobenzene, DCB) on the control or kill plants through a variety of fitness traits of a tritrophic system: the wheat mechanism, including the inhibition of plant Triticum aestivum, the aphid Sitobion biological processes such as photosynthesis, avenae and its specialist parasitoid Aphidius mitosis, cell division, enzyme function, root rhopalosiphi. To mimic exposure via interstitial growth, or leaf formation; interference with water the toxicants were added to the growth the synthesis of pigments, proteins or DNA; medium of the plant. Passive dosing between destruction of cell membranes; or the the medium and a silicon layer was used to promotion of uncontrolled growth (William et achieve constant exposure of the poorly al., 1995). Application of pesticide can effect soluble pesticides. Wheat plants exposed to early from germination to growth of the plant, both pesticides grew smaller and had reduced leading to alteration in biochemical, biomasses. Negative effects on the physiological and different enzymatic and non- reproductive rate, biomass and the number of enzymatic antioxidants that ultimately affect aphids were only observable at the highest the yield and resulted in residues in plant, concentration of DCBN. Overall parasitism rate vegetables, fruits, and different non-target decreased when exposed to both pesticides organisms. Among the insecticides used, and parasitoid attack rates decreased at lower fipronil proved to be a lowest (76%) seed concentrations of DCBN and at the highest germination in compare to control (80%) DCB concentration. where as other insecticide diazinon proved better germination (85%) even with respect to

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 control. Mixture of herbicide loaders and agricultural farm workers. During atrazine/metalachlor proved to be the better manufacture and formulation, the possibility germination rate (81%) than singly applied of hazards may be higher because the herbicide atrazine (72%) in the rice seedlings. processes involved are not risk free. In A reduction of 64% in germination of Salsola industrial settings, workers are at increased iberica seed from plants treated with risk since they handle various toxic chemicals chlorsulfuron at 17.05 and 26 g ha¡1 and including pesticides, raw materials, toxic paraquat at 560 g ha¡1 has been reported by solvents and inert carriers. Frank and Ralph (1987). Impact on Food commodities: Biochemical and physiological effects: For determining the extent of pesticide For example, chlorotoluron blocked the higher contamination in the food stuffs, programs plant photosynthetic electron transport and entitled ‘Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in disrupted PSII reaction centre . There is one Products of Plant Origin in the European uracil type herbicide that blocks both the Hill Union’ started to be established in the reaction and photosystem II in the European Union since 1996. In 1996, seven photosynthetic pathway. Terbacil was used on pesticides (acephate, chlopyriphos, fruit trees as a method to limit photosynthesis chlopyriphos-methyl, methamidophos, can cause thinning . Others have used terbacil iprodione, procymidone and chlorothalonil) as a tool to investigate the damage thresholds and two groups of pesticides (benomyl group (Disegna, 1994). Propanil, which is highly and maneb group, i.e. dithiocarbamates) were selective post-emergence herbicide, is analysed in apples, tomatoes, lettuce, extensively used to control grass weeds in strawberries and grapes. An average of about several different crops. It belongs to class of 9 700 samples has been analysed for each anilides, and is a photosynthetic inhibitor pesticide or pesticide group. For each pesticide which inhibits photosystem II in chloroplasts or pesticide group, 5.2% of the samples were (Devine et al., 1993).The fungicide captan found to contain residues and 0.31% had application resulted in reduction of chlorophyll residues higher than the respective MRL for a, b as well as total chlorophyll and carotenoid that specific pesticide. The highest value found contents in pepper leaves but the in 1996 was for a compound of the maneb recommended dosage resulted in increase in group in lettuce which corresponded to a chlorophyll a and carotenoid contents as mancozeb residue of 118 mg/kg. In 1997, 13 compared to higher dosages and control. pesticides (acephate, carbendazin, Reduction of these contents was higher at the chlorothalonil, chlopyriphos, DDT, diazinon, higher dosages of the fungicide (Tort and endosulfan, methamidophos, iprodione, Turkyilmaz, 2003). The high risk groups metalaxyl, methidathion, thiabendazole, exposed to pesticides include production triazophos) were assessed in five commodities workers, formulators, sprayers, mixers, (mandarins, pears, bananas,beans, and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 potatoes). Some 6 000 samples were analysed. access to sufficient nutrients and water, with Residues of chlorpyriphos exceeded MRLs little other sources of stress. Although we did most often (0.24%), followed by not measure such responses, legume crop methamidophos (0.18%), and iprodione compensation may have been facilitated (0.13%). through the frequent application of pesticidal plant extracts. This could involve other forms Conclusion and future Prospect: of plant protection by direct control of Despite higher numbers of pests on the bacterial or fungal pathogens or indirect pesticidal plant treatments compared to the physiological assistance by acting as a topical synthetic treatment, yields were often green fertilizer biostimulant or foliar feed .We comparable. This could be due to further pest are undertaking further field trials to assess reduction through natural enemies.However, the multiple benefits of using pesticidal plants thismay also be because plant species can for smallholder crop production, which should tolerate a certain amount of damage and are provide more evidence for their integration in able to physiologically compensate tomaintain to agroecologically sustainable crop overall yield . Compensation usually requires production systems. that plants are generally in good health, with

REFERENCES: [1]. William, R. D., Burrill, L. C., Ball, D., Miller, T. L., Parker, R., Al-Khatib, K., Callihan, R. H., Eberlein, C. and Morishita, D. W. (1995). Pacific Northwest Weed Control Handbook 1995. Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis, OR, p. 358. [2]. Frank, L. Y. and Ralph, E. W. (1987). Efficacy of post harvest herbicides on Russian Thistle (Salsola iberica) control and seed germination. Weed Sci. 35:554–559. [3]. Disegna, E. J. (1994). The use Terbacil as a Tool to Establish a Photosynthetic Threshold in Apples. Master’s thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing. [4]. Devine, M. D., Duke, S. O. and Fedtke, C. (1993). Herbicidal inhibition of photosynthetic electron transport. In: Physiology of Herbicide Action, p. 113. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. [5]. Tort, N. and Turkyilmaz, B. (2003). Physiological effects of captan fungicide on pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). Pak J. Biol. Sci. 6(24):2026–2029.

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Climate change and CO2 concentration: Impact on plant growth and development Article id: 21549 R.V. Bhangare1 and Basant Kumar Dadarwal2. Research scholar, Department of Plant Physiology, Banaras Hindu University, Institute of Agril. Sciences, Varanasi- 221005 (U.P.) India

INTRODUCTION: markedly altered; this includes increased leaf The alarming and unprecedented rise in the expansion and cell wall extensibility and often atmospheric concentration of greenhouse cell turgor pressure, leading to increased leaf gases under global climate change warrants and root growth. If increased turgor pressure an urgent need to understand the synergistic is alone insufficient to account for increases in and holistic mechanisms associated with plant leaf growth under elevated CO2, then cell wall growth and productivity. Concentrations of relaxation (extensibility), cell division or both carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere have may also be affected. increased from pre-industrial levels of about Simplistically, scientists have suggested that 270 μmol mol−1 to current concentrations of increased leaf size, if associated with larger 360 μmol mol−1. Increases in greenhouse cells, suggests that cell expansion has been gases in the atmosphere, such as CO2, stimulated, whilst increased leaf size, if methane and nitrous oxide, are predicted to associated with more cells, suggests that cell result in a rise in mean temperatures of 2–3°C division has been stimulated. by the year 2050 and even by as much as However, various studies have reported 4.5°C by 2100 AD together with more differences in the various cellular mechanisms frequent episodes of water deficit and higher driving leaf expansion, which can vary temperature events. between species and seasons; thus, one or In the future it is thought that the other mechanisms may play a larger role, but increase in CO2 and other greenhouse gases this is beyond this introductory unit. Similar will cause an increase in global mean studies have focused on roots and such similar temperature, with larger increases at high mechanisms for increased root length and/or latitudes than elsewhere and larger increases biomass under conditions of elevated CO2. during winter than summer. 2.2 Seasonal growth 2. The effect of elevated CO2 and climatic Contrasting seasonal growth responses to extremes on plant growth elevated CO2 and temperature in certain 2.1 Plant structures: leaves and roots species suggests that pasture management CO2 enrichment of the air in which crops grow may change in the future. usually stimulates their growth and yield. The grazing season may be prolonged, but Plant structure and physiology are usually whole-season productivity may become more

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 variable than today. This is shown by studies cauliflower and onion, have been shown to of perennial ryegrass where, in spring, increase leaf area and biomass during early increased leaf extension occurred in elevated crop growth under elevated CO2 conditions CO2 whilst in summer it was reduced. In high compared with ambient conditions. temperature it was reduced in both seasons. Water stress has often been observed to be In elevated CO2 × temperature, leaf extension ameliorated by increasing concentrations of increased in spring, whilst in summer it CO2. By inducing the partial closure of decreased. Many organisms are near their stomata, water is conserved. A study of plant tolerance limits and some may not be able to responses to atmospheric CO2 enrichments persist under hotter conditions. Higher under conditions of environmental stress temperatures in arid regions with cold winters concluded that the relative growth-enhancing may mean spring growth occurs earlier. Water effects of elevated CO2 were greatest when reserves gained during the winter may, in resource limitations and environmental stress some cases, be depleted earlier. were most severe. 2.3 Climate change and agriculture Web-based resources on plant growth and Climate change will affect agriculture through CO2: effects on crops and weeds, soils, insects and  BBC Weather Centre on extreme disease. In terms of crops, the main climatic weather on agriculture variables that are important are temperature,  Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide solar radiation, water and atmospheric and Global Change web page on CO2 concentration. However, whilst plant ‘Interaction of CO2 and light on plant development is generally increased by growth – summary’ temperature, CO2 enrichment can accelerate  Friends of Science website on CO2 and it even further in some cases, whilst in other plant growth cases it may have no effect or retarding  Science Daily article ‘High carbon dioxide effects in other cases. boosts plant respiration, potentially Plant growth and crop yields depend on affecting climate and crops’. temperature and temperature extremes. The 3. The effects on yield and phenology optimum range for C3 crops is 15–20°C and for Through global warming, an C4 crops it is 25–30°C. The variation in anticipated increase in temperature can temperature requirements and temperature potentially have various effects, e.g. pikelet extremes of different cultivars of the same sterility in rice, reversal of vernalisation in species, and among species, is quite wide for wheat, reduced formation of tubers in most crops. C3 plants are sensitive to higher potatoes, loss of pollen viability in maize. CO2 and typically respond with an increase in Yields can be severely affected if photosynthesis and growth, whilst C4 plants temperatures exceed critical limits for periods don't respond so dramatically. Typically, field- as short as 1 h during anthesis (flowering). grown crops, such as winter wheat, carrot, Flowering is a very important event in crop

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 development, as it is a phase which is et al. (1998) grew soybeans for 52 days under particularly vulnerable to environmental normal air temperature and soil water stresses (Roberts et al., 1993). conditions at atmospheric CO2 concentrations It is thought that extreme of 360 and 700 μmol mol−1, but then temperatures are more important than subjected them to an 8-day period of high average temperatures in determining plant temperature and water stress. After normal responses. Crop yields are affected by net air temperature and soil water conditions primary productivity and also by the were restored, the CO2-enriched plants phenology of crop development. Increased attained photosynthetic rates that were 72% temperature can speed phenological of their unstressed controls, while stressed development, reducing the grain-filling period plants grown at ambient CO2 attained for crops and lowering yield. Crop yields were photosynthetic rates that were only 52% of greater under elevated CO2, but warmer their respective controls. temperatures reduced the duration of crop In the same study total biomass was growth and, hence, the yield of determinate 41% greater under elevated CO2 than under crops such as winter wheat and onion; but the ambient CO2 but reduced by high yield of carrot, for example, an indeterminate temperature, water deficit and high crop, increased progressively with temperature × water deficit under both temperature (Wheeler et al., 1996). CO2 concentrations. At maturity, seed dry In terms of temperature, a 12-day weight and number per plant under elevated period of high temperature stress close to CO2 were increased by an average of 32% and anthesis reduced spring wheat root biomass 22% respectively compared with ambient CO2. from 141 to 63 g m−2 (Ferris et al., 1998) by The same parameters were reduced after high the end of the elevated mean temperature temperature × water deficit by 29% and 30% period, whereas mean temperatures over the respectively in ambient CO2 and elevated CO2. treatment period had no effect on either Seed filling was earlier under high above-ground biomass or grain yield at temperature and high temperature × water maturity. Interestingly, it was increasing deficit. The rate of change in harvest index maximum temperatures over the mid- was unaltered by CO2, while it decreased anthesis period which was related to a decline under the combined effects of high in the number of grains per ear at maturity. temperature × water deficit. Seed number Grain yield and harvest index also declined explained 85% of the variation in yield, but sharply with maximum temperature. This yield was also related linearly to study suggested that high temperature photosynthesis during seed filling, suggesting extremes may reduce yields considerably. both are important determinants of yields Elevated CO2 can aid the recovery of under stress. plants from high temperature-induced reductions in photosynthetic capacity. Ferris

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CONCLUSION: primary photosynthetic reactions including The interactive effects of multiple photosystem II (PS II) photochemical environmental factors on plant responses to performance. Evolution of plants from C3 to C4 rising CO2 require a careful study. Such indicates that elimination of photorespiration information should demonstrate how the was due to high level concentration of CO2 multiple environmental factors, when altered around rubisco. Studies on single cell in a changed climate, could interact with each photosynthesis to substantially increase the other resulting in increase or decrease in the concentration of CO2 around the growth and metabolism of several plants. An carboxylating system(s), by engineering C4 immediate and significant increase in genes into C3 plants, could lead to producing photosynthesis can be exploited as a major C4-like environment in these plants. The strategic adaptation to mitigate the global rise intensity of photosynthetic acclimatory in atmospheric CO2. The veracity of responses to rising CO2 is species-specific. If information on morphological, physiological, photosynthetic acclimation can be decreased biochemical and molecular responses of either through breeding or by potential different plants to elevated CO2 suggests that recombinant DNA technology, many of the C3 photosynthetic acclimation and the resulting and C4 food crops could profit more from the down-regulation of plant metabolism is due to constant increase in the atmospheric CO2 imbalances between the source–sink capacity. concentrations and the concomitant changes Future genetic studies on sugar management in the global climate. A major challenge would for biomass production in green plants, be to develop a whole plant for optimal exposed to increased CO2 concentration in the acclimation responses for increasing atmosphere, would be extremely important. atmospheric CO2 concentrations and its Genetic transformation of plants for efficient interactions with various growth nitrogen assimilation under elevated CO2 environments. It would also be interesting to could be highly useful in improving the evaluate the genetic variability among plants capacity of nitrogen sink to mitigate excessive for acclamatory adaptive responses within a accumulated sugars. It would also be useful to specific interactive environmental context. understand the impact of elevated CO2 on

REFERENCES: 1. IPCC, Climate Change, Fourth Assessment Report, Cambridge University Press, London, 2007. 2. Reddy, A. R. and Gnanam, A., Photosynthetic productivity under CO2-enriched atmosphere in 21st century – review. In Probing Photosynthesis: Mechanism, Regulation and Adaptation (eds Yunus, M., Pathre, U. and Mohanty, P.), Taylor and Francis, UK, 2000, pp. 342–363. 3. Chaplot, V., Water and soil resources response to rising levels of atmospheric CO2 concentration and to changes in precipitation and air temperature. J. Hydrol., 2007, 337, 159–171. 4. Schiermeier, Q., Water: A long dry summer. Nature, 2008, 452, 270–273.

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5. Kirschbaum, M. U. F., Can trees buy time? An assessment of the role of vegetation sinks as part of the global carbon cycle. Clim. Change, 2003, 58, 47–71. 6. Sage, R. F., How terrestrial organisms sense, signal and respond to carbon dioxide. Integr. Comp. Biol., 2002, 42, 469–480. 7. Davey, P. A., Olcer, H., Zakhleniuk, O., Bernacchi, C. J., Calfapietra, C., Long, S. P. and Raines, C. A., Can fast growing trees escape biochemical down-regulation of photosynthesis when grown throughout their complete production cycle in the open air under elevated carbon dioxide? Plant Cell Environ., 2006, 29, 1235–1244. 8. Long, S. P., Ainsworth, E. A., Rogers, A. and Ort, D. R., Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide: Plants FACE the future. Annu. Rev. Plant Biol., 2004, 55, 591–628. 9. Friend, A. D., Geider, R. J., Behrenfeld, M. J. and Still, C. J., Photosynthesis in global-scale models. In Photosynthesis in silico (eds Laiska, A., Nedbal, L. and Govindjee), Springer, The Netherlands, 2009, pp. 465– 497. 10. Benson, A. A., Following the path of carbon in photosynthesis: A personal story. Photosynth. Res., 2002, 73, 29–49. 11. Bassham, J. A., Mapping the carbon reduction cycle: a personal retrospective. Photosynth. Res., 2003, 76, 35–52. 12. Kimball, B. A., Carbon dioxide and agricultural yield: An assemblage and analysis of 430 prior observations. Agron. J., 1983, 75, 779–788. 13. Atwell, B. J., Henery, M. L. and Ball, M. C., Does soil nitrogen influence growth, water transport and survival of snow gum (Eucalyptus pauciflora Sieber ex Sprengel.) under CO2 enrichment? Plant Cell Environ., 2009, 32, 553–566. 14. Aranjuelo, I., Irigoyen, J. J., Nogués, S. and Sánchez-Díaz, M., Elevated CO2 and water-availability effect on gas exchange and nodule development in N2-fixing alfalfa plants. Environ. Exp. Bot., 2009, 65, 18–26. 15. Possell, M. and Hewitt, C. N., Gas exchange and photosynthetic performance of the tropical tree Acacia nigrescens when grown in different CO2 concentrations. Planta, 2009, 229, 837–846. 16. Yoon, S. T., Hoogenboom, G., Flitcroft, I. and Bannayan, M., Growth and development of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in response to CO2 enrichment under two different temperature regimes. Environ. Exp. Bot., 2009, 67, 178–187. 17. Kosobryukhov, A. A., Activity of the photosynthetic apparatus at periodic elevation of CO2 concentration. Russ. J. Plant Physiol., 2008, 56, 8–16.

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Importance of grafting for healthy and quality vegetables production Article id: 21550 Anish Kumar Singh and Balaji Vikram* Department of Horticulture, Post Graduate College, Ghazipur -233001 (U.P.) India *Department of Horticulture, Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad -211007 (U.P.) India

INTRODUCTION tomatoes grow on the vine, while white Grafting is a method of propagation potatoes grow in the soil from the same where two pieces of living plant tissues are plant.The concept of grafting related joined together to develop as a single plant. potatoes and tomatoes so that both are The first attempt in vegetable grafting was produced on the same plant was originally done by grafting watermelon developed in 1930 by Oscar Soderholm in (Citrulluslanatus) onto pumpkin Worcester, MA as the "tomapotato, and later (Cucurbitamoschata) rootstock in Japan and in 1977 at the Max Planck Institute for Korea in the late 1920s. Grafting is an Developmental Biology in Tübingen, environment-friendly approach which is used Germany, and although healthy, the plant to control soil borne diseases and increasing produced neither potatoes nor tomatoes. The the yield of susceptible cultivars. This Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding technique is eco-friendly for sustainable Research in Cologne produced a plant with vegetable production and by using resistant fruit in 1994. rootstock, it reduces dependence on agrochemicals. In Japan (92%), Korea (98%) Methods of grafting in vegetables and China (20%), major share in A number of grafting techniques are watermelon production is from grafted employed in fruit bearing vegetables. seedlings. In India, grafting work was started in IIHR Bangalore by Dr RM Bhatt and his Cleft grafting: The seeds of the rootstock are associates. Their work was on identification sown 5-7 days earlier than those of the scion. of rootstocks for waterlogged conditions. For The stem of the scion (at four leaf stage) are this purpose they have imported cut at right angle with 2-3 leaves remaining semiautomated grafting machine. IIHR on the stem. The rootstock (at the four to Bangalore organized first ever short course fiveleaf stage) is cut at right angles, with 2-3 on vegetable grafting during the year 2013. leaves remaining on the stem. The stem of The pomato is a grafted plant that is the scion is cut in a wedge, and the tapered produced by grafting together a tomato plant end fitted into a cleft cut in the end of the and a potato plant, both of which are rootstock. The graft is then held firm with a members of the Solanaceae family. Cherry

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 plastic clip. Move the tray filled with grafted 1st leaf and lateral buds when a cotyledon of plants to proceed for healing up. rootstock is cut on a slant Tube or japanese grafting: This Basic pre-requisites grafting has been developed for vegetable Root stocks and scion: Select the seedlings grown by plug culture. This method desirable rootstock and scion at two true leaf makes possible to graft small plants grown in stage. Stem diameter of scion should be same plug trays two or three times faster than the as that of rootstock. conventional method. Cut rootstock under Compatibility: Callous formation takes cotyledons in a 45º or sharper angle. Prepare place between scion and root stock and the scion with matching hypocotyl width cut rebuilding of vascular bundles i.e. cambium in the same angle at about 5- 10 mm below formation between the graft union. the cotyledons. Place one tube a half way Grafting Aids: A. Grafting clips, B. down on top of the cut end of rootstock Tubes, C. Pins, and D. Grafting Blade. hypocotyl. Insert the scion into the grafting Screen house: Used for growing tube so that cut surface aligns perfectly with seedlings prior to grafting. It should be that of rootstock. Move the tray filled with constructed with 60-mesh nylon net. Arrange grafted plants to proceed for healing up to 7 double door, the upper half of the structure days. should be covered with a separate UV Tongue Approach Grafting: In this resistant polyethylene to prevent UV light method, seeds of cucumber are sown 10-13 penetration. days before grafting and pumpkin seeds 7-10 Healing chamber/Grafting chamber: days before grafting, to ensure uniformity in It is used for formation of better graft union. the diameter of the hypocotyls of the scion In this chamber grafts should be kept for 5-7 and rootstock. The shoot apex of the days. Reduces water stress by reducing rootstock is removed so that the shoot transpiration, maintains high humidity, cannot grow. The hypocotyls of the scion and maintains optimum temperature and reduces rootstock are cut in such a way that they light intensity. tongue into each other and the graft is Healing conditions: Healing is the secured with a plastic clip. The hypocotyl of most critical process of grafted seedling the scion is left to heal for 3-4 days and then production.Temperature of 25-30 ºC, RH85- crushed between the fingers. The hypocotyl is 90% and low light intensity are required for cut off with the razor blade three or four days healing. after being crushed. Acclimatization chamber: This Slant-Cut Grafting: This grafting chamber is used for hardening the grafted technique is easy to practice and has become seedling prior to transplanting to prevent leaf popular. This method is mainly developed for burning and wilting. The grafted seedling robotic grafting. It is important to remove the takes 7 to 10 days for acclimatization as hardening treatment.

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Advantages of grafting and number and total weight of fruits in Tolerance to soil-borne diseases: Grafting is indoor cultivation. Grafting improved flooding used to get rid of soil-borne diseases such as tolerance intomato grafted on brinjal Fusarium wilt in Cucurbitaceous crops rootstock. (cucumber, melon etc.) and Bacterial wilt in Effect on fruit quality: Grafting is an effective Solanaceous crops (tomato, pepper etc.). approach to improve fruit quality under both Grafting is an effective tool for disease optimum growth and flood conditions.The resistance by using rootstocks resistant to fruit quality of the shoot and fruit depends on both Phytophthora blight and bacterial wilt. the root system. In soilless tomato When the susceptible commercial pepper cultivation, grafted plants had higher variety (cv. Gedon) grafted onto rootstocks marketable yield, fruit quality and pH content resistant to Rhizoctonia root rot and Fusarium of fruits depending on rootstocks. The fruit wilt grown in the infested soil was less size of watermelons grafted to rootstock attacked with wilt disease, while un-grafted having vigorous root systems increased as plants were severely infected. compared to the fruit from intact plants. In Tolerance to abiotic stresses: To induce cucumbers, especially for export, bloom resistance against low and high temperature, development and external colour are grafts were generally used. For the important quality factors. These can be production of fruiting vegetables under the greatly influenced by the rootstock. The winter greenhouse conditions, tolerance to grafting technique affects various quality extreme temperature is crucial (Venema aspects of vegetables. Rootstock/scion 2008). Fig leaf gourd rootstock has been used combinations should be carefully selected for commercially to increase the tolerance of specific climate and geographic conditions. cucumber, watermelon, melon and summer Appropriate selection can help to control soil squash to low soil temperature. Grafting led borne diseases and also increases yield and to salt and flooding tolerance, improved fruit quality. Sugar, flavour, pH, color, water use efficiency, increased nutrient carotenoid content and texture can be uptake and alkalinity tolerance. Grafting helps affected by grafting and the type of rootstock in the survival of plants under low used. temperature because of the presence of Plant vigour promotion: The root systems of more content of Linolenic acid. Chilli gave selected rootstocks, much larger and more highest yield under high-temperature vigorous, can absorb water and nutrients conditions when grafted on sweet pepper more efficiently as compared to non-grafted rootstocks. Grafting minimizes the negative plants. In tomato, vigorous root system of the effect of boron, copper, cadmium, and rootstock can effectively absorb water so that manganese toxicity. In tomato, grafting less frequent irrigation may be practiced. In resulted in the formation of more number of watermelons, the amount of chemical internodes and flowers in outdoor cultivation fertilizers can be reduced to about one-half to

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 two-third as compared to the standard  A healthy grafted seedling at reasonable recommendation for the non-grafted plants. price is the key point for wider use. High yield: When plants are  Methods/ techniques should be of low cultivated in waterlogging/flood condition cost so that these could be adopted by soils, grafts have been used to improve yield farmers for commercial production. and found higher yield of tomato cv. ‘Kashi  More research is needed to minimize post Aman’ grafted onto rootstock of ‘IC-354557’ grafting losses. and ‘IC111056’ in open-field, grafted plants  There is a scope for vegetable breeders gave more yield than non-grafted ones. and private companies of India to develop Water use efficiency and yield were higher in resistant rootstocks. grafted plants. The researchers of Korea and  The companies should be involved in Japan have reported increases of 25 to 50% in marketing these rootstocks to the field. yield of grafted tomato, melons, pepper,  It is tolerant to diseases like Bacterial wilt, eggplant and watermelon compared to non- Phytophthora blight, Mosiac virus. grafted plants Researches, extension specialists and seed companies need to work together to Future prospects integrate this modernized technology as  Identification of compatible disease an effective tool for producing high- resistant rootstocks with tolerance to quality vegetables. abiotic stresses is the basic requirement  Sharpening of grafting skills and healing for continued success. environment need to be standardized for its application on commercial scale.

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Cooking Methods to Save Nutritional Values of Food Article: 21551 Pratima Sachan Research Scholar Department of Extension and Communication Management C.S. Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India

“Cooking methods that minimize the time, temperature and amount of water needed will help to preserve nutrients. Steaming is a great way to cook vegetables quickly and retain valuable nutrients. Microwave cooking is also good because it uses minimal water and the cooking time is very short”.

Women play a pivotal role in household. the correct method not only affects the They work not less than fourteen hours per flavour of foods, but also texture and day to expedite domestic chores. Their role appearance. Different cooking methods in food production cannot be ignored. On have different impact on the nutritive value global scale, they produce more than half of of food. all the food, which is grown. This role in Cooking methods are divided into food security must be emphasized in order three categories: dry-heat, moist-heat and to create an environment required for combination heat. Dry heat methods cook eradication of hunger and poverty. the foods with hot air or fat (sautéing, pan- Food preparation is an important step in frying, deep frying, grilling, broiling, meeting the nutritional needs of the family roasting, baking); moist heat cooking and methods of cooking is a part of food methods cook the food with a liquid, usually security. By understanding the cooking water, stock or steam (poaching, method enables one to choose the correct simmering, boiling, steaming). And method for specific foods; the various combination cooking methods use, as the methods of cooking have a direct impact on name suggests, a combination of dry heat the outcome of the finished dish. Choosing and moist heat methods (braising, stewing).

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Classification of cooking methods

Dry-heat method Moist heat cooking method Combination cooking method

Sautéing Poaching Braising

Pan frying Simmering Stewing

Deep frying Boiling

Grilling Steaming

Broiling

Roasting

Baking

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I. Dry-heat method are too tough to be successfully prepared Dry-heat cooking methods like stir-frying, by any other method. Tender foods such as pan-frying, deep-frying, and sautéing rely fish and vegetables can also be braised or on fats and oil to act as the cooking stewed successfully; however, they will medium. In dry-heat methods that do not require less cooking liquid, a lower use fat-like grilling and roasting-food is temperature and a shorter cooking time. cooked either by direct or indirect application of radiant heat. No liquid is used CONCLUSION and any fat that is added during the cooking The cooking methods enables one to process is intended to add flavor and not to choose the correct method for specific act as a cooking medium. The end result is a foods, the various methods of cooking have highly flavored exterior and moist interior. a direct impact on the outcome of the finished dish. Choosing the correct method II. Moist-heat methods not only affects the flavour of foods, but Moist-heat techniques such as steaming, also texture and appearance. Rural women shallow poaching, deep poaching and face problems of poverty, food insecurity simmering have traditionally served as and environmental degradation. These simple and economical ways to prepare problems have a disproportionate negative foods. Many of the classic dishes of the impact on rural women on account of world are prepared using moist-heat inferior socio-economic, legal and political methods because water-soluble nutrients status as well as their critical roles as are not drawn out of the food as readily. producers and household managers. This The result is tender, delicately flavored and article would ascertain the role of rural healthful dishes. women in food security for their families through study of nutritional value of III. Combination cooking method preserved food, storage techniques and These methods, which apply both dry and impact of cooking methods on nutritional moist heat are appropriate for foods that values of cooked food.

REFERENCES [1]. Caraher, Martin (2007). The state of cooking in England: the relationship of cooking skills to food choice. British Food Journal, 101(8). [2]. Chidurus, Mihiela (2010). Nutritional and health aspects related to frying (I). Romanian Biotechnological Letters Copyright University of Bucharest, 15(6).

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Portulaca - A weed but a nutritious minor leafy vegetable Article id: 21552 K. Vanitha Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, SKLTSHU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500030, Telangana, India

INTRODUCTION: ends (Hilty and John 2006). The yellow Purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) is also flowers have five regular parts and are up to 6 known as purslane, pursley) is an annual mm (0.24 in ) wide. Depending upon rainfall, succulent in the family Portulacaeae, which may the flowers appear at any time during the year. reach 40 cm (16 in) in height. Purslane is a The flowers open singly at the center of common weed in the field crops as well as in the leaf cluster for only a few hours on sunny turfgrass.(Kamal Uddin et al.,2009, Uddin et mornings. Seeds are formed in a tiny pod, which al.,2010). Purslane has wide acceptability as a opens when the seeds are mature. Purslane has potherb in Central Europe, Asia and the a taproot with fibrous secondary roots and is Mediterranean region. It is an important able to tolerate poor compacted soils and component of green salad and its soft stem and drought. leaves are used raw, alone or with other greens. The stems, leaves and flower buds all are It is reported that purslane was a edible. Purslane may be used fresh as a salad or common vegetable of the Roman Empire. cooked and becuase of its mucilaginous quality, Purslane is also used for cooking or used as a it is also suitable for soups and stews. The sour pickle. Its medicinal value is evident from its use taste is due to oxalic and malic acid, malic acid is for treatment of burns, headache and diseases produced through the crassulacean acid related to the intestine, liver, stomach, cough, metabolism (CAM) pathway that is seen in shortness, muscle relaxant and anti- many xerophytes and is at its highest when the inflammatory and diuretic treatment makes it plant is harvested in the early morning. important in herbal medicine. Purslane flourishes in numerous bio- geographical locations world-wide and is highly adaptable to many adverse conditions such as drought, saline and nutrient deficient conditions. (Uddin et al., 2012). Description: It has smooth, reddish, mostly prostrate atems and leaves, which may be alternate or opposite and are clustered at stem joints and

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power food because of its high nutritive and antioxidant properties (Simopoulos et al., 1995). Purslane is one of the richest green plant sources of omega-3 fatty acids, which usually present in high amounts in fish. Our bodies do not synthesise omega-3 fatty acids. Therefore omega-3 fatty acids must be consumed froma dietary source. The lack of dietary sources of omega-3 fatty acids has resulted in a growing level of interest to introduce purslane as a new

cultivated vegetable (Palaniswamy et al., Nutrition: 2001,Yazici et al., 2007). Omega-3 fatty acid It is rich in vitamin A which is a natural which plays an important role in human growth antioxidant value. It can play role in vision and development and in preventing diseases. healthy mucus membranes and to protect from Purslane has been shown to contain five times lung and oral cavity cancer. Purslane contains higher omega-3 fatty acids than spinach, the highest content of vitamin A among green essential for human growth, development, leafy vegetables. prevention of numerous cardiovascular In 100gms of purslane it contains protein diseases, and maintenance of a healthy immune (2.03 mg), fat (0.36 g), vitamin C (21 mg) and B system (Gill et al., 1997). complex vitamins like B1 (0.047 mg), B2 (0.112 Unlike fish oils with their high mg), B3 0.48 mg), B6 (0.073 mg), B9 (12 µg), cholesterol and calorie content, purslane also vitamin E (12.2 mg). It provides highest dietary provides an excellent source of the beneficial minerals such as potassium(494 mg/100g) omega-3 fatty acids without the cholesterol of followed by magnesium(68mg/100g), fish oils, since it contains no cholesterol. There calcium(65mg/100g), phosphorus(44mg/100g) are 3 varieties of purslane, namely, the green, and iron (1.99mg/100g), Zinc(0.17 mg). Recent golden, and a large-leaved golden variety.( research demonstrates that purslane has better Sirimornpun and Suttajit 2010). It has a low nutritional quality than the major cultivated incidence of cancer and heart disease, possibly vegetables, with higher beta-carotene, ascorbic due in part to purslane’s naturally occurring acid, and alpha-linolenic acid (Liu et al., 2000). omega- 3 fatty acids (Dkhil et al., 2011) . Additionally, purslane has been described as a

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REFERENCES: 1. M. D. Kamal-Uddin, A. S. Juraimi, M. Begum, M. R. Ismail, A. A. Rahim, and R. Othman, “Floristic composition of weed community in turf grass area of west peninsular Malaysia,” International Journal of Agriculture and Biology, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 13–20, 2009. 2.Hilty, John (2016). "Common Purslane (Portulaca oleracea". Illinois Wildflowers. Retrieved 2018-02-05. 3. S. Siriamornpun and M. Suttajit, “Microchemical components and antioxidant activity of different morphological parts of thai wild purslane (Portulaca oleracea),”Weed Science, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 182–188, 2010. 4. M. A. Dkhil, A. E. A. Moniem, S. Al-Quraishy, and R. A. Saleh, “Antioxidant effect of purslane (Portulaca oleracea) and its mechanism of action,” Journal of Medicinal Plant Research, vol. 5, no. 9, pp. 1589–1593, 2011. 5. M. K. Uddin, A. S. Juraimi, M. R. Ismail, and J. T. Brosnan, “Characterizing weed populations in different turfgrass sites throughout the Klang Valley of western Peninsular Malaysia,” Weed Technology, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 173–181, 2010. 6. A. P. Simopoulos, H. A. Norman, and J. E. Gillaspy, “Purslane in human nutrition and its potential for world agriculture,” World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, vol. 77, pp. 47–74, 1995. 7. I. Gill and R. Valivety, “Polyunsaturated fatty acids. Part 1: occurrence, biological activities and applications,” Trends in Biotechnology, vol. 15, no. 10, pp. 401–409, 1997. 8. U. R. Palaniswamy, R. J. McAvoy, and B. B. Bible, “Stage of harvest and polyunsaturated essential fatty acid concentrations in purslane (Portulaca oleraceae) leaves,” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, vol. 49, no. 7, pp. 3490–3493, 2001. 9. I. Yazici, I. T¨urkan, A. H. Sekmen, and T. Demiral, “Salinity tolerance of purslane (Portulaca oleraceae L.) is achieved by enhanced antioxidative system, lower level of lipid peroxidation and proline accumulation,” Environmental and Experimental Botany, vol. 61, no. 1, pp. 49–57, 2007. 10. M. K. Uddin, A. S. Juraimi,M. A. Hossain, F. Anwar, andM. A. Alam, “Effect of salt stress of Portulaca oleracea on antioxidant properties and mineral compositions,” Australian Journal Crop Science, vol. 6, pp. 1732–1736, 2012.

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Tomato leaf miner (Liriomyza trifolii): An important pest of Tomato Article id: 21553 1*Supriya Okram, and 2Umesh Das 1&2Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agricultural Entomology, U.B.K.V., Pundibari, Coochbehar, 736165

INTRODUCTION Liriomyza trifolii (Diptera: Agromyzidae) is also one of the important pest of tomato. Loss incurred to the tomato plant by leaf miner is insurmountable (Gerling, 1986). It was first described in the United States by Burgess in 1880. It is suspected to have been introduced into India in 1990-91 and damages various crops in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Delhi (Viraktamath, 1993). It is one of the most serious pests to both vegetables and ornamental plants throughout the world (Ganapathy et al., 2010). The most important crops attacked are beans, celery, chrysanthemum, cucumber, gerbera, gypsophila, lettuce, onion, potato and tomato (Spencer, 1989). L. trifolii is an invasive pest which was accidentally introduced into India from the American sub continent along with chrysanthemum cuttings. Leaf miner acquired key pest status on tomato from 1995 in India (Srinivasan et al., 1995). Symptoms and nature of damage:

Feeding punctures and leaf mines were usually the first and most obvious sign of the presence of Liriomyza. Leaf miner feeding resulted in serpentine mines (slender, white, winding trails) and heavily mined leaflets had large whitish blotches and the feeding punctures appeared as white speckles between 0.13 to 0.15 mm in diameter Oviposition punctures were usually smaller 0.05 mm and were more uniformly round. Leaves injured by leaf miner dropped prematurely, heavily infested plants may lose most of their leaves. If it occurred early in the fruiting period, defoliation can reduce yield and fruit size and exposed fruit to sunburn. Punctures caused by females during the feeding and oviposition processes can result in a stippled appearance on foliage, especially at the leaf tip and along the leaf margins (Parrella et al., 1985). However, the major form of damage was the mining of leaves by larvae, which resulted in destruction of the leaf mesophyll. The larval stages bored and feed within the leaves of the host plants, and at high fly densities this feeding can severely reduce yields (Spencer, 1989). Johnson et al. (1983)

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Biology of Leaf Miner

Leaf miner had a relatively short life cycle and several generations may be produced during a year, with eggs being laid just beneath the surface of the leaves. Mating, egg-laying, larval emergence from leaves and adult emerges from pupae tends to occur mostly in the morning, depending on temperature.

The temperature threshold for development eggs of the various stages is 6 to 10°C except that larva egg laying requires about 12°C. The rate of immature development of Liriomyza trifolii is dependent on temperature. At a uniform temperature of 28°C one generation cycle can pupa be accomplished in 14-15 days, but at lower adult temperatures the time taken was progressively longer. According to Leibee (1984), Liriomyza trifolii required 21 to 28 days for completion of their life cycle in warm climates and produced several generations in the tropics. Liriomyza trifolii required 19 days from egg deposition to emergence of adults at constant temperature of 25˚C (Leibee, 1984). Mikenberg (1988) reported that at 25˚C the egg stage required 2.7 days for development and the following three active larval instars required 1.4, 1.4 and 1.8 days, respectively and spent 9.3 days in the puparium. REFERENCES: [1]. Ganapathy, N., Durairaj, C. and Aruppuchamy, K. (2010). Bio- ecology and management of serpentine leaf miner, (Liriomyza trifolii) (Burgess) in cowpea Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences 23: 159-160. [2]. Gerling, D. (1986). Natural enemies of Liriomyza trifolii, biological characteristics and potential as biological control agents: A review. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 17: 99-110. [3]. Johnson, M.W., Welter, S.C., Toscano, N.C., Ting, I.P. and Trumble. J.T. (1983). Reduction of tomato leaflet photosynthesis rates by mining activity of Liriomyza sativae (Diptera: Agromyzidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 76: 1061-1063. [4]. Leibee, G.L. (1984). Influence of temperature on Development and fecundity of Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae) on celery. Env. Ent. 13: 497-501.

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[5]. Mikenberg, O.P.J.M. (1988). Dispersal of Liriomyza trifolii. Bulletin OEPP/EPPO Bulletin 18: 173-182. [6]. Parrella, M.P., Jones, V.P., Youngman, R.R. and Lebeck, L.M. (1985). Effect of leaf mining and leaf stippling of Liriomyza spp. on photosynthetic rates of chrysanthemum. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 78: 90-93. [7]. Spencer, K.A. (1989). Leaf miners. Plant Protection and Quarantine, Vol. 2, Selected Pests and Pathogens of Quarantine Significance (ed. Kahn RP). CRC Press, Boca Raton. 77-98. [8]. Srinivasan, K., Viraktamath, C.A., Gupta, M. and Tiwari, G.C. (1995). Geographical distribution, host range and parasitoids of serpentine leaf miner Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) in south India. Pest Management in Hortricultural Ecosytems. 1: 93-100. [9]. Viraktamath, C.A., Tiwari, G.C., Srinivasan, K. and Gupta, M., (1993), American serpentine leaf miner is a new threat to crops. Indian Farming. 10: 12.

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Precision Farming: “Need” and “constraints” in Indian Situations Article id: 21554 Himanshu Verma Ph.D. Research Scholar Agronomy, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, G, B, P, U, A & T, Pantnagar, Udham Singh Nagar, 263145, Uttarakhand

What is Precision Farming? precise application of agricultural inputs Precision Farming is the based on soil, weather and crop information and technology based farm requirement to maximize sustainable management system which identify, productivity, quality and profitability analyze and manage spatial and temporal (Fountas et al., 2004). Today, because of variability within fields for getting optimum increasing input costs and decreasing productivity and profitability, sustainability commodity prices, the farmers are looking and protection of the natural land resource for new ways to increase efficiency and by minimizing the production costs. reduce costs. In this regard, Precision Increasing environmental consciousness is Farming is an alternative to improve necessitating us to modify agricultural profitability and productivity. The management system for sustainable agricultural productivity can only be utilization and conservation of natural increased without any adverse effect by resources such as water, air and soil by maximizing the resource input efficiency using agricultural inputs (i.e. chemical and it is certain that availability of labor for fertilizers and pesticides) based on the right agricultural activity is going to be in short quantity, right time, and in the right place. supply in future. The time has now arrived This type of agricultural management to bring information technology and system is commonly referred as “Site- agricultural science together for improved Specific Management”. Precision Farming is economic and environmentally sustainable helping many farmers in India to maximize crop production. This gives birth to the effectiveness of the agricultural crop Precision Farming. inputs (Shibusawa, 2002), however, the conventional definition of Precision Farming Drivers of Precision Farming in India is most suitable when the land holdings are 1. Fatigue of Green Revolution large and enough variability exists between Green revolution of course the fields. In India, the average land contributed a lot, however, even with the holdings are very small, even with large and spectacular agricultural growth, the progressive farmers. The more suitable productivity levels of many of major crops definition for Precision Farming in the grown in India are for below than context of Indian farming scenario could be- expectation. We have not achieved even

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 the lowest level of potential productivity of resources, without either ecological or Indian high yielding varieties, whereas the social harm. world’s highest productive country have crop yield levels significantly higher than Need of precision Farming: the upper limit of the potential of Indian 1. Assessment and management of field HYV’s. Even the crop productivity of India’s variability: We know that our fields have agriculturally rich state like Punjab is far variable yields across the landscape below than the average yield of many high because of variations in management productive countries. practices, soil physical, chemical and biological properties and environmental 2. Natural Resource Degradation characteristics especially uncertainty of The green revolution which is known rainfall, its erratic and uneven distribution. for enhancing the production of many of One’s mental information database about the economical crops in India is also how to treat different areas in a field associated with negative requires years of observation and ecological/environmental consequences in implementation through trial-and error. terms of deteriorating soil quality as well as Today, that level of knowledge of field natural resources. The status of Indian conditions is difficult to maintain because of environment shows that, in India, about the variable farm sizes and changes in areas 182 million hectare of the country’s total farmed due to annual shifts in leasing geographical area of 328.7 million hectare is arrangements. Precision agriculture offers affected by land degradation of this 141.33 the potential to automate and simplify the million hectare are due to water erosion, collection and analysis of information. 11.50 million hectare due to wind erosion 2. Application of inputs at right time, right and 12.63 and 13.24 million hectare are due place and in right manner: After assessing to water logging and chemical deterioration the farm or field variability, precision (Stalinization and loss of nutrients) agriculture allows management decisions to respectively. On the other hand, India be made and implemented in right time in shares 17 per cent of world’s population, 1 right places on small areas within larger per cent of gross world product, 4 per cent fields. of world carbon emission, 3.6 per cent of 3. Achievement of Higher productivity: CO2 emission intensity and 2 per cent of Since precision farming, proposes to world forest area. In this context, there is prescribe tailor made management an immense need to convert the green practices, it will definitely increase the yield revolution into an evergreen revolution, per unit of land, provided nature’s other which will be triggered by farming systems uncontrollable factors are in favor. approach that can help to produce more 4. Increase in the effectiveness of inputs: from the available land, water and labor Increased productivity per unit of applied

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 input used indicates increased efficiency of and soil nutrient levels. It is the software the inputs like nutrient use efficiency, water that imports, exports and processes use efficiency and other input or resources spatially and temporally geographically use efficiency. distributed data. 5. Maximum use of minimum land unit: 3. Grid Sampling: Grid soil sampling uses After knowing the land/farm status, a the same principles of soil sampling but farmer tries to improve each and every part increases the intensity of sampling of land and uses it for the production compared to the traditional sampling. Soil purpose. samples collected from the field in a systematic grid also have location Tools of Precession Farming information that allows the data to be mapped. The goal of grid soil sampling is to Precision Farming is combinations generate a map of nutrient/water of application of different technologies requirement, called an application map. It is which are mutually inter- related and are a method of breaking a field into grids of discussed below: about 0.5-5 hectares. Sampling soil within 1. Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS the grids is useful to determine the provides continuous position information in appropriate rate of application of fertilizers. a real time when in motion. If we have Several samples are taken from each grid, precise location information at any time, mixed and sent to the laboratory for then soil and crop measurements can be analysis. mapped. GPS receivers, either carried to 4. Variable Rate Technology (VRT): Grid the field or mounted on implements allow soil samples are analyzed in the laboratory, users to return to specific locations to and an interpretation of crop inputs like sample or treat those areas. It is a set of 24 nutrient and water requirement is made for satellites in the Earth orbit which sends out each soil sample. Then the input application radio signals that can be processed by a map is plotted using the entire set of soil ground receiver to determine the samples. The input application map is geographic position on earth. loaded into a computer mounted on a 2. Geographic Information System (GIS): variable-rate input applicator. The Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer uses the input application map the computer hardware and software that and a GPS receiver to direct a product- utilize the feature attributes and location delivery controller that changes the amount data to generate the maps. An important and/or kind of input (fertilizer/water), function of an agricultural GIS is to store according to the application map. information like yields, soil survey maps, 5. Yield Maps: Yield maps are produced by remotely sensed data, crop scouting reports processing data from adapted combine harvester that is equipped with a GPS, i.e.

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 integrated with a yield recording system.  Precision agriculture can address Yield mapping involves the recording of the both economic and environmental grain flow through the combine harvester, issues that surround production while recording the actual location in the agriculture today. field at the same time. Drawbacks of precision farming  Higher input cost: It has been 6. Remote Sensors: It is the collection of proved that it is difficult to data from a distance by using data sensors determine the cost benefits of which are simply hand-held devices, precision agriculture management. mounted on aircraft or satellite-based. At present, many of the Remotely-sensed data provide a tool for technologies used are in their evaluating crop health. Plant stress related infancy, and pricing of equipment to moisture, nutrients, compaction, crop and services is hard to pin down. diseases and other plant health concerns Initial cost of precision agricultural are often easily detected in overhead management system is higher as a images. Remote sensing can reveal in- very complex technologies work season variability that affects crop yield, upon the system. and can be timely enough to make  Lack of technical expertise management decisions that improve knowledge and technology: The profitability for the current crop. success of precision agriculture Benefit of Precision Farming mainly depends largely on how well  The concept of “doing the right and how quickly the knowledge thing in the right place at the right needed to guide the new time” has a strong intuitive appeal technologies can be found. which gives farmers the ability to  Very less applicability or use all operations and crop inputs difficult/costly for small land more effectively. holdings  More effective use of inputs results  Heterogeneity of cropping systems in greater crop yield and/or quality, and market imperfections without polluting the environment.

REFERENCES: [1]. Shibusawa, S. (2002). Precision farming approaches to small farm agriculture. Agro- Chemicals Report. 2(4):13-20. [2]. Fountas, S., Ess, D., Sorensen, C.G., Hawkins, S., Pedersen, H.H., Blackmore, S. and Deboer, L.J. (2004). Farmer experience with Precision Agriculture in Denmark and US Eastern Corn Belt. Precision Agriculture.

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Freeze concentration and its applications in food industry Article id: 21555 Bhushan Bibwe and Kirti Jalgaonkar ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology, Abohar (Punjab)

INTRODUCTION the process continues the solution becomes more Concentration of liquid foods such as fruit concentrated lowering the freezing point which juices, milk, coffee and beverages is an important implies lower temperatures are necessary to unit operation in the food and beverage industry. increase conversion. One of the methods of water Evaporation is considered to be the most removal from fruit juice without heating it or economical and most widely used method of changing the juice flavour is freeze concentration concentration. However, this method is not which is based on the fractional crystallization of suitable for heat sensitive materials and foods with water to ice and the subsequent separation of the very specific or delicate flavors. The other method ice crystals from the concentrated liquid. This of liquid concentration includes vacuum process preserves the quality of the fresh juice. evaporation, freeze concentration, reverse Freeze-concentrated liquid foods and juices often osmosis, and ultrafiltration. The membrane taste much better than evaporative concentrates separation methods are now a days useful for due to retainment of customer acceptance factors concentration however cost economics restricts its such as flavour and colour. wider applicability. As compared to the Working conventional evaporation processes, concentration The basic working process starts with the by freezing is potentially a superior and economic liquid solution to be concentrated cooled to a point process for heat sensitive and aroma-rich liquid closer to the freezing point and then it is pumped foods. into the crystallizer. The crystallizer then forms Freeze concentration is the removal of crystals and the mixture containing ice crystals and water in the form of ice crystals at subzero concentrate is pumped to the separator. The temperatures. Freeze concentration is synonymous concentrate gets removed by screens in the with supreme quality concentrates. It is also separator and again passed to the crystallizer for termed as freeze crystallization is the process of increasing the effectiveness. The ice from the removing heat while a component crystallizes. In separator moves to melter which then exchange the freeze concentration process the crystallized the heat between ice and hot refrigerant. The component get separated leaving the concentrated system also contains some axillary units such as liquid behind. The importance of freeze venting systems, feed deaerators, scrapping concentration is that crystallization of the aqueous systems and refrigerant strippers. The schematic solution produces crystals that do not contain any process flow diagram of freeze concentration of the solutes present in the original solution. As system is given below.

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Liquid filling

Fractional crystallization of water to ice using scraped crystallizer

Growth of ice crystals in the ripening/growth vessel

Continuous circulation of the liquid between the crystallizer and the growth vessel with pump

Removal of large ice crystals (frozen water) from the liquid in the wash column

concentrated liquid

Schematics of freeze concentration utilizing ripening/ growth system

Unit operations  Separation and purification

 Crystallization The separation of ice crystals from This process includes two steps mixture and purification steps determines the i.e. that is nucleation and growth. During efficiency of the system. The low interfacial crystallization ice crystals formed may contain tension between ice and brine probably causes some solutes which are inn solution, so the the mother liquid to adhere to the crystal removal causes the loss of solute particles surface (Tleimat et al.,1980). The systems while separation. The correct control of ice depend on the fact that larger crystal size production stage can minimise the total loss of increases the crystallization and sometimes entrapped material per unit weight of ice along with crystals refrigerant also gets (Englezos, 2008). The processes of separation removed. There are two types of systems used prefer large crystal size for ease there for for freeze concentration viz., direct and ripening stage of crystals which increases their indirect. The choice between two systems is mean size is important (Smith, 1985). depends upon the feed material to be concentrated. In indirect system, the hot

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 stream in the heat exchanger does not come  Resistance to fouling into contact with in the cold stream which is  Both alkali and acidic solutions can be the refrigerant. It is favourable for the food used. industry since all the volatile components  No thermally damage fragile remain in the concentrate. The system usually components such as colour, vitamins, employs scrapped surface heat exchanger and nutrients. (Englezos, 2008). In indirect system, refrigerant act as the heat transfer medium. Disadvantages  High capital and refrigeration cost Applications  High operating cost as production rate This technology is useful for compared to evaporation. concentration of fruit and vegetable juices,  Inadequate scraping of scrapers at the coffee and tea extracts, in diary industry and cooled wall also in thickening of vinegar. The beer and  Mechanically complex designs wines are also concentrated using this system  Difficulty in handling of large volumetric to ease transport and storage. In water-vapor flows pharmaceutical industry, it is useful for concentration of heat sensitive liquid, lactose CONCLUSIONS production and protein isolate separation. In the past, due to higher investment Other than this, waste water treatment plants, cost, sophisticated equipments and loss of desalinisation units, and various other chemical concentrate in the removed ice, this method processes also use this technique. was not much used by the beverage industry. However, recent technological developments Advantages have minimized such limitations. In the coming  No loss of volatiles or solids, suitable for decade, freeze concentration is seen as a mainly heat sensitive produces and potentially attractive method for the waste water with volatile air-polluting concentration of aroma-rich liquid foods, substances. including fruit juices, coffee, tea, and selected alcoholic beverages. Freeze concentration is  Does not destroy heat-sensitive taste one of the popular technologies in the food and aroma compound and maintains processing industry which preserve the original product characteristics commodity with minimal alternations to taste,  Elimination of microbiological activity flavour and colour. The process is now being  Closed freeze concentration systems, popular in food industry. The field is prevents oxidation undergoing new research and developments  The process is continuous and stable which emphasizes its potentials. Though there and doesn’t need intermediate cleaning are still few disadvantages/ limitations in wider  Lower maintenance since lower adoption of the technique but research and temperature implies less corrosion.

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 technological developments are trying to technology has reduced both equipment costs minimise it in making a viable technology. and energy usage significantly making Freeze Now, through a process of innovative concentration a practical option for the engineering, process simplification and constantly growing number of applications component standardization, such patented throughout the food and drink sector.

REFERENCES [1]. Englezos, P. (2008). The Freeze Concentration Process and its Applications. Developments in Chemical Engineering and Mineral Processing, 2(1), 3–15. doi:10.1002/apj.5500020102 [2]. Smith, C.E. and Schwartzberg. H. G. 1985. Ice crystal size changes during ripening in freeze concentration. Biotechnofogy Progress, 1(2), 11 1-120 [3]. Tleimat, B.W. 1980. In: Principles of Desalinarion. K.S. Spriengler (Ed.) 2nd edition, Academic Press, pp. 359-40

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DNA Barcoding and its applications in agricultural entomology Article id: 21556 H. V. Parmar* and H. B. Sodavadiya Ph.D. Scholar, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat.

India is one of the world’s most DNA barcoding biodiverse countries, covering a variety of DNA barcoding involves the use of a ecosystems ranging from deserts to high single gene to identify a given species through mountains and tropical to temperate forests. the comparison of nucleotide sequences in the Insects are the most abundant of all life forms DNA to that of the same gene in other species on earth. Traditionally, identification has been (Savolainen et. al., 2005). based on morphological diagnoses provided by Markers for DNA barcoding taxonomic studies. Only experts such as The standard region used to generate taxonomists and trained technicians can identify DNA barcode is known as a marker. taxa accurately because it requires special skills Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I acquired through extensive experience (Jalali et. (COI) gene present in mitochondrial DNA in al., 2015). Making a difficult task harder, many animals has been proposed by Hebert et al. species metamorphose into different forms as (2003) and recognized by International Barcode they cycle through stages in their lives. But, all of Life (iBOL) as an official marker for animals. It remain the same species carrying the same is not suitable for other group of organisms genes. Different species may resemble one because it is uniform in them. So, ITS (Internal another or be too small to distinguish easily but Transcribed Spacer) for fungus and two genes each carries different alleles and thus barcodes, rbcl (ribulose biphosphate carboylase) and matK which can unmask their identity. (maturase K) for the plant, have been After 250 years of Linnaeus and Darwin, recognized as barcode markers by iBOL. a new method called DNA barcoding, a DNA- An ideal DNA barcode marker should possess based tool is currently used to identify species following features: on the basis of the pattern of nucleotide  Significant species-level genetic arrangement in a fragment of DNA of a variability and divergence, i.e. DNA particular species (Novotny et. al., 2002). barcode region should have high Several researchers have suggested the use of interspecific and low intraspecfic DNA barcoding in taxonomy to achieve rapid variability. and precise species identification in the context  Short sequence length to facilitate DNA of the current biodiversity crisis (Hebert et. al., extraction and amplification. 2003; Ball and Armstrong, 2006).  Simple to sequence with universal PCR primer.

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 Readily recoverable from museum or or genetic characteristics. So, phylogenic herbarium samples or other degraded study can also be carried out between samples. different insect species to study their DNA barcoding procedure genetic variations. The procedure includes steps viz., Consortia and database collection of samples, isolation of DNA from As a global research initiative, DNA samples, amplification of the target DNA region barcoding aim to construct an enormous, using PCR, sequencing of the PCR product and online, freely available sequence database. In data validation (Image 1). this regard, DNA barcoding project Applications of DNA barcoding in Agricultural encompasses large, coordinated projects, Entomology: where researchers are focusing on one or few 1. Identification of insect species that can be taxonomic groups(s). In order to integrate these useful to implement various management outputs from various projects into the global strategies to manage the pest problems of initiative a sort of “standardization code” has farmers. Identification is possible at all life been developed in collaborations. stages, eggs, larva, pupa, adults that is one DNA barcoding initiative has produced of advantage to identify insect easily and various consortia and databases, which play a quickly, e.g. DNA barcoding reveals cryptic key role in the development of a barcoding species in the neotropical skipper butterfly system. iBOL (The International Barcode of Life Astraptes fulgerator (Hebert et. al., 2004). Project), CBOL (The Consortium for the Barcode 2. Recognition of various biological control of Life), BOLD (The Barcode of Life Data System) agents as well as symbionts is also and NCBI-GenBank (National Center for successfully carried out which can lead to Biotechnology Information) are an important identifying the diet of an animal, based on examples. its stomach contents Limitations 3. Other applications of DNA barcoding include  It may be difficult to resolve recently environmental monitoring and assessment, diverged species or new species that wildlife protection, quality assurance have arisen through hybridization. and control.  DNA barcoding requires an expertise at 4. Identifications using molecular data can help the analysis level, and one must be elucidate the relationships of trained on the analytical part of it. The morphologically variable individuals of the proper knowledge about different kinds same species, such as individuals in of bioinformatic tools enables one to different. Phylogenic tree or evolutionary analyse DNA sequence. tree is a branching diagram showing the evolutionary relationship among various CONCLUSION species. The phylogeny is based upon DNA barcoding has emerged and similarities and differences in their physical established itself as an important tool for

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 species identification and phylogenetic studies. Future thrusts The standard DNA barcode region,  DNA barcoding needs to be inseparably mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase linked with traditional taxonomy to subunit I (COI) is very efficient for insect species create a powerful tool that identification. This region has good complements taxonomic studies discrimination power for most animal groups,  Need to strengthen DNA barcode too. DNA barcoding is useful in identification of reference library insect species, biocontrol agents, insect  Need to explore more other barcode symbionts, etc. Presently, few International genes for identification of pests and collaborative research projects are operative to their natural enemies build DNA barcode reference library of species.  Advancement in the barcoding technology to identify resistant and susceptible population in insect pest

Image 1: DNA barcoding procedure

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REFERENCE [1]. Ball S. L. and Armstrong K. F. (2006). DNA barcodes for insect pest identification: a test case with tussock moths (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae). Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 36 (2):337-350. [2]. Hebert P. D., Cywinska A., Shelle L. B. and Jeremy R. (2003). Biological identifications through DNA barcodes. Proceedings of the Royal Society_B, 270:313-321. [3]. Hebert D. N., Penton E. H., Burns J. M., Janzens D. H. and Hallwachs W. (2004). Ten species in one: DNA barcoding reveals cryptic species in the neotropical skipper butterfly Astraptes fulgerator. PNAS., 101 (41):14812-14817. [4]. Jalali S. K., Ojha R. and Venkatesan T. (2015). DNA Barcoding for Identification of Agriculturally Important Insects. New Horizons in Insect Science: Towards Sustainable Pest Management (1st ed., pp. 13-23), Springer, India. [5]. Novotny V., Basset Y., Miller S., Weiblen G., Bremerk B., Cizek L. and Pavel D. (2002). Low host specificity of herbivorous insects in a tropical forest. Nature, 16:841-844. [6]. Savolainen V., Cowan R. S., Vogler A. P., Roderick G. K. and Lane R. (2005). Towards writing the encyclopedia of life: an introduction to DNA barcoding. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society_B, 360:1805-1811.

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Silicon based defense mechanism in plants Article id: 21557 Sumit Kumar1*, Pradeep Kumar2 and Shyam Kishor Patel1 1Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi- 221005 2ICAR- Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi - 110012

INTRODUCTION to stress signaling systems (Fauteux et al., The most plenteous component after oxygen in 2005). Silicon induced resistance against the soil, is silicon (Si) and comprises various plant diseases incited by fungi, bacteria approximately 28% of the earth’s crust (Epstein and pests, as well as applying alleviative 1994). Silicon is not recognized as an essential impacts on different abiotic stresses like water component for growth and production of logging, high and low temperature, drought plants, but it is beneficial for plant physiological stress, salt stress and effects of UV in a wide process. Accumulation of Si in plants varies range of plant species. extraordinarily, because of contrasts in root Si Application of Si prevent plant disease by take-up limit (Takahashi et al., 1990). preventing entry of pathogen through Commonly, Silicon uptake in the form of structural reinforcement, inhibiting the orthosilicic acid [Si (OH)4], through plant roots. colonization of pathogen by stimulating The orthosilicic acid concentration varies from systemic acquired resistance (SAR), production 0.1–0.6 mM in soil solution and also affected by of antimicrobial compounds and stimulating its dissolution from soil minerals and its the resistance in plant via activating different adsorption or resorption by the soil (Savant et signaling pathways and defense-related gene al., 1997). Silicon is moves via two Si expression. The valuable effects if silicon transporters mechanism, Lsi1 and Lsi2, located against disease resistance are ascribed for in plasma membrane, and their function is production of phenolic compounds, peroxidase influx transporters and efflux transporters, / phytoalexins induction and Si accumulation in respectively. epidermal tissue to regulate the pathogen Various studies revealed that the invasion and colonization (Sakr, 2016). accumulation of Si in many plant species and plays vital role in plant physiological process, Silicon-mediated plant disease resistance for example, rice and sugarcane and some D. Physical Mechanisms cyperaceous plants (Liang, 1999). Mechanical Plant pathogen causes successful infection and physiological properties of plants is in host plant by breaking the physical barriers improved by the silicon and known to enhance of plant like wax, cuticles and cell walls. The the tolerance against various biotic and abiotic physical barriers check the penetration of stresses in different plant species. Most part pathogen and plant low in Si susceptible to absorbed Si is kept in cell walls, and play a role

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 enzymatic degradation incited by various fungal 3. Defense-Related Enzymes and pathogen colonization and invasion. Antimicrobial Compounds Silicon play a beneficial role to growth and Silicon application stimulates the defense- development of plant are characterized by related enzymes in plants during the contact improving the mechanical and an external with pathogen. Disease resistance is closely defensive layer (Sun et al., 2010). Silicon form a related to defense-related enzymes such as cuticle -Si double layer, when deposited phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, glutathione beneath the cuticle and check the entry of the reductase, peroxidases, and pathogen in the host plant. Mostly silicon plays polyphenoloxidases. The synthesis of plant a role in cell wall elasticity during growth. secondary antimicrobial compounds by the Silicon decrease the disease incidence by the involvement of PAL, is beneficial for disease formation of double cuticular layer, formation resistance in plant against the pathogen of papilla, increasing the density of silicified (Waewthongrak et al., 2015). long and short epidermal cells, and complexes Silicon may regulate the gene expressions formed with in epidermal cell walls. Silicon also which are related to synthesis of various linked with hemicellulose, which provides enzyme; viz., phenylalanine ammonia-lyase and mechanical strength to prevent pathogen lipoxygenase. Silicon increase the defense- penetration. The application of silicon in wheat related enzymes activities by the priming of JA leaves infected with Pyricularia oryzae, prevent inducible responses. The application of silicon is the hyphael entry, while no Si treatment the playing a beneficial role to suppressing the hyphae easily invaded several neighboring leaf pathogen infections through the enhancing the cells (Sousa et al., 2013). defense related enzymes. A significant reaction in defense-related E. Biochemical mechanisms enzymes is the adjustment in antimicrobial Silicon based biochemical resistance also substances; by and large, in plants low disease increases the defense-related enzymes, like rate after the application of silicon, which are phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), peroxidase related to defense related enzymes and this and polyphenoloxidase. Silicon -enhanced defense enzyme promoting the production of production of antimicrobial compounds, which antimicrobial compounds. Silicon application play a role in resistance against the pathogens reducing the basal antioxidant enzyme activity viz., phenolic, phytoalexins, and pathogenesis- in soybean leaves, during Cercospora sojina related (PR) proteins in plants. Systemic signals, infection. Antimicrobial compounds reduce the like salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and disease in higher plants and silicon stimulate ethylene are regulated by the application of the production of these compounds during silicon that enhanced biochemical resistance pathogen attack. (Van et al., 2013).

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4. Systemic Signals different pathosystems. The application of Si To counteract pathogen contamination, protects tomato plant from the Ralstonia host plants have built up a muddled immune solanacearum through the upregulating the system giving a few layers of constitutive and expression of genes, which are related to inducible protection mechanisms, which are defense and stress, like late embryogenesis rich managed by a mind-boggling system of signal protein, trehalose phosphatase, and WRKY1 transduction pathways (Grant et al., 2013). transcription factor (Ghareeb et al., 2011). Plant immunity and defense activities regulated by JA, SA and ET. Jasmonic acid and ethylene Conclusion work against the necrotrophic pathogens and By combining knowledge on interaction of salicylic acid mostly active during biotrophic plant–microbes mediated by Si. The different pathogen infection (Pieterse et al., 2012). types of mechanism are found in plant that Silicon may regulate the plant stress responses inhibit the invasion and colonization of by modifying phytohormone homeostasis and pathogen like physical, biochemical, and signaling pathways. Plant treated with silicon molecular mechanisms that attributed by accumulates the phytohormones in response to silicon. First, evidence is silicon induces disease pathogen invasion and colonization. resistance by activating the physical mechanism, which is based on pre and post F. Molecular approach formed defense barrier. The pre formed Molecular mechanism is one of the best defense barrier work before pathogen mechanisms to reduce the development of the infection, and post formed defense barrier diseases in plants. Silicon is involved when work after pathogen infection. The plant come contact with the pathogen and accumulation the silicon induces resistance activating the defense genes of host plants by against the biotic and abiotic stresses. the physiological and biochemical reactions. Secondly, biochemical mechanism involves The signal transductions pathway is inducing activation of defense related enzymes and the resistance response in plants to check the which in turn activates, production of pathogen invasion. Silicon regulate the antimicrobial compound, and regulates expression of various defense genes related to different signaling pathways. Finally, molecular morphological variations in call walls, resistance by activating the expression of antimicrobial compound synthesis, genes, which are involved in defense against hypersensitivity responses, and PR proteins. the pathogen infection. Understanding the The expression of defense genes is regulated by different types of silicon based defense the intracellular signaling systems of post- mechanism in plants reduce the plant diseases elicitation. that cause economical losses and increase the Various studies conducted like transcriptomic crop yield by the efficient use of nutrients. and proteomic to represent the Si responses in

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REFERENCE [1]. Epstein E. (1994) The anomaly of silicon in plant biology. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 91: 11–17. [2]. Fauteux, F., Remus-Borel, W., Menzies, J. G., and Belanger, R. R. (2005). Silicon and plant disease resistance against pathogenic fungi. FEMSMicrobiol. Lett. 249, 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.femsle.2005.06.034. [3]. Ghareeb, H., Bozsó, Z., Ott, P. G., Repenning, C., Stahl, F., and Wydra, K. (2011). Transcriptome of silicon-induced resistance against Ralstonia solanacearum in the silicon non-accumulator tomato implicates priming effect. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 75, 83–89. doi: 10.1016/j.pmpp.2010.11.004. [4]. Grant, M. R., Kazan, K., and Manners, J. M. (2013). Exploiting pathogens’ tricks of the trade for engineering of plant disease resistance: challenges and opportunities. Microb. Biotechnol. 6, 212–222. doi: 10.1111/1751-7915.12017. [5]. Liang, Y. C. (1999). Effects of silicon on enzyme activity and sodium, potassium and calcium concentration in barley under salt stress. Plant Soil 209, 217–224. doi: 10.1023/A:1004526604913. [6]. Pieterse, C. M., Van, D. D. D., Zamioudis, C., Leonreyes, A., and Van Wees, S. C. (2012). Hormonal modulation of plant immunity. Cell Dev. Biol. 28, 489–521. doi: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio- 092910-154055. [7]. Sakr, N. (2016). The role of silicon (Si) in increasing plant resistance against fungal diseases. Hell. Plant Protect. J. 9, 1–15. doi: 10.1515/hppj-2016-0001. [8]. Savant NK, Snyder GH, Datnoff LE. (1997). Silicon management and sustainable rice production. Advances in Agronomy 58, 151–199. [9]. Sousa, R. S., Rodrigues, F. A., Schurt, D. A., Souza, N. F. A., and Cruz, M. F. A. (2013). Cytological aspects of the infection process of Pyricularia oryzae on leaves of wheat plants supplied with silicon. Trop. Plant Pathol. 38, 472–477. doi: 10.1590/S1982-56762013000600002. [10]. Sun, W., Zhang, J., Fan, Q., Xue, G., Li, Z., and Liang, Y. (2010). Silicon-enhanced resistance to rice blast is attributed to silicon-mediated defence resistance and its role as physical barrier. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 128, 39–49. doi: 10.1007/s10658- 010-9625-x. [11]. Takahashi, E., Ma, J. F., and Miyake, Y. (1990). The possibility of silicon as an essential element for higher plants. Comment. Agric. Food Chem. 2, 99–102. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2013.11.021. [12]. Van, B. J., De Vleesschauwer, D., and Hofte, M. (2013). Towards establishing broad-spectrum disease resistance in plants: silicon leads the way. J. Exp. Bot. 64, 1281–1293. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ers329. [13]. Waewthongrak, W., Pisuchpen, S., and Leelasuphakul, W. (2015). Effect of Bacillus subtilis and chitosan applications on green mold (Penicillium digitatum Sacc.) decay in citrus fruit. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 99, 44–49. doi: 10.1016/j. postharvbio.2014.07.016.

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Blockchain in Agriculture: A way ahead to connect farmers to the good market. Article id: 21558 Shekhar Khade Assistant Professor Tilka Manjhi Agriculture College, Birsa Agriculture University, Jharkhand

INTRODUCTION price fluctuation of the basic needed India is an agricultural country and almost half commodities. One of the major step toward of its population depends on agriculture and organizing the Indian market could be agriculture based industries directly or inclusion of blockchain in agriculture. indirectly for their daily earnings. It plays a very vital role in countries economy but still Blockchain is one implementation of condition of an Indian farmer is too pity DLT (Distributed ledger technology) which is a compared to other countries farmers where decentralized system of recording the data of agriculture may not be given as much processing, validating and authorizing importance. There are several reasons for that transactions. These data of transactions then but the most common and the actual cause is are recorded and stored on an immutable the ineffective and defective condition of the ledger. There are three type of blockchain agricultural marketing in India. The farmers systems: consortium blockchain, private put all their efforts and resources throughout blockchain and public blockchain. the year and even after that they are not able Consortium: The control is in the hands of the to get a minimum reasonable price in return. members of the group and all the decisions In many cases it has also been reported that like verifying and adding records to the they don't even get the money invested at the blockchain is based on a consensus end of the season and thus becomes any easy mechanism by a pre-selected set of nodes. prey to the middlemen who then exploits them forcing them more into the depths of Private: Also known as a permissioned ledger. debit. On one hand these greedy middlemen This is centralized and only people with exploit the farmers by purchasing the produce specific authentication and permission can be at very cheap prices and on the other hand part of this network. However, the blockchain they exploit the customers by demanding could be publically viewable. The trust among higher prices from them. Hence there is a the participants is more in this type of need for an organised marketing system in blockchain. India so that the farmers can directly connect with the consumers and can have right price Public: It is decentralized and anyone can join for his hard work. On the other hand the or leave the blockchain and anyone can verify consumers will also get relief from the daily and append transactions to the blockchain. It

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facilitates dynamic collection of participants II. Better payment options: Even after the who may or may not know each other. Hence, goods of the farmer is sold at very low rate stringent consensus mechanisms have to be they often get paid the entire amount by implemented in this system. It is also known the broker. In many cases it may happen as permission-less blockchain. the broken doesn't pay at all and keeps the farmer exploiting in the name of tax, Blockchain technology is being used transaction charges and other false legal widely in many sectors and is also gaining issues. Blockchain technology can provide popularity amongst the agriculturists in lower cost and faster payment options to foreign countries in relation to agriculture the member farmers. An appliction under supply chains, land registrations and digital blockchain called “smart contracts” trigger IDs. The inclusion of blockchain can increase payments automatically as soon as the trust amongst the parties due to improved fulfillment of a certain condition (e.g. informational transparency and accuracy, it delivery of goods) is confirmed by the can reduces costs and boosts efficiency of the buyer. Thus making the selling easier to market. When anyone does a transaction on the farmers. this system, the system keeps all the record III. Improving supply chain: The transparency like nature, cost, time amount etc. of that among the farmer and the consumer is particular transaction. And once the records improved. Thus, helping consumers and have been checked by both the side parties farmers to make informed purchase and then the data is recorded permanently and sell. The process of supply chain is becomes indelible. Then these data are made complex and opaque, as shipments change accessible to other participant in the system. hands multiple times before reaching their What changes can be brought by blockchain final destination. Therefore, it is difficult in Agricultural Market? for farmers to know where, for what price I. Better price to the growers: In present and how much of their produce is sold. scenario the farmers are forced to sell Blockchain technology keeps record of their produce at whatever cost said by the transactions in real time and provide up- broker or the middleman which is usually to-date supply and demand information to very cheap than the actual market rate. participant farmers and thus can help But if blockchain is included, the member rectify this imbalance. As the information farmers will have full information of the is available to the members all over the price and demand of his produce in the globe the connectivity among the farmers market at that period of time. This around the globe could be improved. information can help farmers to setup his IV. Easy traceability: The farmers and own price according to the market rate. consumer can get each and every information of their product at every step

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under the supply chain until it is handed commercial players more uniform, over to the other party. industry-wide governance parameters V. Ease in agricultural insurance clearance: are established else they may be The Agricultural insurance which are built reticent to exchange value over on blockchain would facilitate immediate blockchain and this may lead to chaos. payout of the insurance in case of any II. Uncertainty in contracts: There is no natural calamity which may lead to crop formal agreement in blockchain, this loss. Not only these farmers are regularly may give rise to the uncertainties informed provide with the weather data about the terms and conditions of the with the help of sensors on the field and contract and its authenticity. At this correlated data from the proximity point it becomes very difficult to get weather stations. justice from the court if any fraud VI. Land registration: If the land records are happens though its chances are too linked in blockchain with digital ID less. especially for poor rural farmers the III. Data privacy of the members and corruption against them could be stopped security: Data privacy and protection is in times of natural disasters or wars. a major concern in such platforms. Whatever is uploaded on blockchain it Issues related to blockchain is recorded and stored there It can't be said that blockchain is the only permanently even the bank account mechanism to build trust, reduce costs and details. Though hacking the blockchain accelerate transactions is entirely true in case network is too impossible but noting is of India. It still suffer from traditional unbreakable. Therefore if any such challenges such as a lack of or poor incidence happens it would be a great infrastructure, failures of interoperability, and issue. other technology issues in other countries IV. Risk of losing accessibility: The user too. In various cases it has been found that has to be very careful while uploading this adds unnecessary overheads and does not the data as there is no way to change yield any tangible benefits to the real the information once loaded. The user beneficiaries. needs to keep his id and password I. Proper regulation and rules: A proper safely and properly as still no method and established governance system have been developed to recovered to regulating blockchain transactions in recover forgotten password. needed before implementation. Any V. Building the trust on the blockchain entity without regulation always have developing manager: Farmers need to the probability of becoming rogue and feel 100 percent sure they won’t be damage the system. While this may cheated. work on a smaller scale, but bigger

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VI. Connectivity: Most of the Indian CONCLUSION: farmers may not have the access to Forty percent of the world’s population earn the computers or mobiles and even if their income from agriculture, however over they have they do not know how to 50 percent of their crop value is lost between use them for blockchain. Therefore harvest and sale. This may be due to delay in there is a need to first educated the selling or due to not at all selling by the farmers about the knowhow and farmers because the price which they are working of this technology. offered by the brokers doesn't even meets the transportation cost they spend to bring it to the market. Therefore, this process which provides transparency, easy transactions, access to consumers could be a great tool to combat this waste. The only need is to build

trust amongst the farmers and implement proper regulations.

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Scientific Cultivation of Black Pepper Article id: 21559 Mohit Lal , Jitendra Kumar and Laxmi Kant Research scholar N.D.U.A. &T., Kumarganj, Ayodhya-224229

Common name : Black pepper Botanical name : Piper nigrum L. Chromosome no. : 2n = 52, 78, 104 Family : Piperaceae Type of plant : Bushy Type, Climber Type of fruit : Berry

INTRODUCTION its share of production is only 26.6 %. It is a Commonly known as black pepper is climbing evergreen plant and grows to a cultivated for its fruit, which is used as a spice height of 10 m or more. The vines branch and seasoning in the dried form. It is also used horizontally from the modes and do not attain in traditional medicine. Black pepper (Piper length, but the fully-grown vines completely nigrum L.) is the king of spices. It is obtained cover the standard presenting the appearance from the perennial climbing vine. This is of bush. The leaves are broadly lance late, but indigenous to the tropical forests of Western wide variations occur in leaf shape and are Ghats of South India. It is one of the important arranged alternately. The inflorescence is a and earliest known spices produced and catkin produced at the nodes opposite to the exported from India. India accounts for 54% of upper leaves. Flowers are very minute. the total area under pepper in the world but Monoecious or dioeciously or hermaphrodite

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 forms occur in different varieties. The fruit is a mother vein can be sown in polythene bags. single seeded berry, which has a thin, soft After the transplantation, the use of rooted pericarp surrounding the seed. It takes cuttings. After the cutting gets root, the approximately six months to mature after transplantation will be done. flowering. Sometimes, spike shedding occurs to the extent of 14 to 65 % causing Planting: considerable loss. Spraying of IAA 50 ppm or Recommended variety to be used. Using of planofix 50 ppm and or zinc 0.5 % at the time Erythrina variety reduce the Nematodes. In of berry setting stage reduces spike shedding. one pit 2 to 3 rooted stems can be planting during the rainy season in the months of May - Climate and soil Requirement June and June - July. Pepper crop mountainous areas like When pepper is grown as pure crop, pits of 0.5 Kanyakumari, Nilgiris, Keelbhavaniin Tamil m cube are dug at a spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 m and Nadu, are mostly cultivated. Grows well in well Erythrina stem cuttings of 2m length or its two in drained soil. In clay, sandy lands, the crop years old seedlings are planted on receipt of does not grow well. If the soil pH is between early monsoon showers. 4.5 to 6.6 is better. Pepper crop needed rain and high temperatures. Up to a height of 1500 Varieties meters above sea level mountains, where the (1)Panchami (2) Cirikara (3) Malabar Excel (4) crop grows well in the. Pepper is a humid Devam (5) Kirimunta (6) PLT -2 (7) Subhakara tropic plant, which requires adequate rainfall (8) Pournamy. and humidity. The temperature ranges between 10o and 40oC. A well-distributed Selection of site annual rainfall of 125-200 cm is considered Well drained level land and hill slopes ideal for pepper. Pepper can be grown in a are suitable for growing pepper. When grown wide range of soils such as clay loam, red on a slopy land, the slopes facing south should loam, sandy loam and lateritic soils with a pH be avoided and the lower half of north and of 4.5 to 6.0, though in its natural habitat, it north eastern slopes are preferred for thrives best on virgin soil rich in organic planting: so that the vines are not subjected to matter. the scorching effect of the sun during summer.

Season: June – December the high quality Cropping method pepper crop is cultivated in rainfed. Pepper is grown as monocarp as well as a mixed crop. Large scale cultivation of Propagation: pepper as monocarp is done on hill slopes by Pepper crop breeding was done by vein clearing jungle lands and planting standards cutting method. One meter long pepper vein for the vines to climb on. As a mixed crop, it is can be taken with 2 or 3 nodes from the grown with arecanut, coconut, mango, jack

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 etc. where these trees serve as standards for Manures and fertilizers the pepper vines. Pepper is also a suitable Judicious and regular manuring is intercrop in coffee estates where the shade necessary to get good yield. About 10 kg of trees as good standards for them. well rotten cattle manure or compost is given in April-May. Fertilizers to supply100g N, 40g Cultural practices P2O5 and 140g K2O per standard for vines of As the cuttings grow, the shoots are three years and above may be applied tied to the standards as often as required. The annually in two split doses in April-May and young vines should be protected from hot sun August-September. During the first year of during summer months by providing them planting, 1/3 of the above dose and in the with artificial shade. Regulation of shade by second year 2/3 of the above dose may be lopping the branches of standards is necessary given. Manures are applied around the vines not only for providing optimum light to the at a distance of 30 cm and forked into the soil. vines but also for enabling the standards to Lime may be applied at the rate of 500 g per grow straight. Adequate mulch with green leaf standard during April in alternate years. saw dust or coir dust or organic matter should be given towards the end of northeast Harvesting and curing monsoon. The base of the vines should bot be Pepper vines start yielding usually from disturbed to avoid root damage. During the the 3rd or 4th year. The vines flower in May- second year, practically the same cultural June. It takes 6 to 8 months from flowering to practices are repeated. However, lopping of ripening stage. Harvesting is done from the the standards should be done carefully from November to February in the plains and the fourth year onwards, not only to regulate January to march in the hills. When one or two the height of the standards, but also to shade berries on the spike turn bright or red, the the pepper vines optimally. Excessive shading whole spike is plucked. Berries are separated during flowering and fruiting encourages pest from the spikes by rubbing them between the infestation. Pruning the top of the vine after it hands or trampling them under the feet. After has reached the required height i.e. 6 m is the separation, the berries are dried in the sun normally practiced when it is trained on for 7 to 10 days until the outer skin becomes standards like silver oak, coconut, areca nut black and shrunken and assumes the for convenience of picking. From the fourth characteristic wrinkled appearance of year, usually two diggings are given one during commercial black pepper. For making good May-June and the other towards the end of quality black pepper of uniform colour, the southwest monsoon in October-November. separated berries are collected in a perforated Growing cover crops like Calapogonium bamboo basket or vessel and the basket with mucanoides, Mimosa in visa are also the berries is dipped in boiling water for one recommended under West Coast conditions. minute. The basket is then taken out and drained. The treated berries are sun dried on a

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 clean bamboo mat or cement floor. White twice, once before monsoon and one after pepper of commerce is prepared by removing monsoon. the outer skin and the pulp below it before drying the berries. Spikes with fully ripe 2. Pollu disease berries are filled in gunny bags and steeped in Control measures Spray 1-% Bordeaux flowing water for about 7 days. Outer rind of mixture. the berries is then removed by rubbing them with hands in a bucket of water and further Nematodes: cleaning the seeds with fresh water. The Nematode affected vines, impacted by cleaned seeds are dried for 3 to 4 days. The the reduced height of vines, small leaves and seeds which are now dull white in colour are colour change in to pale yellow and nodes can further cleaned by winnowing and polishing found in the roots. them by rubbing with a cloth. The recovery of Control measures: white pepper is about 25 % of ripe berries o At the time of selecting the vines, we can while that of black pepper is about 33 %. choose nematode free plant. o If nematode problems are highly identified, Plant protection marigold can be planted to control (A) Pests nematodes. 1. Pollu beetle: Control measures: Spray o Pecilomicis and Trichoderma fungus and endosulfan (0.05%) twice (June and Pseudomonas bacteria mixer can be September) applied in the root zone at the rate of 50 2. Top shoot borer: Control measures: Spray grams per vine. endosulfan 0.05% twice when new shoots o Neem cake mixed with farmyard manure emerge. at the rate of 100 grams may be applied. 3. Leaf gall thrips: Control measures: Spray monocrotophos 0.05%. Yield 4. Scale insects: Control measures: Spray Pepper vines attain full bearing stage in dimethoate 0.05% at 15 days intervals. the 7th or 8th year after planting and it starts declining after 20 to 25 years and replanting Diseases has to be done thereafter. One-hectare 1. Quick wilt or foot rot plantation of 7 to 8 years old gives about 800 Control measures Removal of the infected to 1000 kg of black pepper. dead vines and burns them, provide proper Nematodes: drainage, avoid damage to root system and Nematode affected vines, impacted by the stem of vines. Spray vine with 1% Bordeaux reduced height of vines, small leaves and mixture and 0.25% Ridomil ziram alternatively colour change in to pale yellow and nodes can and drench the basin with the same chemical found in the roots.

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Control measures: o Pecilomicis and Trichoderma fungus and o At the time of selecting the vines, we can Pseudomonas bacteria mixer can be choose nematode free plant. applied in the root zone at the rate of 50 o If nematode problems are highly identified, grams per vine. marigold can be planted to control o Neem cake mixed with farmyard manure nematodes. at the rate of 100 grams may be applied.

REFERENCES [1]. "Black Pepper Cultivation and Harvest". Thompson Martinez. Retrieved 14 May2014. [2]. "Pepper (piper spp.), Production/Crops". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistical Division (FAOSTAT). 2016. Retrieved 4 December 2018. [3]. Ashish Bhatt & Jency Valasan (2016), “Spices Export from Kerala Current Trends & Opportunities Ahead”, IRA - International Journal of Management & Social Sciences, Vol.5, Iss.1, Pp.54 – 65. [4]. Thangaselvabal. T, et. al., (2008), “Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) ‘The King of Spices’ - A Review”, Agricultural Reviews, Vol.29, Iss.2, Pp.89 – 98.

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Physiological and biochemical mechanisms of salinity stress tolerance in plants Article id: 21560 Suvarna Gare1, A. U. Ingle2, S. A. Tayade3 1, 2, 3 Ph. D. Scholar, MPKV, Rahuri

INTRODUCTION hamper crop productivity worldwide. Salinity Soil salinity is the amount of dissolved stress involves changes in various physiological salts in the soil solution (the aqueous phase in and metabolic processes, depending on the soil). The process of accumulating soluble severity and duration of the stress, and salts in the soil is known as salinization. Soil ultimately inhibits crop production. Initially salinity is a major constraint to food soil salinity is known to represses plant growth production because it limits crop yield and in the form of osmotic stress which is then restricts use of land previously uncultivated. followed by ion toxicity. During the initial Abiotic factors like temperature, drought, phases of salinity stress, water absorption salinity/salt stress result in depletion of large capacity of root systems decreases and water amount of food production today and as a loss from leaves is accelerated due to osmotic result of these global changes have led to stress of high salt accumulation in soil and alarmist projections that seems to argue for plants, and therefore salinity stress is also additional strategies by which food supply can considered as hyperosmotic stress. One of the be guaranteed (Miflin, 2000). A major primary effects of salt stress is that it delays challenge towards world agriculture involves germination and seedling emergence. Delays production of 70% more food crop for an can be fatal if the emerging seedlings, already additional 2.3 billion people by 2050 weakened by salt stress, encounter additional worldwide. Salinity is a major stress limiting stresses, such as water stress, extreme the increase in the demand for food crops. temperature fluctuations and/or soil crusting. More than 20% of cultivated land worldwide Physiological and Biochemical Mechanisms (~ about 45 hectares) is affected by salt stress of Salt Tolerance and the amount is increasing day by day. Plants develop various physiological Plants on the basis of adaptive and biochemical mechanisms in order to evolution can be classified roughly into two survive in soils with high salt concentration. major types: the halophytes (that can Principle mechanisms include, but are not withstand salinity) and the glycophytes (that limited to, ion homeostasis and cannot withstand salinity and eventually die). compartmentalization, ion transport and Majority of major crop species belong to this uptake, biosynthesis of osmoprotectants and second category. Thus salinity is one of the compatible solutes, activation of antioxidant most brutal environmental stresses that enzyme and synthesis of antioxidant

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 compounds, synthesis of Plumbaginaceae, whereas accumulation of polyamines, generation of nitric oxide (NO), amino acid proline occurs in taxonomically and hormone modulation. Research advances diverse sets of plants. The concentration of elucidating these mechanisms are discussed compatible solutes within the cell is below. maintained either by irreversible synthesis of 1. Ion Homeostasis and Salt Tolerance the compounds or by a combination of Plant sensitivity to soil salinity synthesis and degradation. The biochemical continually changes during the growing pathways and genes involved in these season. Most crops are tolerant during processes have been thoroughly studied. As germination, but the young developing their accumulation is proportional to the seedlings are susceptible to injury during external osmolarity, the major functions of emergence from the soil and during early these osmolytes are to protect the structure juvenile development. Maintaining ion and to maintain osmotic balance within the homeostasis by ion uptake and cell via continuous water influx. Amino acids compartmentalization is not only crucial for such as cysteine, arginine, and methionine, normal plant growth but is also an essential which constitute about 55% of total free process for growth during salt stress. Major amino acids, decrease when exposed to form of salt present in the soil is NaCl, so the salinity stress, whereas proline concentration main focus of research is the study about the rises in response to salinity stress. transport mechanism of Na+ ion and its compartmentalization. The Na+ ion that enters Proline accumulation is a well-known the cytoplasm is then transported to the measure adopted for alleviation of salinity vacuole via Na+/H+ antiporter. stress. Intracellular proline which is 2. Compatible Solute Accumulation and accumulated during salinity stress not only Osmotic Protection provides tolerance towards stress but also Compatible solutes, also known as serves as an organic nitrogen reserve during compatible osmolytes, are a group of stress recovery. Proline is synthesised either chemically diverse organic compounds that from glutamate or ornithine. are uncharged, polar, and soluble in nature Glycine betaine is an amphoteric and do not interfere with the cellular quaternary ammonium compound metabolism even at high concentration. They ubiquitously found in microorganisms, higher mainly include proline, glycine betaine, sugar, plants and animals, and is electrically neutral and polyols. Organic osmolytes are over a wide range of pH. It is highly soluble in synthesised and accumulated in varying water but also contains nonpolar moiety amounts amongst different plant species. For constituting 3-methyl groups. Because of its example, quaternary ammonium compound unique structural features it interacts both beta alanine betaine’s accumulation is with hydrophobic and hydrophilic domains of restricted among few members of the macromolecules, such as enzymes and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 protein complexes. Glycine betaine is a Salinity tolerance is positively correlated with nontoxic cellular osmolyte that raises the the activity of antioxidant enzymes, such as osmolarity of the cell during stress period; superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), thus it plays an important function in stress glutathione peroxidise (GPX), ascorbate mitigation. peroxidase (APX), and glutathione reductase Polyols are compounds with multiple (GR) and with the accumulation of hydroxyl functional groups available for nonenzymatic antioxidant compounds. organic reactions. Sugar alcohols are a class of 4. Roles of Polyamines in Salinity Tolerance polyols functioning as compatible solutes, as Polyamines (PA) are small, low low molecular weight chaperones, and as ROS molecular weight, ubiquitous, polycationic scavenging compounds. aliphatic molecules widely distributed Accumulations of carbohydrates such throughout the plant kingdom. Polyamines as sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, fructans, and play a variety of roles in normal growth and trehalose) and starch occur under salt stress. development such as regulation of cell The major role played by these carbohydrates proliferation, somatic embryogenesis, in stress mitigation involves osmoprotection, differentiation and morphogenesis, dormancy carbon storage, and scavenging of reactive breaking of tubers and seed germination, oxygen species. It was observed that salt stress development of flowers and fruit, and increases the level of reducing sugars (sucrose senescence. It also plays a crucial role in and fructans) within the cell in a number of abiotic stress tolerance including salinity and plants belonging to different species increases in the level of polyamines are 3. Antioxidant Regulation of Salinity correlated with stress tolerance in plants. The Tolerance most common polyamines that are found Abiotic and biotic stress in living within the plant system are diamine organisms, including plants, can cause putrescine (PUT), triamine spermidine (SPD), overflow, deregulation, or even disruption of and tetra-amine spermine (SPM). electron transport chains (ETC) in chloroplasts 5. Roles of Nitric Oxide in Salinity Tolerance and mitochondria. Under these conditions Nitric oxide (NO) is a small volatile molecular oxygen (O2) acts as an electron gaseous molecule, which is involved in the acceptor, giving rise to the accumulation of regulation of various plant growth and 1 ROS. Singlet oxygen ( O2), the hydroxyl radical developmental processes, such as root (OH−), the superoxide radical (), and hydrogen growth, respiration, stomata closure, peroxide (H2O2) are all strongly oxidizing flowering, cell death, seed germination and compounds and therefore potentially harmful stress responses, as well as a stress signalling for cell integrity. Antioxidant metabolism, molecule. NO directly or indirectly triggers including antioxidant enzymes and expression of many redox-regulated genes. NO nonenzymatic compounds, play critical parts in reacts with lipid radicals thus preventing lipid detoxifying ROS induced by salinity stress. oxidation, exerting a protective effect by

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 scavenging superoxide radical and formation accumulation of K+, Ca2+ and compatible of peroxynitrite that can be neutralised by solutes, such as proline and sugars, in vacuoles other cellular processes. It also helps in the of roots, which counteract with the uptake of activation of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, Na+ and Cl−. ABA is a vital cellular signal that GPX, APX, and GR). The positive effects of NO modulates the expression of a number of salt on salinity tolerance or stress mitigation have and water deficit-responsive genes. Fukuda been attributed to antioxidant activities and and Tanaka demonstrated the effects of ABA modulation of ROS detoxification system. on the expression of two Improved plant growth under salinity stress by genes, HVP1 and HVP10, for vacuolar H+- exogenous application of NO was associated inorganic pyrophosphatase, and of HvVHA- with increases in antioxidant enzymes such as A, for the catalytic subunit (subunit A) of SOD, CAT, GPX, APX, and GR, and suppression vacuolar H+-ATPase in Hordeum vulgare under of malondialdehyde (MDA) production or lipid salinity stress. peroxidation. Genetic diversity for salt tolerance in plants 6. Hormone Regulation of Salinity Tolerance The extensive genetic diversity for salt ABA is an important phytohormone tolerance that exists in plant taxa is distributed whose application to plant ameliorates the over numerous genera (Flowers et al., 1986; effect of stress condition(s). It has long been Greenway and Munns, 1980). Most crops are recognized as a hormone which is upregulated salt sensitive or hypersensitive plants due to soil water deficit around the root. (glycophytes) in contrast to halophytes, which Salinity stress causes osmotic stress and water are native flora of saline environments. Some deficit, increasing the production of ABA in halophytes have the capacity to accommodate shoots and roots. The accumulation of ABA extreme salinity because of very special can mitigate the inhibitory effect of salinity on anatomical and morphological adaptations or photosynthesis, growth, and translocation of avoidance mechanisms (Flowers et al., 1986). assimilates. The positive relationship between However, these are rather unique ABA accumulation and salinity tolerance has characteristics for which the genes are not been at least partially attributed to the likely to be introgressed easily into crop plants.

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Application of plastic mulch in horticultural crops Article id: 21561 Pankaj Kumar Kannaujia1, Manoj Mahawar1, Kirti Jalgaonkar1 and Navnath Indore2 1ICAR-CIPHET, Abohar, Punjab- 152116, 2ICAR- CIPHET, Ludhiana, Punjab- 141008

INTRODUCTION temperature and conservation of soil Mulching may be defined as a practice moisture. Among the different inorganic of covering the surface of soil with any mulches, use of plastic mulches is most materials to reduce evaporation and also common due to its properties of moderating reduce too much fluctuation in diurnal soil the hydrothermal regimes of microclimate of temperatures near the root zone of plant. crops, shows positive effects on weed control, Mulching is a general term used for a prevention of soil dryness however, it doesn’t protective soil cover by use of organic have the soil improving properties. Plastic manure, leaves, straw, grasses, synthetic color affects the temperatures through plastics etc. It reduces the transpiration and absorption, transmission and reflection of evaporation loss and also reduces energy solar energy. Plastic is available in various supply to the evaporating site by cutting off colors, such as: black, transparent, yellow, solar radiation falling on the ground. Its main white red, green and combination of various function is limited to controlling first stage of colors. Black or white black plastic are drying which helps in improved moisture commercially used. The selection of plastic status, reduced soil temperature. It also mulch depends upon the environmental suppresses weed-flora and reduces weed conditions and primary and secondary aspects competition with crop for water and nutrients of mulching are summarized in tabular form in making them available in greater quantities table 1. for crop plants. Besides the above, mulching Suitable application Type of mulch helps in increasing downward movement of preferred water. The effectiveness of mulches in Orchard and plantation Thicker mulch conserving moisture has generally been found Soil solarization Thin, transparent to be higher under more frequency of rainfall, film drought conditions and also during early Weed control through Transparent film period of plant growth when canopy cover solarization remains scanty. Weed control in Black film cropped land Plastic mulch used in production are Rainy season crop Perforated mulch helpful in controlling weed population, Summer crop White film reducing the impact of falling rain drops and Insect repellent Silver colour film reducing soil erosion, regulation of soil

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Criteria for selection of plastic film as mulch colour mulch is recommended during the There are mainly four criteria’s are used for spring to warm the soil. Therefore, in the selection of plastic film for mulching purpose. summer and rainfall, white coloured mulches are preferred because these mulches heat the 1) Thickness soil less than black mulch. In addition to soil It is usually fixed according to the type of crop warming, plastic mulches also modify the light and its duration. Mostly 20-30 micron environment around the plant according to thickness is used for production of vegetable the film colour. The effect of mulch colour on crop. For biennial crop and two season use plant growth and yield vary according to the normally 40-45 micron is good however in geographic location and season, suggesting case of Fruit orchard and perennial crops, 100 that plants grown on coloured mulches micron mulch sheet are best. respond to factors in addition to the light reflected from the mulch. 2) Width Advantages of plastic mulching in vegetable It is selected according to the width of the production crop and distance between row/bed. Normally 90 to 150 cm wide plastic film Effects on plant microclimate should be chosen so that the intercultural Plastic mulches also affect plant operation can be performed easily. microclimate by modifying the soil energy 3) Perforations balance and by restricting soil water evaporation. Modification of these Fertilizer distribution and movement of water microclimate factors influence soil above the film is better without the temperature, which affects plant growth and perforation. So it’s better to prevent water yield. Increased root zone temperature is one stagnation in the crop field, it is advised to of the main benefits associated with use of keep a perforation hole in the plastic films for plastic mulches. Since root zone temperature better growth and rain water movement into is considered important in inducing plant the soil. growth and development because it affects 4) Colors physiological processes in roots such as uptake of water and mineral nutrients. Crop responses to colored mulches are Further increases in root zone temperature inconsistent, depending on the season, the may decline the root and shoot growth. year, and the region. One reason for these Minimum, optimum, and maximum root zone apparent inconsistencies is that most of the temperatures for plant growth vary among mulch research is based on empirical studies the crops. where the effect of various mulches on yield is evaluated without regard to how the mulches modified the plant microenvironment. Black

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Soil fertility & moisture conservation The use of black polyethylene mulch in vegetable production has been reported to control the weed incidence, reduces nutrient losses and improves the hydrothermal property of soil. Polyethylene mulches also buffer soil pH and exchangeable Mg and Ca more efficiently than the uncovered soil. Nitrate leaching at 120 cm depth in mulched soil was three times lower than in unmulched Figure: Application of plastic mulching in soil because the polyethylene mulch reduced cowpea soil water percolation. Calcium and In addition to soil warming, plastic magnesium were also found higher in covered mulches also modify the light environment top soil. Covering the soil surface with plastic around the plant. The light reflected from the film reduces the irrigation requirement due to mulch may affect plant growth and suppression of soil evaporation. Plastic mulch morphogenesis, plant pigment regulation and creates barrier between the soil and plant. increased photosynthetically active radiation Plant growth and yield as well as development of flavour compound. It has been demonstrated that black The effect of mulch colour on tomato plant polyethylene mulch is found to be beneficial growth and yield vary according to the in promoting early harvest, higher plant geographic location and season, suggesting biomass and yield of muskmelon relative to that plants grown on coloured mulches plants grown without mulch. The yield of respond to factors in addition to the light brinjal plants mulched with white and black reflected from the mulch. Clear plastic mulch polyethylene is recorded to be increased by breakdown slowly over a time, but small 344 to 520% over control probably as a result pieces may remain in the field for several of slowing the soil-water percolation and years. restricting removal of nutrients from the top Disadvantages to inorganic mulch: 15-cm of soil. Red and black plastic mulches Plastic mulches didn’t decompose easily over which induce higher soil temperature have a time. There is zero nutritional value to been found to be more effective in increasing plants and farms. In many cases inorganic the early yields of tomatoes than the white mulch will get sun damaged and start to look and reflective plastics. worn over time. Especially plastic mulch might be more expensive, not always available, and difficult to remove properly causing environmental problems. Facing difficulty in

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 application of top dressing of fertilizers and CONCLUSION flood irrigation in standing crop. Major Application of plastic film as a mulch is better problem with plastic mulches is removing it for low cost production of horticultural crops. from the field after completion of the Mulching technology is better for those areas cropping season for proper disposal. which are facing water scarcity as it can save water. Mulching assist in good quality production of various horticultural crops as effectively reduces the incidence of diseases and insect pest attack on crop. Low rainfall Low rainfall areas where moisture conservation can play an important role in increasing yield and soil health application of mulching can be an alternate viable option for

Figure: Used plastic mulch removed from the good quality production of horticultural crops. field

REFERENCES: [1]. Aggarwal, S, Korla B.N. and Raina, J.N. (2003). Effects of mulches on soil hydrothermal regimes, weed incidence, yield and quality of ginger. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci; 51: 65-67. [2]. Awasthi, O.P, Singh, I.S, Sharma, B.D. (2006). Effect of mulch on soil hydrothermal regimes, growth and fruit yield of brinjal (Solanum melongena L.) under arid conditions. Indian J. Hort; 63: 192-194. [3]. Campbell, S. (2012). Mulch it: a practical guide to using mulch in the garden and landscape. Storey Publishing.

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Successful way to enhance productivity and profitability through soil health card: A Success Story Article id: 21562 Anil Kumar and Balwinder Kumar Farm Science Centre Guru Angad Dev Veterinary & Animal Sciences University, Tarn Taran, Punjab

Farmer’s Name & : Sh. Jugraj Singh S/o Baljit Singh, VPO Boparai, Address Tehsil Patti, Distt Tarn Taran, Punjab Technology : Soil Test Based Fertilizer Application in Rice- Demonstrated Wheat

Net Cultivable area : 4.8 hectare

Cropping System : Rice- Wheat Cropping System

above fertilizers, he had also been applied Sh. Jugraj Singh is one of the progressive gypsum, zinc and sulphur to rice and wheat farmers of village Boparai, Tarn Taran, Punjab. crops. This indicated that Sh. Jugraj Singh uses He generally follows rice-wheat cropping very higher application rate of urea and DAP system and grows recommended improved in both the crops leading to nutrient varieties of rice and wheat crops. Beside imbalance in soil and plants and appearance above crops he also grows maize, berseem, of Zn and Mn micronutrient deficiencies in sorghum, etc. as fodder crops for dairy rice and wheat, respectively. Thus, earlier animals. Till 2014-15, Sh. Jugraj Singh applied (before soil testing), total cost of said chemical fertilizers to rice-wheat on the basis fertilizers usage in rice-wheat cropping system of his traditional knowledge without going for was Rs. 11,000/- per hectare per annum. soil testing. He had been generally applied Similarly, the total cost of cultivation of rice- 437.5 and 187.5 kg of urea and di-ammonium wheat cropping system as a whole was Rs. phosphate (DAP), respectively in wheat crop, 73,710/-. whereas the usage of said fertilizers in paddy was to the extent of 437.5 and 62.5 kg per As per Sh. Jugraj Singh, the soil testing hectare, respectively as against recommended facilities for the farmers of our area were far -1 doses of 275 kg urea & 137.5 kg DAP ha in away and no guidance on said aspect was wheat and 275 kg urea ha-1 only in rice. Beside

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 available to the farmers of this area. The Krishi The fertilizer usage by said farmer Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Tarn Taran approached comes down to 250 kg urea and 15 kg Zn per the farmers and motivated them for soil hectare for paddy and 275 kg urea and 125 kg testing through various extension DAP in case of wheat, amounting Rs. 6,585/- programmes or technological tools such as per annum. Thus, indicating a net saving of Rs. training programmes, demonstrations on soil 4,415/- per hectare per annum. Moreover, sampling technique, on farm experimentation, after following fertilizer recommendations in soil health management programmes etc.. soil health card, Sh. Jugraj Singh not only The farmers were motivated for soil testing saved Rs. 4,415/- per hectare but, also and many farmers follow up the soil testing, improved soil health of his field resulting into based on that soil health cards were issued additional crop yields with time. Now, due to bearing fertilizer recommendations. Sh. Jugraj continuous application of soil test based Singh also got motivated by soil testing fertilizer, productivity of rice and wheat has programmes and tested his soil from KVK. also increased from 67.5 to 72.5 and 47.5 to After testing the soil, he was guided to apply 50.0 q ha-1, respectively. The respective net recommended doses of required fertilizers in returns and B:C ratio of his rice-wheat rice and wheat. He started following soil test cropping system has also increased based fertilizer application in rice-wheat significantly to Rs. 1,15,675 and 2.67 as cropping system, which subsequently reduced compared to earlier net returns and B:C ratio the dosage of chemical fertilizers in rice- of Rs. 99,935 and 2.36, respectively. After wheat cropping system and also increased his getting good margins and saving of fertilizers, crop yields with time. said farmer is now also motivating his friends and fellow farmers to adopt soil test based fertilizer application in different crops to get more crop productivity and sustaining soil health.

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Mineral mixture feeding to milch animals for curing deficiencies and improving milk productivity of dairy animals: A role in doubling the income of small and marginal farmers Article id: 21563 Prasad Mithare* Assistant Professor (C) Agronomy* Livestock Farm Complex Department, Veterinary College Bidar, Karnataka Veterinary Animal & Fisheries Science University, Bidar, Karnataka (India).

INTRODUCTION Functions of Different Minerals Minerals play an important role in livestock Calcium (Ca): production. The mineral deficiencies can be  Essential for milk production and necessary overcome by feeding mineral mixtures to the for bone and teeth formation animals. These mineral mixtures can be mixed  Required for contraction of muscles in the concentrate feeds and can be fed to the animals. Dairy cattle and buffaloes require a Phosphorus (P): number of dietary minerals elements for  Essential for milk production and energy normal body maintenance, growth and metabolism reproduction. Minerals that are required in  Required for bones and teeth formation relatively large amount are called major or macro elements. Those needed in small Magnesium (Mg) amount are classified as micro, minor or trace  Important for the integrity of bones and minerals. The major minerals include calcium, teeth phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sodium,  Involved in protein synthesis and chlorine and sulphur. Among those needed in metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids trace amount are iron, zinc, manganese, formation copper, iodine, cobalt and selenium. Deficiency of minerals in the ration of animals Sulphur (S) impairs metabolic functions, which affects the  Required for protein synthesis and growth in young calves and milk production metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids and reproduction efficiency in adult animals.  Sulphur is a part of B-complex vitamins, Supplementation of bio-available minerals thiamin and biotin through mineral mixture is more important as Sodium (Na) minerals are nowhere synthesized in animal’s  Required for maintenance of water balance body.  Required in acid base equilibrium

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Potassium (K) Iodine (I)  Required for maintenance of osmotic  Required for the synthesis of thyroid balance hormone  Required in acid base equilibrium  Necessary for reproduction & growth of  Give resistant to biotic and abiotic factors animals

Copper (Cu) Cobalt (Co)  Required for hemoglobin synthesis  Required for the synthesis of vitamin B12 by  Necessary for tissue pigmentation and rumen microbes component of several metallo enzymes  Essential for blood synthesis  Required for normal reproduction functions  Essential for hemoglobin synthesis

Zinc (Zn) How to produce good quality mineral  Spermatogenesis and the development of mixture? primary and secondary sex organs Mineral mixture is manufactured using di-  Required for normal functioning of epithelial calcium phosphate of rock phosphate origin tissue and dried monohydrate mineral salts. This  Activates vitamin A & its deficiency leads to trace mineral pre mix is taken in the ribbon night blindness mixer along with DCP and few other mineral salts for proper dispersion and uniform Manganese (Mn) mixing. The resultant mineral mixture thus  Co-factor for many enzymes involved in produced contains all mineral elements in carbohydrate metabolism desired proportion and stable form. Take care  Activator in the synthesis of fatty acids that mineral mixture should not contain any ingredient of animal origin, even in traces.

Table.1 Mineral Mixture Formulation and Mineral Salts Elements Requirement (%) Mineral salt Calcium 20.0 Dicalcium phosphate Phosphorus 12.0 Dicalcium phosphate Magnesium 5.0 Magnesium oxide Sulphur 1.8-3.0 Sodium thiosulphate Copper 0.10 Copper sulphate Zinc 0.80 Zinc sulphate Manganese 0.12 Manganese sulphate Iodine 0.026 Potassium iodide Iron 0.40 Ferrous sulphate

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Cobalt 0.012 Cobalt sulphate

Directions and doses for mineral mixture Benefits of feeding mineral mixture to dairy 1. Milch cows and Buffaloes: 100-200 g daily animals depending upon level of milk production.  Improves growth rate of calves, hence early 2. Growing and non-producing animals: 50 g puberty daily per animals  Improves reproduction efficiency in male 3. Young calves: 20-25 g daily for better and female animals weight gain or as advised by the  Reduces inter-calving period, more nutritionist. productive life of animals. 4. Mode of Feeding Mineral Mixture: It can be  Improves efficiency of feed utilization. fed by mixing it with concentrate mixture  Improves milk production. or by mixing 15-20 g common salt to it.  Better immune response hence better Usually compound cattle feed contains resistant against infectious diseases. mineral mixture at varying levels; however  Improves general health of animals. additional requirement can be met by  More economical and effective. mixing it with feed.

Table.2 BIS Specification for Mineral Mixtures Characteristics Cattle Sheep & Goat Poultry Moisture Max. (%) 5 5 5 Calcium Min. (%) 16 30 30 Phosphorous Min. (%) 9 14 9 Magnesium Min. (%) 4 - 0.4 Sulphur Min. (%) 1.4 0.13 - Salt Min. (%) 22 - - Zinc Min. (%) 0.3 0.2 0.4 Iron Min. (%) 0.3 0.55 2000 ppm Iodine Min. (%) 0.02 0.35 0.01 Copper Min. (%) 0.078 0.03 500 ppm Manganese Min. (%) 0.1 0.08 - Cobalt Min. (%) 0.009 0.008 - Fluorine Max. 9%) 0.05 0.03 0.05 Total ash Max. (%) 75 – 82 78 – 85 - AIA Max. (%) 3 3 3

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Table.3 Mineral Mixture Composition by ICAR Ingredients Percent Di-calcium phosphate 55.0 Sodium Chloride 30.0 Calcium carbonate 11.0 Magnesium carbonate 3.0 Ferrous sulphate 3.0 Copper sulphate 0.5 Manganese di-oxide 0.08 Cobalt chloride 0.06 Potassium iodide 0.01 Zinc sulphate 0.26 Total percent 100

Table.4 Sources of Major Minerals Minerals Mineral Sources Percent Calcium Calcium Carbonate 38-40 Ground limestone - 33 - 37 Calcite powder - 38 Phosphorous Phosphoric Acid 23.7 De-fluorinated phosphate - 18 Mono-calcium phosphate - 21 Di-calcium phosphate - 18.5 Rock Phosphate - 9 Potassium Potassium Carbonate 55 Potassium Chloride - 50.5 Potassium Sulfate - 41 Sulphur Ammonium Sulfate 24 Calcium Sulfate Di-hydrate - 17 Magnesium Magnesium Oxide 52 - 59 Magnesium Chloride - 20

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Table.5 Sources of minor minerals Mineral Source Percent Cobalt Cobalt Carbonate 46 Cobalt Sulfate (Monohydrate) - 33 Cobalt Sulfate (Heptahydrate) - 21 Iron Ferrous Carbonate 40 Ferrous Sulfate (Monohydrate) - 30 Ferrous Sulfate (Heptahydrate) - 21 Zinc Zinc Oxide 72 Zinc Sulfate (Monohydrate) - 36 Copper Cupric Oxide 75 Copper Sulfate - 25 Copper Carbonate - 55 Iodine Calcium Iodate 64 Potassium Iodate - 69 Manganese Manganese Oxide 60 Manganese Sulfate (Monohydrate) - 28.5 Selenium Sodium Selenite 45

CONCLUSION productivity. Various mineral mixtures are Farmers of our country are involved in animal available in market, which may be added in husbandry activities; their livelihood mainly the feeding schedule for enhancing milk depends on agriculture-based activities and production in the farm. A greater attention fulfilling the demand, training to farmers in may be paid to produce more leguminous feeding the mineral mixture along with feed forages which contain certain trace minerals. and concentrate for curing deficiencies and In other hand enhance fodder production, improving health status, reproduction and healthy fodder will lead to healthy livestock. milk production of dairy animals. Although much of work in livestock farming is practiced REFERENCE by farmers but scientific knowledge of mineral 1. http://www.igfri.res.in deficiencies in animals, essentiality of 2. http://www.ndri.res.in different types of macro and micro minerals 3. https://en.wikipedia.org and its role in milch animals are necessary to 4. https://www.google.co.in boost the production, they have very limited 5. https://www.nddb.coop. awareness about new technologies which can 6. https://www.nddb.coop. enhance their knowledge, skills, practices and 7. https://www.sciencedaily.com

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Impact of pesticides on honeybees Article id: 21564 Balaga Mohan Ganesh Department of Agricultural Entomology Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat-785013

Bees and flowering plants are independent Symptoms of bee poisoning forming a mutual compaitable system. Bees 1. Dead bees near the entrance of hive or are the best pollen carriers and play a vital role colonies in ensuring productivity of crops. Hence they 2. Dead bees on the top of frames or are aptly called Angels of Agriculture. bottom board Indiscriminate use of pesticides 3. Lack of recognition of guard bees drastically reduce the number of natural and 4. Aggressiveness managed bee- pollinators resulting in 5. Fighting among bees reduction of crop yield which is obviously the 6. Paralyzed bees crawling on nearby opposite of what crop protection seeks to objects achieve. Impact of pesticides on honeybee was 7. Sudden decline in food storage and projected by Grane and walker (1983), brood rearing Johanseen (1977) and Sihag(1995) 8. Dead and deserted brood in the hive The use of pesticides has become inevitable in 9. Poor recognition of pollen and nectar modern agriculture. During the last four by bees decades, the consumption of pesticides in India 10. Depleted population of the colony has increased several folds. Pesticides used on 11. Finally results in contamination of bee field crops for the control of pests have their products side effects, one of which is toxicity to ho ney Causes of poisoning bees. Honey bees are susceptible to many . Pesticide application during crop bloom pesticides. Three types of harmful effects . Drift of toxic chemicals on to flower, evident in agriculture are loss in production of pollen and nectar honey, contamination of bee products, . Bee feeding on contaminated food and reduction in the yield of cross pollinated crops. water sources The harmful effects may be due to the direct . Use of broad spectrum insecticides exposure of honey bees to pesticides or (chlorinated hydrocarbons, synthetic through indirect contact with their residues. pyrethroids) Direct exposure occurs from treatment of bee . Type of formulation used like dust, EC hives for disinfestation purpose or bees visiting which are more harmful than WP and the field at the time of spray. While the granules indirect exposure occurs from the spray drift or bee foraging in sprayed crops.

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. Types of spray, fineness of spray, stage 3. Use of less hazardous, selective and of crop, weather condition and age of repellent (methyl Salicylate, R-874) the colony insecticides . Use of insect growth regulators may 4. Spraying in the evening when the bee inhibit brood production activity subsides . Herbicides indirectly affect through 5. Granules, EC are preferred compared to damage to the foliage dusts . Use of diesel oil as a carrier in 6. Avoid formulations with attractants like insecticide formulations Sevimol during crop bloom period Management of bee poisoning: 7. Development of bee strain resistant to The basic principle in the management of bee toxic effects of pesticides poisoning is to avoid the exposure of honey 8. Addition of adjuvant Sylgard 309 bees to toxic effects. This could be achieved silicone surfactant to reduce the bee with the help of both bee keepers and the mortality. farmers. The practices to be followed by bee Less hazardous insecticides keepers include the following. 1. Granules: Fenthion, phorate, aldicarb 1. Bee colonies should be maintained and lindane where use and drift of pesticide is 2. EC: Endosulphan, phosalone, minimum fluvalinate, menazon and lindane 2. Close co-operation with farmers to Highly hazardous insecticides avoid irrational use of pesticides 1. Dust: Carbaryl, diazinon and fenvalerate 3. Feeding of colonies with sugar syrup at 2. WP: Carbaryl the time of pesticide application to 3. EC: Chlorpyriphos, cypermethrin, reduce bee foraging deltamethrin, diazinin, diChlorvos, Management practices to be followed by the dimethoate, ethion, fenitrothion, farmers includes the following fenthion and fenvalerate. 1. Need based use of pesticides 4. SL: Imideacloprid 2. Informing the bee keepers in advance about the spray programme REFERENCES: [1]. Crane, E. and P. Walker (1983). The impact of pest management on bee and pollination. IBRA, Cardiff, U.K, pp.155 [2]. Johansen, C.A. (1977). Pesticides and pollinators. Ann. Rev. Ent.., 22:177 [3]. Shiag, R.C. (1995). Use of pesticides and bee pollination for crop yield. The Asiatic Hive Bee . Ed.P.G. Kevan. Enviroquest Ltd Canada, pp. 199-205

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Micronutrient deficiencies- measures to overcome Article id: 277 Sahaja Deva SMS (Crop Production), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi, ANGRAU

INTRODUCTION: supplies with sufficient nitrogen and For better plant growth and phosphorus crop will not turn green. Tillers development along with macronutrients will be reduced. micronutrients also plays a major role. Micronutrients means which are required to Maize: plant in lower doses. Eventhough plants are In young leaves white or yellow streaks sufficiently supplied with macronutrients, will appear parallel to veins. Plant will die. micronutrient deficiency will reduces yields of When there is severe zinc deficiency leaves crops. So if there is micronutrient deficiency in turn red and rust spots will appear on leaves. field, corrections should be done by applying Pulses: the fertilizers. Zinc deficiency is the major Plants will show reduced growth or problem in India. Iron and boron deficiencies light green or white spots will appear on are observed randomly. Ragi and manganese leaves and leaves will turns small. Spacing deficiencies are not observed. between internodes will be reduced and plant Symptoms and correction measures: shows rosette appearance.

Zinc: Zinc deficiency is mainly observed in Correction measures: paddy, maize and pulses. 20 kg ZnSo4 per acre should be applied thrice in normal soils and twice in Symptoms: saline, alkaline soils. If zinc deficiency is observed in standing crop 4 g ZnSo4/lit of Rice: water should be sparyed in the crop mixed in In rice zinc deficiency is mainly 200 lit of water 2-3 times at 5 days interval. In observed in undecomposed organic matter pulses and cotton, if zinc deficiency is applied fields, saline and alkaline soils, soils observed in standing crop 2 g ZnSo4/lit of with higher amount of phosphorus. In rice water should be sparyed in the crop mixed in when there is zinc deficiency, at 2-4 weeks 200 lit of water 2-3 times at 5 days interval. rd th age top 3 or 4 leaf vein will turn white. Late Iron: leaf tip will remain green and in the middle of After zinc iron is the major the leaf rust spots will appear on both sides of micronutrient deficit in India. In India in leaves. Sometimes eventhough field is almost 5% soil samples iron deficiency is

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 observed. This deficiency mostly occurs in Symptoms: saline soils, irrigation water with more In rice leaves will twist and dry. If carbonates and bicarbonates boron is high spots will appear on the leaf edges and leaves will dry. In sunflower seed Symptoms: will not form in the centre of the flower. In Centre of leaf veins will loss groundnut middle of the seed will not develop chlorophyll content and turn yellow. If severe, properly. leaf will turn white and become dry. Correction measures: Correction measures: Spraying of borax @ 1.0-1.5 g/lit twice If iron deficiency is observed in at 60 and 90 DAS or 2 kg borax should be standing crop, spraying of FeSo4@ 20 g + lime applied in field during last ploughing for salt @ 2 g/l of water twice at 10 days interval cotton. Spraying of 1 g borax per litre of water will correct deficiency symptoms in rice and for sunflower will correct deficiency spraying of FeSo4@ 5 g + lime salt @ 1 g/l of symptoms. water twice at 10 days interval will correct deficiency symptoms in pulses. Molybdenum: Pale veins with marginal and interveinal chlorosis. Boron: Boron deficiency is common in sunflower and groundnut Correction measures: Spraying of 400 g sodium molybdate will correct deficiency symptoms

CONCLUSION: Following soil test based nutrient management and correcting the micronutrient deficiencies in time and supplying organic manures and micronutrients will improves soil health and crop quality and yields.

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Customized and value added fertilizers for better crop productivity Article id: 21566 Himanshu Verma Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture, GBPUAT, Pantnagar Udham Singh Nagar, 263145, Uttarakhand

INTRODUCTION there is substantially improvement in nitrogen use efficiency. Post independent India Fertilizer use is an integral part of intensive realized the need of increased use of agriculture. No country has been able to fertilizers to increase crop yields & ensure increase agricultural productivity without food security. Government implemented expanding the use of mineral or synthetic favourable fertilizer policies to encourage fertilizers. During the first five decades (1960- domestic fertilizer production, its adequate 61 to 2000-01), the role of synthetic fertilizers availability, equitable distribution and in augmenting food grain production has been increase use of fertilizers. widely recognized in both the developed and Factors threatening crop productivity developing world. It has been revealed that • Less use of high yielding and hybrid fertilizers are the kingpins of the green varieties revolution and the best hope for meeting the • Inadequate irrigation facilities food challenges in future. On an conservative • Poor techniques of crop production forecast of 1.3 billon population by 2025, • Erratic rainfall and its uneven distribution India would need 30 to 35 million tonnes of N, (unreliable monsoon) P and K from fertilizers in addition to 10 • Low level of farm mechanisation million tonnes from organic and bio-fertilizer • Lack of credit and marketing facilities sources, to produce the minimum food grain • Lacuna in transfer of technology and its need of 300 million tonnes (Pathak et. al., implementation 2004). Only 30- 50 % of applied nitrogenous • Imbalanced fertiliser use fertilizer is used by crops and a significant • Inadequate use of secondary & micro amount of the nitrogen is lost from nutrients agricultural field to the environment via the • Declining fertilizer response process of leaching, denitrification, Imbalanced fertilizer use volatilization and immobilization. Global Nutrients are an input for guiding fertilizer consumption has increased sustainable production & growth of substantially since 1950. Between 1960 and agriculture. In some states the farmers 1995, global use of nitrogenous fertilizer are using unusually high levels of increased seven fold and is expected to nitrogenous fertilizers that have widened increase another three folds by 2050 unless the gap in the N: P: K ratio against the

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recommended practice of 4: 2: 1. This and then the pore is closed accordingly ratio is also widened more years after and water entry is restricted and nutrient year which decreases the fertility status release is also stopped. of the soil and causing decline in  Customized fertilizer: The Central productivity of the crops. Fertilizer Committee has included This is may be due to- customized fertilizers in the Fertilizer • Excess supply of nitrogenous fertilizers (Control) Order 1985, as a new category of • Low or less application of p and k fertilizers that are location/area/soil/crop fertilizers specific. Customized fertilizers are multi- nutrient carriers facilitating the application There is decrease in fertilizer response of the complete range of plant nutrients in over the years. In 1970 there was 13.4 kg right proportion to suit the specific grain/kg N, P and K application but it was requirements of a crop during its stages of reduced to 3.7 kg grain/kg N, P and K growth. Soil fertility status, climate, and application. So there was nearly 3 times cropping pattern in a region pave the way decrease in fertilizer response. It means we for the development of customized need three times more fertilizer to maintain fertilizer formulations. Customized the same productivity. So day by day the fertilizers are unique and ready to use fertilizer consumption is increasing which granulated fertilizers, formulated on ultimately cause the burden on Govt. of India sound scientific plant nutrition principles to import this huge amount of fertilizers. integrated with soil information, extensive laboratory studies and evaluated through Concept of developing Ideal Fertilizer field research. Customized fertilizers  Slow release fertilizer- Release of development process is complex but, the nutrients very slowly but continuously. N- end very promising. It optimizes the serve, Urea formaldehyde, IBDU, CDU etc. nutrient use for quality produce, high farm  Control release fertilizer- Release of productivity and profitability. The farmer nutrients in a control manner but not will have choice for customized fertilizers continuously. Sulfur coated urea, Neem on account of crop and area specificity and coated urea, Lac coated urea etc. the advantage of ready to use fertilizer  Smart release fertilizer- It is a sensor material available to them. It can based fertilizer. Plant releases some maximize nutrient use efficiency and chemicals when plant facing the nutrient ultimately programmed to improve soil deficiency and the fertilizer open the pore fertility hence, are environmental friendly when that chemicals release only. Then as well. Of late, FCO recognizes these water is entered and nutrient is released. fertilizers and are defined as: Multi- When the plants correct their deficiency nutrient carriers designed to contain then the release of chemical is stopped macro, secondary and/or micro-nutrient

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both from inorganic sources and/or samples are analyzed for nutrients to build organic sources, manufactured through a database for deciding the management zones. systematic process of granulation, satisfying the crop’s nutritional needs, 2. Use of empirical models to attain specific to its site, soil and stage validated target yield by a scientific crop model, capability QUEFTS needs to be calibrated for ‘a’ developed by an accredited fertilizer and ‘d’ values for N, P and K; which basically manufacturing /marketing company. refers to the nutrient uptake efficiency under adequate and limited grown conditions For How customized fertilizers are produced? this purpose, the database from secondary literature as well from crop cutting trials were collected for the test crop to develop Analysis of the fertility status of the soil customized fertilizer basal grade. The soil supplying capacity was computed on the basis Use of empirical models to attain target yield of soil test. The mechanistic model of QUEFTS was run for optimizing N, P and K requirement

Use of secondary research data and experiential learning for a targeted crop yield by using the ‘a’ and ‘d’ values and the model class soil test values for N, P and K. On the basis of the general Preparation of formulation grade of customized fertilizers availability of the micronutrient, common representative dose of these specific nutrients Validation of formulation grade were decided. Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) approach was also applied in optimization of N, P and K for the same target yield of the 1. Analysis of the fertility status of the crop. soil For soil fertility tracking the geo- 3. Use of Secondary Research Data and referenced sampling of soil, crop and water Experiential Learning and preparation samples is done by a qualified team of crop of formulation grade specialist. The geo-referenced sampling is a Value of N, P and K requirement from rigorous process which is done in a two both the approaches were compared and months time available after Rabi and Kharif evaluated. The final decision making was season [after Rabi season (June) and after however based on secondary research data Kharif season (October and November)]. Crop and experiential learning. specialist use hand held GPS (Global Positioning System) and record latitude, 4. Validation of Formulation Grade longitude and altitude value of the field from Multi-location trials were conducted where they take sample. Soil, crop and water on the farmers’ fields and KVK farms using

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 prevalent recommended varieties of the test – Noticeable change in climate pattern crop. In all these tests, RBD design was used across geography with 4 replications. CONCLUSION  Customized fertilizers have shown a Need for value added fertilizers promise to maintain soil health. • Changing focus in production (Maximise  Addition of secondary and value, not only yield) micronutrients has become inevitable – Disease/pest & other stress resistance in Indian agriculture, hence – Appearance, size, taste & nutritional customization is required. value of final produce  Both customized and value-added • Increasing preference for quality fertilizers are yield enhancers. parameters – Productions being planned for different Customized fertilizer- upto market segments with specific quality 28% in rice & 16% in sorghum requirements Value added fertilizer- upto • Area under high value crops on the rise 12% in rice & 20% in mustard – Fruits, flowers, exotic and off-season  These fertilizers also give good vegetables often have specific nutritional economic return to the farmers. requirement • Increasing focus on balanced plant Challenges nutrition  Subsidy on Fertilisers – Crop and region specific nutrition  Heavy customs duty on some products solutions based on soil test data  Low awareness among farmers • Changing Crop growing conditions  New product introduction – Availability as well as quality of soil &  Negligible research work taken up by water is fast changing the scientist

REFERENCES: [1]. Pathak H., Singh, U. K., Patra, A. K. and Kalra, N. (2004). Fertilizer use efficiency to improve environmental quality. Fertilizer News 49 (4). 95-98 & 101-105

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Post harvest, export marketing and study of cold chain Article id: 21567 G.Sathish, R.Manimekalai, M.Sabapathi and C.Tamilselvi, ICAR-Krishi Vigyan Kendra , Tirur- 602025, Tiruvallur District, Tamilnadu

INTRODUCTION 2. Holding room 12-16°C The extension of vase life of cut flowers 3. Cooling 2°C to 4°C involves the co-ordination of two processes: 4. Deleafing 5. Sorting & Grading 1. The stage of bud growth and 6. Bunching development of flowers to full 7. Packing opening, and 8. Precooling 2. The stage of maturation, and wilting. 9. Dispatch There are certain measures, which guarantee longer cut flowers and are required to be HARVESTING followed by the producer or Greenhouse manger especially for High-tech Floriculturists. Proper maturity is the major They include: factor governing post harvest life of cut flowers. It is estimated that about 70% of the 1. Harvesting at proper maturity stage and potential lasting quality of many cut flowers is time. predetermined AT HARVEST. Harvesting stage, 2. Proper refrigeration method and time play an important role in 3. Use of floral preservative this regard. Maturity differs according to the 4. Use of high quality water (without any salt type of flower to be harvested. Nearly all the or toxic substances) cut flowers should be harvested early in the 5. Sanitation morning or late in the afternoon. In Roses 6. Temperature management during harvesting is done at tight bud state when transport colour is fully developed and petal have yet 7. Recutting of stems not started unfolding. Standard Carnations are 8. Proper handling of flowers right from harvested when the outer petal unfold nearly harvest to the market. perpendicular to the stem. Spray types are harvested when two flowers are open and the bud shows colour. Gerbera flowers are Without correct post harvest-handling all generally harvest when the outer two row of flowers will be ruined before reaching the disc floret are perpendicular to the stalk. customer. Capsicum harvested according to percentage 1. Harvesting

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 of colour development of the fruit according process of deleafing the energy wasted to variety. through transpiration is reduced is considerably thereby improving post harvest The commercial picking life of flower stalk are blunt which otherwise maturity of flowers is influenced by season, create difficulties during handling and environment, distance to market and specific packing. consumer requirement. Cut flowers in the bud stage are easier to handle, less susceptible to PRECOOLING environmental conditions like high Cool temperature extends temperature and ethylene. Rose and Gerberas flowers life by lowering respiration & harvested in immature stage will not open or transpiration rate and water loss and also will subject to drooping of neck (bent neck). reducing the ethylene production. Proecooling The cut flowers are placed in good quality is done to remove field heat from the produce water held in plastic buckets immediately to reduce flower temperature quickly. after harvesting. Generally two methods are used a) Room cooling b) Forced cooling. They should be shifted to AC room (18 to 20°C)within 30 minutes then In room cooling, the flowers shifted to precooling unit (8 to 10°C) for 30 are colled by placing the flowers held in minute after that it will be transported to 2° C, buckets in a cooler. In later methods the In case of capsicum the temperature of cold flowers are packed in perforated box, which storage required 16°C approximately. are subjected to cool air vlast for certain period in closed room. The temperature range HANDLING should be in between 1.7 to 4°C. It takes For obtaining better prices, about 30 minutes to cool the flower on forced best quality flowers need to be selected. cooling depending on the flower type. The Important aspects to be considered critically success of precolling depends upon the proper are, size of the flower, its shape, colour, temperature and relative humidity (90-95%). maturity, free from pest and diseases. A major disease after harvest of the cut flower is COLD STORAGE Botrytis which can controlled after or before After precooling treatment the harvest by fungicides or cooling by avoiding temperature of the flowers (field heat) water condensation on the flower. Delaying removed completely this treatment is post harvest handling is essential. Proper necessary before keeping the flowers in cold sanitation is required to be kept during storage to avoid the cold injury. Flowers handling in greenhouse and packing room. In should be transported immediately in to cold case of roses, the cut flower is deleafed with storage for minimum 6-7 hrs. At 2-3 degree the help of a machine, which includes removal centigrade, with stems dipping in water. of leaves and thorn on the stalk. By the However, maximum period of the storage

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ability depends upon the cultivars and the same height. quality of the bloom. The stems to be stored 2. Leaves should be dark green and healthy. should be fully turgid and of very good quality There should not be any yellowing due to inferior quality stems wither very rapidly in micronutrient deficiency, Leaves should be cold storage. The cut roses can be stored up to free of dust, chemical residue, chemical injury, 3-4 days maximum without affecting the vase damage by spider mites or powdery meldew life of flowers. etc. 3. The flower should not be bullhead, too open, DEALEAFING too tight, with bent neck, damaged by thrips The leaves from the lower or botrytis etc. portion of the stem (4-5 cm) are removed by 4. Bud size should be representative to the manually or by machine and stems are put in variety. buckets containing bleaching powder 5. The length of the neck should not be too (chlorine) 20 mg/lit or (20ppm) and citric acid much. 40mg/lit (40ppm). Chlorine disinfects the BUNCHING stem and minimize the microbial growth in The graded stems are made in the water which otherwise will reduce the to bundles of 20 each and tied loosely with shelf life of the flower. Citric acid reduces the rubber band. The bud should be rapped with pH of water (it should be up to 3-3.5) it helps 2-ply soft corrugated paper (white or brown) for the uptake of water and citric acid add and tied loosely with rubber band to secure sugar which act as food for the flowers. the bud in position. The wrapping paper should project at least 2-3 cm above the GRADING bunch to protect the bud from thorns or from coming in contact with the box. After cooling, the stems are shifted to air-conditioned grading room. In the There are two different types of bunching grading room, defective stems with blemishes or symptom of diseases of pest infestation are 1) Staggered bunching: This type of bunching is removed. The stems are sorted out at different very useful to avoid damage to the buds by grades of length by colour-coded board or by mutual pressure two different levels are automatic grading machine. The quality packed in the same bundle. E.g. generally for parameter for grading is as follows, long stem variety and having bigger bud size flower this method is useful. 1. Long stemed varieties are graded from 40 cm onwards with the difference of 7 cm whereas 2) Level head bunched: The stems, which can be short stemed varieties are graded from 35 cm packed keeping all the bud in the same level. to 50 cm with the difference of 7 cm or in the This methods is used in short stem variety and level grading stems should be consider of having small bud size flowers.

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Packing & transport of the flower with self-adhesive BOOP tape or flap to avoid heating of the flowers. Vents are, however, The bunches are packed in 5- kept open if the flowers are transported ply boxes in a such way that flower heads through the refrigerated truck, to facilitate faces in opposite direction i.e. toward the the circulation of cold air through the boxes. width. The bunches should be placed in a row along with the width. The second layer is Boxes size (corrugated cardboard cartoon) – placed opposite to the first layer. 120 x 45 x 25 cm (Rose) - 600 stems

In the packing box the layers of Boxes size (corrugated cardboard cartoon)- the flower are covered with soft paper. Some 122 x 50 x 30 cm (Carnation)-800 stems growers use newspaper to cover the stems but care should be take to ensure that the Boxes size (corrugated cardboard cartoon) – newsprint dose not leave mark on the stems. 100 x 30 x 10 cm (Gerbera) - 50 stems After packing the flowers, the box is closed Important Points to be Considered: with the lid and strapped properly. Mixing of the stems of varying lengths in the box should • Recognize the right harvest stage of some be avoided. The stem should be tightly held in flowers and vegetables is not always easy for the boxes so that they are not subjected to the grower. jerk movements during transport. The boxes • Retailer some time complains about the wrong should properly marked with symbols 'Fresh maturity stage of the product on to the flowers' on both sides so that they are auction handled with care at the airport. Besides, the • The product must be harvest in the right boxes should have stickers indicating name of maturity stage if not the quality and shelf life the variety, stem length, qty, in nos, date of of the product will decrease and will not dispatch, gross wt. of the box. satisfied your customer. • The quality of floriculture products demanded The dimensions of the packing by European traders and consumer is box vary with the nos and stem length and extremely high. also the colours of boxes vary from grower to grower. Marketing Details Generally, the empty packing boxes are precooled by placing them open in Flowers symbolize beauty, the cold rooms but the most efficient system purity, honesty and divinity. There are wide is forced air cooling wherein cool air is forced references on flowers in ancient Indian in to the boxes through the vent (holes) in the literature glorifying their importance. Flowers sides of the boxes. When the boxes are taken have become such as integral part of our out to the cold room, the vents are closed civilization, culture and inseparable in any

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 sphere of our activities. On any occasion, Consumption of flowers in either happiness or sorrow, flowers are world varies from country to country. In considered as the finest and dignified form of European countries, 50% flowers purchased expression. are used as gifts and 30% are used for self consumption. In U.S.A. flowers are generally In India the area under purchased on special occasions. In Japan the floriculture is also increasing year after year. flowers are used for business purpose also. In However, Karnataka rank first during this Germany particularly in East Germany 64% of period in production amongst the states in the demand is for selfuse. In France about 44% country followed by Thailand, Andhra Pradesh demand for flower is in the form of bouquets. and West Bengal. In India major cut flowers of There is an ever-increasing commercial importance are rose, gladioli, demand for floriculture products. Cut flowers tuberose, carnation, chrysanthemum, gerbera, contribute nearly 60% of the total floricultural lily, marigold, etc. The present state of high products in global market. In the developing tech floriculture in India constitute of rose countries consumers spirit become more with 80% and the rest is contributed by romantic, cheerful with flowers, fraganances Gerbera, Carnation, orchid, anthurium etc in and flovours. Commercial floriculture is of export and domestic markets. recent development in India. Due to popularity of foreign T.V. channels, thrust on The production and marketing Tourism and Hotel industry, Indians are being of cut flowers in India also undergo increasingly attracted to western style, As a revolutionary changes bringing high-tech result, cut flowers are now funding more farms with imported technology and planting buyers for social function and day to day materials so as to meet the demand of interior decoration. International market.

Floriculture trade is a lucrative In India with its vast, diverse business and more so the cut flower trade. physiography and agro ecological niches Cut flower industry is a multimillion - dollar allowing to grow varied flowers and foliage business involving 140 countries. The ornamental plants, proximity to importing International trade in cut flower is increasing countries, Government's policy to identify it is and an 11% increase was registered between an extreme focus thrust area, the future of 1995-2000. The main importing countries are flower industry in the country appears to be Germany, U.S.A., U.K., France and very bright. Netherlands whereas Netherlands, Columbia, Israel and Kenya are major exporting countries.

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Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda): Emerging threat to Indian agriculture Article id: 21568 Subhrajyoti Chatterjee Research Scholar, Department of Vegetable Science, Faculty of Horticulture, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur-741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India

INTRODUCTION: an average. The entire lifecycle i.e. from egg to Fall Armyworm (FAW, scientifically new adult moth that lays fresh eggs is known as Spodoptera frugiperda) which is a completed in about 30-45 days during the highly-destructive and invasive pest of United summer months while extending to 60-90 days State of America since several decades, has in cooler temperatures. The pest thrives on a been recently reported in India [1]. FAW is not wide spectrum of host crop plants like maize, new to the scientific community but it’s sorghum, rice, sugarcane, soybean and prevalence outside USA was noted for the first different group of vegetables. time in West Africa in early 2016. Since then, it The FAW moth lays eggs on the plant’s has spread to over 50 countries in Africa foliage (leaves). The egg stage lasts for only 2-3 (barring North Africa) and Asia ravaging crops, days in warmer weather. The next larval stage especially maize. In 2018, it invaded Asia is the most dangerous one. There are six parts through Yemen and India and has now spread or “instars” in this stage, whose entire duration to Bangladesh, Myanmar, Nepal and China. A is from 14 to 30 days, depending on the rapid breeder, the insect is known to eat 300 temperature and humidity conditions. The species of plants (polyphagous), most of which destruction of leaves, stems or flowers of the are major food crops. It has diversified its diet crop plants by the larva through feeding and can survive harsh conditions by migrating happens mostly in the last three instars. to different places or by hiding and then spring Control over the pest is, therefore, best back when conditions are favourable. Its wide achieved early in its life cycle, rather than later dietary platter along with its phenomenal stages. Once the larval stage is completed, the spread across two continents in just the last growing moth pupates in the soil nearly for 8-9 two years has made FAW an agent of global days in summer and 20-30 days in cool food production crisis [2]. weather. The nocturnal egg-laying adults live Life cycle: for about 10 days, while most active during Before laying eggs, the adult moth of warm and humid evenings [1]. the pest migrates very fast i.e. almost 100 km History of invasion in India: every night and nearly 500 km in total. Each In India, this insect was detected for the female moth is capable of laying 1,500 eggs on first time in Karnataka in June, 2018 and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 rapidly spread to other parts of the country. In In Andhra Pradesh, it was first identified just one year since FAW was first identified in in August, 2018 when it affected maize Karnataka, it has invaded crops in over 10 growing areas of East and West Godavari states like remaining other southern states; districts, Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and then to western Maharashtra and Gujarat, Chitoor. In Tamil Nadu, FAW has been Chattishgarh, Madhya Pradesh and recently in confirmed in sugarcane crops in two districts some north eastern states. Besides advancing i.e. Erode and Karur, a first for the country. On fast, the pest is also attacking new crops. the other hand, districts of Telengana viz., Though, it is being detected mostly in maize Nirmal, Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Adilabad, crops and a preliminary calculation estimates Vikarabad and Nagarkurnool are drastically that it has affected nearly 1,70,000 hectares affected by army worm and the main infested (ha) of maize land, but apart from that, there crops are maize, rice, chickpea, jowar and are several reports from states where it has groundnut. FAW has infested crops in 13 out of infested paddy, sugarcane, sweet corn and the 52 districts in Madhya Pradesh. The worst vegetables. Maize is the third most important affected areas are the agriculturally prosperous cereal crop in India after rice and wheat. It regions of Malwa, Mahakoshal and accounts for 9 per cent of the total food grain Baghelkhand where maize and soybean are production in the country [2]. mostly affected. On August 29, 2018, FAW was Entomologists CM Kalleshwara Swamy first detected in Maharashtra in a maize field at and Sharanabasappa first detected FAW in the Tandulwadi village of Solapur district. Later on research fields of maize at the University of the infestation has spread in Vidarbha, Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Marathwada and especially in western Shimoga, Karnataka. Just before the monsoon Maharashtra [2]. last year, a few maize farmers from In January 2019, Chhattisgarh became Chikballapur district of the state reported a the first state of this year to report the pest infestation to A N Shylesha, scientist at infestation of Fall Armyworm from Bastar the National Bureau of Agricultural Insect district. Locally FAW is known as “American Resources (NBAIR). Shylesha took it to be the keeda’’ here [2]. Recently in the month of May, True Armyworm infestation. But the severity in it was detected at Lamphel and Langol of ICAR, the infestation led him and his colleague SK Manipur centre in the outskirt of Imphal city Jalali to conduct a survey of the affected fields and at Chandonpokpi village farm in Chandel and collect samples in July 2018. At the end of district. Maize is the most important cereal the month came the confirmation, and a crop in Manipur after rice. The development challenge in the form of the country staring at and introduction of HQPM (High Quality its first FAW infestation. The Fall Armyworm Protein Maize) and change in crop or Spodoptera frugiperda is more dangerous diversification favouring intercropping with than the True Armyworm (Mythimna legumes have brought about a quiet revolution unipuncta, formerly Pseudaletia unipuncta) [2]. among the farmers, besides increasing yield

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 and soil fertility. Present day use of maize cent. FAW was noticed in maize in extent especially HQPM as feed for cattle and poultry of 17,394 ha out of 462,322 ha actual industry also offers huge scope for the growth sown area in kharif 2018. During rabi of small and medium enterprises in animal 2018-19, the pest was noticed in 22,072 ha husbandry thereby providing a win-win out of 78,982 ha of actual sown area. Total situation for both maize farmers and the loss in Kharif 2018 was estimated upto 30 cattle/poultry farmers. So the report of the percent [2]. invasion of FAW in Manipur is a matter of v) Recently it has been reported that FAW grave concern to the local farmers. Not only in affected maize cultivation in 1,747.9 Manipur but also it was reported from other hectares in 122 villages in Mizoram NE states like Nagaland, Mizoram and Tripura causing a huge crop loss which has a [3]. monetory value of Rs 20 crore [5]. Few instances of significant crop loss due to Management strategies: FAW attack is listed here under: i) The states where the pest has already i) In some parts of Africa, up to 70% of been detected need to nip the problem in crops were destroyed by the armyworm, the bud. A mass awareness campaign is causing as much as $6 billion in damage necessary to build awareness among across the continent [4]. farmers and extension workers, on how to ii) In Ethiopia, more than 0.6 million ha of recognise the various stages of the insect maize was damaged in 2018. Uganda was and manage/control it with the right IPM infested too. By mid 2017, the worm was interventions. The emphasis should be on present in all its 127 districts, causing 15 to generating awareness and not panic, even 75 per cent crop loss. An estimated when FAW is noticed in any field. 450,000 million tonnes of maize worth Surveillance systems by the public/private $192 million was hit [2]. extension machinery, including through iii) The devastating armyworm pest has setting up traps (usually pheromone- already spread to more than 8,500 based) can help effectively monitor the hectares of China's grain production and movement of the pest populations within could soon affect country's entire crop the targeted geographical locations [1]. production system as according to the US ii) An effective IPM strategy would need report, prepared for the Department of to incorporate host plant resistance Agriculture (USDA), it is already spread to (through breeding), biological and cultural a range of southern Chinese provinces control, and use of environmentally-safer including Yunnan, Guangxi, Guangdong, chemical and bio-pesticides for crop Guizhou, Hunan and Hainan [4]. protection. Spraying of chemicals should iv) In Telengana, it was reported that be avoided unless the pest load has during rabi season 2018-19, the incidence crossed economic threshold levels. of pest ranged from 5 per cent to 45 per Cultural control practices can work,

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especially when the FAW problem is still resource commitments from the Indian localised to particular geographies/crops. Government, donors, and the private The eggs laid by the moths are discernible sector [1]. to the naked eye. Farmers can be trained v) In a world of climate change and to recognise and destroy the egg masses, increased global connectedness through so as to prevent the caterpillars from trade and tourism, the frequency of emerging [1]. invasive pest attacks is likely to only go up. iii) Wherever FAW infestation is very It obviously calls for stepped-up severe farmers may use Emamectin phytosanitary and quarantine efforts to Benzoate (0.4 grams per litre of water). prevent the onset of transboundary Where it is mild neem formulations can be pathogens and pests. But that apart, used [2]. effective monitoring, surveillance and iv) Biological control would, likewise, be an early warning systems, coupled with an important component of an IPM strategy IPM approach, are vital to respond to any against any major crop pest. Quick new insect-pest threat, in order to identification and validation of biological safeguard the crops and protect the agents, such as parasitoids, predators and incomes of mostly smallholder farmers. In entomopathogens against FAW, and the case of pests such as FAW, India must release of well-validated bio-pesticides simply “restrict” its spread in the should be taken up on a priority basis. And beginning itself, through IPM and finally, Indian Council of Agricultural synergistic inter-institutional and multi- Research and institutions such as NBPGR, disciplinary efforts [1]. So, it can be CIMMYT and ICRISAT have a vast array of concluded that if timely management germplasm in their gene banks and also practices are initiated as described earlier, varieties, which could be tested for native this problem can be nipped in the bud as genetic resistance to FAW. This is a this new pest is yet to siege farms in India, medium to long-term strategy and unlike in many parts of Africa. requires effective coordination and

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Fall Armyworm larva feeding on maize crop

REFERENCES: [1]. https://www.icrisat.org/fall-armyworm-nipping-a-problem-in-the-bud/ [2]. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/coverage/agriculture/fall-armyworm-attack-the-damage-done- 63445 [3]. http://www.easternmirrornagaland.com/icar-sounds-alarm-with-discovery-fall-armyworm-in- manipur/ [4]. https://edition.cnn.com/2019/05/09/asia/china-armyworm-grain-intl/index.html [5]. https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/fall-army-worm-attack-caused- rs-20cr-crop-loss-in-mizoram/article27056315.ece

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Identification of adulteration of fertilizers Article id: 21569 Sahaja Deva Subject Matter Specialist (Crop Production), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi

INTRODUCTION: Ammonium sulphate: Solution will get light wheatish colour. It wont feel cool touch like Fertilizers are the costly inputs farmers urea. are using now-a-days after green revolution in order to get higher yields and income to feed Ammonium chloride, Muirate of nitrate: the increasing population. Drought is the Dissolves in water completely if mixed major problem in the country and thoroughly. Solution will be very cool. It has adulteration of fertilizers is the second major no colour problem in our country. To test the quality of fertilizers farmers can consult government Di ammonium phosphate: Remains mud at organizations. If it is not possible farmer the bottom of the flask after dissolving in himself can do some home made tests to water. Most of the mud will dissolve if nitric know the quality of fertilizers. acid is mixed with mud. Solution will be in light wheatish colour. Procedure of testing: 15-15-15, 28-28-0, 19-19-19: Solution of this Take a conical flask or test tube or any fertilizers is very muddy. If these fertilizers are other vessel suitable for testing the fertilizer. mixed with concentrated hydrochloric acid 15- Prepare a solution by adding4.5 g fertilizer 15-15 will turn red colour, 28-18-0 and 19-19- and 10 ml distilled water. With this we can 19 will turn light wheatish colour. identify whether the quality of fertilizers is good or is it adulterated. If you have doubt it Nitrophosphate, 20-20-20: Forms cool mud is adulterated after testing then go for after mixing in water. Turns wheatish colour laboratory testing. when mixed with concentrated nitric acid

How to identify quality fertilizers: Sulphate of potash: Dissolves in water partially. Dissolves completely if mixed with Quality fertilizers will have some unique conc sulphuric acid. characteristics. If the fertilizers are unique to this characteristics you can conclude that the Cost of the fertilizers is increasing fertilizers are adulterated. rapidly day by day. If farmers are not aware of adulteration they can’t get substantial yields. Urea: Dissolves in water completely. Feels In order to get more yields farmers are very cool touch. Solution has no colour. investing more on fertilizers and supplying

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 fertilizers indiscriminately which not only  Organic manures like compost, reduce quality of produce and also pollutes vermicompost, green manures, bio- environment and groundwater. Excess use of fertilizers will improves soil fertility fertilizers will also reduce the physical, and organic carbon biological and chemical properties of soil  Farmers should apply fertilizers as per which leads to loss of fertility in soil. By recommendation in soil health cards. following some suggestions farmers will fetch good returns. CONCLUSION:

 Farmers should be aware of Farmers should be aware of adulteration of fertilizers adulteration and dose and method of  Farmers should have knowledge on fertilizer; application and using organic quantity of fertilizers, method of fertilizers by reducing chemical fertilizers application and price of fertilizers will improve financial status of farmers  Mixing and using straight fertilizers will and protects soil and reduces reduce the usage of complex fertilizers environmental deterioration as well.

“More organic less chemicals is a blessing for our children”

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Integrated disease management for quick wilt in black pepper (Piper nigram L.) Article id: 21570 1Abhijith.M and 2Susmita Jha 1- GVHSS Karthikapuram, Kannur, Kerala 2- Research Scholar, UBKV, Pundibari

The King of Spice- Black Pepper (Piper nigram technicians. They detected disease when the L.) is one of economically important spice upper part of pepper vine shows a crops in India. Black pepper is native to south performance as leaf yellowing, wilting and India, it is cultivated to large extent in Kerala, dropping (Ton, N.T.et al., 2005). Once these Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and to a limited symptoms are observed, the infection already extent in Maharashtra, North Eastern states at its severe stage with most of the root and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Dried ground rotted and the underground stem showing a pepper has been used since antiquity for both brownish black lesion. its flavor and as a traditional medicine. Black pepper is the world’s most traded spice. The LIFE CYCLE crop is grown in about 201382 hectares with a The reproduction process of pathogen causes production of 55000 tonnes annually (2012- challenges to scientists and producers. 13). Kerala and Karnataka account for 92% of Phytophthora capsici produce, different types black pepper production in the country both sexual and asexual means. Meanwhile, (Ravindra, H. et al., 2014). mycelia produced these asexual spores Quick wilt caused by Phytophthora capsici including sporangia, zoospores and chlamydospore. Zoospores are the major Leonion emend A.Alizadeh and P.H. Tsao ’ (Tsao, 1991) is a major disease affecting black propogule of infection (O Gara, E., 2005). In pepper in all regions. It is a soil borne case of sexual reproduction each oospore that pathogen (Noveriza, Quimo, T.H., 2004). It produces a male and female gametangium. So affects below ground tissues and cause called anthredium and oogonium respectively vascular wilt due to root infection (Koika, (Hans beck, M.K and Lamour, K.H., 2004), S.T.et al., 2003). Rotting of collar destroys serve as the over wintering inoculum of phloem and xylem vessels and preventing the pathogen. Moreover, under good condition of transfer of water and nutrients from the root free moisture on plant surface or saturated to areal parts of plant (Ravindran, D.N.et al., soil, sporangia release motile and biflagellate 2000). Therefore plant died immediately with zoospore. Each sporangium produces 20 to 40 symptoms of sudden leaf wilting dropping. motile zoospores under free water condition Importantly, the first symptoms of disease are additionally sporangia and zoospore and are very hard and often detected by farmers and secondary inoculums and they can reproduced repeatedly during the growing

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EPIDEMOLOGY Minimum tillage: Phytophthora capsici spreads through soil water by soil splashes. Life cycle of pathogen is one of the element Clean cultivation favors rapid spread through contribute to maintaining and developing o o splashing of soil inoculam. Presence of grass pathogen. Temperature (20 C-28 C) and cover prevents splashing of soil containing the moisture (>80%) are optimal for both pathogen. It is suggested to keep the soil chlamydospores and oospores live over 6 around the basin covered with mulch or grass years in soil; 2-3 rainy seasons in dead plant cover to prevent the rapid spread of disease. materials (Nambiar, K.K.N. and Sharma, Y.R., 1982). More importantly, inoculam can Shade regulation: In order to ensure better survive in the soil up to 19 months without light penetration and air circulation, shade host plants (Kuch, T.K., 1990). regulation becomes an important cultural operation. Heavy shade during monsoon INTEGRATED DISEASE MANAGEMENT period would result in high humidity build up, Phytosanitation conditions highly favorable for disease development. Lopping of branches during Reduction of initial inoculam and removing April- May is recommended (Anandaraj and the source of inoculam are important steps in Sarma., 1995). disease management. Infected vines should be uprooted and burned. The disease Organic amendments inoculam is found to be cluster around Soil amendments like Neem cake, farm yard previously infected vines. Hence reduction of manure, cow dung slurry, etc. favor growth of initial source inoculam is one of the important antagonistic micro organism and reduce steps in disease management (Anandaraj and pathogenic growth. Sarma., 1995) Biological control Cultural control Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhiae (VAM) Ploughing and removing of weeds in enhances growth of Black Pepper (George & interspaces causes considerable damage to Ghai., 1987; Bopaiah & Khader., 1989; the root system and favor the rapid spread of Anandaraj & Sarma., 1994). At the time of pathogen. Collection of disease free cuttings: planting cuttings, soil containing propogules If runner shoots are collected from foot rot of VAM is added to the bag at the rate of 100 affected plantation, the severity of the disease cc per bag, which would contain is more. Pathogen also carried with adhering approximately 1100 propagules.

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Bacillus spp. isolates, B5, B7 and B13, which cultured on sorghum grains and added to were isolated from black pepper in Kerala each bag at rate of 5g/bag, to produce disease provided prolonged protection against root free planting materials. rot black pepper in nurseries and reduced the wilt incidence from 100% in the control to 57- Chemical control 71% in bacterial treatments (Jubina and Due to the heavy rains there is loss of Girija., 1998) chemicals by leaching and hence the need to Pre & post monsoon soil and foliar application use systemic fungicides. Two sprays with of P. flouescence was effective for the Bordeaux mixture (1%) during the monsoon management of foot rot incidence in the period prevent aerial infection. To minimize export oriented and exchange earning crop, the buildup of soil inoculam, copper The Black gold (Jayasekhar,M. et al., 2003) oxychloride (0.2%) @ 5-8 l/vine is recommended (Ramachandran, Sarma and In the field several species of Trichoderma and Anandaraj., 1991). Two systematic fungicides Gliocladium virens were antagonistic to P. viz., Metalaxyl and Fosetyl Al were also found capsici. Field experiments shown that to be effective. One pre monsoon incorporation of biocontrol agents in the field appliucation of metalaxyl MZ combined with suppresses soil borne inoculam (Anandaraj & neem cake 1 kg/vine. Sarma., 1994). These antagonistic fungi are

REFERENCE

[1] Anandaraj M. and Sarma, Y.R. (1995). Diseases of Black pepper (Piper nigram L.) and their management.J. Spices and Aromatic Crops 4(1): 17-23. [2] Erwin, D.C. and Ribeiro, O.K. (1996). Phytophthora diseases worldwide. American Phytopathological society Press, St.Paul, M.N. [3] George, V.T. and Ghai, S.K. (1987). Relative efficiency of different VA Mycorrhizal fungi on Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.). In: Mycorrizal Round Table Proc. Workshop., 13-15, March 1987, New Delhi (pp.421-430). [4] Hausbeck, M.K and Lamour, K.H. (2004). Phytophthora capsici on vegetable crops. Research progress and management challenges. Plant Diseases., 88,1292-1301. [5] Jaysekhar, M, Prem Joshua, J. and Gailce, L.J.C. (2003). Madras Agric. J. 90 (10-12): 751-754. [6] Jubina, P.A. and Girija, V.K. (1998). Antagonistic rhizobacteria for management of Phytophthora capsici, the incitant of foot rot of black pepper. J. Mycol. Plant Pathol.28, 147-153. [7] Koika, S.T., Subbarao, K.V, Pavis, M.R. and Turini, T.A. (2003). Vegetable disease caused by soil borne pathogens, University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.

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[8] Kuch, T.K. (1990). Major Diseases of Black Pepper and Their management. The Planter Malaysia, 66, 59-69. [9] Mchau, G.R.A and Coffey, M.D. (1995). Evidence for the Existence of two Distinct Sub populations in Phytophthora capsici and a redescription of the spices. Mycological Research., 99, 89- 102. [10] Nambiar, K.K.N. and Sarma, Y.R. (1982). Some aspects of Epidemiology of Foot rot of Black Pepper. In: Nambiar, K.K.N., Eds., Phytopthological diseases of Tropical cultivated plants, Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasargod., 225-231. [11] Nambiar, K.K.N. and Sarma, Y.R. (1997). J. Plant Crops., 5:92-103. [12] Noveniza, R. and Quimo, T.H. (2004). Soil Mycoflora of black pepper rhizosphere in the Philippines and there in vitro antagonism against Phytophthothora capsici. Indonesian J. of Agric. Sci., 5(1):1-10. [13] O’Gara, E., Howard, K., Wilson, B. and Hardy, G.E.S.J. (2005). Management of Phytophthora cinnamom for Biodiversity conservation in Australia: A Report funded by the Commonwealth Government Department of Environment and heritage and the centre for Phytophthora Science and Management, Murdoch University, Western Australia. [14] Ramachandran, N, Sarma, Y.R. and Anandaraj, M. (1991). Management of Phytophthora infection in black pepper. In: Sarma, Y.R. and Premkumar, T. Eds. Diseases of Black Pepper. Proc. International Workshop on Joint Research for the Control of Black Pepper Diseases., 27-28, October 1988, Goa, India (pp.158-174). National Research Centre for Spices, Calicut [15] Ravindra, H., Sehgal, M., Manu, T.G., Murali, R., Latha, M. and Narasimhamoorthy, H.B. (2014). Incidence of root knot nematode (Melodogyne incognita) in black pepper in Karnataka. J. of Entemol. and Nematol., 6(4):51-55. [16] Ravindran, P.N., Babu, K.N., Sasikumar, B. and Krishnamurthy, K.S. (2000). Botany and Crop Improvement of Black Pepper. In: Ravindran, P.N., Eds., Black Pepper (Piper nigrum). Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode, Overseas Publishers Association, Kerala., 23-142. [17] Ton, N.T., Nam, T.N.T., Don, L.D., Tri, M.V., Hieu, N.M. and Phuong, N.B. (2005). Study on the Scientific, Technological and Marketing Measures for the development of Black Pepper Production Serving to processing and Export. Final Report of National Research Project. Institute of Agricultural Science for Southern Vietnam. [18] Tsao, P.H. (1991). The identities, nomenclature and taxonomy of Phytophthora isolates from Black pepper. In: Diseases of Black pepper .Proceedings of International Pepper Community Workshop on Black Pepper Diseases, 27-29th October 1998, Goa, India (eds.) Y.R. Sarma and T. Premkumar,pp.185-211.

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VERMICOMPOST: Clean and neat organic manure Article id: 21571 Kanukuntla Vanitha and K. Jyothi Reddy Department of Vegetable Science, College of Horticulture, SKLTSHU, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad- 500030, Telangana, India

production. All the three worms can be mixed Vermi composting is organic manure together for vermicompost production. The produced by earthworms. It is a mixture of African worm (Eudrillus eugenial) is preferred live earthworms, worm castings (faecal over other two types, because it produces excretions), organic matter including humus, higher production of vermicompost in short earthworm cocoons and other organisms. It is period of time and younger ones in the an appropriate cost effective and efficient composting period. recycling technique for the disposal of nontoxic solid and liquid organic wastes. After crop production its residues estimation showed that 30-35% of applied N Earthworms feed on organic waste, & P and 70-80% for K is remained in crop consuming half of their body weight. They use residues in food crop and for preparing such a relatively small amount of their intake for crop residues as a fertilizer, earthworms are their growth and excrete the mucus coated suitable organisms. Compared to conventional undigested matter as vermicasts. The mucous composting system, vermi composting often layer created by worms which surrounds their results in mass reduction, shorter time for castings allows for a "time release" of processing, high levels of humus with reduced nutrients. Vermicasts consist of organic phytotoxicity. The inoculation of earthworms matter that has undergone physical and in organic waste can accelerate the microbial chemical breakdown through the activity of composition and activities in substrates, the muscular gizzard that grinds the material. which in turn enhances the nutrient The nutrients present in the vermicasts are transformation and its biological properties. readily soluble in water for uptake by plants. However, traditional methods of composting results in losses of 55% of organic matter and For vermicompost production, the from 30 - 50% of N. Earthworms, transforms surface dwelling earthworm alone should be complex organic substances into a stabilized used. The earthworm, which lives below the humus-like product. The increased soil, is not suitable for vermicompost mineralization and conservation of nutrients is production. The African earthworm (Eudrillus due to the activity of earthworms in the engenial), Red worms (Eisenia foetida) and decomposition and conservation mechanism. composting worm (Peronyx excavatus) are promising worms used for vermicompost

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To increase the efficiency of vermi which may contain as few as three to as many composting, care should be taken to see that as twenty wormlings, depending on the worms thrive well on organic matter, breed conditions and food provided to the worms. faster adapting to moisture and climatic fluctuations. The most beneficial feature of Worms prefer food that is wet, high in vermi composting is that it eliminates foul nutrients and relatively low in carbon. Ideal smell of decaying organic wastes, as it is a foods may include rotting fruit or vegetables, fully aerobic system. Excess water drained can kitchen waste, some animal manures, garden be used as a vermi wash for plants. waste and compost, and corrugated cardboard. Worms do not like onion, garlic, Suitable conditions for a compost shallots or materials with high ammonia or worm would be an environment which was pH nitrogen levels, or large quantities of fats and neutral, 25ºC air temperature, above 70% air oils. It takes around 90 days for the organic humidity. Lower moisture content increase material to be processed by the worms and be worm mortality, optimum 70-90%. (David ready for harvesting. Watako et al., 2016). Worms generally stay in composting bed, but may try to leave the bed Nutritive value of vermi-compost: when first introduced, or often after a The nutrients content in vermi- rainstorm when outside humidity is high. compost vary depending on the waste Maintaining adequate conditions on the bed materials that is being used for compost when first introducing worms should preparation. If the waste materials are eliminate this problem of worms heterogeneous one, there will be wide range escaping.(Edwardsclive 2010). Composting of nutrients available in the compost. If the worms are hermaphrodites, with each mature waste materials are homogenous one, there worm having a full set of both male and will be only certain nutrients are available. female sex organs, reaching sexual maturity The common available nutrients in vermi- after 55 days. After mating, a cocoon develops compost is as follows:

Nutrients Composition Organic carbon 9.5 – 17.98% Nitrogen 0.5 – 1.50% Phosphorous 0.1 – 0.30% Potassium 0.15 – 0.56% Sodium 0.06 – 0.30% Calcium and Magnesium 22.67 to 47.60 meq/100g Copper 2 – 9.50 mg kg-1 Iron 2 – 9.30 mg kg-1

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Zinc 5.70 – 11.50 mg kg-1 Sulphur 128 – 548 mg kg-1 Sodium 0.06 – 0.30% Ca (%) 0.44 Mg (%) 0.15 Fe (ppm) 175.2 Mn (ppm) 96.51 Zn (ppm) 24.43 Cu (ppm) 4.89

Importance of vermicompost:  The products of vermiculture act as environmentally friendly long-term soil conditioners containing nutrients readily available to plants, which greatly improve soil performance and crop yields. Vermicompost can be mixed directly into the soil, or mixed with water to make a liquid fertilizer known as worm tea. (Sherman and Rhonda 2019).  Vermicast has found 30-50% increases in nitrogen uptake, 100% increases in potassium and phosphate uptake. There are also reported increases in flavour and shelf-life of produce.  Improves soil aeration, enriches soil with micro-organisms (adding enzymes phosphatase and cellulase, plant hormones auxins and gibberellic acid, improves water holding capacity, enhances germination, plant growth, improves root growth, structure and crop yield.  Microbial activity in worm castings is 10 to 20 times higher than in the soil and organic matter that the worm ingests. Attracts deep-burrowing earthworms already present in the soil.  Elimination of bio-wastes from the waste stream reduces contamination of other recyclables collected in a single bin.  Low capital investment and relatively simple technologies make vermi composting practical for less-developed agricultural regions  Stimulate soil microbial growth and activity, with subsequent mineralization of plant nutrients, and therefore produce an increase soil fertility and quality.

REFERENCES: 1. Sherman, Rhonda."Raising Earthworms Successfully: infohouse. p2ric. North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Retrived 26 May 2019. 2. David Watako, Koslengar Mougabe, and Thomas Heathfirst= (April 2016). "Tiger worm toilets: lessons learned from constructing household vermicomposting toilets in Liberia". Waterlines. 35 (2): 136-147. doi:10.3362?1756-3488.2016.012. 3. Edwards, Clive A. (2010). Vermiculture Technology. CRC Press. pp. 392-406. ISBN 978-1-4398- 0987-7.

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Integrated disease management in vegetable crops Article id: 21572 Purnima Singh1, Ashwini Kumar2, Someshree Mane3, M. Surya Prakash Readdy4 1College of Agriculture, RVSKVV, Gwalior, M.P, 2B. M, College of Agriculture, RVSKVV, Khandwa M.P, 3Post Graduate Institute, MPKV, Rahuri, MH 4College of Agriculture, JNKV, Jabalpur, M.P,

The management strategy for these largest producer to brinjal (30% of world diseases remain largely confined to chemical production), cabbage (9.6% of world pesticides. The strategy of the reliance on production), onion (18.8%), potato (11%) and chemicals has to be given up in the present cauliflower (33.4% of world production). era of WTO wherein the pesticide residues in As we look around us, the wide variety vegetables are totally discouraged. This article of vegetables available, the lush colours, the aims to promote an integrationof appropriate spotless clean, glossy surfaces, are bound to cultural, genetic, biological, legal, chemical get more attention. These are also the same and biotechnologies into an integrated vegetables that demand a premium for their diseases management (IDM) strategy for fresh and clean appearance. But if we look vegetable crop protection. Adoption of this into the finer details, like the reason for their approach will empower farers with effective attractive appearance could be due to the disease management methods and reduce excessive and indiscriminate use of pesticides, reliance on synthetic pesticides, resulting in without paying much attention to the finer more sustainable vegetable production with details. In similar cases being reported of late. higher yields of safer produce. The adverse effects like pesticide residues are Vegetable crops, the important on the rise and repercussions are pretty component of horticulture, assume great serious. Be it the mild poisoning symptoms significance in providing food and nutritional like diarrhea, headache, and breathing securities, Being effective supplements of problem to the more serious consequences nutrition, vegetables forms an important part like congenital abnormalities, mental of the daily diet of both rich and poor. The retardation, cancer, infertility, birth defects, demand of fresh vegetables has increasing neurological disorder, etc . Blindly going for trend owing to the growth of health conscious higher dose of pesticides is also taking a toll population and enhanced income. Among the on the environment. Pesticides drift, leaching, vegetable producing countries of the world. etc have been causing soil and water pollution India is the second largest producer spreading to near by areas In addition to contributing 13.4% of the total vegetable these serious ramification, this adversely production. Similarly India is also the second

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 affecting the fate of Indian vegetable produce community program me and /or co- in the international market. operative programme. These therefore, call for prompt and 5. Based on the above criteria a package timely action to check this problem from can be developed for the spreading further. First of all, awareness management of vegetable disease in needs to be created amongst the farming which stepwise attempts have been community regarding judicious use of focused starting from the cultural pesticides. Novel concepts like integrated management to utilization of disease management practices for safe transgenic. olericulture needs to be promoted. IDM Strategies This article aims to promote on Cultural and Mechanical practices: integration of appropriate chemical, culture, The purpose of cultural practices is to genetic and biological cultural, genetic and make adjustment in crop management biological technologies into an integrated practices to prevent for minimize disease disease management (IDM) strategy for development; Cultural practices often offer vegetable crop protection. opportunity to alter the environment, the What is IDM? condition of the host, and/ or the behavior of IDM is a broad ecological approach for the causal agent, to achieve economic disease management which employs all management of disease. Most culture available techniques and practices such as practices are preventive in nature. Culture cultural, genetic, mechanical and biological practices if followed in the manner suggested, methods including application of chemical provide relief from disease, some of which are pesticides as a last resort I a harmonious and briefly enumerated below. comparable manner.  The selection of appropriate site for the Criteria for developing IDM strategies: cultivation of vegetable crop can reduce 1. Develop the strategy which is future incidence of diseases. The choice economical. The cost of application of crops should be suitable for growing in and loss due to disease must be the area and tolerant to key diseases of proportionately balanced in favour of the area. producers and consumers.  Use of healthy seeds and seedlings is one 2. The strategy development fit in the of the best IDM practices which production protection schedules considerably reduce the risk of damage practiced by the growers. by the seed borne diseases in the field. 3. The strategies developed must strive  Planting of crop at optimum tie is to manage most disease important to avoid condition that simultaneously in the concerned. synchronizes crop disease association. 4. To ensure success the IDM strategy in Careful selection of planting date enables the vegetables need to be applied as the plants to escape damage during

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susceptible growth stage, advances into The purpose and intent of this act is to tolerant stage before the disease attack prevent the introducing of any pathogens, occurs and reduce the number of which is or may of destructive to vegetable generations of diseases. crops. In India, diseases got introduced from  Crop rotation is one of the most effective time o time, some of which, late blight of culture means for reducing monocyclic potato, bacterial blight, have since become and polycyclic diseases. It is very useful in widespread. Some others like golden avoiding soil borne primary inoculum of nematode, downy mildew of onions and wart many serious diseases such as wilt, club disease of potato are still localized in certain root, scab, rust and blight of vegetables . parts of the country. In a country like India,  Field sanitation is a major practice of where the diseases management. Clean cultivation along with deep ploughing after Major population is dependent on agriculture harvesting and shortly before and which is home to some exquisite planting/sowing of the crop would vegetables, such inadvertent introduction of expose the soil borne pathogens to exotic pathogens can be deleterious to adverse climatic conditions. economy and biodiversity. Hence India Government Has kept in place a number of  Proper monitoring of the crop disease, regulations as to cope with the threat of removal of affected portion of the plants introduced pathogens. and uprooting of severly infected plants reduce the incidence of several fungal Host plant resistance bacterial and viral diseases.  Balance dose fertilizers should be applied Undoubtedly the most attractive from of for proper growth and development defense is provided by disease resistance, for vegetable crops as plant growth is as long as it remains effective it provides dependent on the nutritional status of protection at no cost to the farmers or the the soil which is turn has an indirect community. So plant resistance is a highly effect on disease . useful strategy that can be applied in the  The application of micronutrients and control of diseases. It does not require any biofertilizers (Rhizobium,Azospirillium sp.) special action from growers and constitute makes the plants more hardy to disease. cheap and practical input in the integrated disease management system. The resistant varieties developed in India against diseases of vegetables are depicted in Table 1. Quarantine

Table 1. Resistant varieties developed against diseases of vegetables

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Crop Name of variety Resistant against Tomato Arkra Vardan Root knot nematode Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Arka Bacteria wilt Shreshtam Arka Abhijit Arka Ashish Powdery mildew Brinjal Pusa Purple Long, Pus Little Leaf Purple Cluster Arka Nidhi, Arka Keshav, Arka Neelakanth Bacterial wilt Chilli PMR 54/88K Powdery mildew Pant C1 Tolerant to leaf curl & mosaic Musalwadi Tolerant to dieback & powdery mildew Jawahar 218 Tolerant to leaf curl & fruit rot Punjab Lal, Pusa Sadabhar TMV,CMV and leaf curl virus. Ujjwala Bacterial wilt Cabbage Pusa Mukta, kI Black rot Pusa Drumhead Black leg Bottle gourd Punjab Komal CMV Watermelon Arka Manik Powdery mildew, Downey mildew, Anthracnose Musk Melon Okra Arka Rajhans Powdery mildew Punjab Padmini, Prabhani Kranti, Arka Abhay, Yellow vein mosanic Arka Anamika French bean Pea Arka Bold Rust FCI, Jawahar Matar 5, Jawahar Powdery mildew Pea 83, JP4, Arka Ajit Onion Amranthus Arka Kalyan, Arka Kirthiman Purple blotch, basalrot Potato Arka Suguna White rust Kufri Badshah, Kufri Jyoti , Kurfi Swarna, Kurfi Late blight Megha, Kurfi Khasigaro and Kufri Muthu

Biological control Considerable attention has recently been focused on the prevention of plant diseases with the biological control strategies. Biocontrol agents like Trichoderma spp. And Pseudomonas fluoresces should be exploited for the management of vegetable diseases especially to avoid residue. What is Trichoderma?

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Trichoderma is a potent antagonistic fungi use for control of number of soil borne pathogens causing disease in vegetable crop. Among the known species, Trichoderma viride and Techoderma harzianum are most commonly used as biocontrol agents. These fungi produce a number of enzymes such as celluloses and hemicelluloses, chitinases and glucoses in their multiple forms are responsible for fungi toxic activity. These fungi when applied to the field enhance plant growth as well. These days’ commercial preparations of these fungi are available in the market in different commercial forms, which are easy to use. The mechanisms by which Trichoderma work for overall improvement of vegetable are sown in table 2 Table 2: Mechanisms by which Trichoderma work Mechanism of bio- Mechanisms of biofertilization and growth enhancement protection Competition Solubilization of plant nutrients.

Antibiosis Production of growth hormones

Mycoparasitism Decomposition of lignocellulosic materials for mineralization of nutrients Pathogens’s enzymes

Inactivation Bioremediation of toxic compounds Induce Systemic Resistance (ISR)

Method of use  Before sowing the seed (2-3 days before), drench nursery beds with Trichoderma Diseases of vegetables crops are caused by @5g/liter of water/m2 area. different kinds of pathogens such as fungi,  For seeding deep, mix 200g Tichoderma in bacteria, viruses and mycoplasma. Most of 15-20liters of water and dip the roots of the upon the use of diseases free and healthy seedling/rhizomes/tubers for 10 minutes seeds before planting.  To control all seeding rot and damping of  For direct field application, mix 1-2kg diseases, use 500g of Trichoderma mixed Trichoderama /100 Kg in compost and well with 50g of fully decomposed FYM and decomposed FYM and keep for 10to 15 beds for raising nursery for one acre crop. days under a polythene cover in shade.  To prevent all seed borne diseases mix 10g Turn over the mixture every 3days to Trichoderma slurry for treating 1Kg of enable uniform multiplication of seed just before sowing. Trichoderma in FYM. Broadcast the

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fortified FYM over one acre before fungicides will help producers improve timing sowing/planting. Main Maintain optimum of fungicides applications. Protectant soil moisture conditions after fungicides include the bulk of the foliar spray Trichoderma application for best results materials available to producers. In order to be effective, protectand fungicides, such as copper compounds, mancozeb copper What is Pseudomonas fluoresces? oxychloride, etc., need to be on the leaf (or It is highly plant growth promoting plant) surface prior to arrival of the pathogen. rhizobacteria (PGPR), effective as a versatile Systemic (therapeutic) carbendazim, carboxin, broad spectrum fungicide, bactericide and ancozeb+ metalaxyl are active inside of the plant growth promoter. It is available in leaf (can penetrate at different rates through commercial formulation namely ‘Sudocel’. It is the cuticle). Systemic fungicides may stop an effective against leaf and soil borne diseases infection after it starts and prevent further of vegetable crops. Sudocel actively attacks disease development. If necessary fungicides and disintegrate pathogenic fungi must be used based on recommended Method of seeds in of use fungicide resistance management strategies.  For seed treatment, soaking of seed in 1% A new strategy to chemically mange plant solution, dry under shade and use for diseases without direct interference with sowing. pathogen is the triggering of plant defense reaction. Acibenzolar- S-methyl (Actigard), a  For seeding root dip treatment, dissolve chemical in this category, was registered for 1Kg of Sudocel in 50 liters of water. Dip the control of bacterial spot and speck on the rot portion of the seeding for 5 tomatoes. Chemical must be used at minutes and transplant thereafter. recommended rated and application  For soli application, mix 5 Kg Sudocel with frequencies. Besides selection of the most 250Kg of FYM and spread in one hectare efficacious material, equipment must be uniformly before sowing or transplanting. properly calibrated and attention paid to the  For foliar spray, dissolve 1Kg of Sudocel in appropriate application technique. As always 100 liters of water and of curative the key to effective disease management is treatment against diseases. correct diagnosis of the problem. Follow the Chemical control latest fungicide recommendations given by Fungicides and bactericides are an the ICAR of State Agricultural universities. important component of vegetable disease Always read the pesticide labels and follow management programs. It is important to the instructions carefully. Remember, the remember that chemical use should be label is the law. Fumigants can be used to integrated with all other appropriate tactics manage soulborne pathogens. Apply ICAR or mentioned in this article. Information State Agricultural university recommendations regarding physical mode of action of a for vector management.

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Transgenics makes the plant less susceptible to bacterial A plant in which a foreign gene rot caused by E. carotovora. from another organism is introduced and expressed through genetic engineering for a CONCLUSION desired trait is called transgenic plant. Vegetable production has been Transgenic offered options of increased yields, one of success stories of the last decade, and reduced costs in disease control, and also to continue to build on succees, sector has to enhancing the nutritional value of the face challenges. Incidence of diseases is one products at the same time. The prospect seed of the major challenges in production of quite bright with technology coming to the vegetable crops affecting productivity and rescue. Creation of transgenic plants involves quality both. Novel concept like integrated isolation of the desired agene from an disease management practices for safe organism, its integration into a suitable vector vegetable crop protection need to be and then its introduction into the host. promoted. Appropriate labeling practices Transgenic plant could be used to combat would also prove to be helpful in this case, biotic stresses. Many virus resistant varieties along with creating awareness among the have been developed through coat protein consumers; it would also endure the use of mediated resistance. Expression of PR safe management practices among the proteins, chitinase, glucanase etc. is showing farmers. This would further ensure safety not promising results to provide protection only for those involved in vegetable against fungal pathogens. Resistance against production, but also to the end consumers of bacterial disease can be conferred by the produce. This would also help India expressionof antibacterial proteins, viz. lytic consolidate its position in the international peptides, lysozymes, glucoproteins etc., markets. So, ours wishing for a safer inhibition or detoxification of bacterial toxins. tomorrow by simplifying the disease In transgenic potato. Expression of a management practices by simply resolving to pectinolytic enzyme of Erwinia carotovora be safe and ensure safety for all.

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Better management practices for higher yields in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) Article id: 21573 Sahaja Deva SMS (Crop Production), Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Darsi, ANGRAU

INTRODUCTION: It can also be grown as an intercrop in Pulses form an integral part of greengram, blackgram, soybean and vegetarian diet in Indian subcontinent. In groundnut.Moisture stress especially during India, pulses have been cultivated since time terminal growth stages and wilt are major immemorial under rainfed situations which is production constraints resulting in significant characterized by poor soil fertility and yield reduction. Drought is deleterious for moisture stress. These crops are energy rich plant growth, yield and mineral nutrition. but cultivated largely under energy starving (Garg et al., 2004; Samarah et al., 2004) and is situations. Unlike in cereals, varietal one of the largest limiting factors in breakthrough in pulses has not been taken agriculture (Reddy et al., 2004). Seed yield is place. During the last four decades, the total most affected by drought occurring in the area under pulses remained virtually stagnant flowering and early pod development stages. (22 to 24 million ha) with almost stable To mitigate the problems and to get higher production (12 to 14 million tonnes), even yields we have to follow some better though the population has been increased. management practices. The per capita availability of pulses is @ 42 g per day (Pulses in India Retrospect & Better management practices: Prospects) as against FAO/WHO’s Selection of variety: recommendation of 80 g per day. It has led to To overcome the problems in the severe shortage of pulses in India, which pigeonpea day by day new varieties of has aggravated the problem of malnutrition in pigeonpea resistant to that problems are large section of vegetarian population. being introduced. Depending on the area and Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.) is one of the type of problem varieties should be selected. important protein rich pulse in the tropics and For ex: LRG 52 is tolerant to moisture stress subtropics and is the second most important and wilt. So this variety can be grown in areas pulse crops of India after chickpea. The global which are subjecting to drought and wilt. production of pigeon pea is 4.32 million Eventhough these varieties are performing tonnes from an area of 5.32 m ha with a better in research fields. farmers are not productivity of 813.2 kg/ha. India is the largest obtaining better yields due to poor producer and consumer of pigeonpea with an management practices. Selecting suitable and area of 3.86 m ha. It can be grown as an high yielding variety/hybrid and cultivating alternate crop to cotton, chillies and obacco. with best management practices will improve

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Dibbling: Measures to overcome moisture stress: Dibbling means sowing with dibbler. Spraying of urea @ 20 g/l or potassium For light soil spacing between two rows nitrate @ 10 g/l during moisture stress will should be 150 cm and spacing between two reduce flower and pod shedding and also plants should be 45 cm. For heavy soils protects crop from moisture stress upto 7 spacing between two rows should be 180 cm days. and spacing between two plants should be 60 cm. By following this method of sowing seed Measures to overcome waterlogging: rate required will be only 2 kg per acre and as If there is water logging condition in field iron there is possibility of doing intercultivation deficiency will be observed. To overcome this cost of weed management will also be problem, spraying of FeSo4 @ 5 g + lime Salt reduced. Plant lower parts and roots will get @ 1 g/l will reduce the deficiency. required light and aeration which improves CONCLUSION: flowering and pod formation. Selecting suitable and high yielding Nipping: variety and performing better management Nipping means removal of aerial parts practices in pigeonpea will improve yields and of plants during early stages by hand or by income of farmers. using sickle or nippling instrument. It can be

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Fig: High yielded pigeonpea with better management practices

REFERENCE [1]. Garg BK, Burman U, Kathju S. (2004). The influence of phosphorus nutrition on the physiological response of moth bean genotypes to drought. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science. 167(4):503-508. [2]. Reddy AR, Chaitanya KV, Vivekanandan M. (2004). Drought induced responses of photosynthesis and antioxidant metabolism in higher plants. Journal of plant physiology. 161(11):1189-1202. [3]. Samarah N, Mullen R, Cianzio S. (2004) Size distribution and mineral nutrients of soybean seeds in response to drought stress. Journal of Plant Nutrition. 27(5):815-835.

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Shifting to a modular composting system Article id: 21574 Samanyita Mohanty Ph.D.Scholar, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, BCKV, Mohanpur, (W.B.), 741252

INTRODUCTION:

Initially, the implementation of modern age processes brought smile to millions for beautiful healthy crops but hardly it was known to anyone that with the advancement of time, the seat of production i.e. the soil was getting badly affected. The reasons may be very ovious like application of fertilizers and pesticides, pollution, climate change etc. which are exerting tremendous pressure on it. The quality of soil is declining and there is a decrease in it’s nutrient supplying capacity to the plants. However, intelligence blended with experience has made human derive handful profit by planning proper utilization of existing scare resources. The SUBPOD is an answer to this less availability of resources and space.

What a ‘SUBPOD’ is?

Subpod is an in-garden composting system that doubles as attractive garden seating and turns food waste into nutrient rich soil to grow food without the hard work, mess and odours of old school composting. It is a composting unit that resides within the ground, unlike most compost heaps that exists independent of the soil. It relies on two important, yet easily available resources. Earthworms, to help break down the raw-matter and create the compost, and food waste, something that this planet has in abundance of, but no place to dump it.

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Designing it: ability to admire the plants that are growing around it. The subpod’s neat, collapsible design is flat-packed, and opens out to become a Installation & Maintenance: container/crate that sits half inside the soil. 1. Installation: The system is embedded The lid (which also serves as seating) opens up into the soil in the garden, with the top to a spacious interior with perforated walls. vents placed above the ground. Ideally in The food waste can be dumped into it along a raised garden bed, so that top can be with carbon-matter (dried leaves or shredded used as a seat. newspaper) and earthworms are introduced 2. Filling: It is filled with healthy worms, which help to mix the materials, after which castings and other starter materials. The the seat lid is closed. worms are left for 6 days to settle in. The Subpod needs to be feeded once 3. Feeding & Mixing: The subpod is being in every 3-4 days so that the earthworms get fed twice a week with food scraps & into action, breaking down the food and dried carbon matter. Mixing is done with an elements to create a nutrient-rich compost in aerator tool. just 10 days. The compost thus created is then 4. Spreading: Once it is filled, it is left for 10 used to grow plants around the subpod. The days as such (undisturbed) to be perforations on the side of the subpod allows processed. Finally harvesting of nutrient the earthworms to travel in and out of the rich compost is done. compost crate, feed themselves, create compost, aerate the soil, and maintain soil Advantages: and plant health. The integration of subpod  Turns organic wastes into nutrient-rich hood into the ground allows the worms to soil. repair the soil, as well as maintain stable  Diverts wastes from going to landfill. temperatures required for compost creation.  Sequesters carbon. The subpod works without any extra  Helps to grow nutrient-dense food. intervention or energy, outwardly looking just  Preparation of compost by saving extra like a wonderfully rustic seat that provides the expenses.  Nourishes the soil beneath.

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Zeolite –Characterization and potential use in agriculture Article id: 21575 I.Rashmi1, Kala S.1, H.R.Meena1, Trisha Roy1a, Rama Pal1b and Shinoji K.C.2 1ICAR-Indian institute of Soil and Water Conservation, Kota, Dehradun (1a), Agra (1b) 2 ICAR- IISS, Bhopal

Zeolites are one of the largest groups of exchangeable. Dehydration of hydrated minerals with more than 50 distinctive natural zeolite phases usually occurs at temperatures species that are basically hydrated alumino- mostly below about 400°C and is largely silicates with an open structure holding reversible. positive ions. These cations are loosely held and can be exchanged for others in a solution. Characteristics of Zeolite Zeolite are both natural occurring and man Most of the natural occurring zeolites are made. Natural zeolites are primarily found in members of the family of microporous solids the western United States and so,e of the known as molecular sieves. This structure dominant ones are clinoptilolite, mordenite gives zeolite the ability to selectively sort and erionite. More than 100 synthetic zeolites molecules based primarily based on size due are manufactured in energy-intensive to its molecular structure, similar to a chemical processes widely used in commercial honeycomb, consisting of a network of and industrial applications. Some of the interconnected tunnels and cages. Zeolites commercial mining sites of zeolite are in have large surface areas and their rigid China, Cuba, Japan, Hungary, Turkey and framework limits shrinking and swelling. The Bulgaria. Zeolites are also known as lattices constituting zeolite are negatively microporous aluminosilicate structure charged and loosely hold positively charged because of their high absorption capacity. cations such as calcium, sodium, potassium Zeolites are micro crystalline hydrated and ammonium. Their ability to exchange one alumino silicate structure of potassium, cation for another is known as their “cation sodium, calcium etc. found in volcanic rocks. exchange capacity” or CEC, the most important attribute of any zeolite. The Definition of Zeolite molecular structure, surface area, surface According to Coombs et al. (1998) “Zeolite is charge density and CEC of each particular defined as crystalline mineral with a structure zeolite will determine its loading, shrinking, characterized by a structure of linked swelling and stability under various tetrahedra, each consisting of four O2 atoms conditions. surrounding a cation. This structure contains many open channels and cages usually occupied by water molecules and extra- framework cations that are commonly

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Classification of Zeolites Zeolites classified on the basis of Si/Al ratio As many as 50 different species of zeolites as: have been identified and still more to be (a) Zeolite with low Si/Al ratio (1-1.5) identified. Classification of zeolite is based on (b) Zeolites with intermediate Si/Al ratio their size, morphological characteristics, (2-5) crystal structure, chemical composition, (c) Zeolites with high Si/Al ratio (10- effective pore diameter and natural several thousands) occurrence etc. The maximum size of cations that can enter into zeolite depends upon the Zeolite classified based on their pore pore size which is the function of dimension of diameter as: the channels. (i) Small pore zeolites (8 rings) with free pore diameter of 0.3-0.45nm a) Zeolites structure are made of silicates, (ii) Medium pore zeolites (10 rings) having completely linked framework of with free pore diameter of 0.45- tetrahedra, each consisting of 4 O2- 4+ 3+ 0.6nm surrounding a cation (usually Si or Al ) (iii) Large zeolites (12 rings) with free b) The framework contains open cavities in pore diameter of 0.6-0.8nm the form of channels and cages (iv) Extra large pore zeolites (14 rings) c) Channels and cages are occupied by H2O with free pore diameter of 0.8- molecules and extra-framework cations + + + 1.0nm. (K , Na , Ca and others) that are commonly exchangeable Importance of zeolites in agriculture d) Channels are large enough to allow Among the many zeolites identified, passage of guest species clinoptilolite is most commonly used zeolites e) In the hydrated phases, dehydration o in agriculture. It is used for soil amendment occurs at temperatures 400 C and is and nitrogen retention in soils. Clinoptilolite largely mostly below 400⁰ C reversible belongs to heulandite group of natural zeolite, which is temperature stable and most According to International Mineralogy abundant over a wide range of pH conditions. Association Commission New Minerals, in Zeolite nutrient interactions like improving 1997 reported that zeolites cannot be soil conditions, nutrient use efficiency etc is classified based upon silicon: aluminum also of much importance to enhance soil ratio except for heulandite (Si:Al <4) and fertility. clinoptilolite (Si:Al >4). (1) Nitrogen: Zeolites play important role in adsorbing, retaining and slowly releasing NH4 ions. The microporous or nano pore structure of zeolite capture nutrient ions

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and protect it from loss and release slowly ammonium saturated clinoptilolite can to plants. In clinoptilolite channels forming increase P solubility and release cations crystalline structure results in slow like K and NH4 to the soil, for crop uptake retention of NH4 ions. Zeolites are known showing positive effect on plant growth in to reduce ammonia emissions from animal Ferrosols. manures. Sometimes availability of (3) Improving soil chemical and physical internal and external pores retain nutrient properties: Zeolites are known to improve molecules and make them immobilize and the physical and chemical properties of even can have negative effect on crop the soil. Natural zeolites are extensively growth. Zeolite with surface area used to improve soil physical modification has great potential as anion environment, particularly, in sandy and carriers for slow release of nutrients. clay poor soils. Many studies indicate that Zeolite when mixed with nitrogen, zeolites were commonly used as soil phosphorus, and potassium compounds, conditioners. A study has reported zeolite enhances the action of such compounds as application at soybean planting time slow-release fertilizers, both in encouraged the initiation of vegetative horticultural and extensive crops. Natural phenology on allophanic soil. Zeolite is zeolites have high tendency of ammonium known to reduce effect of salt damage to selective properties. The main use of crops by replacing Na ions from soil zeolites in agriculture is for nitrogen colloids by Ca when leached with CaCl2 capture, storage, and slow release. It has solution. been shown that zeolites, with their (4) Enhancing organic manure efficiency: specific selectivity for ammonium (NH4), Organic manure efficiency can be can take up this specific cation from either improved by mixing zeolites. The farmyard manure, composts, or ammonium trapping zeolite enables to ammonium-bearing fertilizers, thereby retain the ions and prevent it from loss in reducing losses of nitrogen to the manure which otherwise is lost from environment. traditional manures. Similarly the (2) Phosphorus: Zeolites with high cation dissolution of rock phosphate minerals by exchange property solubilises the rock mixing with zeolites frees phosphate ions phosphate. One such example is into soil solution for crop uptake. Most of ammonium saturated clinoptilolite which the manure-ammonia sequestered in the reacts with the rock phosphate and zeolite is unavailable to nitrifying bacteria dissolves the mineral to release the because of the small pore size of the phosphate ion in soil solution. Studies crystal lattice structure. conducted on the effects of the potassium (5) Improving herbicide use efficiency: and ammonium saturated clinoptilolite on Zeolite pore size has the ability to P availability showed that potassium and immobilize herbicide like paraquat and is

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found to bind the herbicide particle (8) Remediation of heavy metal superior than that of ion exchange resin. contaminated soil: Zeolite reduce heavy Porous framework of zeolite with well- metal phytoavailability by sorbing or ordered structures locks the molecules for precipitating from the soil solution. storage and release of organic guest Zeolites has tunnel structure due to which molecules. This property of retaining they can retain not only nutrients but also herbicide molecules due to their physical polluting heavy metals. Zeolite because of entrapment within zeolite channels, they their high surface area is more applicable are useful as primary therapeutic in removing heavy metal from industrial management of acute poisoning by waste water. Natural and artificial zeolites paraquat ingestion. increase ion adsorption and reduce the (6) Improving water use efficiency: Zeolite release of ions. because of the porous structure has good (9) Waste water treatment: Zeolite known as water hold capacity and reduce air filled molecular sieves plays important role in pore space. Zeolite applications were waste water treatment. Zeolite act as found to reduce the water deficit stress promising absorbents for heavy metals damages in rapeseed. and other contaminants from waste water (7) Improving crop yield: Zeolite act as good discharged from industries. Different kinds soil conditioners by improving the physic of natural zeolites are most frequently chemical properties of the soil like good suggested as ammonium exchangers for water holding capacity, nutrient retention, waste water treatment applications. cation exchange capacity etc directly and Clinoptilolite is known for its ability to indirectly improves the crop yield. Studies remove ammonium from polluted waters. revealed that addition of clinoptilolite increased yields of barley, potato, clover, Zeolite play wide role as soil and wheat after adding 15 t ha-1 in a sandy conditioner, improving nutrient use efficiency, loam soil. Other studies revealed that urea cation exchange capacity, slow release coated with 5-10% zeolite increased yield fertilizers, heavy metal retention etc. Zeolites of rice and tomato crop. Zeolite like are natural condition known to improve soil clinoptilolite are extensively used in properties thereby by directly contributing to agriculture, in some cases it was found to crop yield. This mineral is highly efficient in decrease yield of maize, while when maintaining the balance of ecosystem by studied in greenhouse it acted as slow controlling the polluting bodies there by releasing fertiliser for raddish crop upto cleaning the environmental contaminants to a three harvest. large extent. Thus zeolite has good potential for agriculture and environmental use.

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Karonda – An unharnessed fruit crop of India Article id: 21576 1Arghya Mani and 2Agniva Halder 1- Research Scholar, Department of Post Harvest Technology, BCKV, Mohanpur, Nadia, India 2- Master Degree Student, Department of Fruit Science, BCKV, Mohanpur, Nadia, India [email protected]

Karonda is an underutilized minor fruit crop which is abundantly grown in arid and semi-arid. Karonda belongs to the family of Apocynaceae. It is also known as ‘Christ thorn’. In Bengali, it is known as karamcha. Due to special xerophytic adaptation of karonda plant, it can also be grown in changing climate scenario and water deficient conditions. Karonda is also grown profitably in tropical and sub-tropical conditions. Botanically Karonda is known as Carissa carandas. Karonda is highly adaptable crop and can grow anywhere. It grows in many states of India but is commercially grown in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Fruit is rich in iron (Fe) and vitamin C.

Botany: Karonda is botanically known as Carissa It grows desirably in dry area with lack of soil carandas with chromosome number 2n = 22. It is water but heavy rainfall and water logged an perennial evergreen shrub with persistent conditions are not desirable for its cultivation. It thorn. Hence it is often used as live fences in is generally planted as a bio-fence on the field orchards and farms. This is an indigenous shrub boundaries due to its spiny nature for the of India. The shrub grows upto 12 feet and protection of crops. It is also grown as an usually produces abundant whitish pink berry- ornamental crop due to its beautiful red cherry size fruits in the monsoon tropical climate. The like fruits. Karonda is very climate hardy and leaves are leathery green and spiny nature help drought tolerant crop. It can thrive well to reduce moisture loss. The fruit is simple drupe, throughout the tropical and subtropical climates fleshy and pulpy. The shape of the fruit is given that water stagnation in roots does not globular. The dimension of the fruit varies from occur. Rain water stagnation and waterlogged 1.0 to 1.8 cm in length to 0.6 to 1.2cm in length. conditions are not desirable. Excessive water in The fruit epicarpis is thin and is pinkish white in root zone might lead to rot diseases. It can be colour. The total fruit is maroon coloured when grown on a wide range of soils including saline fully ripened. Mesocarp is acidic and pulpy but is and sodic soils (Bose et. al., 1999). not very juicy.

Propagation: Karonda is not a very much Climate and soil: Karonda is a climate hardy crop commercially grown fruit crop. It is an and grows randomly in dry land and arid regions. underutilized fruit crop and hence the fruit is

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Manuring and fertilizer: Karonda have wild adaptability and is capable to grow, flourish and Planting: Planting of karonda seedling is usually fruit with the limited nutrient available in the soil. done in the beginning of the monsoon days. Even without addition of extra nutrients and Usually the month of June to August is preferred fertilizers karonda grows significantly well. for planting. A pit of 50cm x 50cm x 100cm is dug However manuring at young stage is beneficial. for planting of 1 year old seedlings. The seedlings Manuring after 2 years can help to rejuvenate are planted in such a way that it does not face flowering and fruiting. Leaves are dark green and waterlogged condition. Hence some earthing up leathery, hence addition of extra nitrogen can be can be a good practice. For ease in root very useful. development and young plant growth a mixture of vermiculite, sand and soil at a ratio of 1:1:1 can be very effective. Flowering and fruiting The floral buds are borne axially in new season growth. Usually several floral buds are borne in umbel. Fruits are borne in clusters and are whitish pink to red in colour. Old branches rarely produce floral buds and hence pruning is very much desirable in karonda.

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Varieties Post harvest: Some common varieties of karonda are PK 1, PK Karonda is harvested when the fruit start losing 2, PK 4, Pant Sudarshan, Pant Manohar and Pant its green colour and slight pinkish tinge appears. Suvarna. However several good accessions are The fruit is climacteric in nature. Red colour fully also available in every locality of India which matured stage harvested fruits give sweetest could be harnessed for breeding purposes. fruit but have very poor shelf life of 1-3 days. Dark red coloured fruits are also prone to abrasion and impact injuries. Mature and semi- ripened fruits can be stored in refrigerated condition (3-12OC) upto 1 year. The fruits is very sour and astringent in nature an hence it is rarely consumed raw. Products like candy, imitation cherry, jam, jelly, sauce, chutney and beverages are often prepared from it. Beside that pickling is also an effective mode of preservation.

REFERENCES: [1]. Jadhav H.B., Joshi G.D. and Garande V.K., (2004). Studies on preparation and storage of Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) fruit products. Beverage Food World, 31: 46-47. [2]. Kumar D., Pandey V. and Nath V., (2007). Karonda (Carissa carandas ) - An Underutilized Fruit Crop. In: Peter, K.V. (eds), Underutilized and Underexploited Horticultural Crops, Volume 1. New India Publishing Agency. 313-325. [3]. Mandal U., Sinha R.S. and Mazumdar B.C., (1992). A recently developed agro-industry in the southern suburb of Calcutta city utilizing a bramble fruit. Indian Journal of Landscape System and Ecological Studies, 15: 100-102. [4]. Bose T.K., Mitra S.K., Farooki A.A. and Sadhu M.K., (1999). Karonda. p.721-723. In: Sub-Tropical Horticulture, Vol 2. Naya Prokash, Kolkata

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High nutrient - Low cost fodders Article id: 21577 Magan Singh, Sanjeev Kumar, Santosh Onte and Subhradip Bhattacharjee Forage Research and Management Centre ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal-132001

Livestock is symbolic to wealth and power across livestock with poor quality of feed and fodder. A civilizations for centuries and called as backbone good quality fodder (high nutritive) may enhance to Indian agriculture. It provides employment and the productivity of our animals but country is livelihood for 70% of population in rural areas and facing net deficit of 35.6% of green fodder, 10.95% also contributes 4% to national GDP. Livestock of dry fodder and 44% of concentrates. At present provides food security through supply of milk, there is a huge demand for fodder about 1012MT meat and other by-products. Country stands first of green fodder and 631MT of dry fodder during in milk production with 176.35 MT (2017-18). But 2050 (IGFRI Vision, 2050). In view of above it is still animal productivity is 20-60% lesser than the necessary to brief about high nutrient low cost global average. The low productivity may be due fodders for enhancing the animal productivity to their genetic potential as well as feeding of with low cost of fodders as given below:

Nutritive Value: on Dry Weight Basis [1]. Legumes Fodders Crop CP EE CF NFE Ash NDF ADF Digestibility Green (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Fodder Yield (t/ha) Cow Pea* 15.0 1.1 34.8 35.5 13.3 54.0 48.0 70 30-35 Guar* 25.2 0.9 13.8 43.6 16.5 48.9 33.3 >70 25-30 Berseem* 75 60-110 Senji (Sweet 23.3 2.7 19.3 14.4 - - - 80 20-30 Clover)** Lucerne* - - - 75 60-130 (Perennial) Butterfly 11.8 0.7 33.8 44.7 9.0 56.0 39.2 >75 30-50 Pea (Clitoria ternatea)** (Perennial) CP=Crude Protein, EE=Ether Extract, CF=Crude Fiber, NFE=Nitrogen Free Extract, NDF=Neutral Detergent Fibre, ADF=Acid Detergent Fibre

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[2]. Non Legumes Fodders

Crop CP EE CF NFE Ash NDF ADF Digestibility Green Fodder (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Yield (t/ha) Jowar* 7.0 1.2 38.9 47.1 8.5 56.5 40.3 >75 35-40 (Single cut) Jowar* 7.0 1.2 38.9 47.1 8.5 56.5 40.3 >75 80-90 (Multi cut) Bajra 12 3.5 2.0 78.4 4.9 15.3 5.3 70-75 40-45 Maize* 9.0 4.2 2.0 81.6 2.8 10.9 5.9 >75 35-45 Toesinte* 4.5 1.2 32.2 51.3 10.8 60.9 30.0 >75 80-85 11 4.4 15.5 63.3 5.0 13.8 5.0 >80 35-50 Chinese* 7-9 1.0- 50-55 28-35 - 15-35 Cabbage 2.0 Turnip* 12 - - - - 55-60 26-28 >75 8-10 (Root) Napier-Bajra 2.9 1.8 37.2 51.1 7.0 - - <70 70-100 Hybrid* (Perennial) Guinea 7.6 1.2 38.1 37.1 16.0 60.5 39.7 <70 70-140 Grass* (Perennial) Para Grass* 5.3 2.0 34.6 45.8 12.3 64.4 30.4 >60 100-190 (Perennial) Rhodes 11.9 1.5 33.5 43.0 10.1 - - >70 20-35 grass* (Perennial)

*The legumes/non-legumes fodder crops which are producing higher tonnage of green biomass under irrigated conditions with low cost of production having high nutritive values. **Crops are suitable under irrigated/rainfed conditions and producing high tonnage green biomass with higher nutritive values. The perennial grasses (Para Grass, Guinea Grass and Napier-Bajra and Rhodes grass) can be grown under rainfed condition with optimum production of green biomass.

The returns cost is considered on the tonnage basis therefore the higher producing fodders having more in economical returns. Under perennial forage production due to low cultivation/maintenance cost give higher economical returns compare to annual forage production.

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Soil and water conservation measures in Cashew: An approach to maximize crop productivity Article id: 21578 Babli Mog1 and Prabha M2 1 ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, D.K. 574202 2 ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani

Cashew, an important horticultural crop, is Water deficit in Cashew gaining importance as an important rain fed The mean annual rainfall ranges from 2916 tree crop both in traditional and to 3550 mm in the West Coast. The nontraditional regions of India. Yet, the contribution due to southwest monsoon is mean yield of existing cashew orchards in 80%. During fruiting season (February to the country is hardly 0.82 t/ha against the May), a mean rainfall of 67 to 415 mm is target of 1 t/ha. Use of seedlings of non- received. The water deficit is highest during descriptive origin, non-use of grafts of March to May (59 to 183 mm). In East improved varieties, and lack of proper Coast, the mean annual rainfall ranges from water, nutrient and pest management are 1167 to 1622 mm and is distributed over associated for such low yield. The low soil five months. The summer showers received moisture availability during the fruiting range from 41 mm to 284 mm. The water season coincides with the onset of dry deficit in cashew is highest during March to season in cashew growing areas, resulting in May (63to 155mm). This water deficit in poor yield under rain fed conditions. East Coast as well as West Coast shows the Cashew is usually grown as a rain need for moisture conservation and fed crop. In the west coast, cashew is irrigation. mostly grown on hilly slopes, where the top soil is eroded completely leading to Soil and water management in Cashew exposure of subsoil. Due to lack of soil plantations under rain fed condition conservation measures, the most fertile top A. Soil and water conservation in layer of soil is lost through erosion. Under West coast these conditions, soil and water conservation measures are highly essential. Planting of Cashew grafts in bigger pots Irrigation can be taken up during January to and application of mulch March to get the maximum yield depending Cashew grafts are planted in 1m× 1m ×1m on the availability of water. size pit with mixture of soil, organic manure and rock phosphate. This improves moisture and nutrient availability in root zone during initial years. After planting mulching is done to reduce evaporation

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 loss, enhance moisture conservation and Terrace of 2 m radius is made at the base of improves nutrient status. the plant. Semi circular bund (6.2 m length, 1m width and 0.5 m height) is created Normal tree base terrace at 2m radius around each plant on the upstream side of around the plant or reverse terrace the slope by cutting soil from upper portion Tree base terrace at 2m radius is made of the slope and filing the lower portion to around each cashew plant in such a way make trench of 6.2 m length and 0.5 m that upper side of the slope should have depth. This structure is useful in storing depression or catch pit with 2m length, 0.3 800 to 1000 litres of water during pre m width and 0.45 m depth. Such tree base monsoon and post monsoon showers; help terrace is beneficial in conserving soil in water harvesting, retaining and making moisture. On the other hand, catch pits water available to plant for prolonged help in harvesting, retaining and making period and reduces runoff and soil erosion; water available to the plant for a prolonged increase yield by 30-60% and can be period and prevents soil erosion. In adopted even in very steep slopes up to addition, in situ moisture conservation in 43%. catch pits results in moisture availability to the cashew plants for additional period of Coconut husk burial around cashew plants 15-20 days during pre and post monsoon for improving water holding capacity period. Reverse terrace with 2m length and Coconut husk burial in cashew plantation 2 m width by cutting soil from upper has additional advantage of better soil and portion of the slope and filling the lower water conservation. Coconut husks are portion is also effective in conserving buried in trenches of 1m width, 0.5 m depth moisture and increasing yield. and 3.5 m length across slope between two rows of cashew. Burial of coconut husk Individual tree base terrace with crescent enhances soil and moisture conservation bund at 2m radius around the plant and serves as a source of potassium.

Fig. 1: Pits size 1m3 for planting cashew Fig. 2: Cashew plant at pits filled with organic manure, rock phosphate and mulching

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Fig. 3: Reverse terrace at the time of planting Fig. 4: Modified crescent bund three years after planting

Fig. 5: Coconut husk burial for cashew Fig. 6: Staggered trenches with coconut husk burial treatment (5m × 1m × 0.5m)

B. Soil and water conservation for East Coast In East coast, Cashew is mostly grown in plain area where the soil is sandy loam, red sandy loam or laterite soils. Digging the basin area or ploughing the ground between two rows of cashew before summer rains enhances absorption of rain water. Providing thick mulch helps in reduction in evaporation and conservation of soil moisture and enhances the nutrient status. In level area, coconut husks can be buried in circular trenches (0.3 m width, 0.5 m depth) opened at 2m away from the trunk of the plant.

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Fig.7: Circular trench filled with leaf litter and coconut husks

Water management in Cashew plantations Drip Irrigation under irrigated conditions Drip irrigation @80 L/ tree once in four days Supplementary irrigation with limited water or irrigating daily @20L/ tree through drippers source (Protective irrigation) placed at four points at equidistance 1maway Protective irrigation during peak summer from the base of the plant can be followed. In season enhances yield. Black polyethylene four to eight years after planting, cumulative mulch with irrigation at the rate of 60 L/ tree yield was 165per cent due to drip irrigation. once in fortnight resulted in maximum fruit Irrigation increased the yield through retention of 66.15% .Irrigating @ 200 L/ tree increased tree canopy area, flowering laterals once in 15 days starting from November to / tree, bisexual flower production, nut March resulted in two fold increase in yield retention, number of nuts produced per tree over control (No irrigation). In West coast, the and weight of nuts. rainy season extends up to November and December (North East monsoon) resulting in Fertigation for efficient water and nutrient soil moisture content going up to 10 to 15 % management by weight. During January to March, the soil Normal Density planting system (20 trees/ha) moisture is as low as 8.82 to 9.30%. These Fertilizer mixture used for application of 50 % trigger flowering in cashew in December in of recommended doses of fertilizers (500g N case of early varieties and January and and 125g each of P2O5 and K2O per February in case of mid and late season tree/year).The fertilizers like Urea, DAP and varieties. Soon after the flowering, at the time MOP (20kg Urea, 6 kg DAP and 4 kg MOP) are of nut set and nut development in January to applied in split dose once in each month March the crop undergoes moisture stress. starting from October to December and from During this period the crop requires protective January onwards the monthly-allotted dosage irrigation for doubling the yield. is further split into four doses and given once in a week up to March through drip irrigation system. The organic manure castor cake

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@4kg/tree / year is to be applied in August of drip irrigation to be given for normal when sufficient moisture is available in pits density planting system is to meet 60%of dug in dripping point located at 1m evaporation demand. equidistant from the base of the tree. The rate

Fertigation in case of High density planting system (625 trees/ha) Fertilizer mixture used for application of 50%of lower dose of fertilizers (Lower dose -250 g N and 62.5g each of o P2O5 and K2O /tree/year). The fertilizers like Urea, DAP and MOP (31.25 kg Urea, 9.375 kg DAP and 6.25 kg MOP) are applied in each split dose is given once in each month starting from October to December and from January onwards the monthly-allotted dosage is further split into four doses and given once in a week up to February through drip irrigation system. The Organic manure-castor cake at the rate of 2 kg / tree is to be applied in August when sufficient moisture is available in pits dug out in dripping point located at 1 m distance from base of the tree. The rate of drip irrigation is to be given to meet 20%of evaporative demand.

Fig.8: Laying out of drip irrigation system Fig.9: Venturi used for the fertigation treatment

CONCLUSION Cashew crop experiences severe moisture stress during its flowering and fruiting period (January to May), which results in immature nut drop and reduction in cashew nut yield. Under these conditions, soil and water conservation measures are highly essential. Soil and water conservation measures like modified crescent bund with terrace reduce the runoff and soil loss, increases the soil moisture content and thereby increases the yield of cashew plants by 30 to 60%. Depending on the availability of water source, in addition to the aforesaid soil and water conservation measure, irrigation and fertigation can be taken up during January to March (after 70% of the flowering occurs) to enhance the nut yield.

REFERENCE [1]. Soil and water management in cashew plantations. NRCC Tech. Bulletin No. 10

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Risk and safety assessment of transgenic products Article id: 21579 Jeet Ram Choudhary1 and Anita Burdak2 1Department of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Delhi-110012 India 2Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, SKN Collage of Agriculture (SKN Agriculture University) Jobner, Distt- Jaipur (Raj.) 303329 India

INTRODUCTION In undeveloped and developing countries, enormous increase in population has resulted in poverty, food insecurity, and poor nutrition among the masses. Advances in scientific discovery and laboratory techniques have led to the ability of plant improvement through the use of biotechnology and genetic engineering by manipulating existing genetic resources. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms whose genetic material has been artificially modified to change their characteristics in some way or another. In essence, “genetic modification” or “genetic engineering” techniques enable scientists to find individual genes that control particular characteristics, separate them from the original source, and transfer them directly into the cells of an animal, plant, bacterium, or virus. This technology has many potential applications. These new opportunities bring along greater public scrutiny and government regulation. Risk assessment is a common regulatory tool used in the decision- making process for a proposed commercial release of a GMO into the environment.

Biosaftey issues or risk due to transgenic 1. Risk to Human Health (i) Risk of Toxicity  May be related to the transgene product per se or resulting altered metabolism and composition.  Inactivated pathway may get activated due to on/off signals associated with introduced gene.  Modified metabolism due to introduction of tolerance to certain chemical substances may lead to accumulation of novel metabolites in the cell. Examples. Glyphosate and Bromoxynil tolerant GMOs. Effect of transgenic potato on Rat Starlink corn incidence GM Potato feeding experiments on rats  Controversy: Eating GM potatoes depressed rat immune system and caused changes in there intestinal tract (Arpad Pusztai, Scotland).  However evidence did not supported Dr Pusztai’s claim and it was considered that, forced feeding of lectin might have been responsible for illness.

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The Starlink corn incident  Incident: Recovery of Cry9c DNA fragment and Cry9c protein in non-transgenic corn (Adventis Crop Science , USA, September 2000).  StarlinkTM was released for animal feeding only but Cry9c protein was discovered in some non-StarlinkTM seed corn and was used as human food.  Cry9c: Potential allergen  Finally, it was withdrew from market even for animal use.

(ii) Risk of Allergies  Production of GMO sometimes includes the introduction of newer protein from the organism which have never been consumed as food and may cause allergy.  Since the introduction of GM Bt (Cry1Ab) crops, both applicant companies and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have assumed that the Cry1Ab toxin degrades rapidly in the human digestive system and is safe for human consumption.  However, new studies show there is a lack of degradation in the human gut.  This warrants further investigation as it may imply this toxin has a greater potential to cause allergenic reactions than first thought. Antibiotic Resistance  Selectable marker gene” (e.g. nptII) - transferred along with the gene of interest.  Concerns have been raised that, eating food carrying antibiotic resistant marker would reduce the effectiveness of antibiotics in future.  However, antibiotic resistance gene produce enzyme that can degrade the antibiotics.  Therefore, if a transgenic with a antibiotic resistance gene is eaten at the same time as an antibiotic, it could destroy the antibiotics in the stomach.  Although, a gene is of plant origin i.e. from a food crop, but it does not guarantee the food safety of the gene product  Every GMO need to carefully evaluated quantitatively and qualitatively for toxicity to human and animals.

(iii) Risk to Environment Gene flow or dispersal from transgenic  Genetic traits with selective advantage in agricultural or natural ecosystem are liable to spread beyond the transgenic variety.  Accidental cross breeding between GMO plant and traditional variety can contaminate the local variety with GMO genes resulting in loss of traditional variety for farmers. Toxic to beneficial insects

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 Bt crops adversely affect beneficial insects important to controlling maize pests, such as green lacewings. (Obrist et al., 2006)  The toxin Cry1Ab has been shown to affect the learning performance of honeybees. (Ramirez et al., 2008) Threat to soil ecosystems  Many Bt crops secrete their toxin from their roots into the soil. (Saxena et al., 2002)  Residues left in the field contain the active Bt toxin. The long- term, cumulative effects of growing Bt maize are of concern. (Icoz and Stotzky, 2008) Risk for aquatic life Leaves or grain from Bt maize can enter water courses where the toxin can accumulate in organisms and possibly exert a toxic effect. (Douville et al., 2009)

Swapping one pest for another Several scientific studies show that new pests are filling the void left by the absence of rivals initially controlled by Bt crops. Plant-insect interactions are complex, are hard to predict and are not adequately risk assessed. (Faria et al., 2007) Ecological Concern Increased weedines  It is perceived that GM crops may become weed or they may invade natural habitats. e. g. salt tolerant GM crops may escape to marine areas and could become a weed there. Creation of super-weeds  Weed that acquires the herbicide tolerant gene due to genetic contamination.Example. Rye grass in Australia.  Spread of genes through cross pollination is expected whether the plant is transgenic or not.

Non-target Effects Direct effect on non-target insects and indirect effect on multi-trophic food chain.

Controversy:  Monarch Butterfly (Danaus plexippus) reared on Bt maize pollen dusted milkweed leaves and reported slower growth rate and mortality. (Lossey et al.,1999). Scientific Report:  Corn pollen does not fly long distance.  Flying time of butterfly and pollen shedding time is different.  Further research is needed into the relationship between pollen from select strains of Bt corn (corn which has been genetically modified to produce a protein to protect against insects) and the Monarch caterpillar. (Nautre , May 1999).

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Increased use of chemicals  Herbicide tolerant crops.  2 to 5 times more herbicide per unit area for Roundup ready soybean.  Tolerance to Round up have been increased. Transgene instability  Inserted DNA sequence may be deleted, silenced or expression may be modified.  Leads to production of new proteins may be toxic, allergenic, may disrupt or alter the metabolic pathway that play a role in making GMO successful.

(iѵ) Socio-economic and ethical considerations  High cost of transgenic seeds.  Should scientists be allowed to cross nature's boundaries by cloning microorganisms, plants, animals, livestock, and possibly humans? (Woodard, 1997).  Vegetarians may object to vegetables and fruits that contain any animal genes.

REFERENCES [1]. Bawa, A. S., & Anilakumar, K. R. (2013). Genetically modified foods: safety, risks and public concerns—a review. Journal of food science and technology, 50(6), 1035-1046. [2]. Paoletti, C., Flamm, E., Yan, W., Meek, S., Renckens, S., Fellous, M., & Kuiper, H. (2008). GMO risk assessment around the world: some examples. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 19, S70-S78.

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Remote sensing and its aspect in agriculture Article id: 21580 Fouzia Bari1*, Susmita Jha2 and Atul Yadav3 1 Department of Agricultural Entomology.Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Pundibari. Cooch Behar, West Bengal. 736165. 2 Department of Plant Pathology. Uttar Banga Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Pundibari .Cooch Behar, West Bengal. 736165. 3Department of Fruit Science,Narendra Deva University Of Agriculture Technology, Kumarganj, Faizabad, U.P.

INTRODUCTION Airborne remote sensing is flexible Remote sensing is a precision and able to achieve different spatial technology with origins in the defense and resolutions with different flight altitudes. An aerospace sectors used to acquire MS4100 multi-spectral camera (Geospatial information about objects without direct Systems, Inc., Rochester, NY) was the central contact. This information can be processed component of the airborne multi-spectral and combined into indices, which are useful imaging system. This MS4100 camera is a 3- because they can convert multidimensional chip, multi-spectral HDTV-format digital data into a single dimension. Remote sensing camera with more than two million pixels per offers an efficient and reliable means of sensor. Three-chip image capture combined collecting the information required, in order with advanced image processing provided to map and acreage and also the structure excellent image quality. Each of the three information on the health of the plantations. sensors in the camera has a 1920 x 1080 pixel Remote sensing can be conducted through array. The image sensors are charge coupled satellites, aircraft, or ground-based platforms. device (CCD) array sensors with spectral Satellite remote sensing is primarily sensitivity from 400-1000 nm. The camera for large-scale studies (>1 km²) but supports three standard models for RGB, CIR sometimes not adequate in applications that and RGB/CIR with blue band in between 437 require finer spatial resolution. In India, and 483 nm, green band in between 520 and production forecasting of certain crops, crop 560 nm, red band in between 640 and 680 yield modeling and crop stress detection are nm, and NIR (Near Infra-Red) band in done using remote sensing data. India has between 767 and 833 nm. Digital image launched INSAT series satellites (INSAT-1B, output can be through LVDS (Low-Voltage INSAT-1C, INSAT-2D, INSAT- 2E and INSAT-3E Differential Signaling), RS-422 and Camera etc.) are in geo-stationary orbits (Raj and Link frame grabber (Huang, Y. Lan and W. C. Koshal, 2012). Hoffmann. 2008).Green plant leaves typically display very low reflectance and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 transmittance in visible regions of the Remote sensing system spectrum (i.e., 400 to 700 nm) due to strong The remote sensing system mainly comprises absorptance by photosynthetic and accessory of the following: plant pigments (Chappelle et al., 1992). By  Source of energy. contrast, reflectance and transmittance are  Energy in the form of electromagnetic both usually high in the near-infrared regions radiation. (NIR, 700 to 1300 nm) because there is very  Propagation of radiation through the little absorptance by sub cellular particles or earth’s atmosphere. pigments and also because there is  Interaction of the radiation with considerable scattering at mesophyll cell wall matter. interfaces (Gausman, 1974; Gausman,1977;  Sensors - active or passive. Slaton et al., 2001). This sharp dissimilarity in  Platforms – ground based, air borne or reflectance properties between visible and space borne. NIR wavelengths underpins a majority of  Recording of sensors signals either remote approaches for monitoring and electronically in numerical form or managing crop and natural vegetation pictorial form. communities.  Transmission of data to ground based Ground-based platforms, such as stations handheld spectra diameters, are typically Regional monitoring used for Ground truth study (Huang et al . , Large scale monitoring programmes fulfil a 2008 ). The number of ground-truth number of following important functions: measurements needed may prove too  Monitoring is undertaken at excessive for practical spectral distinction of quarantine stations to detect exotic arthropod stress effects on plants to other pests which pose a threat to stress factors. To achieve timely and accurate agriculture. information on the status of crops, an up-to-  Repeated survey over a wide area to date crop monitoring system may provide detect and document the distribution accurate information. The earlier and more and population trends of known reliable the information, the greater is the indigenous species. value. As the spectral reflectance of a tea  Movement surveys are undertaken to field always varies with respect to the develop a better understanding of phenology, stage type and crop health, these ecological, climatological and could well be monitored and measured using biological factors which influence the multispectral sensors and to detect stress insect movement. This information associated with moisture deficiencies, insects, used to develop predictive models fungal and weed infestations and to take which are used to forewarn the effective measures. farmers regarding the pest outbreaks.

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 Large scale programmes are also relies on the development and application of undertaken to determine the accurate monitoring techniques, action emergence pattern and generation thresholds and the use phenology models peak of insect pests. These are most (Welch et al., 1978; Dhandapani et al., 2001; useful for helping to time further Samietz et al., 2006; Damos & Savopoulou- sampling schemes or to initiate the Soultani, 2012a). Phenology models serve to management strategies. predict the exact time of the phenological  Monitoring programmes are also development of pest populations. However, undertaken to detect the most existing approaches in modeling insect development of insecticide resistance phenology are theoretical and manual based. in important pests. This means that although thresholds and phenology models are available for several Localized sampling pests, they are not used on a regular basis Localized sampling at the farm level serves to due to the absence of automatic real time provide information on the following aspects: forecasting services.  Many serious pest move freely Professionals in the agricultural field, between crops within a localized such as growers, extension agents, and region and spatial aspects of researchers, need a facility to predict region population change can play a major specific pest population emergence and role in the timing and intensity of pest forecast its dynamics throughout the season. outbreaks on certain crops. In this work we describe the functionality of a Monitoring helps to detect the pilot real time pest forecasting and intercrop movement of target pests. information system that has been developed.  Within field sampling helps to In particular we developed a web interface determine the pattern of infestation which provides real time prediction for A. in the specific area. lineatella, G. molesta and A. orana and  Sometimes only a part of the plant is address the limitation of supporting users sampled to reduce cost. Such with precise forecast of adult emergence, by sampling is possible only when a browsing cumulative moth captures predictive relationship has been associated with formal temperature established between the whole plant recordings throughout Greece. counts and the subsamples. The presence of diseases or insect Role of remote sensing in IPM feedings on plants or canopy surface causes IPM programs use current, changes in pigment, chemical concentrations, comprehensive information on the life cycles cell structure, nutrient, water uptake, and gas of pests and their interaction with the exchange. These changes result in differences environment. From a practical standpoint this in color and temperature of the canopy, and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 affect canopy reflectance characteristics, effective means of identifying and quantifying which can be detectable by remote sensing crop stress from differences in the spectral (Raikes and Burpee 1998). Therefore, remote characteristics of canopy surfaces affected by sensing provides a harmless, rapid, and cost- biotic and abiotic stress agents.

Structural diagram of remote wireless automatic monitoring system.

The information flow of remote wireless automatic monitoring system.

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Monitoring Insect pest and Natural Enemies al.2010, West et al. 2003,2010) which can Monitoring insect pest and natural enemies is provide spatial distribution information of the fundamental tool in IPM for taking diseases and pest over a large area with management decisions. Monitoring requires relatively low cost. The presence of diseases estimation of changes in insect distribution or insect feedings on plants or canopy surface and abundance, information about the causes changes in pigment, chemical insects, life history and influence of important concentrations, cell structure, nutrient, water biotic and abiotic factors on pest population. uptake, and gas exchange. These changes Depending on the objectives, monitoring may result in differences in color and temperature be undertaken on an area wide basis or at of the canopy, and affect canopy reflectance farm level (Shelton and Trumble, 1993). characteristics, which can be detectable by remote sensing (Raikes and Burpee 1998). Role of remote sensing in plant disease The various phenomic tools with advanced management sensors which are in use for examining plant Commercial crops are affected by a pathogen interaction are described here. wide range of plant diseases and pests which RGB imaging results in a significant yield loss. It is reported that at least 10% of global food production is Typically, digital cameras are designed to lost due to plant diseases (Christou and imitate human vision by sensing light in the Twyman, 2004; Strange and Scott, 2005). visible range of electromagnetic spectrum. Accurate estimation of disease incidence, RGB- colour images with the red, green and disease severity and the affect on quality and blue channels have been used to detect biotic quantity of produce is required for improving stresses in plants (Bock et al. 2010). These fungicidal efficacy and reducing its residual sensors can readily detect changes on plants effects. The most common methods for occurring due to pathogen infections such as disease diagnosis and detection include visual appearance of pathogen structures (e.g., estimation by human raters, microscopic presence of hyphae) or reaction of plants to evaluation of morphology features (spore, pathogens (e.g., degradation of tissue leading mycelium and fruiting body) to identify to chlorosis, necrosis, or changes in organ pathogens, as well as molecular, serological structure). Plant immune response triggered and microbiological diagnostic techniques. by filamentous pathogens can lead to But these methods are not feasible for deposition of callose (Zhou et al. 2012). knowing the disease dimension on a large Measuring deposition of callose on scale. Intensive research has recently microscopic digital images allows for the identified new, sensor- based methods for detection of the growth of hyphae in leaves the detection, identification and and for quantification of the plant immune quantification of plant diseases (Hillnhutter et reaction. al. 2010; Mahlein et al.2012a; Sankaran et

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Fluorescence imaging plants became more evident following Various chlorophyll fluorescence parameters pathogen development (Leufen et al. 2014). are used to estimate differences in the CFI also detected unique changes in photosynthetic activity of infected tissues. fluorescence of A. thaliana leaves inoculated The analysis of chlorophyll fluorescence is with Pseudomonas syringae (Berger et al. based on the principle that energy of light 2007). A decrease in photosynthesis was absorbed by chlorophyll molecules is either detected 6 h after inoculation, at least 18 h used in photosynthesis, dissipated as heat, or before faint symptoms were visually re-emitted as chlorophyll fluorescence observed.The disadvantage of current CFI (Maxwell and Johnson 2000). Because these systems is that the preparations of the plants three processes happen in competition, has to follow a strict protocol, and thus it is chlorophyll fluorescence data provide difficult to implement in normal agricultural information about the efficiency of greenhouses or field environments. photosynthesis and heat dissipation (photochemical and non-photochemical Multi- and Hyperspectral imaging quenching). To assess chlorophyll Spectral imaging sensors detect fluorescence, the light of a defined electromagnetic waves including those not wavelength is directed to a plant and the visible by the human eye such as ultraviolet fluorescence signal (re-emitted light at longer (UV) radiation and infrared (IR) radiation. wavelengths) is measured (Maxwell and Spectral imaging devices collect data for each Johnson 2000). CFI revealed pre-symptomatic pixel of the image. These data can be increase in fluorescence (caused by changes combined to identify specific characteristics in the photosynthetic electron transport or that may not be evident in the visible the downstream metabolic reaction) in spectrum Because hyperspectral imaging susceptible sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) sensors collect data from a larger number of leaves infected by Cercospora beticola Sacc. narrower bands than multispectral imaging (Chaerle et al. 2007a; Chaerle et al. 2004), but sensors, hyperspectral devices provide a also during first symptoms of HR observed higher level of spectral detail than between resistant tobacco (Nicotiana multispectral devices. However, they also tabacum L.) and Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) require a substantially larger capacity for (Chaerle et al. 2004). CFI, applied to identify storage and analysis of data and their cost is the interaction between spring barley much higher particularly for systems going (Hordeum vulgare L.) and pathogens that above 1,300 nm. Light landing on a leaf cause powdery mildew (B. graminis) and leaf surface is differentially absorbed, rust (Puccinia hordei), detected genotype transmitted, or reflected by the leaf specific responses to pathogen infection 3 depending on the leaf internal structure, days after inoculation. Differences in chemical composition or physiological status. fluorescence between inoculated and control Measuring spectral reflectance by

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 hyperspectral cameras can thus be used to Thermal imaging inform on the health status of the whole Plant infection by pathogens may be plant or to quantify disease infected areas of accompanied with changes in local plants. temperature, which can be measured by Multispectral imaging (a more infrared thermography. High temperature affordable technology) was applied for shows areas with closed stomata and limited remote sensing of the health status of field- evaporation rate, while low temperature grown wheat cultivated in the presence of indicates areas with open stomata or powdery mildew (B. graminis) and leaf rust damaged tissue (Chaerle et al. 2007b). (P. recondita) pathogens (Franke and Menz, Pathogens can influence stomatal behavior 2007). Normalized difference vegetation either directly through specific compounds or index (NDVI) classified the data into areas indirectly by interfering with water transport showing different levels of disease severity. (Chaerle et al. 2004, 2007b). While early The accuracy of classification ranged from stages of HR are accompanied by increase in 56.8 to 88.6% when compared with the temperature (Chaerle et al. 1999, 2004), ground truth data (Franke and Menz 2007). susceptible interaction between plant and Aerial multispectral and hyperspectral pathogen usually leads to early decrease in imagery were compared for their abilities to temperature, followed by a gradual increase identify areas of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum (Chaerle et al. 2004; Lindenthal et al. 2005). L.) fields that were infected with cotton root For example, HR of tobacco leaves to TMV rot caused by the soilborne fungus can be detected by IRT 8 h before cell death Phymatotrichum omnivorum. Results can visually be observed. This pre- obtained with 3-band multispectral imagery symptomatic increase in temperature and 128-band hyperspectral imagery were (Chaerle et al. 2004) remained detectable as a the same; with 95% accuracy of correctly halo around ongoing necrosis, gradually identifying root rot areas and 96.7% accuracy losing intensity until necrosis was complete of identifying noninfected areas (Yang et al. (Chaerle et al. 1999). 2010). Because a 3-band multispectral Use of thermal imaging for the imagery instruments are cheaper and more detection of plant diseases in the field widely available, using this method was conditions has been limited so far. The main recommended for practical detection of reason is probably a high sensitivity of IRT to cotton root rot. However, it was noted that environmental factors such as ambient hyperspectral imagery has the potential temperature, sunlight, precipitation, wind, advantage in early detection of the disease and background thermal radiation. It was and in distinguishing cotton root rot from suggested that IRT alone may not be suitable other co-occurring stresses (Yang et al. 2010). for detection of diseases in the field. Quantification of disease, however, has been improved by combining IRT sensors with

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 other remote sensing methods that identify infection by a pest or a pathogen. Analyzed changes in plants (Oerke et al. 2006). plants, however, have to be grown in a special, low density substrate that enhances Magnetic Resonance imaging the visibility of the root system in the image MRI uses strong magnetic fields and radio (McDonald and Michaels 2007). Despite waves to form three dimensional (3D) images progress in the use of X-ray imaging in of the objects. MRIcan be used to evaluate biological sciences, this technique is not internal tissue structure and water commonly applied in plant pathology, distribution in plants (Chaerle and Van Der possibly due to its high cost, use of X-ray Straeten 2001). Rhizoctonia crown and root radiation, relatively low resolution, and rot (RCRR) is a sugar beet disease caused by limited portability of instruments. the soil borne basidiomycete Rhizoctonia solani. Below ground symptoms can Case study: Cotton pest survey and traditionally be detected only by destructively monitoring removing the entire root system from the The silver leaf whitefly (Bemisia soil. Nuclear MRI was successfully applied to argentifolii Bellows and Perring) is a pest of nondestructively identify symptoms caused cotton, vegetables, and numerous by both RCRR and the beet cyst nematode ornamental plants. Whitefly outbreaks have Heterodera schachtii without removing plants occurred in several areas of the United States from the growth media (Hillnh¨utter et al. resulting in heavy economic losses to 2012). producers (Norman et al., 1992; Summy et al., 1996; Norman et al., 1996). For example, a X-Ray imaging severe whitefly outbreak in 1991 caused an Imaging system based on soft X-ray estimated $200 million in losses nationwide (wavelength between 100 pm to 10 pm) has (Henneberry, 1993).Damage caused by been tested for detection of fungal infection whiteflies of the Bemesia species complex can with Aspergillus niger, A. glaucus group, and damage crops in several ways, including Penicillium spp. In harvested wheat kernels. transmission of several important plant Grains infected with fungus showed changes pathogens (Brown and Bird, 1992) and a in density that was detected on the X-ray general reduction in plant vigor by images. The method provided 92.2 to 98.9% feeding(Byrne et al., 1990). Moreover, accuracy in classifying fungal-infected kernels feeding nymphs excrete copious quantities of and more than 82% classification accuracy in honeydew which may contaminate cotton lint identifying healthy kernels (Narvankar et al. and, like the citrus black fly, promote the 2009). In this approach, X-ray radiation passes growth of sooty mold fungi (Hendrix and Wei, through roots thus generating an image that 1992). Heavy sooty mold deposits on the can be captured. The apparatus could detect plant foliage, while detrimental in the sense changes in a root system related to an that they impede photosynthesis, are highly

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 visible and distinct. Aerial multispectral levels from those with no sooty mold was videography, GPS, and GIS technologies were attributed to soil background reflectance used to detect and map whitefly infestations which increased their red reflectance in cotton in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of (Richardson et al. 1975, Everitt et al. 1986). At Texas (Everitt et al., 1996). Mean canopy the NIR wavelength, cotton plants with low to reflectance values of cotton plants with no moderate levels of sooty mold deposits had sooty mold deposits on the foliage, those lower reflectance than plants with no sooty with low to moderate levels, and those with mold deposits. Plants with high levels of sooty heavy levels for two cotton fields are given in mold had lower NIR reflectance than those Table 1. For field 1, plants with low to with light to moderate levels or those with no moderate and high levels of sooty mold had sooty mold deposits. The reflectance data lower visible green reflectance values than obtained from field 2 followed a similar those with no sooty mold. At the visible red pattern to that shown for field 1, but there wavelength, plants with low to moderate was a better separation among the visible levels of sooty mold had lower reflectance reflectance values. The lower visible and NIR than those with no sooty mold. However the reflectance of cotton plants with sooty mold visible red reflectance of cotton plants with deposits on their leaves was attributed to the high levels of sooty mold did not differ from dark sooty mold fungus which absorbed a that of plants with no sooty mold deposits. large percentage of the visible and NIR The inability to distinguish high sooty mold radiation (Gausman, 1985).

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GMO: A long way to go Article id: 21581 Amrita Kumari Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, BCKV, Mohanpur, West Bengal-741252

INTRODUCTION How are GMO developed? GM is a short form for “Genetic Gene Modification technology is Modification” or “Genetically Modified”, simply a sophisticated version of a cut-and- which is involved in altering the genes of an paste operation. Once the desired gene is organism, can be a plant, an animal or a identified in the native organism's genome, microorganism. Other terms used for GM it can be cut out, and transferred to the plants or foods derived from them are target plant, and pasted into its genome. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO), For modification of plants, the gene Genetically Engineered (GE), Bioengineered packages are transferred in either of two and Transgenic. GM crops are mostly pest ways: resistant or herbicide tolerant.  By using Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a soil bacterium used to infect the plant tissue with the desired gene. Aim  By attaching the gene packages to tiny In most cases, the aim is to particles of gold or tungsten and introduce a new trait to the plant which bombard them at high speed into the does not occur naturally in the species, like plant tissue. Once the new gene has resistance to certain pests, diseases, been introduced, the plant can be bred environmental conditions, herbicides, etc. It to create a new strain that passes the is also done to increase nutritional value, gene from generation to generation bioremediation and for other purposes like production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, etc.

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. Source : Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Status of GM crops

TOP GM CROPS GROWING COUNTRIES: 2017(Million hectares) US 75.0 Brazil 50.2 Argentina 23.6 Canada 13.1 India 11.4 Paraguay 3.0 Pakistan 3.0 China 2.8 South Africa 2.7 Bolivia 1.3 Uruguay 1.1 Total 189.8 Source: ‘Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/ GM Crops in 2017’ International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications (ISAAA)

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India’s entire GM crop area is under a single crop i.e. cotton (Bt cotton is a genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically modified pest resistant cotton variety, which produces an insecticide to bollworm.)

Research and development in India

Crops Research Rice  Biofortification, Resistant to drought, Salinity, Tungro virus, bacterial leaf blight Wheat  Improvement of quality trait, heat tolerance, biofortification, resistance to leaf and stripe rust, powdery mildew Cotton  Fibre strength and oil content, gene stacking in Bt. cotton Maize  Quality protein, biofortification Egg plant (Brinjal)  Resistance against root and shoot borer Mustard  Seed yield and oil content, low glucosinolate, aphid resistance Soybean  Resistance to yellow mosaic virus Chickpea  Resistance against pod borers Sorghum  Shoot fly resistance Ground nut  Resistance against TSV virus Tomato  Delayed the ripening

Source: Genetically modified crop – an overview , Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change

GM crops under regulation: In India, the GM crops that are under regulatory consideration are:  glyphosate-tolerant cotton  Biotech hybrid mustard

Bt cotton, the first genetically modified (GM) crop in India, was initially approved on March 26th, 2002 for commercial cultivation in six states belonging to southern and central cotton cultivation zones of the country. So Bt/insect-resistant cotton has already been commercialized. Transgenic mustard has been developed by Delhi University’s Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants (harbouring three alien genes that enable higher yields through hybridization).

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Statutory bodies on GM crop regulation

( RDAC: Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee, RCGM: Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation, GEAC: Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee )

Positive Impacts of GM crops GM has huge potential for mankind in medicine, agriculture and food. For the development of improved food materials, GM has the following advantages:  Allows a much wider selection of traits for improvement.  Desired change can be achieved in very few generations.  Improved agricultural performance (yields) with less labour input and less cost input.  Benefits to the soil of “no‐till” farming practice. Genetically modified crops can conserve energy, soil, and water resources.  Reduced usage of pesticides and herbicides. Negative Impacts of GM crops  New traits could cause adverse health reactions (e.g. New protein may cause an allergic response).  Cross-pollination could lead to “Super weed”.  Pollen from GM crops can contaminate non•GM crops.  There are concerns that GMO foods may create antibiotic resistance.  Residual toxins resulting from introduced genes of the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis in so•cal led Bt crops are unlikely to harm humans.

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CONCLUSION Genetically modified foods can potentially solve many hunger and malnutrition problems in the world, and can help to protect and preserve the environment by increasing yields and reducing reliance upon chemical pesticides and herbicides. So, GM crops can mitigate several current challenges in commercial agriculture. But in another viewpoint, GM crops are an “imperfect technology” with potential major health risks of toxicity, allergenicity and genetic hazards associated with them. There are potential benefits and risks to these products. Therefore, it is important to proceed with caution to avoid unfavourable consequences for the surroundings and our health. The application of the precautionary approach provides avenues for future development and the use of genetic engineering.

REFERENCES [1]. Raman, R. The impact of genetically modified (GM) crops in modern agriculture: A review.2018. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Food Chain 8 : 195-208. [2]. Chen H, Lin Y. Promise and issues of genetically modified crops.2013 Curr Opin Plant Biol.,16(2):255 [3]. Kathage J, Qaim M. Economic impacts and impact dynamics of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton in India.2012. Proc Natl Acad Sci.,109(29):11652–11656.

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Nematodes management in vegetable crops under protected cultivation Article id: 21582 M. Jahnavi* *Department of Entomology Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University, Krishi vigyan Kendra, Darsi, Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh-523247.

Nematodes often play a pivotal role in Plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs) are one of the destroying the health of standing crops and major threats to world agriculture, besides cause severe diseases in plants due to direct insect, pests andpathogens. In India on an crop damage by feeding, involvement in disease average, a national loss of Rs. 21,068.73 million complexes, by acting as aggravators or incidents has been estimated due to plant parasitic for attack by other micro-organisms and by nematodes (Sunanda and Vijaya Lakshmi, 2018). acting as vector of plant viruses. Phytonematodes incidence under protected Protected cultivation is an emerging cultivation became severe and led to complete technology for cultivating vegetable crops. It is a crop losses because of the congenial conditions cultivation of different different crops under provided by protected cultivation like higher controlled environmental conditions which temperature, humidity, continuous availability gives manifold increase in yield per unit area. of the host plant round the year use of high The major crops grown under protected agronomic inputs like fertilizers and plant cultivation are Tomato, Brinjal, Capsicum, growth promoters in polyhouses. Hence, Curcurbits, Cauliflower and cabbage. The root management of these nematodes is utmost knot nematodes, Meloidogyne spp. produce important to reduce the crop losses (Sabir and galls on roots of many vegetables, pulses, some Walia, 2017). Strategies that use multiple fruit crops, tobacco and ornamental crops and microbial control agents with complementary leads to severe yield loss. In severe infestation, and synergistic modes of action, and integrate 60-80% loss in yield was observed in crop biological control agents with other control (Jonathan, 2000). Plant-parasitic nematodes methods, such as chemical nematicides, (PPNs) bring serious economic burden to nematode-resistant cultivars, and crop farmers worldwide, causing estimated crop rotations, organic amendments, soil solarization losses worth more than US $157 billion each could be highly effective in reducing pest year nematode populations. However, detrimental environmental effects associated with chemical General symptoms: control. So, based on this to reduce hazardous Stunted growth, chlorosis of leaves and wilting effects of chemical nematicide, mainly focused of plants during day (Above ground) galls/knot on to adopt biological control plant parasitic formation, cyst formation and lesions (Below nematodes. ground symptoms)

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Management: can be according to the requirement and Deep summer ploughing – Twice in the month the type of crop grown of May and June. Effective against root knot and - Add recommended doses of fertilizers. cyst forming nematode Also add carbofuran or phorate @ Antagonistic crop- Marigold, asparagus, onion, 50g/sq.m+200g neem/pongamia/mahua garlic and mustard contain nematoxic cake enriched by biopesticides per sq.m compounds. - Further incorporate biopesticide Trap crops- castor and cowpea controls spread enriched FYM @ 2 Kg/Sq.m or of nematodes biopesticides enriched vermicompost @ Propagation through healthy planting material- 500g/Sq. m in top 18 cm of soil in the burrowing nematode is a classical example of beds. having spread from Kerela to Madhya Pradesh., - Water the beds for 7-10 days for proper through infected banana rhizomes decomposition of these organic Physical methods- mulching of moist with materials transparent polythene sheet for 3-6 week in Process of enrichment of summer before sowing, reduces nematodes, FYM/Neem/Pongamia/Mahua weeds, fungi and bacteria, and gives healthy cake/Vermicompost- 1 ton of farm yard seedlings. manure Neem/Pongamia/Mahua Organic matter- FYM, Alfafa leaves, Neem seed cake/vermicompost have to be enriched by coat, Rye straw, Rice straw, Sal saw dust, Wheat mixing with 2 kg of each of Pseudomonas straw, Baggas (press mud) and decomposed fluorescens+ Trichoderma harzianum+ poultry litter Pachonia chlamydosporia it has to be Oil seed cakes- Karanj cake, Neem cake, Neem, covered with mulch and optimum moisture Mahua cake, Mustard cake, Groundnut cake, of 25-30% has to be maintained for a period Castor, Linseed cake, Cotton cake. of 15 days. Spraying- The organic formulation Preparation of beds in the polyhouse: containing Pseudomonas fluorescens and - Before preparation of the beds in the Trichoderma harzianum has to be sprayed poly-house incorporate 20 tons of FYM/ on the plants at regular intervals of 20 days acre enriched with the Pseudomonas at a dosage of 5g/lit or 5ml/lit. fluorescens+ Trichoderma harzianum+ Soil application- Apply 100 g of neem Pachonia chlamydosporia (bio /pongamia/mahua cake or 250 g of pesticides) in the soil. vermicompost enriched with Pseudomonas - Raised beds are to be prepared after fluorescens+ Trichoderma harzianum+ bringing the soil to fine tilth. Bed size Pachonia chlamydosporiaon 1 sq. m beds or around the rhizosphere of the plants.

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REFERENCES- [1]. Jonathan, E. I and Rajendran, G. 2000. Assessment of avoidable yield loss in banana due to root knot nematode, Meloidgyne incognita. Indian Journal of Nematology. 30: 162-164. [2]. Sabir, N and Walia, R. K. 2017. Management of nematodes in polyhouses-with short notes on key pests. All India coordinated Research project on Nematodes in cropping system, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, India, pp. 24. [3]. Sunanda, B. S and Vijaya Lakshmi, K. 2018. Training manual on major plant parasitic nematode problems in India and their management. National Institute of Plant Health Management, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad. pp:1-39.

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Ultra high density planting: A new approach for yield enhancement in cashew Article id: 21583 Babli Mog* ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, D.K.-574202 maintenance of productive canopy by pruning Cashew, a tropical nut tree, was native to Brazil and also to obtain early benefits of crop and got introduced to India by Portuguese harvest and higher yield. The cashew varieties th during 16 century mainly for afforestation having precocious flowering and positive and reclamation of degraded land. However, responses to pruning such as VRI-3, NRCC-Sel- the potential of cashew was exploited for the 2, Ullal-1 and Ullal-4 were most suitable for first time by India through export of cashew this planting system. The complete allotted kernels during 1900s in the international trade. space can be covered in 3rd year of planting Presently, the area under cashew cultivation is and potential yield of unit land can be realized 1.035 million ha with production efficiency of from 3ed to 4th year of orchard life. Even if the 0.670 million tonnes in India. Since cashew yield of 2 kg/plant can bring more than 3 tones supports processing industries and generates per ha which will be much superior over employment opportunities, the present existing orchards having National average yield production is not sufficient to fulfil the less than 720kg/ha. processing requirement of cashew industries in the country (2.0 million tonnes). Generally, The land preparation can be taken up cashew cultivation is confined to degraded, preferably by making contiguous reverse non fertile land of east and west coast and hilly terraces against the slope at 3m distance from regions of the country where least importance one another and pits (1M size) can be open at is given for crop cultivation and management 3m apart. The pits may be filled with fertile soil practices. These ultimately result in poor and compost up to 2/3rd depth of the pit. productivity and low income of cashew Grafts of selected cashew variety can be farmers. Therefore, it is of utmost importance planted during monsoon season and allowed to adopt new technology to enhance the to grow straight without any side sprouts up to productivity of cashew and also to increase the 0.25 to 0.50 m height from ground level. Then farmer’s income. tip bud can be pinched off to force development of frame work and primary Ultra high density planting, a branches and subsequent lateral branches novel technology, has been standardized for from them. Highly precocious types will flower the first time by Directorate of Cashew and fruit during the year of planting and in Research, Puttur during 2002-2003. The key some other varieties may be from second features of this technology involve season onwards. Once the first harvest is accommodation of more number of plants completed (usually during May-June) first (1111-1600 plants) per hectare of land, pruning at 1m height from ground level can be

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 taken subsequently every year at same height. which may bring 12-18 quintal of raw nuts After the harvest, a spray of Boardex mixture from an acre from 3rd year onwards. This (1%) can be given to prevent the entry of technology is well taken by the farmers and fungal pathogens. Yearly, the required dose of growers and more than 100 farmers in various fertilizers and manures as local requirement growing regions in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil can be given and also plant protection Nadu. More awareness about the technology measures against major and minor pests. and financial assistance of Government if extended, this technology can bring revolution The results of experiments conducted in cashew cultivation and production and at Directorate and on farm trails in the farmers targeted requirement of raw nuts can be made nd field revealed that at 2 season of planting up available in short span of 4-5 years in the rd to 1.5kg/plant and 3 season onwards about 2- country. 3 kg/plant average yield can be harvested

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Freeze concentration and its applications in food industry Article id: 21584 Bhushan Bibwe and Kirti Jalgaonkar ICAR-Central Institute of Post-Harvest Engineering and Technology, Abohar (Punjab)

INTRODUCTION the solution becomes more concentrated Concentration of liquid foods such as lowering the freezing point which implies fruit juices, milk, coffee and beverages is an lower temperatures are necessary to increase important unit operation in the food and conversion. One of the methods of water beverage industry. Evaporation is considered to removal from fruit juice without heating it or be the most economical and most widely used changing the juice flavour is freeze method of concentration. However, this method concentration which is based on the fractional is not suitable for heat sensitive materials and crystallization of water to ice and the foods with very specific or delicate flavors. The subsequent separation of the ice crystals from other method of liquid concentration includes the concentrated liquid. This process vacuum evaporation, freeze concentration, preserves the quality of the fresh juice. reverse osmosis, and ultrafiltration. The Freeze-concentrated liquid foods and juices membrane separation methods are now a days often taste much better than evaporative useful for concentration however cost concentrates due to retainment of customer economics restricts its wider applicability. As compared to the conventional evaporation acceptance factors such as flavour and colour. processes, concentration by freezing is Working potentially a superior and economic process for The basic working process starts with heat sensitive and aroma-rich liquid foods. the liquid solution to be concentrated cooled to Freeze concentration is the removal of a point closer to the freezing point and then it is pumped into the crystallizer. The crystallizer water in the form of ice crystals at subzero then forms crystals and the mixture containing temperatures. Freeze concentration is ice crystals and concentrate is pumped to the synonymous with supreme quality separator. The concentrate gets removed by concentrates. It is also termed as freeze screens in the separator and again passed to the crystallization is the process of removing heat crystallizer for increasing the effectiveness. The while a component crystallizes. In the freeze ice from the separator moves to melter which concentration process the crystallized then exchange the heat between ice and hot component get separated leaving the refrigerant. The system also contains some concentrated liquid behind. The importance axillary units such as venting systems, feed of freeze concentration is that crystallization deaerators, scrapping systems and refrigerant of the aqueous solution produces crystals that strippers. The schematic process flow diagram do not contain any of the solutes present in of freeze concentration system is given below. the original solution. As the process continues

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Liquid filling

Fractional crystallization of water to ice using scraped crystallizer

Growth of ice crystals in the ripening/growth vessel

Continuous circulation of the liquid between the crystallizer and the growth vessel with pump

Removal of large ice crystals (frozen water) from the liquid in the wash column

concentrated liquid

Schematics of freeze concentration utilizing ripening/ growth system

Unit operations  Separation and purification  Crystallization The separation of ice crystals from This process includes two steps mixture and purification steps determines the i.e. that is nucleation and growth. During efficiency of the system. The low interfacial crystallization ice crystals formed may contain tension between ice and brine probably some solutes which are inn solution, so the causes the mother liquid to adhere to the removal causes the loss of solute particles crystal surface (Tleimat et al.,1980). The while separation. The correct control of ice systems depend on the fact that larger crystal production stage can minimise the total loss size increases the crystallization and of entrapped material per unit weight of ice sometimes along with crystals refrigerant also (Englezos, 2008). The processes of separation gets removed. There are two types of systems prefer large crystal size for ease there for used for freeze concentration viz., direct and ripening stage of crystals which increases their indirect. The choice between two systems is mean size is important (Smith, 1985). depends upon the feed material to be concentrated. In indirect system, the hot

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 stream in the heat exchanger does not come  Lower maintenance since lower into contact with in the cold stream which is temperature implies less corrosion. the refrigerant. It is favourable for the food  Resistance to fouling industry since all the volatile components  Both alkali and acidic solutions can be remain in the concentrate. The system usually used. employs scrapped surface heat exchanger  No thermally damage fragile (Englezos, 2008). In indirect system, components such as colour, vitamins, refrigerant act as the heat transfer medium. and nutrients. Applications Disadvantages This technology is useful for  High capital and refrigeration cost concentration of fruit and vegetable juices,  High operating cost as production rate coffee and tea extracts, in diary industry and compared to evaporation. also in thickening of vinegar. The beer and  Inadequate scraping of scrapers at the wines are also concentrated using this system cooled wall to ease transport and storage. In  Mechanically complex designs pharmaceutical industry, it is useful for  Difficulty in handling of large concentration of heat sensitive liquid, lactose volumetric water-vapor flows production and protein isolate separation. Other than this, waste water treatment CONCLUSIONS plants, desalinisation units, and various other In the past, due to higher investment chemical processes also use this technique. cost, sophisticated equipments and loss of concentrate in the removed ice, this method Advantages was not much used by the beverage industry.  No loss of volatiles or solids, suitable However, recent technological developments for mainly heat sensitive produces and have minimized such limitations. In the waste water with volatile air-polluting coming decade, freeze concentration is seen substances. as a potentially attractive method for the  Does not destroy heat-sensitive taste concentration of aroma-rich liquid foods, and aroma compound and maintains including fruit juices, coffee, tea, and selected original product characteristics alcoholic beverages. Freeze concentration is  Elimination of microbiological activity one of the popular technologies in the food  Closed freeze concentration systems, processing industry which preserve the prevents oxidation commodity with minimal alternations to taste,  The process is continuous and stable flavour and colour. The process is now being and doesn’t need intermediate popular in food industry. The field is cleaning undergoing new research and developments which emphasizes its potentials. Though there

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 are still few disadvantages/ limitations in component standardization, such patented wider adoption of the technique but research technology has reduced both equipment costs and technological developments are trying to and energy usage significantly making Freeze minimise it in making a viable technology. concentration a practical option for the Now, through a process of innovative constantly growing number of applications engineering, process simplification and throughout the food and drink sector.

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Effects of salinity stress on plants Article id: 21585 Suvarna Gare1, A. U. Ingle2 and S. A. Tayade3 1, 2, 3 Ph. D. Scholar, MPKV, Rahuri The main difference between these INTRODUCTION two lies in the nature of anions and pH. Soil salinity is a major constraint to Studies demonstrate that carbonates and food production because it limits crop yield bicarbonates constitutes sodic soil with pH and restricts use of land previously above 8.5, whereas chloride or sulphate ions uncultivated. Abiotic factors like temperature, constitutes saline soil with pH less than 8.5. drought, salinity/salt stress result in depletion The plants that thrive well in high salt of large amount of food production today and concentration are called as halophytes and as a result of these global changes have led to plants that do not survive even in 10% sea alarmist projections that seems to argue for water are called as glycophytes or non additional strategies by which food supply can halophytes. be guaranteed (Miflin, 2000). The over salinity of the soil is one of the main factors that limits PLANT RESPONSE the spread of plants in their natural habitats. Plant sensitivity to soil salinity It is an ever increasing continually changes during the growing problem in arid and semi arid regions. The season. Most crops are tolerant during property of salinity tolerance is not a simple germination, but the young developing attribute, seedlings are susceptible to injury during but it is an outcome of various features that emergence from the soil and during early depend on different physiological juvenile development. Once established, interactions, which are difficult to determine. plants generally become increasingly tolerant The morphological appearance presented by during later stages of growth. One of the the plant in response to salinity, may not be primary effects of salt stress is that it delays enough to determine its effect, so it is germination and seedling emergence. Delays important to recognize other physiological can be fatal if the emerging seedlings, already and biochemical factors, including toxic ions, weakened by salt stress, encounter additional osmotic potential, lack of elements and other stresses, such as water stress, extreme physiological and chemical disorders, as well temperature fluctuations and/or soil crusting. as the interactions between these various Because of evaporation at the soil surface, the stresses. salt concentration in the seed bed is often There are two types of salt affected soils greater than at deeper depths. Consequently, 1. Sodic soils the juvenile roots of emerging seedlings are 2. Saline soils exposed to a greater degree of stress than indicated by the usual measurements of

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 salinity made on composite soil samples taken glycophytes, including most crop plants, will from throughout the soil profile. The loss of not grow in high concentrations of salt and plants during this crucial phase can reduce the are severely inhibited or even killed by 100- plant population density to suboptimal levels 200 mM NaCl. The reason is that they have and significantly reduce yields. evolved under conditions of low soil salinity and do not display salt tolerance (R Munns & Plants adaptations to salinity stress Termaat, 1986). The impacts of salinity Under osmotic stress, plants include low agricultural productivity, low accumulate osmotically active compounds economic returns and soil erosions, (Hu and called as osmolytes in order to lower the Schmidhalter, 2002). Salinity effects are the osmotic potential. These are referred to as results of complex interactions among compatible osmolytes because they do not morphological, physiological, and biochemical interfare with normal cellular metabolism of processes including seed germination, plant cell (Ahmed and Sharma, 2008). The primary growth, and water and nutrient uptake function of compatible solutes is to maintain (Akbarimoghaddam et al., 2011; Singh and cell turgor and thus providing driving gradient Chatrath, 2001). Salinity affects almost all for water uptake. Recent studies indicate that aspects of plant development including: compatible solutes can act as free radicals germination, vegetative growth and scavengers or chemical chaperones by directly reproductive development. Soil salinity stabilizing membranes or proteins (Mc Neil et imposes ion toxicity, osmotic stress, nutrient al., 1999). (N, Ca, K, P, Fe, Zn) deficiency and oxidative stress on plants, and thus limits water uptake Impact of salinity on plants from soil. Soil salinity significantly reduces Agricultural crops exhibit a spectrum of plant phosphorus (P) uptake because responses under salt stress. Soil salinity is a phosphate ions precipitate with Ca ions (Bano major factor that limits the yield of and Fatima, 2009). Some elements, such as agricultural crops, jeopardizing the capacity of sodium, chlorine, and boron, have specific agriculture to sustain the burgeoning human toxic effects on plants. Excessive accumulation population increase. Salinity not only of sodium in cell walls can rapidly lead to decreases the agricultural production of most osmotic stress and cell death (Munns, 2002). crops, but also, effects soil physicochemical Plants sensitive to these elements may be properties, and ecological balance of the area. affected at relatively low salt concentrations if the soil contains enough of the toxic element. At low salt concentrations, yields are mildly Because many salts are also plant nutrients, affected or not affected at all (Maggio, high salt levels in the soil can upset the Hasegawa, Bressan, Consiglio, & Joly, 2001). nutrient balance in the plant or interfere with As the concentrations increase, the yields the uptake of some nutrients (Blaylock et al., move towards zero, since most plants, 1994). Salinity also affects photosynthesis

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 mainly through a reduction in leaf area, cofactor and cannot be substituted by Na+. chlorophyll content and stomatal High K+ concentration is also required for conductance, and to a lesser extent through a binding tRNA to ribosomes and thus protein decrease in photosystem II efficiency synthesis (Zhu, 2002). Ion toxicity and osmotic (Netondo et al., 2004). Salinity adversely stress cause metabolic imbalance, which in affects reproductive development by turn leads to oxidative stress (Chinnusamy et inhabiting microsporogenesis and stamen al., 2006). The adverse effects of salinity on filament elongation, enhancing programed plant development are more profound during cell death in some tissue types, ovule abortion the reproductive phase. Wheat plants and senescence of fertilized embryos. The stressed at 100–175 mM NaCl showed a saline growth medium causes many adverse significant reduction in spikelets per spike, effects on plant growth, due to a low osmotic delayed spike emergence and reduced potential of soil solution (osmotic stress), fertility, which results in poor grain yields. specific ion effects (salt stress), nutritional However, Na+ and Cl− concentrations in the imbalances, or a combination of these factors shoot apex of these wheat plants were below (Ashraf, 2004). All these factors cause adverse 50 and 30 mM, respectively, which is too low effects on plant growth and development at to limit metabolic reactions (Munns and physiological and biochemical levels (Munns Rawson, 1999). Hence, the adverse effects of and James, 2003), and at the molecular level salinity may be attributed to the salt-stress (Tester and Davenport, 2003). effect on the cell cycle and differentiation. Salinity arrests the cell cycle transiently by In order to assess the tolerance of reducing the expression and activity of cyclins plants to salinity stress, growth or survival of and cyclin-dependent kinases that results in the plant is measured because it integrates fewer cells in the meristem, thus limiting the up- or down-regulation of many growth. The activity of cyclin-dependent physiological mechanisms occurring within kinase is diminished also by post-translational the plant. Osmotic balance is essential for inhibition during salt stress. Recent reports plants growing in saline medium. Failure of also show that salinity adversely affects plant this balance results in loss of turgidity, cell growth and development, hindering seed dehydration and ultimately, death of cells. On germination, seedling growth, enzyme activity the other hand, adverse effects of salinity on (Seckin et al., 2009), DNA, RNA, protein plant growth may also result from impairment synthesis and mitosis (Tabur and Demir, 2010; of the supply of photosynthetic assimilates or Javid et al., 2011). hormones to the growing tissues (Ashraf, 2004). Ion toxicity is the result of replacement Cellular Mechanisms of Salt Stress Survival, of K+ by Na+ in biochemical reactions, and Recovery and Growth Na+ and Cl− induced conformational changes High salinity causes hyperosmotic in proteins. For several enzymes, K+ acts as stress and ion disequilibrium that produce

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 secondary effects or pathologies (Hasegawa Hanson, 1993). Some compatible osmolytes et al., 2000b; Zhu, 2001). Fundamentally, are essential elemental ions, such plants cope by either avoiding or tolerating as K+, but the majority are organic solutes. salt stress. That is plants are either dormant Compatible solute accumulation as a response during the salt episode or there must be to osmotic stress is an ubiquitous process in cellular adjust to tolerate the saline organisms as diverse as bacteria to plants and environment. Tolerance mechanisms can be animals. Glycine betaine preserves thylakoid categorized as those that function to minimize and plasma membrane integrity after osmotic stress or ion disequilibrium or exposure to saline solutions or to freezing or alleviate the consequent secondary effects high temperatures (Rhodes and Hanson, caused by these stresses. The chemical 1993). potential of the saline solution initially Ion Homeostasis - Transport determinants establishes a water potential imbalance and their Regulation between the apoplast and symplast that leads Since NaCl is the principal soil salinity to turgor decrease, which if severe enough stress, a research focus has been the can cause growth reduction (Bohnert et al., transport systems that are involved in 1995). Growth cessation occurs when turgor is utilization of Na+ as an osmotic solute reduced below the yield threshold of the cell (Blumwald et al., 2000). Research of the last wall. Cellular dehydration begins when the decade has defined many of the molecular water potential difference is greater than can entities that mediate Na+ and K+ homeostasis be compensated for by turgor loss (Taiz and and given insight into the function of Ca2+ in Zeiger, 1998). the regulation of these transport systems. Recently, the SOS stress-signaling pathway Osmolytes and Osmoprotectants was identified to be a pivotal regulator of Salt tolerance requires that compatible plant ion homeostasis and salt tolerance solutes accumulate in the cytosol and (Hasegawa et al., 2000b; Sanders, 2000). The organelles where these function in osmotic cellular response to turgor reduction is adjustment and osmoprotection (Rhodes and osmotic adjustment.

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Impact of organic manures on soil and crop productivity Article id: 21586 Monika Yashpal Sajwan1 and Dhruv Mishra2 Ph.D. Scholors, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Basic science and Humanities, GBPUAT, U. S. Nagar, Uttarakhand, 263145, India

Agriculture is not only a means of survival, but animal manures, legumes, green manures, crop also way of life. The concept of sustainable residues, biofertilizers, etc. agriculture combines the use of traditional techniques with modern technologies, such as Why we should use organic manures? improved seeds, modern equipments, integrated Generally, it is believed that organically produced pest management that rely upon the cultural cum foods are superior in quality such as taste, flavour bio control of pest and diseases. Thus in and essential nutrients at the same time, they are sustainable agriculture, the goal is permanence free from toxic chemicals. Demand of organically achieved through utilizing of renewable grown agriculture produce is steady increasing in resources. Organic farming is a way to realize the domestic as well global market particularly in sustainability in agriculture, avoiding or largely developed countries. In 2007 the United excluding the use of synthetic or chemical Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) fertilizers. said that organic agriculture often leads to higher prices and hence a better income for farmers, so INTRODUCTION: it should be promoted. Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as sources of plant nutrients. They release Effect of inorganic fertilizers or other agro- nutrients after their decomposition. The art of chemicals on soil health and plant: collecting and using wastes from animal, human Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and and vegetable sources for improving crop other agro chemicals, which are the important productivity is as old as agriculture. Manures are inputs in modern farming creates depletion in soil the organic materials derived from animal, human fertility and pollution in surface water bodies. and plant residues which contain plant nutrients  Water soluble fertilizers when applied to in complex organic forms. Naturally occurring or soil, a good portion of the added nutrients synthetic chemicals containing plant nutrients are does not become available to the crop called fertilizers. Manures with low nutrient, plants and lost either to the atmosphere content per unit quantity have longer residual up to the hydrosphere due to non effect besides improving soil physical properties stimulation of the activities of compared to fertilizer with high nutrient content. heterotrophic soil organisms but facilitate Major sources of organic manures are: farm yard that of the autotrophic nitrifying manure (FYM), vermicompost, poultry manure, organisms, thereby hindering the immobilization of nutrients.

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 As a matter of fact, it results in rapid rate manifested by the luxuriant growth of of nutrients loss in different forms and algae and other water weeds on the water increases the soil acidity with nitrification. surface leading to oxygen deficient  Emission of ammonia, methane, nitrous condition. This situation is not conducive oxide and elemental nitrogen from the soil to healthy aquatic life. system as a result of denitrification.  Depletion of secondary and Effect of organic manures on soil health: micronutrients especially Sulphur and  Organic farming was capable of sustaining Zinc. higher crop productivity and improving  Deficiency of these nutrients (S & Zn) soil quality and productivity by along with that of Mg, Mn, Fe, Mo, B and manipulating the soil properties on long Cu limits productivity of many field crops term basis. especially in rice.  Minhas and Sood also reported that the  Dhar (1962) cautioned that by adding organic matter after decomposition large doses of N-fertilizers in modern release macro- and micronutrients to the agriculture without the use of organic soil solution, which becomes available to manures, there is always the danger of the plants, resulting in higher uptake. humus depletion and fall in crop  It was reported that organic and low-input production, which can be avoided only by farming practices after 4 years led to an adding additional amounts of organic increase in the organic carbon, soluble residues and manures. phosphorus, exchangeable potassium, and  Alarming issue to human health is regular pH and also the reserve pool of stored use of phosphatic fertilizer in large nutrients and maintained relativity stable quantities often causes the build up of Electrical Conductivity level. trace metal contamination such as arsenic,  Organic farming improved organic matter fluoride, cadmium etc. in soil and plants. content and labile status of nutrients and Cadmium in single super phosphate is also soil physicochemical properties. available to plants as the Cd in cadmium  Use of FYM and green manure maintained chloride. Similarly, chloride contained in high levels of Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn in rice- MOP and NH4Cl creates toxicity to many wheat rotation. crops like beans, citrus, grapes lettuce,  Organic fertility amendments enhanced potatoes etc. These trace metal toxic beneficial soil microorganisms, reduced contaminants reach the human body, pathogen population, total carbon, and through food chain and cause health cation exchange capacity, and lowered problems. down bulk densities, thus improved soil  The water soluble nutrients when carried quality. to lakes and stream through leaching and  In Indian conditions, joint composting of surface run off cause eutrophication as the manure slurries with plant residues

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was more viable and profitable than its  Growth of rice was better under separate composting. continuous organic farming than with  The National Academy of Agricultural conventional farming. Sciences (NAAS) recommended organic  Productivity of the crop during the initial farming strategy for India and to begin year in an organically managed field is with the practice of organic farming lower than in subsequent years as soil should value crops like spices, medicinal fertility levels increase over time as plants, fruits, and vegetables. organic materials are added in the organic management system. Effect of organic manures on crop productivity:  Gradual increase in grain yield with the  Addition of organic matter in the soil is a use of organic fertilizers over a period of well-known practice to increase crop time was observed. yields.  Vegetables are highly responsive to  The application of organic materials organic sources of nutrients and profitable increased grain and straw yield of rice. to farmers.  Organic matter incorporation increased soil water retention in soil. CONCLUSION:  Many researchers reported that in an Organic farming can provide quality food without organically managed field activity of earth adversely affecting the soil’s health and the worm is higher than in inorganic environment. There is need to identify suitable agriculture crops/products on regional basis for organic  Vermicompost provided macroelements production that has international market such as N, P, K, Ca, and Mg and demands. The whole region as such cannot afford microelements such as Fe, Mo, Zn, and Cu. to go for organic at a time because of its  The vermicompost contained 0.74, 0.97, commitments to insure food and nutritional and 0.45 per cent nitrogen, phosphorus, Security. This will provide ample opportunity for and potassium, respectively. employment and bring prosperity and peace in the region.

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REFERENCES:

[1]. Chaudhary, R.S., Das, A. and Pattnaik, U.S., 2003. Organic farming for vegetable production using vermicompost and FYM in Kokriguda watershed of Orissa. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 31(2), pp.203-206. [2]. Jat, R.S. and Ahlawat, I.P.S., 2006. Direct and residual effect of vermicompost, biofertilizers and phosphorus on soil nutrient dynamics and productivity of chickpea-fodder maize sequence. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 28(1), pp.41-54. [3]. Yadav, R.L., Dwivedi, B.S. and Pandey, P.S., 2000. Rice-wheat cropping system: assessment of sustainability under green manuring and chemical fertilizer inputs. Field Crops Research, 65(1), pp.15-30. [4]. Yadav, S.K., Yogeshwar, S., Yadav, M.K., Subhash, B. and Kalyan, S., 2013. Effect of organic nitrogen sources on yield, nutrient uptake and soil health under rice (Oryza sativa) based cropping sequence. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 83(2), spp.170-175.

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Agroforestry as an option for livelihood security to farming community of INDIA Article id: 21587 Pradip Kumar Sarkar* *Scientist, Agroforestry, ICAR RCER, Research Centre, Plandu, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India

ABSTRACT In most of the areas especially in rainfed agricultural system in India, the management of trees in conjunction with crops and/or animals, minimizes the risks of stress period through crop diversification and efficient utilization of the resources therein. Thus, agroforestry can play crucial role in managing the risks under such stress period of most concern. Even earlier studies had revealed that, the agroforestry practices are more profitable than arable farming. But then, selection of area specific and need based agroforestry models are one of the important criteria to maximize farm output and returns. Research upgradation and management over all the prevailed agricultural and agroforestry systems are utmost important. More research efforts are needed towards identification of viable agroforestry models under rainfed condition for balancing ground water level without affecting economic crop productivity to the land holders. Intensive research efforts are required for participatory domestication of unexploited and under-exploited multipurpose trees, bushes, and grasses. Promotional research on production and supply of genetically improved agroforestry planting material using latest plant breeding and genetic tools for improved productivity, value addition and quick returns is utmost needed. Dissemination of knowledge regarding ongoing research and its scientific findings can be an effective tool for scientific cultivation practices. Marketing issues and value addition to products of agroforestry are utmost important to carry forward. Moreover, emphasis should be given on tangible benefits (viz., revenue generation/ cash returns) from agroforestry systems.

INTRODUCTION Mostly the rural areas are predominantly characterized by undulating topography and rainfed agriculture, leading to massive degradation of soil. India is having a total area of 328.72 M ha, out of which approximately 142 M ha areas are under cultivation, 69.79 M ha areas under forest cover (FSI, 2013) and approximately120 M ha areas are under degradation (FSI, 1999). All those degraded lands can be rehabilitated by means of planting trees “so called Multipurpose Tree species (MPTs)” (Shinde et al., 2017; Shinde et al., 2019). And hence, agroforestry is one of the best land- use management practices which provide both tangible (Das et al., 2016; Das et al., 2017; Das et al., 2019; Sarkar et al., 2017c) and non-tangible benefits (Sarkar, 2019a), helps in improving livelihood security by increasing the total productivity per unit area of land (Sarkar et al., 2017c; Sarkar, 2019b), which can meet the growing demands of the people for food, fruits, fuel wood, timber, fodder, bio-fuel and bio-energy as well as provide other ecological services (Sarkar, 2019a).

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Rainfed agriculture is largely practiced in arid, dry semi-arid, wet semi-arid, and dry sub- humid regions in the country (Singh, 1999). Coarse cereals (85 %), pulses (83 %), oilseeds (70 %), and cotton (65 %) are the predominant rainfed crops grown in India (CRIDA 2007). Normally, it is considered that soils in rainfed regions are not only thirsty but also hungry (Venkateswarlu, 1986). Rainfed agricultural scenario is influenced by both biophysical and socioeconomic factors and their interaction (Das et al., 2019). Management of trees in conjunction with crops in rainfed areas minimizes the risk associated with stress period (Sarkar et al., 2017a; Sarkar et al., 2017b; Sarkar et al., 2017c) through diversified components (Kumar et al., 2016) and through efficient utilization of limited natural resources (Korwar et al., 2014).

Major objectives of agroforestry Following are the major objectives of agroforestry (Korwar et al., 2014) mentioned hereunder: 1. Gainful utilization of off-season precipitation 2. Income stabilization, 3. Soil and water conservation, 4. Insurance against weather aberrations and 5. Mitigation of climate change

Special conditions/ constraints under which agroforestry systems can be taken up There are some important conditions (Nair, 1993) under which agroforestry systems can be taken up, which are mentioned here under:

• Subsistence farming • Degraded soils • Shortage of fuel, fodder and small timber • Land-tenure constraints • Low capital, high labour

Causes of land degradation

There are five main reasons of land degradation which are mentioned below: a) Over cultivation- The proportion of landless and marginal farmers in India is high. Because of scarcity of land, farming of ecologically vulnerable areas is taken up resulting in erosion and associated land degradation problems.

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 b) Deforestation – Tree are among the most effective preservers of land; however, at present, trees are being cut for various reasons viz., fuelwood harvesting/ collection, shifting cultivation, commercial timber exploitation, clearing for permanent non forestry purpose etc. c) Over grazing- Over grazing is as destructive as deforestation but its effects are not immediately noticeable. According to an FAO estimate, one buffalo eats seven tones of leaves (by fresh weight) per year, and a cow two and a half tones –all these leafy material coming from forests adjoining the villages (FAO, 2014). Thus uncontrolled grazing has contributed to destruction of forests and grasslands thereby exposing the soil to wind and water erosion and consequent land degradation. d) Improper Irrigation practices- The farmer is totally oblivious of the cost that improper irrigation, viz., over use of water and non provision of adequate drainage, imposes on others. In most cases , especially in large plains, the water table, and capillary arising from the higher ground water level increases accumulation of salts both in ground water and the soil near the surface thus subsequently lowering soil productivity, and in extreme cases, making it unfit for crop production. e) Improper developmental activities- It is seen that many of the areas which are very adjacent to industries and mining areas, are generally found degraded because of many such improper developmental activities viz., dumping of wastes, mine wastes etc. And hence, those areas are to be rehabilitated by means of taking up vegetative measures.

Multipurpose Trees species (MPTs)

Multipurpose Trees species are the species that can provide diverse benefits in various land- use systems. Nair (1993) also defined this as "those trees which are deliberately kept and managed for more than one preferred use, product, and/or service. For example Teak, Mahagony, Gamhar, Bakain, Neem, Arjuna, Siris, Shisham, Kalashisham etc. are timber yielding trees which are also called as insurance trees/plants generally grown under different agroforestry systems and are more accepted by the farmers (Das et al., 2017; Sarkar et al., 2017a; Sarkar et al., 2017c). There are many other MPTs found throughout the world, among them some are Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Gliricidia sepium, Gmelina arborea, Leucaena leucocephala, Moringa oleifera, Pongamia pinnata, Prosopis juliflora, Tamarindus indica, etc.

Choice of Species for degraded lands a) Species should be highly drought resistant b) Species should be of site specific c) Should have property of fast development of fibrous root system

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d) Capable of deep vertical penetration into soil to reach lower, moisture regime of the soil e) Should have sufficient capacity to sustain high wind velocity f) Capable of multiple benefits

Planting Technique for Problem Soils (degraded lands)

At first, the area should be leveled either manually or by mechanical means. Then, pits of 60 cm3 should be dug out and left it open for 10 – 15 days and then should be filled with fertile soil. Addition of farmyard manure at the rate of 0.50 kg pit-1 had been found more useful. In some states like Jharkhand, filling up of the open pits by addition of fertile soil along with vermicompost at the rate of 5-10 kg pit-1 and some Karanj cake or Neem cake are recommended and are found most suitable for healthy plantation. It is also recommended that, container raised seedlings of at least 9 to 12 months old are to be planted.

Management strategies for degraded lands

Management strategies for waterlogged and marshy lands

Proper drainage is important to reclaim these areas. Tree species suitable for the waterlogged areas are Eucalyptus robusta, Syzygium cumini, Salix spp., Populus nigra, Terminalia arjuna, Acacia nilotica, etc. In case of marshy areas species like Baringtonia spp., Bischofia javania, Eucalyptus robusta, E. rudis Lagerstroemia flosreginea, Casurarina equisetifolia, etc. are found more suitable (Das et al., 2016).

a) Management strategies for Sand and desertic lands Establishment of grasses is must. Trees are to be planted across wind direction. Cultivation of tree species like Teak, Casuarina sp., Acacia tartalis, Prosopis sp., Eucalyptus sp., etc. are the most common tress grown under such conditions.

b) Management strategies for degraded land under plantation crops Plantation of suitable MPTs to the particular area where gaps created can be done for soil binding and water harvesting in root zones as an impediment to the eroded soils. Suitable MPTs like Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Acasia, Ailanthus, Casuarina, Prosopis, Neem, etc. and many economic fruit trees like Guava, Indian gooseberry, Drumstick, Ber, Mango, Cashew, etc. can be planted successfully (Das et al., 2016).

c) Management practices for Gullied and ravenous lands Reducing the slopes of the gullies and diverting the surface flow are essential pre-requisites for any successful afforestation programme. Constructing gully plugs (like macro and micro check dams) in the bed of the main and branch gully are playing important role to conserve soil and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 moisture (Shinde et al., 2017; Shinde et al., 2019). Trees species like Acacia nilotica, Acacia catechu, Azadirachta indica, Albizia lebbeck, Dalbergia sissoo, Prosopis juliflora, etc. are found suitable for these areas.

d) MPTs for salt affected areas In places where the ground water is saline and scarce in quantity as in arid and semi-arid regions, suitable MPTs are planted. In general, Plantations for fuel wood are rated better for saline soils than timber wood species. Many such species viz., Prosophis juliflora, Acacia nilotica, A. catechu, A. auriculiformis, A. arabica, Tamarix articulata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Eucalyptus hybrid, Albizia lebbeck, Azadirachta indica, Terminalia arjuna, Dalbergia sissoo, Leucaena leucocephala, etc. are found suitable for these areas. Fruit trees like Sapota, Guava, Ber, Pomegranate and Custard apple can also be selected for plantation.

e) Management strategies for barren rocky / stony waste / Sheet rock area In such areas where rainfall is low to medium, many MPTs like Ecalyptus tereticornis, Melia azaderach, Albizia lebbeck, Acacia catechu, Ailanthus excels, Hardwickia binata, Cassia siamea, Prosopis chilensis, Dalbergia sissoo, etc. can be planted. But for area with high elevation (upto 2000 m), species like Robinia pseudoacacia, Populus ciliate, Pinus roxburghii, etc. can be selected for planting.

f) Management strategies for steep sloping area Protective measures can be taken up which includes isolation of the area from man and animal. Vegetative measures like planting of various MPTs viz., Alnus nepalensis, Betula alnoides, Trewia nudiflora, etc. can be done.

g) Management strategies for mining areas Those mining areas should immediately be rehabilitated and managed; otherwise it will degrade air quality, water quality and land productivity. Such areas should be rehabilitated through afforestaton/ reforestation/ agroforestry models. Many literatures revealed that the performances of leguminous species like Acacia catechu, Albizia lebbeck, Dalbergia sissoo and Pongamia pinnata planted on mined areas are better than many other species. Even, bamboos like Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa sp., etc. are also found to grow well (Sarkar et al., 2019a).

Points to be considered for rehabilitation of degraded lands Following are the points, which can be considered before rehabilitating the degraded lands:

1. Govt. departments must give importance to afforestation as a definite support for rehabilitation of degraded lands by means of planting site specific tree species of interest. 2. People’s involvement can be mobilized in the line of watershed management and its successful developments.

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3. Sufficient funds should be earmarked and made available to finance various projects related to rehabilitation of degraded lands through MPTs in watershed. 4. Available technology should extensively be popularized and transferred among the people of that watershed and globally as usual. 5. Advance planning should be done for raising nursery stock of the required species of interest to avoid planting of poor quality seedling stock and consequent failure of plantation.

Agroforestry Systems/Practices Agroforestry systems/practices of India may be classified as traditional and advanced agroforestry systems (Korwar et al., 2014).

a. Traditional agroforestry systems

 Scattered trees on farm lands/Parkland systems  Trees on farm boundaries/boundary plantations  Farm wood lots/block plantations  Trees on range lands  Vegetative live hedges/live fences.

b. Improved agroforestry systems

 Forest trees and arable crops-based systems

 Alley/Hedge row cropping

 Fruit tree-based cropping systems involving grasses and arable crops

 Agroforestry systems based on commercial plantations

Few examples like (Sarkar et al., 2017c; Das et al., 2017; Sarkar et al., 2019b):

 Leucaena leucocephala-Based systems  Tectona grandis- Based systems  Swetenia mahagony- Based systems  Dalbergia sisso-Based systems  Bamboo-Based systems

 Other systems

. Biofuels and bioenergy systems like

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a) Pongamia Pinnata- based Systems b) Simarouba glauca- based Systems c) Jatropha curcas- based systems

. Silvopastoral systems

. Boundary plantations/windbreaks and shelterbelts

. Shade trees in plantations

Recommended Agroforestry practices

There are few suggested trees and agricultural crops which were recommended against each agro-climatic region (Table 1).

Table 1: Recommended agroforestry practices for different agro-climatic region Agro-climatic region Suggested trees Crops Eastern plateau and hill region Acacia nilotica, Borassus Coarse cereals, pulses, oil (Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, flabellifer, Tectona seeds, soybean, lentil, mustard Orissa and West Bengal) grandis, Gmelina arborea Central plateau and hill region Azadirachta indica, Acacia Ground nut, sorghum, pigeon (Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan nilotica, Hardwickia pea, gram, lentil, mustard, and Uttar Pradesh) binata, Dalbergia sissoo soyabean, paddy, sesamum Western plateau and hill Azadirachta indica, Acacia Groundnut, sorghum, pigeon region (Maharashtra, Madhya nilotica, Hardwickia pea, gram, lentil, mustard, Pradesh and Rajasthan) binata, soyabean, paddy, sesamum Dalbergia sissoo, Leucaena leucocephala Southern plateau and hill Tamarindus indica Tomato, chili, curry leaf region (Andhra Pradesh, Ailanthus excelsa Cowpea, sesamum, sorghum, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) pearl millet Albizia lebbeck Cowpea, sesamum, sorghum, pearl millet East coast plains and hill Acacia nilotica, Gmelina Paddy/pulse, ground nut, region (Orissa, Andhra arborea, Dalbergia sissoo, sesamum Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Anogeissus acuminata, Pondicherry) Prosopis juliflora (Korwar et al., 2014)

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Suitable inter crops for important horticultural crops

Important intercrops against different fruit trees are being listed in Table 2.

Table 2: Suitable inter crops for important horticultural crops

Crop Age Inter crop Mango Up to 7 years Leguminous vegetables, papaya (filler) Grapes Up to 8 months Snake gourd, bitter gourd on pandal Apple, Pears Up to 5 years Potato, cabbage Banana Up to 4 months Sunhemp, onion Areca nut Up to 10 years Pineapple Coconut Up to 3 years Banana, tapioca, vegetables (Kumar, 1997) Benefit–cost ratios of different alternate land use systems Benefit–cost ratios of different alternate land use systems had been tabulated in Table 3. The Benefit : Cost ratio was reported higher in case of Fruit trees + Arable crops (5.53), followed by Forest trees + grasses (2.45). The least was reported in case of arable farming (1.34).

Table 3: Benefit–cost ratios of different alternate land use systems (CRIDA, 1993 & 1996)

Systems Period Benefits: (Years) Cost ratio Arable farming 1 1.34 Forest tree + Sorghum + Pigeon 10 1.65 pea Fruit trees + Arable crops 30 5.53 Forest trees (with Castor 10 1.99 intercrops) Forest trees + grasses 10 2.45

CONCLUSION Research upgradation and management over all the prevailed agricultural and agroforestry systems are utmost important. More research efforts are needed towards identification of viable agroforestry models under rainfed condition for balancing ground water level without affecting economic crop productivity to the land holders. Intensive research efforts are required for participatory domestication of unexploited and under-exploited multipurpose trees, bushes, and grasses. Promotional research on production and supply of genetically improved agroforestry

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REFERENCES [1]. CRIDA. (1993 &1996). Annual Reports. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA), Hyderabad, India. [2]. CRIDA. (2007). Perspective Plan, Vision 2025. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh. [3]. Das, B., Dhakar, M.K., Sarkar, P.K., Kumar, S., Nath, V., Dey, P., Singh, A.K. and Bhatt, B.P. (2017). Performance of mango (Mangifera indica) based agri-horticultural systems under rainfed plateau conditions of eastern India. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 87(4): 521-527. [4]. Das, B., Naik, S.K., Sarkar, P.K., Singhal, V., Arunachalam, A., Acharyya, G., Borah, D., Kumar, J., Shukla, G. and Bhatt, B.P. (2016). Agroforestry for livelihood security in Eastern India. ICAR- RC for Eastern Region, Patna. 109 p. [5]. Das, B., Sarkar, P.K., Kumari, N., Dey, P., Singh, A.K. and Bhatt, B.P. (2019). Biophysical performance of different multipurpose trees species in Jharkhand, India. Current Science, 116(1): 82-88. [6]. FAO. (2014). OECD-FAO Agricultural outlook 2014. OECD, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), 323 p. [7]. Forest Survey of India (FSI). (1999 & 2013). India state of forest report. Ministry of Environment and Forest, Govt. of India. [8]. Korwar, G.R., Prasad, J.V.N.S., Rao, G.R., Venkatesh, G., Pratibha, G., Venkateswarlu, B.J.C. (2014). Agroforestry as a Strategy for Livelihood Security in the Rainfed Areas: Experience and Expectations. In: Dagar et al. (eds.), Agroforestry Systems in India: Livelihood Security & Ecosystem Services, Advances in Agroforestry 10, DOI: 10.1007/978-81-322-1662-9_5, _ Springer India 2014. [9]. Kumar, B.M. (1997). Bamboos in the Home gardens of Kerala - a shrinking resource base. J. Non Timber For. Prod., 4: 156–159. [10]. Kumar, S., Kumar, J., Sharma, J.P., Nedunchezhiyan, M., Sarkar, P.K. and Sinha, A. (2016). Crop diversification options. In: Singh, A.K., Mali, S.S., Das, B., Bhavana, P., Kumar, P.R., Sarkar, B. and Bhatt, B.P. (eds.), Approaches to improve agricultural water productivity. ICAR-RCER, Research Centre, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India. Satish serial publishing house, Delhi.

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[11]. Nair, P.K.R. (1993). An introduction to Agroforestry. Department of Forestry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, U.S.A., 489 p. [12]. Sarkar, P.K. (2019a). CO2FIX model: A tool for estimating carbon sequestration potential of any agroforestry system. Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter, 1(3): 61-66. [13]. Sarkar, P.K. (2019b). Improving livelihood through agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.) based agroforestry systems: an option. Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter, 1(6): 139- 147. [14]. Sarkar, P.K., Bishnoi, S.K., Shinde, R. and Das, B. (2017a). Prevalent agroforestry systems of Jharkhand state of India: A livelihood option. Rashtriya Krishi, 12(1): 87-89. [15]. Sarkar, P.K., Bishnoi, S.K., Shinde, R. and Das, B. (2017b). Improvement in agroforestry system. Indian Farming, 67(7): 19-20. [16]. Sarkar, P.K., Das, B. and Bhatt, B.P. (2017c). Bakain (Melia azedarach L.): a promising agroforestry species for improving livelihood to farmers of Eastern plateau and hill region of India. The Bioscan, 12(2): 1095-1100. [17]. Sarkar, P.K., Dhakar, M.K., Mali, S.S., Shinde, R., Das, B., Naik, S.K. and Bhatt, B.P. (2019a). Rehabilitation prospects and opportunities for coal mine affected areas of eastern india. Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter, 1(4): 201-204. [18]. Sarkar, P.K., Sinha, A., Das, B., Shinde, R., Dhakar, M.K. and Das, B. (2019b). Bamboo plantation: a step forward in doubling farmer’s income in Eastern India. Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter, 1(2): 1-5. [19]. Shinde, R., Sarkar, P.K., Bishnoi, S. and Naik, S.K. (2017). Vartman krishi paridrishya me mrida sanrakshan ki mahatti avashyakta evam upay. Rashtriya Krishi (Hindi), 12(1&2): 29- 31. [20]. Shinde, R., Sarkar, P.K., Thombare, N. and Naik, S.K. (2019). Soil conservation: Today’s need for sustainable development. Agriculture & Food: e-Newsletter, 1(5): 175-183. [21]. Singh, H.P. (1999). Integrated Watershed Management in Drylands –A System Perspective. In: Singh, H.P., Ramakrishna, Y.S., Sharma, K.L., Venkateswarlu, B. (eds) Fifty Years of Dryland Agriculture Research in India. Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture, India, pp. 259-270. [22]. Venkateswarlu, J. (1986). Efficient Resource Management for Drylands. In: 15 years of Dryland Agriculture Research, CRIDA, Hyderabad, India, pp. 42-58.

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Groundnut: Multifarious utilities of the ‘King of Oilseeds’ Article id: 21588 1 * 2 Sritama Biswas and Subhradip Bhattacharjee 1Department of Agronomy, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, West Bengal 2Agronomy Section, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana.

INTRODUCTION: Groundnut (Arachis hypogea), that is considered to be the ‘King of Oilseeds’, is an annual plant herb (legume) comes from the pea family of Fabaceae. It is also known as peanut, earthnut, monkey-nut and goobers in U.S. and British terms (Vijaya Kumar P, 2007). It is a low-priced commodity but a valuable source of all the nutrients. Groundnut seeds contain 48-50% oil, 26-28% protein and 10-20% carbohydrate. It is a rich source of dietary fibre, calcium, iron and vitamin B complex like Thiamine, Riboflavin, Niacin and Vitamin A.

Groundnut is the largest oilseed in India in terms of production as well as one of the most important cash crops of our country. India is the second largest producer of groundnuts after China. Gujarat is the largest producer contributing 25 per cent of the total production followed by Tamil Nadu (22.48 per cent), Andhra Pradesh (18.81 per cent), Karnataka (12.64 per cent) and Maharashtra (10.09 per cent) during 2006-07. . Origin: It has been reported that South America was the place from where cultivation of groundnut originated and spread to Brazil, Southern Bolivia and North-western Argentina. Groundnut was introduced by the Portuguese from Brazil to West Africa and then to south-western India in the 16th century.

Major producing countries: Groundnut is grown on a large scale in almost all the tropical and subtropical countries of the world. The most important groundnut growing countries are India, China, Nigeria, Burma and USA. It is grown over an area of 24.7 million hectares with a total production of 33 million tonnes in the whole world. Groundnut is cultivated in more than 60 countries of the world. India occupies the first place in acreage and second in production.

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Table 1: Food Value Percentage of Ground nut (Jambunathan, R. 1991)

Content Percentage (%) Protein 25.20 Oil 48.20 Starch 11.50 Soluble sugar 4.50 Crude fibre 2.10 Moisture 6.0

Fig 1. Major Groundnut producing

areas in India

Table 2: Top Five Groundnut producers, consumers and traders in the world (USDA, 1985) Producer Exporters Importers Consumers China Argentina Europe China India India Vietnam India Nigeria China Indonesia Nigeria USA USA Mexico USA Burma Nicaragua Russia Indonesia

Economic capabilities and uses: and fertilizer). These multiple uses of the Almost every part of groundnut is groundnut plant makes it a good cash crop for commercially valued. Groundnut seeds are domestic markets as well as for foreign trade consumed directly as raw, roasted or boiled in several developing and developed (meal) and the oil extracted from the seeds is countries. used as culinary oil. The oil is used in making margarine, crackers/cookies, candy, salted Over 330 products can be commercially groundnut, salad oils, nut chocolates, produced from groundnut and jobs can be sandwiches and soaps. Furthermore, directly created from enhanced groundnut groundnut plants are used as animal feed (oil production with small improvement in the pressings from seeds, green material and technology and the use of improved variety straw) and industrial raw material (oil cakes with corresponding increase of cultivated

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 acreage. (Idama, A., 2000). As a legume crop,  High in calories, 5.6 calories nut -1 groundnut adds nitrogen to the soil by (calorific value of 567). increasing soil fertility. In recent times, there  Being an oil seed crop, it contains 40 to has been increased awareness in the 49% of oil. cultivation of food legumes like groundnut, not only as food but as soil fertilizer. This  Ground Nut Oil: reduces the farmers’ demand for inorganic The groundnut oil has several uses but it is fertilizer. mainly used as cooking oil. Besides, it is used in many preparations like soap making, fuel, It is estimated that nine oilseeds, namely, cosmetics, shaving cream, leather dressings, groundnut, rapeseed-mustard, soybean, furniture cream, lubricants, etc. Groundnut oil sunflower, safflower, sesame, niger, castor is also used in making vanaspati ghee and in and linseed, accounted for an area of 23.44 fatty acids manufacturing. It is also used as a million hectares with the production of 25.14 medium of preservation for preparation of million tonnes during the year 2003-04. pickles, chutney, etc. The groundnut oil is Groundnut is called as the ‘King’ of Oilseeds’. used in making different types of medicated It is one of the most important food and cash ointments, plasters, syrups and medicated crops of our country. Groundnut is also called emulsion. It is also used to make various food as wonder nut and poor men’s cashew nut. preparations like butter, milk, candy and chocolate, chutney, groundnut pack, laddu,  The groundnut is particularly valued barfi etc. for its protein content (26%).  On equal weight basis (Kg for Kg),  Kernels: groundnuts contain more protein than Whole kernels are used for table purpose meat and about two and a half times by frying, soaking, roasting and boiling and in more than eggs. different types of namkeens. Roasted  In addition to protein, groundnuts are groundnut is the most popular way of eating. a good source of calcium, phosphorus, Kernels are also used as a spice in vegetables iron, zinc and boron. and as sprouts for salad.  The groundnuts also contain vitamin ‘E’ and small amounts of vitamin ‘B’ complex.

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Table 3. Nutritional characteristics of groundnut kernels (Burn and Huffman, 1975) Characteristics Raw* Roasted* Calories (g) 564.00 582.00 Protein (g) 26.00 26.00 Fat (g) 47.50 - Carbohydrate (g) 18.60 20.60 Calcium (mg) 69.00 72.00 Phosphorus (mg) 401.00 401.00 Iron (mg) 2.10 2.20 Thiamine (mg) 1.14 0.32 Riboflavin (mg) 0.13 0.13 Niacin (mg) 17.20 17.20 *Content 100-1 g

 Oil Cakes: Groundnut cake is generally a safe feed for all classes of livestock. It is used as a protein supplement in cattle feeding. However, its low fibre and high protein contents make it an even more valuable ingredient for poultry rations. The main constraint to its utilization is its easy contamination by toxic substances due to bad storage. The most dangerous substance is aflatoxin.

 Ground Nut Shells: Groundnut shell has great potential for commercial use. It is used as a fuel, filler in cattle feed, hard particleboard, cork substitute, activated carbon etc. The shells of pods obtained during threshing are also used as cattle feed.

 Haulms: It is mainly used as animal feed and fuel and in preparation of compost. The green leaves and stems of plants are used as animal feed and raw material for preparation of silage.

Table 4. The chemical composition of groundnut shell, haulm and oil cake (Reddy, P.S. 1988.) Characteristics Shell (%) Haulms (%) Oil cake (%) Cellulose 65.70 22.11 - 35.35 - Carbohydrate 21.20 38.06 - 46.95 22 – 30 Protein 7.30 8.30 - 15.00 45 – 60 Mineral 4.50 1.39 - 2.88 4 – 5.70 Crude fibre - 22.11 - 35.35 3.80 – 7.50 Moisture - 7.13 - 10.00 8 - 10

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REFERENCE: [1]. Burns, E.E. and Huffman, V. L. 1975. Food quality of peanut products. In Peanut Production in Texas. pp. 126-131. Texas, USA: The Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. [2]. Idama, A. 2000. Perspectives on Industrialization of Adamawa State. Paraclete Publishers, Yola; 15-33. [3]. Jambunathan, R. 1991. Groundnut quality characteristics. Pages 267-275 in Uses of tropical grain legumes: Proceedings of a Consultants Meeting, 27 - 30 Mar 1989, ICRISAT Center, India. Patancheru, A.P. 502 324, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics [4]. Reddy, P.S. 1988. Groundnut, Publication and information division Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anushandan Bhavan, Pusa, New Delhi. [5]. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 1985. Oilseeds and products. Foreign Agricultural Service Supplement 1-85. Washington, DC, USA: USDA. [6]. Vijaya Kumar P. 2007. Agrometeorology and groundnut production. Chapter 13 B.

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Youth and Agriculture: key challenges Article id: 21589 Ashish Kumar* *CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research Centre, Boduppal, Hyderabad- 500092, India

India is a country of villages where a different guarantee from the government. This has world lives far away from the city's rush and created a vicious cycle. Farmers are growing the main occupation of the villages is the same crops every season to sustain their considered as agriculture. According to the livelihoods. It is time to break this cycle and 2011 census of India, 68.84% of Indians think beyond this stunted vision. (around 833.1 million people) live in 640,867 different villages. Agriculture is the primary The youth should also be taught about source of livelihood for about 54.6 per cent of profitable farming techniques and systems so India’s population. There are ponds and canals that less land and resources are used. They in the village which are considered to be the should not only be taught about integrated main sources of irrigation. The farmer farming but also about the latest techniques performs his work faithfully and grows grains in mushroom farming, freshwater and vegetables from his fields. The farmers aquaculture, and dairy farming. They should are the man who works with nature, who also be given subsidy or loans to start food loves them, and sometimes fears them. The processing units. For instance, in Punjab, the farmers sower the seeds and reaper of processing units of kinnow produce are harvest. The farmer is "Annadata". located in distant areas. By helping the youth to establish processing units, we can decrease The farmers are the man feeds the young, and transportation costs as well as provide jobs. the old, the weak, and the strong. The farmer is the black earth of spring, the green hills of It is very true that our present generation is Summer, the harvest gold of Autumn, And the not much interested in agriculture, but wants cold white stillness of Winter. The farmer is a to enjoy good food to live without knowing steely reality of the present and a hopeful the essence of food production. The dream of the future. Now a day Youths are metropolis and city think that village people the thing about a comfortable Life, not a are meant for food production, and the farmer’s life. The youth are not attracted to metropolis and cities are to sit and enjoy the farming profession as there is neither eating. They do not understand the sufferings guarantee of income, not enough moral of the villagers who are agriculturists. The support by the community. At present, only a middle man and agents eat away the villager's few crops get a Minimum Support Price (MSP) hard earnings. Hence villagers also look for

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 migration to metropolis and cities for modern All these factors are pulling the young life. generation away from agriculture. unless some of these sorts of activities are taken up There are simple reasons why younger to revive you will find the exodus of more and generations turn their back towards more people to urban areas. Agriculture is the agriculture: biggest sector in India, yet the sector and its  The sufferings they have seen of their workforce are not valued. This, too, must parents (if they are from agricultural change. family) The agriculture sector can attract  No fixed or variable returns till the youths when they are offered education in product is marketed and over- agriculture, a voice at policy level, and in the dependence on nature. some calamity media, and are engaged with innovations. The strikes they are in losses and debts young generation has a chance involving the  Lack of facilities that the metros agriculture sector to grow and provide enough provide if they take up agriculture as a food to feed the world and will have an career opportunity to end world hunger and alleviate  Ambition to enjoy all the facilities of malnutrition. Finally, how youth development the urban lifestyle and the growth that is viewed and addressed will have a the urban promises. fundamental effect on the youth as well as the educational programs designed for them.

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Use of organic manures in medicinal and aromatic plants Article id: 21590 Ardeep Ph. D Research Scholar agronomy, GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, US Nagar, Uttarakhand: 263145

INTRODUCTION medicinal plants. Though it is still a challenge India contributes 7 % of the world to manage the nutrient in the medicinal plants biodiversity and it is one of the 17 mega as most of the medicinal plants are wild in biodiversity country in the world. India has 15 nature and do not perform well under Agro-climatic in which medicinal plants are managed agronomic conditioned. We need to found from Himalayan to costal land and from develop some standard package and practices desert to rain forest ecosystems. Out of for the medicinal plants so that farmers can 17000-18000 flowering plants about 7000 easily adopt the practices. Medicinal plants plants are consider as medicinal plant species. are rich in secondary metabolites such as More than 90% formulations in Ayurveda, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, sterols etc. In Sidha and Unani system of medicines are other hand Aromatic plants are rich in plant based. Medicinal plants are rich sources essential oils which have characteristic smell of secondary metabolites that can be used for or odor. The different plants hold these therapeutic purposes or which are precursors compounds in different plant parts or exudes for the synthesis of useful drugs. Medicinal recreated by the plants like Roots, shoots, plants have similar properties as conventional woods, bark, flowers, fruits and gum exudes pharmaceutical drugs. These plants and their etc. As we consume different medicinal plant products not only serve as valuable source of parts as raw, the uses of chemicals are not income for small holders and entrepreneurs desirable. Besides that medicinal and but also help the country to earn foreign aromatic plant products which are grown exchange by way of export. About 80 % of organically are not only readily accepted in total medicinal demand is met out through the global market but also fetch high prices forest and wild lands only 20 % contributed by compared to the chemically grown plants. In cultivated lands. If we talk about the trade of this article the attempt was made to study the medicinal plants then 1178 plant species are effect of different organic sources on the yield used in trade out of which 242 species traded and quality of some of the medicinal plants. in excess of 100 MT per year. By managing the Aloe vera agronomic practices we can improve the Aloe vera is the succulent plant which production of medicinal and aromatic plats, requires prober soil moisture and nutrients. Nutrient management is one of the key Managing the soil fertility in the main field is practices to boost up the production of the one of the strategy to boost the yield of the

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 crop. Fertility management in the field may be alkaloids and withanoids are present in the one of the strategies for boosting up the yield plant which is influenced by the nutrient of Aloe vera. However over nutrient status of the (Maheshwari et al., 2000). The application can degrade the quality of the yield and quality of the produce depend on Aloe vera gel. Application of organic manure the supply of nutrients to the soil. several not only increases the yield of the plant but experiments were conducted to study the also improve quality of the produce. A field effect of different organic and inorganic experiment was carried out by Saha et al. sources of nutrients on yield and quality of (2005) in Indian Institute of Technology, the ashwagandha. Mohanalakshmi and Kharagpur, India to study the effects of Vadivel (2009) conducted an experiment to organic and inorganic sources of fertilizer on see the effect of different manures and found performance of Aloe vera. They found that poultry manure significantly increase the root there was significant increase in biological and yield and yield attributing character of the gel yields, plant height, number of leaves per crop. In a field study Shimrayngayung (2008) plant and chlorophyll content with application observed that application of castor cake @ 6 of fertilizer as compared to no fertilizer t/ha + 50% RDF (20:30:10) + PSB @ 2 kg/ha + treatment. Another study was conducted by Azospirillum @ 2 kg/ha gave highest root yield Krishna Moorthy and Malliga (2012) in pot at and yield attributing characters. Guruprasad Bharathidasan University to study the effect et al. (2014) observed that the highest of different rates of cyanopith biofertilizer individual root length and diameter, fresh and (25g, 50g, 75g, 100g, 125g and 150g) on the dry root yield were obtained with the morphological and biochemical characteristics application of FYM @ 5 tonne/ha + as well as yield of Aloe barabadensis Miller. vermicompost @ 0.5 tonne/ha. Ashashri et al. They found that the Maximum number of (2013) conducted a study concluded that the leaves, plant height, leaf breadth, leaf weight application of vermicompost @ 1.3 kg/ha and no. of offsets was recorded with the significantly increased root and shoot of the application of 100 g cyanopith biofertilizer. crop. Significant improvement in gel and latex yield Ocimum (Ocimum spp.) as well as total chlorophyll, free amino acid, Ocimums comprises of iimportant carotenoids and sugar contents was also group of medicinal and aromatic plants which observed higher with 100g cyanopith are rich in essential oils and many aromatic biofertilizer. compounds which are used in perfumery and Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) cosmetic industries as well as in indigenous Aswagandha roots are mainly source system of medicine. Ocimum oil is rich in of withenin but also extracted by leafs and methyl chavicol, geranial, camphor, citral, seeds of the plants. Crop is used in Ayurvedic linalool, linyl acetate, eugenol and thymol. and Unani systems of medicine. Several Among the several species of ocimum,

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 basilicum is commonly and extensively in lemon grass. They found that sole cultivated. Its oil used in flavouring of food application of poultry manure on the basis of products, confectionery, condiments and in recommended dose (40:60:40 kg/ha) or 50% toiletry products such as face and mouth NPK + FYM @ 5 t/ha, gave the highest washes including dental creams. Leaf extract herbage and oil yield as compare to sole used in cure of irritation of throat, ear ache chemical fertilizers. In another experiment and ring worm infections. Seeds are very conducted by Srinivas et al. (2017) it was effective for the treatment of constipation reported that application of fly ash @ 6 t/ha and piles (Joy et al., 2001). Basil leaves and along with vermicompost @ 4 t/ha can be shoots can also be used in culinary purpose recommended for the higher yield of the crop. (Ozcan et al., 2005). Studies have showed that Mint (Mentha spp.) basil is rich in phenolic compounds like Mentha is the primary source of rosmarinic and caffeic acid), which have high menthol, which is extensively used for antioxidant activity (Lee and Scagel, 2009). flavouring toothpastes, tobacco, cigarettes, Crop requires proper nutrients management beverages, confectionery, aerosols candies for their growth and development. chewing gums, mouth washes, for scenting Lemon grass (Cymbopogon spp.) shaving creams, polishes, hair lotions and Lemongrass is a tropical perennial lipsticks. It is also employed in a number of grass which yields aromatic oil containing 70- medicinal preparations like ointments, cough 90% citral. The name lemongrass of this crop syrups, pain balms, cough lozenges and is due to lemon odour of the plant which is tablets. Nutrient management to produce the due to the presence of high citral content in demanded quality of the produce is essential the leaves. Lemongrass is popularly known as for the crop. A study conducted by Andressa Cochin oil in the world trade as 90% of it is Giovannani Costa et al. (2013) to evaluate the coming from Cochin port. Kerala is the leading effects of organic fertilizer sources on the state in production of lemon grass oil. Lemon yield and chemical composition of pepper grass oil is widely used for the isolation of mint essential oil. They used different organic citral. They are used in flavours, cosmetics and manure and found application of FYM 9.0 perfumes. β ionine is isolated from the citral kg/m2 or poultry manure 8.3 kg/m2 gave and can be used for the commercial synthesis highest total dry biomass while there is no of vitamin A. The lemon grass oil is also used significant effect of the treatments on the oil as repellent against flies and mosquitoes. quality.. Again proper nutrient management can increase the herb yield which altimately increase the oil yield of the crop. Shahi and Singh (2013) conducted an experiment to study the effect of different nutrient sources

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CONCLUSION The use of organic sources either as sole or in combination with inorganic helped in augmenting the yield and quality parameters in medicinal and aromatic plants. The inclusion of organics in nutrient management practice will help the growers in reaping higher yields and profits more over the demand of organic produce in the market is high as compare to inorganically produced products. Thus Use of organic material like FYM, Vermicompost, Poultry manures and bio- enhancers should be promoted.

REFRENCES [1]. Andressa Giovannini Costa, Suzan Kelly Vilela Bertolucci, Jorge Henrique Chagas, Elza Oliveira Ferraz, Jose Eduardo Brasil Pereira Pinto. Biomass production, yield and chemical composition of peppermint essential oil using different organic fertilizer sources. Ciencia e Agrotecnologia, Lavras. 2013; 37(3):202- 210. [2]. Ashashri Shinde, Pankaj Gahunge, Paramaveer Singh, Sudipt Kumar Rath, Naresh Khemani. Effect of inorganic fertilizers and organic manures on growth, quality and yield of ashwagandha (Withania somnifera Dunal) cv. Jawahar Ashwagandha-20. Annals of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2013; 4 (1):13-16. [3]. Guruprasad, Mahabaleshwar Hegde, Sangana Goud PR, Sheshagiri KS. Influence of organic manures on growth and yield in Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera Dunal.) Environment and Ecology. 2014; 32(2A):762-766. [4]. Joy PP, Thomas J, Mathew S, Jose G, Joseph J. Aromatic Plants. Tropical Horticulture. 2001, 2. [5]. Krishna Moorthy S, Malliga P. Plant characteristics, growth and leaf gel yield of Aloe barbadensis Miller as affected by cyanopith biofertilizer in pot culture. International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering. 2012; 2(3):884-892. [6]. Lee J, Scagel CF. Chicoric acid found in basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) leaves. Food Chemistry. 2009; 115:650- 656. [7]. Maheshwari SK, Sharma RK, Gangrade SK. Response of ashwagandha to organic manures and fertilizers in shallow black soils under rainfed conditions. Indian Journal of Agronomy. 2000; 45(1):214-216. [8]. Ozcan M, Arslan D, Unver A. Effect of drying methods on the mineral content of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Journal of Food Engineering. 2005; 69(3):375-379. [9]. Saha R, Patil S, Ghosh BC, Mittra BN. Performance of Aloe vera as influenced by organic and inorganic source of fertilizer supplied through fertigation. Acta Horticulturae. 2005; 676:171-175. [10]. Shahi VB, Singh PN. Effect of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients on yield and yield attributes of lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus). Annals of Horticulture. 2013; 6(1):49-55. [11]. Shimrayngayung. Effect of manures, inorganic fertilizers and biofertilizers on growth and yield of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera Dunal.). M.Sc. Thesis submitted to ANGRAU, Hyderabad. 2008. [12]. Srinivas P, Vijay Padma SS, Pandu Sastry K, Sunitha KB. Analysis the effect of flyash and vermicompost combination on herb yield, oil content and oil composition of lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus Nees). International Journal of Pure and Applied Biosciences. 2017; 5(4):1710-1717.

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Honey & Beekeeping: An emerging indusrty in INDIA Article id: 21591 Kamal Ravi Sharma*1, SVS Raju1 and Rakesh Sil Sarma2 1Department of Entomology & Agril. Zoology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005 2Department of Plant Physiology, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221 005

INTRODUCTION and tribal farmers. It provides them valuable Honey and beekeeping have a long nutrition in the form of honey, protein rich history in India. Honey was the first sweet pollen and brood. Bee products also food tasted by the ancient Indian inhabiting constitute important ingredients of folk and rock shelters and forests. He hunted bee hives traditional medicine. for this gift of god. India has some of the The establishment of Khadi and Village oldest records of beekeeping in the form of Industries Commission to revitalize the paintings by prehistoric man in the rock traditional village industries hastened the shelters. With the development of civilization, development of beekeeping. During the honey acquired a unique status in the lives of 1980s, an estimated one million bee hives had the ancient Indians. They regarded honey as a been functioning under various schemes of magical substance that controlled the fertility the Khadi and Village Industries Commission. of women, cattle, as also their lands and Production of apiary honey in the country crops. The recent past has witnessed a revival reached 10,000 tons, valued at about Rs. 300 of the industry in the rich forest regions along million. the sub-Himalayan mountain ranges and the Side by side with the development of Western Ghats, where it has been practiced in apiculture using the indigenous bee, Apis its simplest form. cerana, apiculture using the European bee, In India beekeeping has been mainly forest Apis mellifera, gained popularity in Jammu & based. Several natural plant species provide Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, nectar and pollen to honey bees. Thus, the Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Wild raw material for production of honey is honey bee colonies of the giant honey bee available free from nature. Bee hives neither and the oriental hive bee have also been demand additional land space nor do they exploited for collection of honey. Tribal compete with agriculture or animal husbandry populations and forest dwellers in several for any input. The beekeeper needs only to parts of India have honey collection from wild spare a few hours in a week to look after his honey bee nests as their traditional bee colonies. Beekeeping is therefore ideally profession. The methods of collection of suited to him as a part-time occupation. honey and beeswax from these nests have Beekeeping constitutes a resource of changed only slightly over the millennia. The sustainable income generation to the rural major regions for production of this honey are

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 the forests and farms along the sub- equipment and machinery for handling and Himalayan tracts and adjacent foothills, processing of honey, beeswax, for tropical forest and cultivated vegetation in manufacture of comb foundation sheets, and Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, for other operations. Maharashtra and Eastern Ghats in Orissa and India has a potential to keep about 120 Andhra Pradesh. million bee colonies that can provide self- employment to over 6 million rural and tribal Resources and Potential families. In terms of production, these bee The raw materials for the beekeeping colonies can produce over 1.2 million industry are mainly pollen and nectar that improved methods can result in an additional come from flowering plants. Both the natural production of at least 120,000 tons of honey and cultivated vegetation in India constitute and 10,000 tons of beeswax. This can an immense potential for development of generate income to about 5 million tribal beekeeping. About 500 flowering plant families. species, both wild and cultivated, are useful as major or minor sources of nectar and pollen. India Facts and Figures: There are at least four species of true honey Total production: 76000 MTs with 25 lacs bees and three species of the stingless bees. beekeepers (NHB, 2014). The country has Several sub-species and races of these are exported 38177.08 MT of Natural Honey to known to exist. In recent years the exotic the world for the worth of Rs. 705.87 crore honey bee has been introduced. Together during the year of 2015-16. In term of export these represent a wide variety of bee fauna from India, Natural Honey recorded 32% that can be utilized for the development of growth during the financial year 2015-16 over honey industry in the country. There are the same period of last year. Major Export several types of indigenous and traditional Destinations (2015-16): United States, Saudi hives including logs, clay pots, wall niches, Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Morocco and baskets and boxes of different sizes and Bangladesh (APEDA, 2015). shapes. In modern beekeeping, the combs are built on wooden frames that are moveable. Apiculture Technology This facilitates inspection and management of Production of honey has been the major bee colonies. Three types of moveable frame aim of the industry. Modern beekeeping also hive are in common use: the Newton type includes production of beeswax, bee collected along with its standardized version ISI Type A, pollen, bee venom, royal jelly, propolis, as also the Jeolikote Villager, and its counterpart ISI of package bees, queen bees and nucleus Type B, and the Langstroth type. Besides the colonies. All these are possible only with a hives, the beekeepers need equipment and proper management of bees, utilizing the implements like the hive stand, nucleus box local plant resources and adapting to the local and smoker. The industry also needs climatic conditions. Modern beekeeping

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 makes heavy use of beekeeping equipment Apiary honey is produced in bee hives and honey processing plant. This results in and is harvested by extraction in honey high efficiency and also ensures the quality of extractors. Other types of beekeeping the processed honey. equipment like queen excluder, smoker, hive Seasonal management of bee colonies tool, pollen trap, honey processing plant are varies in different parts of the country also used. Beekeepers sell the honey to the although the basic management methods are co-operative society, if one exists in the area. the same. Flow management, dearth In many parts of India, the beekeeper gets a management, provision of feeding, and much higher price if he sells it directly to the control and cure of bee disorders, bee consumer. Apiary honeys are usually diseases, pests and enemies, are some of the multifloral when marketed by state-level routine measures to keep bee colonies marketing organizations, because honeys healthy and strong. There are special from different sources are mixed while management techniques like queen rearing, pooling, storage and processing. Several migration for honey production or for colony unifloral honeys are available in markets multiplication, which the beekeeper takes up restricted to small areas within the state after he gains sufficient knowledge and where it is produced. Rubber plant experience in handling bee colonies. contributed to over 60 per cent of the total apiary honey production during 1990-91. Market Besides this, jamun, hirda, beheda, arjun, About 10,000 tons of forest honey is neem, litchi, palmyrah palm, eucalyptus, produced annually. Apiary honey produced lagerstroemias, tamarind, cashew tree, under the KVI sector is estimated to be a little scheffleras, tun, karanj, false acacia, wild less than 10,000 tons in 1990-91. Over 95 per shrubs like shain, crops of different varieties cent of this was from the A. cerana colonies, of mustards, sesame, niger, sunflower, the rest being from the European bee berseem clover, khesari, coriander, orchard colonies. Forest honey, mostly from rock bee trees including different types of citrus, apple, hives, is usually collected by tribals in forests puddum, cherry and other temperate fruit and is procured by forest or tribal trees, coconut tree and coffee plantations are corporations as a minor forest produce. Quite some important sources that provide unifloral a large quantity is also collected by groups or honey. individuals on their own. Forest honey is Much of the forest honey is sold to usually thin, contains large quantity of pollen, the pharmaceutical, confectionery and food bee juices and parts, wax and soil particles. industries, where it is processed and used in The honey collector gets between Rs. 10 and different formulations. Apiary honey is usually Rs. 25 per kilogram of the forest honey. Forest processed at the producer’s level. This honeys are mostly multifloral. consists mainly of heating the honey and filtering. A few beekeepers or honey

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 producers co-operative societies have better be sold in non-local markets. Coorg honey processing facilities that involve killing of with its characteristic flavour was well-known honey fermenting yeasts. About 50 per cent of during 1950s and 1960s. Shain or sulah honey the apiary honey under the KVI sector is from Kashmir has been very popular. graded and marketed under AGMARK Presently litchi honey from Bihar and other specifications. In 1985 the consumption of northern states is in great demand. The price honey was estimated to be about 8.4 g per structure is regulated by the market forces of capita, while in other countries this was 200 g. supply and demand. Beekeepers in well- presently this would be about 2.5 g. Honey known hill stations and other places of tourist has so far been consumed mainly as a attraction take advantage of the popularity of medicine and for religious purposes. A small honey and can market their produce at quantity has been used in kitchen as an remunerative prices. ingredient of pickles, jams and preserves. With the increasing production in recent CONCLUSION years, there is an increasing trend to use India has potential to keep about more honey in food. This is obviously the case with than 100 million bee colonies that can provide the affluent segments of the population. self employment to over 6 million rural Forest honey is used in pharmaceutical, food, families. In terms of production, these bee confectionery, bakery and cosmetic industries. colonies can produce 15 million tons of honey One often finds a good demand for local and about 15000 tons of be wax has honeys like honeys from Mahabaleshwar. significantly contribute in Indian GDP. Indian People in Maharashtra have a strong liking for honey has also a good export market of honey jamun, hirda or gela honeys which have and its products. With the use of modern acquired special individual medicinal collection, storage, beekeeping equipment, significance. Similarly, kartiki honey in honey processing plants and bottling Kumaon, Uttar Pradesh is locally much technologies the potential export market can favored. Some honeys have an essentially be tapped. non-local market. Rubber tree honey can only

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Jasmonic acid: An abiotic stress defender of plants Article id: 21592 Suvarna Gare1, A. U. Ingle2 and Neetu Soni3 1, 2, 3 Ph. D. Scholars, MPKV, Rahuri.

INTRODUCTION Biosynthesis Jasmonic acid (JA) is an organic Its biosynthesis starts from the fatty compound found in several plants acid linolenic acid, which is oxygenated including jasmine. The molecule is a member of by Lipoxygenase (13-LOX), forming a peroxide. the jasmonate class of plant hormones. It is This peroxide then cyclizes in the presence of biosynthesized from linolenic acid by allene oxide synthase to form an allene oxide. the octadecanoid pathway. This allene oxide rearranges as it gets catalyzed Plants present in an environment in by the enzyme allene oxide cyclase to form 12- ancient time characterized by the presence of oxophytodienoic acid, and undergoes a series various types of stresses both biotic and of β-oxidations to 7-iso-jasmonic acid. In the abiotic. Phytohormones play important role in absence of enzyme, this iso-jasmonic acid plant growth, development and response to isomerizes to jasmonic acid. stresses. Plant hormones regulate diverse Functions developmental processes and send the signals The major function of JA and its various networks in plants under different abiotic metabolites is regulating plant responses to stresses. Plants have to adapt to a wide range abiotic and biotic stresses as well as plant of environmental factors, such as heat, low growth and development. Regulated plant temperature, frost, darkness, high light growth and development processes include conditions, UV light, oxidative stress, wounding, growth inhibition, senescence, tendril coiling, wind/touch, desiccation, water deficit, osmotic flower development and leaf abscission. JA is adjustment or salt stress. Additional factors are also responsible for tuber formation in nutrient supply and pathogen attack. Exposure potatoes and yams. It has an important role in to stress in plants is often followed by growth response to woundingof plants and systemic retardation and reduced fresh weight and seed acquired resistance. The Dgl gene is responsible or fruit production. This is crucial and for maintaining levels of JA during usual troublesome in agriculture, hence a deeper conditions in Zea mays as well as the understanding of the mechanisms occurring preliminary release of jasmonic acid shortly during various stress responses is essential. after being fed upon. When plants are attacked Jasmonic acid (JA) is among those plant by insects, they respond by releasing JA, which hormones, which mediate in certain types of activates the expression of protease inhibitors, stress responses and their action. among many other anti-herbivore defense compounds. These protease inhibitors prevent

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 proteolytic activity of the insects' digestive Xue and Zhang (2007) studied that proteases or "salivary proteins", thereby Jasmonic acid regulate the leaf and root stopping them from acquiring the needed morphogenesis in soybean. Jasmonic acid was nitrogen in the protein for their own growth. JA first of all isolated from the fungal cultures of also activates the expression of Polyphenol Lasiodiplodiatheobromae while as methyl oxidase which promotes the production jasmonate (MeJA; was obtained from the of Quinoline. These can interfere with the essential oil of Jasminumgrandiforum L. And insect's enzyme production and decrease the Rosmarinus officinalis L. Jasmonates are nutrition content of the ingested plant. present in all higher plants and the level is JA may have a role in pest higher in flowers and reproductive tissues, control. Indeed, JA has been considered as a while low in roots and mature leaves. The seed treatment in order to stimulate the derivatives of jasmonic acid are various types natural anti-pest defenses of the plants that and mainly hydroxylated forms like tuberonic germinate from the treated seeds. In this acid and cucurbic acid and other amino acid application jasmonates are sprayed onto plants conjugates (Hamberg and Gardner, 1992). Koda that have already started growing. These (1992) revealed that tuberonic acid (12- applications stimulate the production of hydroxy-JA) and its glucoside regulate the tuber protease inhibitor in the plant. This production formation in potato; however, recent study has of protease inhibitor can protect the plant from indicated that the process is controlled by light, insects, decreasing infestation rates and temperature and gibberellic acid (Lin et al., physical damage sustained due to 2013). herbivores. However, due to its antagonistic With the advancement in plant biology relationship with salicylic acid (an important research it has been established that signal in pathogen defense) in some plant phytohormones have the potential to remove species, it may result in an increased the deleterious effects posed by abiotic susceptibility to viral agents and other stresses (Masood et al., 2012; Khan et al., pathogens. In Zea mays, salicylic acid and JA are 2013). Plant defense responses are mediated mediated by NPR1 (non expressor of by three major pathways of the pathogenesis-related genes1), which is phytohormones, jasmonic acid (JA), salicylic essential in preventing herbivores from acid (SA) and ethylene (ET). The fine tuning of exploiting this antagonistic plant response to pathogen depends on the system. Armyworms (Spodoptera spp.), through synergistic or antagonistic interactions between unknown mechanisms, are able to increase the these three pathways (Takahashi et al., 2004). activity of the salicylic acid pathway in maize, Jasmonates widely role in cellular resulting in the depression of JA synthesis, but regulators involved in diverse developmental thanks to NPR1 mediation, JA levels aren't processes such as seed germination, root decreased by a significant amount. growth, gravitropism, trichome formation, embryo development, sex determination

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(maize), fertility, seedling development, tuber is present in soil, it decrease the net formation, leaf movement, fruit ripening and photosynthetic rate, causes closing of stomata leaf senescence (Creelman and Mulpuri, 2002; and reduces total chlorophyll content in leaves. Wasternack and Hause, 2002; Wasternack, Boron toxicity leads to the accumulation of 2014). Jasmonates regulate a wide range of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in wheat (Gunes plant processes, such as growth and et al., 2007), barley (Inal et al., 2009) and development, including defense against biotic tomato (Cervilla et al., 2007). The typical and abiotic stresses (Browse and Howe, 2008; symptoms showed by plants when exposed to Reinbothe et al., 2009). B stress include leaf burn, decreased fruit size Foliar application of JA to drought and number, delayed development and stressed plants improved these morphological reduced vigor (Paull et al., 1992; Noctor et al., traits to a significant level. Similar reports were 1998). Exogenous application of MeJA has been observed in soybean Sheteawi, (2007), Cajanus shown to counter the boron toxicity in plants. cajan Sharma et al., (2013) and A. sativum When boron stressed plants of Artemisia were Abumoslem, (2013). foliarly sprayed with MeJA, it started to Chilling injury (Cl) creates storage stimulate the synthesis of antioxidant enzymes, problems for the horticultural crops, especially reduced the amount of lipid peroxidation and growing in the tropical and sub-tropical regions. enhances artemisinin content. The fruits of the tropical plants exhibit chilling Ahmed and Murali (2015) reported that injury symptoms, including browning of the JA is a very beneficial growth regulator which skin, greater firmness in texture, and off-flavor enhanced growth and total biomass of A. cepa in the fruit. It has been found that MeJA var. Aggregatum and it may be recommended treatment reduce the chilling injury in the fruits for better growth and yield both in arid as well of plants like zucchini, mango, avocado, sweet as semiarid regions. pepper, tomato and papaya (Gonzalez-Aguilar Derivatives et al., 2003). Jasmonic acid is also converted to a Boron (B) is an essential nutrient variety of derivatives including the ester methyl element required for growth and development jasmonate. This conversion is catalyzed by the of plants. However, in excess amount it may be jasmonic acid carboxyl methyl transferase toxic to plants and it can cause oxidative stress enzyme. It can also be conjugated to amino and considerably reduces the stem length, acids in some biological contexts. fresh and dry masses of the plants. Aftab et al., Decarboxylation affords the related (2011) studied that if excess amounts of boron fragrance jasmone.

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Breeding management of swine Article id: 21593 P.Rajkumar, K.Tamilarasan, R. K.Rajkumar, S.A Kochewad, G.K.Gaur and Mukesh Singh Livestock Production and Management Section Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar 243122, Uttar Pradesh, India

INTRODUCTION: It is very important to select a good quality boar, India has the largest livestock wealth in the because it determines half the quality of the herd. world. Quarter of its agricultural GDP is For selecting a good quality boar, the following contributed by livestock sector only. Pig also play points to be considered, a major role in that,since it is reared mostly by socio-economically weaker sections of the  Boars should have sound feet with full country. Northeast India is contributing 28.0% of hams, back with good length and uniform India’s total pig population, smallholder pig curve. farming is an important livelihood resource for  Boars shouldhave at least 12 nicely placed small or marginal farmers especially tribal people rudimentary teats. in India (Halder et al.,2017). Nowadays due to rise  Boar shouldbe selected from sows, which in popularity of pork, several commercial piggery wean 8 -10 or more piglets per litter and farms are also budded all over the country. are known to be good mothers. Breeding is very essential for the profitability of  Boar shouldbe selected from the herd the pig farm. Because it only determines the which having no anatomical abnormalities number of piglets per litter per annum.Nath et al., in sexual organs. (2013) reported that the use of own stock and  Boar should be free from infectious that of neighbour’s, which gives rise to inbreeding diseases. and consequently low productivity in pigs. So  Selected boar should be the biggest in its proper knowledge on reproduction and breeding litter. management is very important for a person to be  They should have high average daily a successful pig farmer. weight gain and high feed conversion ability. Selection of pigs for breeding: 2) Selection of gilt/sow: Selection is the first and foremost thing in breeding management. Selection of good quality General considerations for selection of gilts is animals for breeding will definitely improves the given below, farm output.  Gilts selected to have at least 12-14 teats 1) Selection of boar: so it helps it to feed a large litter and in

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case of sow, selector should also account  Select fast growing weaners, so that they for well developed udder. will consume less feed per unit live weight  Gilts to be selected from sows, which wean gain during growing periods. 9 -10 or more piglets per litter and are  Select gilts which have well developed known to be good mothers with age at first hams, comparatively light heads and good farrowing of one year of age and farrowing body confirmation. interval of seven month.  Don’t select gilt having supernumerary,  Select breeding gilts at weaning period, inverted teats and fat deposited at the further selection should be done 5-6 base of the teats. months of age.  Sow must be ready for rebreeding after  Two phases of selection: 1st at weaning the end of lactation. period and 2nd at 5 to 6 months of age.  Sow should have good reproductive soundness and well developed external genetalia.

Fig: Classification of teats General points to be considered:

Age at puberty 5 to 8 months Age at first mating 8 to 10 months Length of oestrus cycle 18 to 24 days ( 21 average) Duration of oestrus 2to 3 days (2 days average) Days from weaning to oestrus 3 to 8 days Weight of breed gilts 100 to 120 kg Best time for mating First day of oestrum in gilt and second day in sow Number of services per sow 2 sevices at 12 to 14 hours interval

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Heat detection:

Common signs are, Early oestrum Animal will be restless and alert, vulva swollen and white mucus discharge noticed Mid oestrum Vulva will be less red and swollen and have slimy mucus discharge. Animal stand to be mounted and also mount others Late oestrum Animal will not stand to be mounted and vulval swelling disappears

Standing heat reflex: 1) Hand mating: Sow in heat is brought to It consists of signs like arching back, the individual boar pen for service. It is immobilisation and in some breeds cocking of the most common method of mating. the ears. It is exhibited in presence of boar or In this method sterile sow and repeat by riding test. breeders can be easily detected. Important thing in hand mating is that Riding test: sow only taken to boar pen not vice The sow or gilt will stand still when versa. pressure is applied to her back (can accept a 2) Pen mating: boar is allowed to a group man's weight sitting on her. This is the right of sows (8 – 10) for heat detection and stage to send her to the boar. mating. But record maintenance is very difficult. 3) Flock or herd mating: boar is allowed to run with the herd. Mature can satisfactorily serve about 15 to 20 sows in this system. Failure of conception:  Size of boar: too large or too small boar.

 Overuse of boar (> 5 mating in a Time for mating: week). Mating done 24 hours after onset of  Too young boar. oestrus signs and second mating is advised 8-  Animal in first cycle. 12 hours after the first mating. It is done to  Too young or small gilts. utilise the ova that are released during 2nd day  Sow/gilt with excess fat deposition. of oestrum.  Disease conditions like pseudo rabies, porcine reproductive and respiratory Mating techniques: syndrome, etc.,

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Care and management of breeding boar and  Breeding stock should be feed with sow: well-balanced ration with atleast 16%  Maturity of gilt is more important than crude protein. Excess energy in diet age. Skip the 1st heat and mate the gilt should be avoided to prevent in 2nd or 3rd heat to achieve large litter excessive fat deposition. size.  Fertility and prolificacy decrease  Flushing: feed about 500g of extra during summer months (Bertoldo et concentrate for 2 to 3weeks before al., 2012). So correct management breeding. It helps to increase in techniques like foggers, provision of number of ova shedding and thus cool drinking water, wallowing tank increase the litter size. has to be arranged to overcome this.  Housing: Type of animal Covered area ( m2 ) Open paddock ( m2 ) Animals per pen Boar 6.0 – 7.0 8.8 – 12 1 Dry sow / gilt 1.8 – 2.7 1.4 – 1,8 10

CONCLUSION: Pig farming has a great potential in India. It helps in providing nutritional and economic security to our country. Many people nowadays are showing interest towards this sector. Pig is a prolific breeder and capable of producing two litters per year under optimal management conditions. Sound breeding management is essential in pig farming to achieve the maximum production and to earn good profit.

REFERENCE: [1]. Bertoldo, MJ., Holyoake, PK., Evans, G. and Grupen, CG. (2012). Seasonal variation in the ovarian function of sows. Reprod Fert Develop. 24:822–834. doi: 10.1071/RD11249. [2]. Haldar, A., Das, D.,Santra, A., Pal, P., Dey, S., Das, A.,Rajkhowa, D.J., Hazarika, S. and Datta, M. (2017). Traditional Feeding System for Pigs in Northeast India. International Journal of Livestock Research. 1. 10.5455/ijlr.20170615051342. [3]. Nath, B.G., Pathak, P.K.,Ngachan, S.V., Tripathi, A.K., and Mohanty, A.K. (2013). Characterization of smallholder pig production system: productive and reproductive performances of local and crossbred pigs in Sikkim Himalayan region. Tropical Animal Health and Production 45:1513–1518.

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Health benefits and supplementary products of Millets Article id: 21594 Vinny John, Amit Kumar Maurya, Abhishek Sagar and Rakhi Murmu Department of Plant Pathology Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology and Sciences, Allahabad (U.P.) - 211 007, INDIA

INTRODUCTION commonly available in the form of semolina Millets are cereal crops widely used in India. and rice flour. Iron and calcium present in this It’s botanical name is Setaria italic and millet helps to strengthen immunity. synonym Panicum italicum L.) is an annual grass grown for human consumption as well Bajra (Pearlmillet): This millet is known for its as a fodder for animals. It is the second-most umpteen health benefits. Packed with the widely planted species of millet and the most goodness of iron, protein, fiber, and minerals important in East Asia. Around 97 percent of such as calcium and magnesium; the daily world’s overall millet production comes under consumption or inclusion of this millet can semiarid tropical regions of Africa and Asia. work wonder.

Types of millets Barnyardmillet: This nutrient dense millet has Jowar (Sorghum): Sorghum is commonly high fiber content, which can effectively help known as Jowar in India. Traditionally, jowar in losing weight. It is a rich source of calcium was used as a grain to make flat breads/ rotis. and phosphorous, which helps in bone Enriched with the goodness of iron, protein building and its daily consumption helps and fibre, jowar can help in reducing infighting bone diseases cholesterol level as it has a component called policosanols (a part of sorghum wax). It is Littlemillet: Crowded with the decency of B- good for people who have wheat in tolerance. vitamins, minerals like calcium, iron, zinc and potassium, little millets can provide essential Ragi (FingerMillet): Ragi is consumed as a nutrients, which further help in weight loss. It healthy substitute of rice and wheat. Ragi is is a part of many traditional dishes in south considered as a powerhouse of nutrition. It India. What's more, more than anything its contains protein and amino acids, and is also high fiber content makes it a healthy gluten free millet good for brain development replacement for rice. for growing kids. Health benefits of millets: Since ages millets Foxtailmillet: Foxtail millet consists of healthy were frequently used to feed birds and blood sugar balancing carbohydrates and it is animals, until the health benefits of theses

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 super foods were known to the world. effectively reduce coronary blockage. It is However, in various parts of India, millets enriched with the goodness of magnesium, were used for a multiplicity of dishes. which can effectively reduce blood pressure Especially, for their incredible nutrient rich and risk of stroke and heart attacks. composition. In fact, India is known as the Particularly, millets can help in tumbling the second largest diabetes capital of the world, risk of diseases like atherosclerosis. Rich in and this has lead to the surge in the require of potassium, millets can efficiently work as a millets. Enriched with the integrity of nature, vasodilator. Moreover, the plant lingams in millets are a rich source of fiber, minerals like millets can be transformed into animal lagans, magnesium, phosphorous, iron, calcium, zinc which can combat chronic diseases like cancer and potassium. According to the health and and other coronary diseases. nutrition expert Tapasya Mundhra, ‘Millets Millets can manages sugar level: Millets are a are very nutritious and good for health; they rich source of magnesium, which help in also need less water and can easily stored for stimulating the level of insulin, thereby several years, as they have a long shelf life. increasing the efficiency of glucose receptors Millets make for a perfect healthy meal. In in the body, which further helps in fact, it is often advised to prepare millets in maintaining a healthy balance of sugar level in the form of porridge for growing kids and the body. aging adults. What’s more, millets are loaded This helps in reducing the chance of diabetes with high amount of starch and proteins, type 2. To further balance the sugar level you which can be beneficial, if added to the daily can add flaxseeds, makhana, red rice, black diet. She further adds, millets are not only rice. healthy but at the same time they have a Millets promote digestion: Rich in fiber, unique taste, which can emphasize the taste millets make for a healthy cereal, which can percentage of any meal. With various culinary help in digestion and can relieve bowel issues. innovations, millets like ragi, jowar and bajra It helps in gastrointestinal problems and can are used to prepare several snacks and dishes ease in other diseases related to the liver and like Ragi Idly, Millet Khichidi, Apple Ragi Halwa kidney. It can also help in reducing the risk of (healthy for toddlers), Ragi Cookies etc. colon cancer. Adding noni juice and black Moreover, millets can make meals palatable grapes in your daily diet can prevent cancer. and visually interesting. So, here’s a low down on how addition of millets in daily diet can Helps in detoxification: Millets are loaded amp up the health measure and keep diseases with the components such as curcumin, ellagic at bay and provide ample nutrition. acid, Quercetin and catechins, which further help in removing foreign agents and free Millets are good for coronary diseases: These radicals and balance the enzymatic reactions little grains are a powerhouse of nutrition, in the body. These can naturally detoxify the which help in improving heart health and can blood.

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get the phosphorus intake necessary for the Prevents Asthma: Research has come to light body to perform all these functions. showing that millet can considerably pick up Millet is considered a “nutri-cereal” the quality of life for people suffering because of high in fiber and protein as well as from asthma since childhood and can also rich in B vitamins, (especially niacin, B6 and prevent it from developing in the first place. folic acid), phosphorus, manganese (a trace Even though some of the confirmation is mineral that acts as an antioxidant), and may controversial, it is shown that significantly less benefit people suffering with arthritis, wheezing and asthma attacks (by more than inflammation and poor bone health. 15%) were seen in children who had a large Magnesium is a mineral which has been intake of grains like millet. As wheat is a shown to help relax muscle and nervous common allergen associated with asthma and system, reduce the severity of asthma and wheezing, millet does not have the same migraine attacks, build and strengthen bones, components and hence, does not have this as well as lower blood pressure is reduce the negative effect. risk of heart attacks. Re-discovered as a Prevents Anemia: Anemia, particularly in healthy seeded-grain, millet has been shown women who are expecting is extremely to help in controlling diabetes, lower levels of dangerous and can lead to fatal deceases. triglycerides, increase the good HDL levels and Millet is collected magnificently to help decrease inflammation. Millet also contains prevent anemia or to cope with it. The folic calcium, iron and zinc. The protein content of acid, foliate, and iron present in millet are the millet varies from 6 to 22 percent, with an key components in the formation of red blood average of 11 to 12 percent. cells and helps to maintain hemoglobin level. Millet is a good source of copper which also CONCLUSION aids in production of red blood cells. Millet is generally better to wheat, corn and rice in terms of protein content. It is Celiac Friendly: Most grains contain gluten also a good source of the minerals and cause allergic reactions in people phosphorous and magnesium, as well as B suffering from celiac disease. This is where vitamins such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, millet, being a gluten-free alternative fulfills and B6. In addition, its protein and vitamin their necessities. Phosphorus, the mineral that content, millet is a hypoallergenic (low- does it all. The mineral helps to forming the allergy), gluten-free grain. As such, millet is a structure of body cells and also helps to form perfect alternative to wheat. Like many other the mineral matrix of the bone and aids the whole grains, it is a good source of fiber and molecules that are the source of energy for offers protection against heart disease, our body growth. Millet is a good source to diabetes, and cancer.

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Black tip of Mango: Becoming a serious problem in Mango cultivation Article id: 21595 Anmol Singh Yadav1*, Supriya Yadav2, Sumit Kumar1 1. Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 2. Directorate of Agricultural Marketing and Agriculture Foreign Trade, U.P.

INTRODUCTION: asthma and as an astringent. Fumes from the Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is a fruit which burning leaves are inhaled to get relief from belongs to Anacardiaceae family having 40n hiccups and infections of the throat. The bark chromosome number. It is grown in tropical acts as an astringent used in curing diphtheria and subtropical regions of the world. It is and rheumatism (Shah et. al., 2010). originated in India and cultivated more than 4000 years (Mukherjee, S. K. 1972). Mango is affected by various biotic and It is aptly considered a king of fruit in India. abiotic stresses viz., Powdery mildew, The major mango growing countries are Anthracnose, Die back, Phoma blight, China, Thailand, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, Bacterial canker, Red rust Sooty mould, Indonesia, Brazil, Nigeria and Egypt. Mango malformation, Gummosis, Root rot & The area and production of the mango Damping off, Scab, Fruit cracking and Black is 2263 thousand hectare and 19687 thousand tip. Black tip of mango is an abiotic disease MT respectively (Horticultural Statistics at a which is caused by air pollution. Black tip is a Glance 2017). In India, major mango serious disorder that occurs in orchards producing states are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, closely located to brick-kilns. Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Symptoms: Bengal. Other States where mangoes are Black tip is a serious disorder, particularly in grown include Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, the cultivar Dasheri. The first symptom occurs Haryana, Punjab etc. India earns a huge on the tip of fruit becoming black and flat, amount of foreign exchange by exporting inner portion gets rotten and soft, secretion of fresh mango, 49,180.46 MT was exported in dark brown liquid occurs at a severe stage. the year 2017-18 with value of 38,234.02 The injury takes place from the exterior and lakhs (APEDA, 2017). not through the roots as a medium. The It is a good source vitamin A, vitamin C, affected fruits become unmarketable and protein and fibre. Different parts of the reduces yield to a considerable extent. The mango tree possess various medicinal damage to the fruit gets initiated right at properties. The juice is restorative tonic and marble stage with a characteristic yellowing of used in heat stroke. The seeds are used in tissues at distal end. Gradually, the colour intensifies into brown and finally becoming

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 black. At this stage, further growth and at pea stage followed by two more sprays at development of the fruit is retarded and black 15 days interval. Black tip of mango can also ring at the tip extends towards the upper part be prevented by applying borax. Allow the of the fruit. construction of new brick kiln sites to a safe distance and restrict the working of brick kilns Causes: before the time of fruit-set and mandate the The main causes of black tip are gases like use of telescopic chimneys (12-15 m high). carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and ethylene which are the main constituents of CONCLUSIONS: toxic fumes from brick kilns. Brick kiln fumes High concentration of various air pollutants in are known to damage growing tip of fruits and atmosphere gives birth to new plant diseases give rise to the symptoms of black tip. every now and then. Increased numbers of brick kilns near the mango orchards are the Management main cause of agricultural pollution. Mango Planting of mango orchards 5-6 km away from being a cash crop suffers severe revenue the brick kilns in North-South direction may losses once it becomes unmarketable due to reduce the incidence of black tip to a greater black tip. Government must enforce strict extent. It can also be minimized by spraying laws and policies for the set up of new brick Borax(1%) or other alkaline solutions like kilns especially near the mango orchards. caustic soda(0.8%) or washing soda(0.5%). The Therefore, reducing environmental pollution first spray of Borax should be done positively and increasing farmer's income.

REFERENCES: [1]. Shah, K. A., Patel, M. B., Patel, R. J., & Parmar, P. K. (2010). Mangifera indica (mango). Pharmacognosy reviews, 4(7), 42. [2]. Mukherjee, S. K. (1972). Origin of mango (Mangifera indica). Economic Botany, 26(3), 260- 264. [3]. http://agriexchange.apeda.gov.in/product_profile/exp_f_india.aspx?categorycode=0204 [4]. http://agricoop.nic.in/sites/default/files/Horticulture%20At%20a%20Glance%202017%20for %20net%20uplod%20%282%29.pdf

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Diseases of barley Article id: 21596 Akash Pandey1, Sumit Kumar2 1- S.V.P.U.A.&T.Modipuram, Department of Plant Pathology 2-B.H.U. Vanaras, Department of Plant Pathology

1-Covered smut of barley  Leaf extracts of margosa significantly Covered smut of barley is common in reduce spore germination of U. hordei. northern parts of India where it may cause  Leaf extracts of Melia azadirachta and considerable damage in susceptible varieties. Cannabis sativa also suppress It is more common than the loose smut of the germination but at high concentrations. same crop. 2-Loose smut of barley This smut resembles the loose smut of wheat Symptom- in all important features. However, it is not The smut does not become evident in as common as loose smut of wheat and the field until the ears are formed. The covered smut of barley. affected ears may emerge about the same Symptoms- time as the healthy ears but remain shorter The sori are formed in the spikelets. In and are usually retained within the sheath for early stages they are covered by a thin, silvery a longer time before appearing, or may membrane which ruptures while the ear sometimes fail to emerge at all. Every ear in a emerging out of the sheath. The loose spore diseased stool and every grain in a diseased mass is shed or blown away by wind leaving ear is affected. The black spore mass of this behind the bare rachis. Early symptoms of the smut remains covered by more or less firmly diseases, before flowering can be detected adhering membranes of the grain and the sometimes by the discoloration of leaves. basal parts of the glumes. The smut sori are Causal organism- Ustilago segetum hordei mostly broken when the grains are threshed Management- and then the spores get mixed with and stick i. Use of resistant varieties. to healthy seeds. ii. This disease can also be controlled Causal organism - Ustilago hordei through Hot water or solar energy Management- treatment or systemic fungicide  Agrosan GN applied at the rate of 2.5g/kg treatmen of the seed. seed. iii. In solar heat treatment the seed is  Sulphur dust (300 mesh) could also be soaked in cold water from 6 a.m – 10 used for seed treatment. a.m on a bright sunny day in June and  Use of resistant varieties. then exposed to sun on brick floor from 10 a.m – 5 p.m.

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3-Stripe disease of barley 4-Powdery mildew of barley This disease of worldwide occurrence Powdery mildew is a fungal disease of barley occasionally causes considerable damage to caused by Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei. The the barley crop from seedling stage to disease has a worldwide distribution and is maturity. In badly affected cases the entire most damaging in cool, wet climates. plant is blighted. Symptoms- Symptoms- Powdery mildew can be observed as The symptoms of the disease are small grayish patches of fluffy fungal growth conspicuous from the late tillering stage until on the upper surface of the lower leaves. the crop is mature. The disease strarts as These spots resemble small cushions of white small yellow spots on old leaf blades and powder. Leaf tissue on the opposite side of an sheath. These spots elongate in to strips. The infected leaf turns pale green to yellow. elongation of the culm of diseased plants Infections can also occur on the leaf sheaths varies from rosette- like development to fully and ears. Leaves remain green and active for development tillers. The yellow stripes soon some time following infection, then gradually turn brown as tissue necrosis progresses, become chlorotic and die off. As the disease finally the tissues dry up and the leaf becomes progresses, the mycelium often becomes shredded. dotted with minute black points which are the Causal organism- Drechslera graminea sexual fruiting bodies of the fungus. Management- Causal organism- Blumeria graminis  Seed treatment with organo- mercurials eradicates the seed born Management- inoculum. 1-Balance crop nutrition, particularly  Use of resistant varieties such as K-12, ensuring adequate potassium on efficient K-19, K-24,K-131 etc. soils and avoid excess use of nitrogen  Diluted neem or marigold leaf extracts fertilizer. used for plant treatment are 2-Avoid sowing back into barley reported to suppress the disease. stubble from highly infected  Field sanitation is recommended to crops mildew is carried as fruiting bodies on reduce the soil borne inoculums. infested stubble. 3-Control volunteer barley plants prior to seedling , particularly of varieties, this will reduce inoculums of powdery mildew carried in to the season.

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Multistoried Cropping System-A strategy to improve agricultural production Article id: 21597 Gauri Mohan Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development, Nagaland University

INTRODUCTION mixed crops, multiple crops and multistoried Multi storied cropping system is a crops in perennial fruits (Mango, Sapota, perspective modern approach for sustainable Banana etc.) and plantation crops (Coconut, productivity in horticulture crops in general Areca nut, Coffee etc.) produces more food and plantation crops especially in Coconut, products, ensuring sustainable income besides Areca nut and Coffee in particular. The system employment generation. is more adaptable in tall growing perennials with compatible semi-perennial and annual Examples of some multistoried cropping crops. The practice of multi storied cropping pattern system is highly successful in plantation crops  Coconut + Citrus + Pineapple especially in Coconut, Areca nut, Coffee and  Coconut + Citrus + Ginger Cashew for enhancing sustainable  Areca nut + Betel vine + Ginger productivity and realizing higher income per  Mango + Papaya + Pineapple unit area.  Sugarcane + Potato + Onion A multi-storied approach is often viewed as a sustainable alternative farming system The basic principles of multistoried cropping particularly on small and marginal lands and it system include can provide greater economic return per unit  Opportunities for crop diversification area. Land cultivation through this system can on scientific, ecological & economic maintain sustainable ecological balance principles. besides efficient use of all natural resources.  Maximize system productivity Agriculture/ Horticulture/ Silvi culture based  Utilization of resources with higher cropping systems especially Horti-Horti and efficiency. Horti-Agri based cropping system plays a  Intensive input use. potential role in realizing more sustainable  Sustainability of farm resources & productivity and income. The future of Indian environment on long term perspective. agriculture/ horticulture depends on the development of appropriate farming system Characteristics of multistoried cropping suitable to poor agrarian families of different  Select plants that provide multiple agro-ecological zones. Growing of intercrops, benefits.

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 Use plants that provide short and long-  Natural resources like sunlight, soil term products. moisture are utilized properly.  Avoid plants that compete for same  Improve the soil characteristics and resources. adds organic matter to the soil.  Utilize the different canopy layers to  Multistoried cropping control weeds to increase options. a great extent.  Higher production as the cultivation Advantages of multistoried cropping system process is accelerated.  In multistoried cropping system  Better quality of crops. income per unit area is increased and  Maintain an ecological balance. ensure a more evenly distribution of  It reduces the attack of pest and income and employment throughout diseases to a great extent. the year from harvesting different

crops in different season. Disadvantages of multistoried cropping  Decrease risks of crop yield loss and system provide farm products round the year.  Labor intensive.  Provide job and better labor use  Chemical control of weeds, pests and pattern. diseases may be difficult.  Increase land use efficiency.  Difficulty in mechanization.  As most of the land area is covered by  Adverse competitive effect or by different characteristics of crops so it allelopathy. reduces the impacts of hazards like  Lack of funds. high rainfall, soil erosion and  Drought condition. landslides.  Lack of technical knowledge of cropping systems. REFERENCES [1]. Agricare.kisanhelp.in [2]. Nimbolkar, P. K., Awachare, C., Chander, S. and Hussain, F. 2016. Multistoried cropping system in horticulture-A sustainable land use approach. International Journal of Agriculture Sciences. 8 (55): 3016-3019 [3]. Rahim M.A. (1995). Horticultural crops for crop diversification. In: An adoption to Farmers Field. University Press Limited (UPL). Dhaka. pp. 7-20. [4]. Venkatesha J. (2015) Multi storied cropping system in Horticulture- A perspective approach for sustainable productivity. In: Proceedings of winter school on multistoried cropping system and canopy architecture management in horticultural crops from 28th Sept. to 18th Oct. 2015, College of Horticulture, Sirsi, Karnataka, pp. 127-133. [5]. www.krishisewa.com

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Applications of light emitting diodes for post-harvest quality management of fruits and vegetables Article id: 21598 Alka Mishra*, Anjali Sudhakar, Nichkil C and Bhukya Jithender ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal-462038

INTRODUCTION: India is the second largest temperatures, low energy consumption, producer of horticulture crops and shares selective spectral output, flexibility, high around 10% (fruits) and 13% (vegetables) in response time and mechanical robustness the global market. After harvest, horticultural (Branas et al., 2013). Light-emitting diodes crops are liable to accelerate physiological, (LEDs) possess unique properties that are chemical, and microbial processes that highly suitable for several operations in the invariably lead to deterioration and are called food industry. The main benefits of LEDs areto as post-harvest losses. The annual loss of reduce thermal damage and degradation in about 20 to 30 % produce in the post-harvest foods and are mainly suitable in cold-storage chain occurs due to lack of adequate applications, preserve or enhance the infrastructure and limited use of modern post- nutritive quality of foods in the postharvest harvest technologies. Fresh horticultural stage, as well as manipulate the ripening of produce has limited shelf life ranging from a fruits, and reduce fungal infections. few days to few weeks at ambient conditions. Working Principle of LEDs: An LED is a unique Several techniques have already been type of solid-state semiconductor diode that developed to reduce the post harvest losses. emits light when a current is applied through But from the last few decades an emerging the device, and this property is called technology Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) is electroluminescence. Two elements of gaining attention of the researchers. processed material, p-type and n-type semi- Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) is an conductors, are placed in direct contact and important solid-state lighting source and the form the LED chip which comprises the p-n demand for these light emitting diodes is junction (fig. 1). The current flow only from increasing in the field of post-harvest the p-side (anode) to the n-side (cathode). technology (D’Souza et al., 2013). The LEDs Electrons and holes flow into the junction are a potential alternative to current lighting from electrodes with different voltages. technologysuch ashigh pressure sodium Electroluminescence occurs when an electron- lamps, halogen lamps, mercury lamps, hole interaction causes an electron to fall to a incandescent lamps, compact fluorescent lower energy level, thereby releasing a lamps etc due to its long functional life photon. This results in the emission of light of (50,000 h to 100,000 h), low operating

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 a distinct wavelength (Gupta and Jatothu,  Blue LEDs have reached electrical 2013). efficiencies of above 60%.  Advantages of LEDs: There are numerous Substantial savings in energy advantage of LED’s in the field of post-harvest consumption and a reduction in technology compared to other lighting environmental pollution.  sources are listed below:- Response time of LEDs is ultra-high  Consumes low power since it requires (microsecond-level on-off switching).  less operational voltage. There is a wider range of controllable  It emits monochromatic light thus colour temperatures (4500 K–12,000 don’t have broad spectral power K).  distribution. Operating temperature range of LEDs  Its electrical efficiencies are quite high. lies between -20ºC and 85ºC.

Fig. 1. The basic principle of LED

Applications of LEDs: Post-harvest quality of food includes appearance, textural, nutritional and flavour characteristics which enhance the value of the product. Light emitting diodes have a wide range of applications in maintaining post-harvest quality of fruits and vegetables. LEDs can enhance the nutritional quality of products while other technologies can only maintain it. Postharvest preservation can be increased by using LEDs. It can be useful in acceleratingor delaying fruit ripening even helps in delaying the senescence. Prevention of microbial spoilage is possible by using high power LEDs thus have important application in food safety. Not even food; it can also be used to decontaminate package or surface where food is kept. It can reduce the anti-nutritional compounds from foods like nitrates in leafy vegetables & Indian mustard.

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Table 1: Applications of LEDs in Post-Harvest Quality Management of fruits and vegetables LED Application Food Intensity Effectiveness Reference Wavelength Accelerating Strawberry Blue 40 µmolm-2s-1 Increased ethylene production, Xu et al. ripening (470nm) respiration, colour (2014) development, total antioxidant activity compared to control Delaying of Mature Blue 85.7 µE m-2s-1 The slow change in colour from Dhakal and ripening Green (440nm- green to red and reduced Baek (2014) Tomato 450nm) firmness loss (shown in Fig. 2) Delay in Broccoli Red 50 µmolm-2s-1 Reduce the ethylene Ma et al. senescence (660nm) production and yellowing (2014) Enhancing Broccoli Red 50 µmolm-2s-1 Higher ascorbic acid content Ma et al. nutritional (660nm) observed compared with blue (2014) quality and white LED. Preventing Tangerines Blue (456 40µmolm-2s-1 Reduced fungal colonization of Alferez et al. fungal nm) Penecillium digitatum on the (2013) spoilage surface of fruit compared with dark and white light treatments. Enhancing Cabbage White, blue Electrical All LED treatments improved Lee et al. postharvest “Dongdori” (436 nm), power stated the total chlorophyll, vitamin C, (2014) nutritional green (524 as 1.380, and total phenolics compared content nm), red 1.455, 1.515, with dark control. Green LED (665 nm) and 1.065 W was most effective for for white, increasing chlorophyll content, green, blue, whereas blue LED increased and red LEDs, vitamin C. All LED treatments respectively. increased phenolic content. (shown in Fig. 3)

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Pretreatment days Storage Days 0 7 7 14 21

Dark

Blue Light

Red Light

Fig.2. Colour changes in mature green tomatoes with darkness and continuous irradiation of blue and red light differ significantly among groups

Fig. 3. Different light treatments for cabbage under refrigerator storage

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Conclusion: The use of LEDs in agricultural produce helps in better understanding related to food preservation according to the spectral composition of light. In this article, we have focussed on the researches that have utilised the LEDs facility in improving the quality of food by delaying the shelf life of agricultural produce. Many researchers and entrepreneurs are utilizing this technology in developing countries the treated sample are very safe and hygienic storage. LEDs have come a long way since they were invented, and their usefulness in the food industry is becoming increasingly evident.Their further development will be of great benefit to the food industry and society.

REFERENCE:

[1]. Alferez, F., Liao, H. L., & Burns, J. K. (2012). Blue light alters infection by Penicilliumdigitatum in tangerines. Postharvest biology and technology, 63(1), 11-15. [2]. Branas, C., Azcondo, F. J., & Alonso, J. M. (2013). Solid-state lighting: A system review. IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine, 7(4), 6-14. [3]. Dhakal, R., &Baek, K. H. (2014). Short period irradiation of single blue wavelength light extends the storage period of mature green tomatoes. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 90, 73-77. [4]. D'Souza, C., Yuk, H. G., Khoo, G. H., & Zhou, W. (2015).Application of Light‐Emitting Diodes in Food Production, Postharvest Preservation, and Microbiological Food Safety. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 14(6), 719-740. [5]. Gupta, S. D., &Jatothu, B. (2013). Fundamentals and applications of light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in in-vitro plant growth and morphogenesis. Plant Biotechnology Reports, 7(3), 211-220. [6]. Lee, Y. J., Ha, J. Y., Oh, J. E., and Cho, M. S. (2014). The effect of LED irradiation on the quality of cabbage stored at a low temperature. Food Science and Biotechnology, 23(4), 1087-1093. [7]. Ma, G., Zhang, L., Setiawan, C. K., Yamawaki, K., Asai, T., Nishikawa, F., ...& Kato, M. (2014). Effect of red and blue LED light irradiation on ascorbate content and expression of genes related to ascorbate metabolism in postharvest broccoli. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 94, 97-103. [8]. Xu, F., Cao, S., Shi, L., Chen, W., Su, X., & Yang, Z. (2014). Blue light irradiation affects anthocyanin content and enzyme activities involved in postharvest strawberry fruit. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 62(20), 4778-4783.

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DNA barcoding: A biodiversity discovery tool Article id: 21599 Monika Karnawat and Brahmanand Bairwa School of Agriculture Sciences, Career Point University, Kota, Rajasthan, India

ABSTRACT assign taxonomic names to DNA barcodes, Barcode code consisting of a series of vertical and to cluster DNA barcodes into Operational bars of variable width that are scanned by a Taxonomic Units) Although DNA barcoding as laser; printed on consumer product packages a methodology has been in use for less than a to identify the item for a computer that decade, it has grown exponentially in terms of provides the price and registers inventory the number of sequences generated as information. In the same way DNA barcode is barcodes as well as its applications. This the tool which helps in the identification, review provides the latest information on discrimination and taxonomic classification of generating, applying, and analyzing DNA all plant, animal and microbial species. It is a barcodes across all the life from animals and method of choice that uses short segment of fungi to protists, algae, and plants. DNA which known as genetic marker in an Keywords: Sequence alignment, Flag species, organism’s DNA to identify and distinguish Barcode library, Taxonomic classification its belonging from particular species, varieties or even inter varieties. DNA INTRODUCTION: barcoding assists in identification by The correct identification of a sample is a expanding the ability to diagnose species by major task for any systematist, field ecologist, including all life history stages of an organism. evolutionary biologist, conservationist, or As a biodiversity discovery tool, DNA applied forensic specialist is to determine in a barcoding helps to flag species that are rapid, repeatable, and reliable fashion. “DNA potentially new to science. As a biological barcodes,” i.e., standardized short sequences tool, DNA barcoding is being used to address of DNA between 400 and 800 base pairs long fundamental ecological and evolutionary can be easily isolated and characterized for all questions, such as how species in plant species of plant on the planet, were originally communities are assembled. The process of conceived to facilitate this task (Hebert et al., DNA barcoding entails two basic steps: (1) 2003). DNA barcoding is different from building the library of DNA barcode of known genomics because this is the technique for species (sequence editing, sequence identification of rapid species based on DNA alignment) (2) matching the barcode sequences but the genomics compares entire sequence of the unknown sample against the genome structure and expression. We can barcode library for identification. Commonly understand the process of DNA barcode under used tools for DNA barcode comparisons (to these headings. By combining the strengths of

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 molecular genetics, sequencing technologies, and it should contain few insertions or and bioinformatics, DNA barcodes offer a deletions to facilitate sequence alignment. quick and accurate means to recognize Also, its mutation rate must be sufficient to previously known, described, and named generate a bar-coding gap, which means the species and to retrieving information about maximum intraspecific variation is less than them. This tool also has the potential to speed the minimum interspecific distance. The most the discovery of the thousands of plant common barcode is mitochondrial species yet to be named, especially in tropical cytochrome c oxidase unit 1. biomes (Cowan et al., 2006). DNA bar-coding has greatly expanded collaboration systemists General process of DNA bar-coding who investigate species interactions and The procedure of the bar-coding is similar for patterns of associations (Baker et al, 2017). In plants, microbes and animals. After extraction addition to taxonomy, DNA bar-coding has of DNA from the tested samples, appropriate recently been applied in various fields, DNA barcodes must be selected and then including medicine and food science, amplified via the polymerase chain reaction forensics, and conservation biology. (PCR). The amplified regions can be Therefore, we tend to review the general sequenced by conventional methods or NGS process and current progress of DNA then (454 Pyrosequencing) according to the sample discuss its limitations and potential strategies. complexity and then matched to existing DNA Bar-coding and Minibarcoding: sequences from reference database or The barcode should have universality so that voucher specimens. it can be easily amplified from diverse species,

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Multiple species sample Single species sample Mixtures, formulations, Preparations, Raw materials, processed tissues, etc. etc

Genomic DNA Extraction Sodium dodecyl sulphate etc.

Full-length or minibarcodes COI, Cytb, 16S rRNA,12S rRNA etc.

PCR-Amplification Universal and species-specific Primers

Conventional sequencing Next generation sequencing Sanger dideoxy sequencing etc. Pyrosequencing etc.

Reference sequence library etc. Data upload BOLD, GENEBANK and MMDBD etc. Specimen and sequence information

Sequence analysis Similar, distance and Tree-based methods

Identification and authentication of all the species including plants, microbes and animals

Figure 1: A diagrammatic process of DNA Barcoding for identifying all species in traditional sample in single and multiple copies.

REFERENCES: [1]. Hebert, P. D. N., A. Cywinska, S. L. Ball, and J. R. deWaard. 2003. Biological identifications through DNA barcodes. Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser.B 270:313-321

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Characterization of Kuliana lime: A Land Race of Acid Lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) in Odisha Article id: 21600 S. Mishra1*, D. K. Dash1 1Department of Fruit Science and Horticulture Technology, College of Agriculture, OUAT, BBSR-03

ABSTRACT Horticultural Research Station, Department Acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) is an of Fruit Science and Horticulture Technology, important commercial fruits crop, cultivated Orissa University of Agriculture and in India. High variation of acid lime fruits are Technology, Bhubaneswar during 2015-2017 observed in existing landraces due to on five year old Kuliana lime plants planted crossing within and among the other citrus at 4×4 m distance. The vegetative growth species. Determination of genetic variation is dynamics, floral morphology and biology and important to the plant breeders for the physiochemical characters of the variety development of high yielding variety and were studied and presented in this article. hybrids. Therefore, an attempt has been Keywords: Characteristics, acid lime, Citrus made to study the different physicochemical aurantifolia Swingle and kuliana lime characteristics of kuliana lime an acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle), at the INTRODUCTION Acid lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) about 0.255 Mha in area and 2.523 MT in is an important commercial fruit crop, production respectively. The major producing cultivated in our country. A large number of states are Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, citrus species of commercial importance are Punjab etc (NHB database, 2014). Odisha believed to have originated in India. accounts for 9.37 per cent and ranked 4th in Availability of wide gene pool in the form of the national production of citrus fruits. genetic diversity is a prerequisite for crop Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Koraput, Ganjam, improvement. Genetic diversity is the extent Gajapati, Dhenkanal are the major lime of genetic variability among the individual in growing areas in Odisha. The area and a single species and between the species. The production of lime and lemon is 27.97 diversity within a species needs to be thousand ha and 261.50 thousand tonne preserved for improvement programme. respectively in Odisha (Ministry of Assessment of genetic vulnerability of any Agriculture, Horticulture Statistics at a citrus species requires knowledge of the Glance, 2017). Acid lime is the third most extent and distribution of genetic diversity. important fruit crop in citrus sp. It plays an High variation of acid lime fruits are observed important position in daily life of human in existing varieties due to crossing within the beings for reliving thirsty during summer other acid lime accessions. period and contributes an important place in In India, it is cultivated in 1.042 Mha rituals and festivals. Though its production is area with the production of 10.089 MT, confined to homestead garden in parts of among which lemon and lime contribute

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Odisha, it is considered for the vast medicinal Leaves were compound (trifoliate), properties. without stipule, semipersistent, brevipetiolate (petiole shorter than leaf Kuliana lime is a local elite land race lamina), crenate leaf margin, cordiform in of Mayurbhanj district of Odisha, where it is wing with an average length and diameter of extensively grown as the hot summer and 7.24 cm and 4.22 cm respectively (Figure- 2). cold winter climate of the area is highly The leaf fresh weight varied from 0.22 g to suitable for the flavor of fruit and its 0.39 g whereas the dry weight was 0.07 g to cultivation. This local land race is traditionally 0.18 g in winter and rainy season grown in village Kuliana from which the name respectively. The leaf area of this specific has come as Kuliana lime and is widely variety was noticed to be 9.06 cm2 to 16.19 popular in the state for its size and juice cm2. The numbers of thorns and leaves were content. It covers more than 500 Hectare in same and in some cases one or two more the district and being widely grown on both thorns were also noticed in the new shoots. sides of river Budhabalanga. The cultivar There was wide variation in the production of Kuliana lime was planted in Horticultural the tertiary (new shoots). During the spring Research Station, Department of Fruit season higher (153.80) number of tertiary Science and Horticulture Technology, Orissa were produced while in winter they were less University of Agriculture and Technology, (93.57). The chlorophyll content in the leaf of Bhubaneswar during 2011-12 at a spacing of the discussed variety varies from 1.63 mg per 4×4 m through air layering or gootee. g of fresh weight to 1.69 mg per g of fresh weight. Observations Vegetative growth dynamics of Kuliana lime Reproductive behavior The vegetative growth parameters The flowers were produced mostly in are the important features to determine the leaf axils (92.55 - 93.15 %) singly or in cluster crop growth and yield. The average tree (negligible) with an average of 5 numbers of height of a five year plant was 2.76 m with a flower buds per inflorescence. Flowering was relative growth range in 10.90 cm (winter observed three times in a year viz., spring season) to 35.76 cm. The cultivar shows the season (January-March), Rainy season (June- behavior of both single stem as well as multi July) and winter season (September- stem (3-4 numbers) with an average trunk October). Two types of flower were observed girth of 17.10 cm with a canopy spread of in this variety viz. hermaphrodite and 2.35-2.74 m and 2.97-3.56 m in N-S and E-W staminate flower (Figure- 3). The flower were direction respectively (Table-1). The tree has characterized with 5 sepals, 4 or 5 petals, one a spreading growth habit with a spheroid superior ovary and 20-22 number of shape. The cultivar produce the new season stamens. The flower bud and petals were shoot from the distal part of the previous white in colour. Approximately 64.1 per cent seasons growth and in some cases there was to 90.41 per cent of tertiary of the previous continuation of growth of one season old season grown shoots were converted to the shoot (Figure-1). reproductive shoot during rainy and spring

http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 season respectively. The duration of colour. Seed was creem in colour, ovoid in flowering in cultivar Kuliana lime was from 45 shape, 1.12 cm in length, 0.59 cm in width to 58 days and the days to anthesis was 9 to and 0.08 g weight. The TSS, acidity and 11.08 days (Table-2). ascorbic acid content of the fruit were 5.66- During rainy and spring season the 6.77 °Brix, 6.19-7.44% and 31.67-32.87 mg peak period of flowering was from 10 a.m. to per 100 ml of fruit juice respectively. During 12 noon where as at winter season from 12 spring, rainy and winter season flowering the noon to 2 p.m. and anther dehiscence starts fruits were harvested on May-July, October- after 15-30 minutes from anthesis. The November are January-March. The fruit set production of the staminate flower in this per cent of this cultivar was very high (78.46 cultivar was more (84.99 per cent) than that to 91.6 per cent) whereas the fruit retention of the hermaphrodite flower (15.01 per was very poor (19.69 to 25.18 per cent). For cent). Stigma receptivity was 100 per cent on the fruit maturity the total number of days the day of anthesis and the pollen viability of taken from fruit set was 113.44 to 122.10 staminate flower was 77.42 per cent while days and on an average the yield of the five that of the hermaphrodite flower was 75.17 year plant was 1.94 to 4.25 kg (Table-3). per cent. This cultivar was observed to be a naturally pollinated one (96 per cent fruit CONCLUSION setting was observed in natural open Knowledge on genetic variation and pollination). genetic relationship are important considerations for classification, utilization of Yield and yield attributing characters germplasm resources and breeding. The yield The fruit of Kuliana lime cv. was attributes like fruit set percentage, fruit spheroid in shape, convex base, mammiform weight etc., and quality parameters like apex, smooth surface and green skin colour volume of juice per fruit, acidity, TSS, with an average length, diameter, weight and ascorbic acid etc., can be used for future volume of 4.43-4.68 cm, 4.13-4.39 cm, 19.4- developmental programs. The spring season 28.95 g and 20.92-29.68 cc respectively was the best among the three seasons in (Figure- 4). Generally the plant bears 3-4 fruit terms of production and quality attributes. per cluster. The mesocarp was white in Future research should be taken in this colour. The pulp was firm and yellow in cultivar for different valuable traits for colour (Figure- 5). Juice content varies from betterment of the citrus industry. 45.59 -54.5 per cent and greenish yellow in

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Table 1: Vegetative growth characters of Kuliana lime Sl. No. Characters Observations 1 Plant height 2.76 m 2 trunk girth 17.10 cm 3 canopy spread (North-South) 2.35-2.74 m 4 canopy spread (East-West) 2.97-3.56 m 5 leaf fresh weight 0.22 g to 0.39 g 6 leaf dry weight 0.07 g to 0.18 7 chlorophyll content 1.63 to 1.69 mg per g of fresh weight

Table 2: Reproductive characters of Kuliana lime Sl. No. Characters Observations 1 Position of flowering Axillary flowering (92.55 to 93.15 percent) 2 Reproductive shoot conversion 64.1 to 90.41 percent 3 Flowering duration 45 to 58 days 4 Days to anthesis 9 to 11.08 days 5 Peak period of flowering 10 a.m.-12 noon (rainy and spring season) and 12 noon - 2 p.m (winter season). 6 Anther dehiscence After 15-30 minutes from anthesis 7 Pollen viability 77.42 percent (staminate flower) and 75.17 percent (hermaphrodite flower)

Table 3: Yield attributing characters of Kuliana lime Sl. No. Characters Observations 1 Fruit length 4.43-4.68 cm 2 Fruit diameter 4.13-4.39 cm 3 Fruit weight 19.4-28.95 g 4 Fruit volume 20.92-29.68 cc 5 Juice content 45.59 -54.5 per cent 6 TSS of fruit juice 5.66-6.77 °Brix 7 Acidity of fruit juice 6.19-7.44 per cent 8 Ascorbic acid of fruit juice 31.67-32.87 mg per 100 ml 9 Fruit set 78.46 to 91.6 per cent 10 Fruit retention 19.69 to 25.18 per cent 11 Days to maturity 113.44 to 122.10 days 12 Yield per plant 1.94 to 4.25 kg

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Figure 2: Fruit bunch of Kuliana lime Figure 1: Four year old Kuliana lime plant

Figure 3: Leaves of Kuliana lime plant

Figure 4: Cross section of the hermaphrodite and staminate flower

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Smart Farming Technology: Its role in Indian agriculture Article id: 21601 Vishal Kumar*, Abhishek Shori and Sudhanshu Verma Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005

INTRODUCTION: Smart Farming technology can best be The agricultural sector is going to face described as an ecosystem that integrates enormous challenges in order to feed the 9.6 technologies of different domains to solve billion people FAO predicts are going to specific problems like accurate application of inhabit the planet by 2050: food production fertilizers and irrigation water. With almost must increase by 70% by 2050, and this has to 70% of the Indian population depending on be achieved in spite of the limited availability agriculture and its services and around 75% of of arable lands, the increasing need for fresh the population residing in rural areas, agro- water (agriculture consumes 70 per cent of the based economies like India are typical realm world's fresh water supply) and other less for applicability of smart agriculture farming. predictable factors, such as the impact of The combined efforts of the Government and climate change, which, according a industry shall kick-start this journey of rural recent report by the UN could lead, among development and steer the country towards other things, to changes to seasonal events in socio-economic equality and sustainability. the life cycle of plant and animals. Smart Farming is a key for the future of One way to address these issues and agriculture increase the quality and quantity of agricultural Smart Farming is a farming production is using sensing technology to make management concept using modern farms more "intelligent" and more connected technology to increase the quantity and quality through the so-called "precision agriculture" of agricultural products. Farmers in the also known as ‘smart farming’[1]. 21st century have access to GPS, soil scanning, Smart Farming represents the data management, and Internet of Things application of modern Information and technologies. By precisely measuring variations Communication Technologies (ICT) within a field and adapting the strategy into agriculture, leading to what can be called a accordingly, farmers can greatly increase the Third Green Revolution. effectiveness of pesticides and fertilizers, and Following the plant breeding and genetics use them more selectively. Similarly, using revolutions, this Third Green Revolution is Smart Farming techniques, farmers can better taking over the agricultural world based upon monitor the needs of individual animals and the combined application of ICT solutions such adjust their nutrition correspondingly, thereby as precision equipment, the Internet of Things preventing disease and enhancing herd health (IoT), sensors and actuators, geo-positioning, [3]. big data, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs, drones), robotics, etc. [2].

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What do you need for Smart Farming? farmers operate on land parcels larger than 4 Knowledge and capital are essential for hectares. any innovation. New farming technologies Why needed? require more and more professional skills. A • Sensor based farmer today is not only a person with a • Precise agriculture passion for agriculture, he or she is also a legal • Disease detection in crops expert (to find their way through a growing • Irrigation Systems maze of regulations) and a part-time data • Nutrient Managemnent analyst, economist and accountant (making a • Mobile app based- (Rice, sugarcane, living from selling agricultural produce requires cotton, vegetables, wheat, some apps bookkeeping skills and an in-depth knowledge developed by ICAR etc.) of market chains and price volatility). Smart farming app developed Furthermore, Smart Farming requires capital.  Smart Farming was founded in 2014 by Thankfully, there are a wide range of options Rob and Jelle Back then they were available. From using low capital investment sustainable agricultural students in the smart phone applications that track your Netherlands. Their backgrounds and livestock to a capital-intensive automated experience, as well as their passion for combine. In principle, implementing Smart agriculture and technology, are the Farming technologies can be easily up-scaled. perfect foundation to service BtB Smart farming technologies in India customers to their needs for cotton crop The main challenge in technology cultivation use in ball-worm pest diffusion (in agriculture) is that land holdings detecting. are so small that even using a tractor makes no  Cotton provides a low and insecure sense. Secondly, all our technologies, like high income to Indian cotton farmers. Crops yielding seeds, are for irrigated lands, although are lost due to a lack of knowledge. Our 48% of our sown area is dry lands (those easy to use technologies inform Indian outside irrigation cover). Indian farms cotton farmers proactively on how to desperately need technology. “Cultivable area increase their yields. Targeted push is reaching its limits, so yield increases are a messages give practical agricultural must,” according to a latest report by the OCED advice. Preventive measures are the key and the Indian Council for Research on stone. International Economic Relations (ICRIER) [4].  The SmartFarming app is a decision A key issue in tech diffusion is the supporting tool for sustainable cotton increasing rate of fragmentation of land farming. This smartphone application ownership or operational land holdings, Mani gives practical agricultural advice to said. Nearly 90% of farmers are small and farmers. Measures to prevent pests and marginal. The average size of a farm is now just plagues are the key stones [5]. 1.15 hectares. According to the Agricultural Census 2016, 85% of land ownership is of less Use Cases for Smart Agriculture Farming than 2 hectares and account for 45% of the Smart agriculture encompasses a total cropped area. By contrast, only 5% of number of applications. Some of the

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best -known use cases of this concept nutritional data and temperature. Insights on are as follows: the herd can also be provided on the basis of collective data assessment. Precision Farming A practice or process followed for Agriculture Drones improving the accuracy and control over Drones can be put to excellent use in the farming and livestock management is agricultural industry. Typically, there are two commonly referred to as precision farming. types of drones namely, ground-based and Typically, this practice makes use of automated aerial drones. These drones can be hardware, sensors, robotics and control incorporated in agricultural systems for systems, in addition to other technologies, to applications like soil analysis, field evaluation, achieve its purpose. Precision farming planting, irrigation and assessment of crop continues to be the most popular application health. The use of drones provides immense of smart agriculture. Weather station is control to the farmer in terms of the field, another popular smart agriculture gadget. Data altitude and resolution of ground, the farmer collected from farming sensors can be mapped wants to survey. Therefore, drones basically onto weather conditions to determine the best collect data, which can later be used for yield crops for the area. Moreover, this approach prediction, plant counting, measurement of can also be used to make interventions for plant height and health indices, drainage improving the capacity of cultivation and mapping and canopy cover mapping, in profits generated. Some technology based addition to many others. devices being used in this area include Pycno Farm Management Systems and Smart Elements [6]. Different farm parameters for collecting data analytics are performed on this data and Smart Greenhouses reported via a dashboard. These systems are Smart greenhouse is a step ahead of the also referred to as farm productivity regular greenhouses. In these setups, the management systems. Logistics, storage microclimate is controlled and monitored to management and vehicle tracking are some of ensure optimal plant growth. Some of the the best examples of this use case. smart agriculture solutions that support this capability include Growlink, Farmapp and The benefits of using smart farming GreenIQ. technology in agriculture 1. The effective use of inputs helps in Livestock Management reducing wastage and thus, decreases costs There are specialized sensors for livestock incurred. management that can be attached to every 2. Losses due to diseases and infections can livestock animal on the farm. These sensors be reduced, by continuous and real-time crop monitoring with scientific way. collect data about animal health and maintain 3. The use of water can be optimized, which a log of the performance. Solutions like Cowlar in turn shall reduce water wastage. and SCR by Allflex place collar tags on the 4. The application of fertilizers in accurate animal and record data like health, activity, amount based on demand of crops to

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minimized cost of cultivation and reduced CONCLUSION soil quality degradation. Smart farming can be a major support 5. The use of technology-based devices allows for farmers in the response to the global food better management of farm activities. challenge of feeding more than 9.6 billion people in 2050, as well to sustainability and competitiveness challenges which they face [1]. At present, this technology has a real potential to deliver a more qualitative and quantitative agricultural production with sustainability, based on highly precise and resource-efficient approach.

REFERENCE: [1]. https://www.forbes.com/sites/federicoguerrini/2015/02/18/the-future-of- agriculture-smart-farming/#23bc28ed3c42 [2]. HORIZON 2020 THEMATIC NETWORK - Smart AKIS ‘European Agricultural Knowledge and Innovation Systems (AKIS) towards innovation-driven research in Smart Farming Technology. https://www.smart-akis.com/index.php/network/what-is-smart-farming/ [3]. http://www.fao.org/family-farming/detail/en/c/897026/ [4]. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/smart-farm-technologies-are-here-in- india-but-available-to-just-a-few/story-XcJwjq6w8w3kncw43iTKBN.html [5]. http://www.smartfarmingtech.com/ [6]. http://www.scind.org/1330/Science/smart-agriculture-in-india-possibilitiesbenefits- and-challenges.html

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Impact of drying on quality of food products Article id: 21602 Seema Tanwar Guest Lecturer, C.D.F.S.T., M.P.U.A.T., Udaipur

Drying is the major unit operation during food other hand, the non-destructive method can manufacturing. Final product quality changes be used and it is used by maximum with respect to time, temperature and researchers. Using the CIELAB color space humidity after drying process is but natural. (L*a*b), the parameters L*, a* and b* values So, it is time to consider that water activity represent light to dark spectrum with a range level of less than 0.6 after the completion of from 0 to 100 where black to white process is mandatory for all type of food respectively. The green-red spectrum who’s products. Product quality is change on the range from -60 to +60 indicates green and red basis of physical and chemical parameters. respectively. At last the blue-yellow spectrum Quality changes observed on the basis of with a range from -60 to +60, which indicates taste, color, texture, size, shape and the blue and yellow respectively. functionality of the product. Due to mismanagement of drying process of fruits During drying process due to chlorophylls and vegetables, results in high amount of green color changes to yellow or to red colors nutritional losses and low product quality. and oxidation of carotenoid pigments by oxygen in air. Similarly anthocyans quite 1. Physical Parameter stable during processing at low pH and 1.1 Color Attributes betalaines very sensitive to pH, degraded to Color directly effects its consumer brown compound at neutral pH. Maillard acceptability and also effect marketing value reactions and enzymatic browning come to of the product. Color pigments, maillard reducing sugars, amino acids, proteins and reactions and enzymatic browning show phenolics respectively. Chroma value significant roles in the color changes of the indicates the strength of color such as the product during drying. Color can be judge by intensity or saturation. As we can see in the using destructive or by non-destructive following table 1 that ∆E is show the amount methods. Destructive method is carried out of color difference which is as higher as its by evaluating the extracted color pigments value. Higher level of ∆E indicates higher spectrophotometrically by using high degree of browning which is not acceptable performance liquid chromatography. On the by consumer. Table 1 Level of color changes with respect to ∆E Level ∆E range Trace 0 - 0.5 Slight 0.5 – 1.5 Noticeable 1.5 – 3.0 Appreciable 3.0 – 6.0 Large 6.0 – 12.0 Very obvious >12.0

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Zero order and first order degradation 1.4 Porosity model shows kinetics of color changes in Porosity is the volume fraction of the air food materials during drying. Color in the food product. That means pore or changes related to the moisture content empty spaces of a material to that of the reduction and product temperature at the total volume. It is convert in the time of drying. It can be explained by the following equation: following equations: va €= 1- vt Zero order: Y = Y0 ± kt First order: Y = Y0 exp(±kt) Where, Where, Va = volume of air (m3) and Vt = total volume k= kinetic constant (m3). Y= measured color scale (L*a*b) (±) indicate formation and degradation of With respect to drying process changes in the any quality parameter porosity is explained by glass transition 1.2 Texture Attributes theory. As we know that structural collapse is Texture changes due to structural collapse in negligible if the food material is processed food due to moisture removal from food below glass transition temperature. Collapse product. It effects shrinkage and increase in will increase continuously with respect to porosity of the dried product. Texture attributes higher the difference between the process such as hardness, factorability, springiness, temperature and the glass transition chewiness, gumminess, cohesiveness and temperature. This is the major reason for less resilience. When we draw force-time curve first shrinkage in freeze dried material as compare maximum peak show hardness and first to air dried material and porous vice versa. significant break show factora rapid drying and For increment of porosity, surface tension, high temperature cause greater changes to the structure, environment pressure and texture of foods ability. mechanisms of moisture transport equally play significant roles in porosity development. 1.3 Shrinkage Attributes Shrinkage is the result of pressure unbalance 1.5 Rehydration Attributes during moisture removal with in the solid Rehydration is the successful process for network of a food product during dehydration getting food product in fresh form in off process. This results in change shape and season. But water that is removed from a sometimes product cracking. When this food during dehydration cannot be replaced shrinkage is severe then product appearance is in the same way, when the food is also effected. If the shrinkage process done in rehydrated (that’s why rehydration is not the proper conditions then volume of water reverse lf drying). Due to drying process, loss removed is equivalent to the reduction in of cellular osmotic pressure, changes in cell sample volume. Shrinkage is measured by the membrane permeability, solute migration, following methods: crystallization of polysaccharides and coagulation of cellular proteins all contribute 1. Displacement with glass beads to texture changes and volatile losses and are 2. Liquid displacement each irreversible. Those foods that are dried 3. Liquid pycnometer under optimum conditions suffer less 4. Archimedes principle damage and rehydrate more rapidly and In the most popular and successful method n- completely than poorly dried foods. Most of heptane as a solvent used based on the lowest them are rehydrated before consumption. coefficient of variation. 422

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Time and temperature effects during the 2.2 Water activity rehydration process. It should be original Due to reduction in moisture content of the weight gained. Degree of rehydration process food product, it reduces water activity during is dependent on the degree of cellular and drying process. The water activity in most of the structural disruption. Rate of rehydration and dried food is relatively low, near about 0.6 which equilibrium moisture content was influenced is safe for storage purpose. Due to low water by water temperature in a positive way: activity it reduces growth of various microorganisms and oxidation and enzymatic −푑푋 (1 + 푥)푛 = [퐾푟(푋 − 푋푒)] reactions. 퐷푡 2.3. Shelf life where X = moisture Shelf life of dried food product will increase by content and kr = considering on storage and packaging. In the rehydration rate (s-1) range of 2 to 20% of moisture content safe 2. Chemical relative humidity is 55 – 70%. Packaging should 2.1. Flavor aspect be so effective that no more spoilage occurred Flavor is the most important aspect which in the product due to moisture or any reason. In directly affect product quality and consumer these days modified atmosphere packaging acceptability. When we talk about flavor it technique can be used to extend the shelf life of include food aroma compounds that include the the dried products. The shelf life of a food taste and odor of the food. In the drying process product can be predicted on the basis on some volatile compounds are carried away microbial growth. during moisture removal process. Flavor can be 3. Nutritional value judge by the help of chemical analyses such as Nutritional values of foods are result of drying chromatography method or sensory evaluation. temperature, time and the storage conditions. In In the above said method (chromatography), the case of vitamin, some vitamins such as quantitative details are available but no riboflavin become supersaturated and indicative on the acceptance in terms of taste as precipitate from solution so losses are small. perceived by human beings. So, the only way of Ascorbic acid are soluble until the moisture sensory evaluation is accepted for food product content of the food falls to very low levels and acceptability. Sensory evaluation done by these react with solutes at higher rates as drying comparing the test product to a reference proceeds. Vitamin C is also sensitive to heat and sample and then decide which one is better. oxidation and short drying times, low During drying process due to high heat food temperatures, low moisture and oxygen levels products are spoiled and undesirable flavor can during storage are therefore necessary to avoid also be produced. Such as rancid flavor develop large losses. Thiamine is also heat sensitive but in fatty food products due to fat oxidation. other water soluble vitamins are more stable to Rancidity can prevent by maintaining oxygen heat and oxidation, and losses during drying level below 1%. During drying process, not only rarely exceed 5-10% excluding blanching losses. water vaporizes but also volatile compounds Oil soluble nutrients such as fatty acids and loss from the food and as a result most dried vitamins A, D, E and K are mostly contained foods have fewer flavors than the original within the dry matter of the food and they are material. The technical enzyme glucose oxidase not concentrated during drying. As water is is also to protect dried foods from oxidation. removed, the catalysts become more reactive and the rate of oxidation accelerates.

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JAPANESE MINT - A wonder aromatic crop for national and international market Article id: 21603 Deepak Lall (*1), S. S. Saravanan1, Vijay Bahadur1 and Sanjeev Kumar2 1Department of Horticulture Naini Agricultural Institute (NAI), Sam Higginbottom University of Agriculture, Technology & Sciences (SHUATS), Prayagraj (Allahabad)-211007 (U.P.), India 2 U.P. Council of Agricultural Research (UPCAR) Lucknow, U.P. India

Fig.1: Close View of Japanese mint Plant and their leaf arrangement

Horticulture is an integral part of food security, nutritional security and economic feasibility worldwide. It seems that horticulture and its modern cultivation practices and hi- tech practices were adopted by small, marginal and large scale farmers to brought prosperity and high productivity in many regions of the country. The present article discussed some basic aspects and concepts of Japanese mint/ or Corn-mint cultivation through intercropping technology. Japanese mint (Mentha arvensis L.) is grown as summer season crop in subtropical plains of north India for its valued essential oil. The productivity and quality of the essential oil of corn-mint is significantly influenced by environment parameters prevailed during cropping season. The intercropping system in corn-mint cultivation requires a very careful planning, maintenance and management about timing of production and moreover, harvests time to coincide with the long period perennial orchards. The high market prices, choice or selection of elite (pure) varieties of Japanese mint adopted to off season environments to meet the availability of the produce in the market nearly all round the year,

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 and also able to produce higher and economical yields of high quality produce etc. This article shows the impact of intercropping, different seasons, selection of cultivars and planting period, on growth, yield and quality of menthol mint/ Japanese mint/ or Corn-mint. Growth and Cultivation aspects of Japanese mint was found significantly better during hot and dry cropping season as compare to hot and humid seasons. Delay in the transplanting will resulted in significant reduction in herb, oil and menthol yield. Cultivar Kosi produced maximum essential oil of better quality across different cropping seasons and date of transplanting. Japanese mint prefers hot and dry weather for producing maximum essential oil with better quality and it should be transplanted at early date in mid-March using cultivar Kosi, under sub-tropical climate of north India.

BACKGROUND menthol is produced by the Japanese mint. Japanese mint is an Aromatic annual herb Presently India is the largest producer of plant having pleasant odour leaves and is Mentha oil in the world contributing about classified as an industrial crop. In Hindi 73% of its total production. In India it is Japanese mint is known as’ Pudina’. It is a commercially grown in subtropical plains robust perennial plant which can grow upto as a summer season crop after the harvest a height of 1m from the ground level. The of winter season crops; potato, mustard plant is hardy in nature and called as frost and pea etc. Japanese mint is transplanted resistant herb. Growing well in high altitude by farmers from mid-February to mid-April, conditions and can survive in an areas depending upon the time of harvesting of where MSL is about 1500m. Scientifically preceding crop. It has been observed that Japanese mint is known as Mentha arvensis environmental factors such as air L. which is also commonly known as temperature, relative humidity and Menthol mint. It is an important essential precipitation during entire crop growth oil bearing crop belongs to family period in general and maturity phase plays Lamiaceae. Its oil is extensively used in an important role on yield and quality of perfumery and flavor industries. It is essential oil. Indian monsoon is very erratic commercially cultivated in India, China, and uncertain. Early onset of monsoon rains Brazil, Japan, USA, France, Australia, causes heavy losses in the productivity of Thailand, Angola and Argentina for the menthol mint as pre monsoon rains production of essential oil which is rich in adversely effected its growth, yield and menthol. India is a leading producer of this quality of essential oil. crop in world having 1, 60,000 ha area with an annual production of 16000 t essential oil (Kumar et al., 2011). Nearly 75% of the

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Other important Uses of Japanese mint  It is used for flavouring food items.  The mint oil is used for the production of natural menthol, dementholised oil is for flavouring mouth washes, tooth paste and pharmaceutical preparations.  It is used in perfumery and cosmetic industry.

Fig.2 Overview of Corn-Mint  It is used for the preparation of beverages. Chemical composition  It is used in allied & pharmaceutical The principal and chief constituents of industry. Japanese mint are as follows-  Mint is used for flavouring meat,  Menthol fish, sauces, soups, stews, vinegar,  Carvone tea, tobacco and cordials.  Linalyl-acetate Importance of menthol (essential oil)  Linalool The over-ground herb (foliage) on steam- Medicinal Properties and its values distillation & Hydro-distillation yields an  It has Anaesthetic values. essential oil, containing high (75 – 80%)  It has Antiphlogistic values. menthol content. The oil has a bitter  It has Antiseptic and Antispasmodic cooling taste, harsh odour and is the values. principal source of menthol. It is used in  It has Anti-cancereous values. combating cold, used as an ingredient in  It has Carminative values. cough drops and related pharmaceuticals,  It has Diaphoretic values. dentifrices, cosmetics, mouth washes,  It has Emmenagogue values. scenting of tobacco products and flavouring  It used as Febrifuge and of beverages. Synthetic menthol has also Galactofuge. come in market but its volumes are meagre  It is used as stimulant. due to high cost of production. Besides,  It is used against stomach disorders. natural menthol is preferred in food and  Mint helps in-digestion. flavour industry.  Mint helps in controlling nausea & headache. Distribution  Mint helps in depression & fatigue. The area of mentha crops substantially  It also contributes in weight loss. increased in entire tarai and western districts of U. P. mainly Nanital, Rampur,

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Rudrapur, Bilaspur, Moradabad, Badaun, Export orientation: With the best efforts of Bareilly and recently extended to eastern Farmers, Small Scale Industries, CSSIR districts viz. Barabanki, Lucknow & Sitapur laboratories, RRL Jammu and CIMAP districts. 80% crop of India, grown in Uttar Lucknow, India is one of the largest Pradesh, rest 20% in Punjab (Ludhiana and producer of Menthol & Mint allied products Jalandhar districts), Haryana. In these two in world now second one is China. Presently years crop of Mentha Herb developed MP & 85% production of Mint products is in India, Gujarat but in little quantity. rest in China, Brazil & other small countries. India is also consider world's largest Supply Demand Scenario: ™ India is the producer, consumer & exporter of mentha largest producer and exporter of mentha oil oil. It exports nearly 60-62% of its stock to in the world. At present the major various countries. Uttar Pradesh is the producers of mint oil in the world are India, largest producing state in the country China, Brazil and the USA. Mentha arvensis contributing 80-90% to total production, is cultivated in India in the semi- temperate followed by Punjab, Haryana, Bihar and regions in the foothills of Himalayas in Himachal Pradesh. Major Mentha oil Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar markets in Uttar Pradesh are Chandausi, Pradesh and Bihar. The all-India area under Sambhal and Barabanki. Distilled mentha oil mentha in the country is estimated at about is brought into the specific markets by 1,60,000 ha. India exports different types of farmers/producers and sold to commission mint oils to a number of countries including agents. Mentha processors, crystal Argentina, Brazil, France, Germany, Japan, manufacturers and exporters purchase the UK, USA, etc. these varieties include the crop from the market as per requirements. Japanese mint oil (derived from Mentha Mentha oil is an export oriented arvensis), peppermint oil (Mentha piperita), commodity, recently it helps to strengthen dementholised Japanese mint oil, spear of INR Vs Dollar will further lead to bearish mint oil (Mentha spicata), water mint oil sentiments. Indian rupees has increased its (Mentha aquatic), Horsemint oil (Mentha value day by day in the international market sylvestries), Bergamont oil (Mentha citrata) while exporting such commodities. and still others. The natural oil yields on an average 40-50% menthol and 50-60% de- Taxonomy mentholised oil, which can be used both in Japanese mint is a perennial ascending herb confectionery and medicine in place of averagely grown about 60 - 80 cm in height imported peppermint oil. Japanese mint oil and under favourable conditions it may also is not distinguished from the peppermint oil attain a height upto 1m. It belongs to the in the Indian trade. genus Mentha with several species and botanical family Labiateae or Lamiaceae with the chromosome number 2n=96. It is

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 propagated mainly through stolons. Leaves  Bergamot mint / Orange mint are lanceolate-oblong, sharply toothed; (Mentha citrate)- It has diploid petiole is small about 5mm in length. The chromosome no. 2n=96. Its plant has leaf lamina varies from 5 to 15 cm, The leaf glabarous and robust type growth surfaces mainly lower side is covered with pattern. Its oil has odour like dense hairy growth of glandular trichomes. reminiscent o lavender oil due to Flowers are borne in axillary and terminal 45% of high linalool and linalyl- cymes verticillate, glabarous; pubescent acetate content. abundant in number and purplish in colour.  Garden mint (Mentha viridis)- It is a The flowers are small with corolla spreading herb¸ grows upto 40 cm in measuring 4-5mm, calyx 2-3mm, narrowly height. It bears round to broad ovate deltoid and acuminate. Fruit is a group of crumpled¸ juicy¸ leathery dark green four net-lets each with one seed. Seeds are colour leaves. It has negligible minute with scanty endosperm and smooth quantity of oil with high carvone in appearance. content.  Scotch spear mint (Mentha Important cultivated (major) species of gracillis)- It is resistant to rust type Mint of diseases. Its oil consist high  Japanese Mint/Menthol Mint / carvone content about 53.9-68.01%. Corn-mint (Mentha arvensis)- It is vigorous in growth¸ highly branched Other minor species of Mint and grows upto 1 m tall under  Mentha arvensis¸ var. javanica cultivation. Leaves are broad and  Mentha longifolia ovate in shape. It is characterized by  Mentha sylvestris reddish-violet stem. It contains 65-  Mentha sylvestris¸ var. incana 75% menthol content.  Mentha sylvestris¸ var. royleans  Peppermint (Mentha piperita)- Its plants grows upto a height of 45-80 Hi- tech Agro- Practices adopted under cm. Leaves are long lanceolate type. Japanese mint cultivation It contains 35-50% menthol content. It has diploid chromosome no. Climate 2n=36. Normally, tropical climate is not suitable for  Spearmint (Mentha spicata)- It has mint cultivation. However, Japanese mint diploid chromosome no. 2n=44. It can be cultivated in both tropical and sub- grows upto a height of 90 cm. it tropical regions. The suitable temperature bears lanceolate stalkless light green for mint cultivation is between 20°C to 40°C coloured leaves. It has 59-98% high and rainfall should be between 100 cm to carvone content. 110 cm. Light showers at planting time and

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 good sunny days at harvesting stage is best for its high yield and good quality of leaves.

Fig.4: Kosi variety of Japanese mint  Shivalik:- It has 65-70% menthol Fig.3: Japanese mint as intercrop with content. It is particularly adopted for Aonla Orchard tarai region of U.P. & Uttaranchal. Soil  Himalaya:- It is resistant to blight¸ Mint can be cultivated in wide range of rust and leaf spot diseases. It has 78- soils. However loam or sandy loam or deep 80% menthol content. soils rich in organic matter are best suited  Gomti:- It is light reddish in colour. It for its cultivation. Make sure the soil is well has 78-80% menthol content. drained and loose textured for better  Kushal:- It is a tissue culture variety. growth of mint leaves. Mint leaves thrive Matures in 90-100 days. It is most well in fertile soil with the pH range of 6.5 – suitable for transplanting. 8.2 and as it does not grown in clay soils,  MAS-1:- It is a dwarf variety having avoid these soils for its commercial farming. height 30-45 cm. Less prone to Water stagnation should be avoided in the insect-pest. Menthol content 70- field. Mint can also be cultivated on both 80%. black and red soils. In case of acidic soil having pH value less than 5.5 liming is Field Preparation recommended. Land should be thoroughly ploughed with mould board plough at 3-4 times and give Important Cultivars/ Varieties /Hybrids of two cross harrowing to make the soil much Japanese Mint more pulverized¸ friable¸ fertile and to bring  Hybrid-77:- Early maturing variety. It more fine tilth. Mean while after the has 80-85% menthol content. completion of tillage practices it is advisable  Kosi:- It matures early in 90 days. to incorporate Farm yard manure or Leading variety of Uttar Pradesh Compost manure about 50 to 60 cartloads region. It has 75-80% menthol per hectare to increase the fertility of the content. soil.

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stolon for 1 hectare area. Mature plants of chosen variety brought from a reliable certified nursery should be planted at 30 x 30cm of spacing. The nursery for the stolons is planted in the month of August. The nursery required time to time frequent life-irrigations to avoid hard crust of soil and stagnation of water. Stolon is produced in autumn and ready for use during the month of January to March. To obtain the stolon, the soil is opened manually or mechanically. These stolon can be used immediately or Fig.5: Field preparation for within a fortnight of the month. Japanese mint cultivation under Aonla

Orchard, SHUATS Planting period

The field should be ploughed and harrowed Propagation Method thoroughly and divided into beds of Mint can be propagated vegetatively convenient size to facilitate irrigation and through Stolon and runners. Mostly large make it free from weeds and stubbles. In areas under the cultivation of Japanese each bed, lines or rows are opened at a mint crop is propagated by planting live distance of 40 to 60 cm depending upon the juicy 8 to 10 cm long stolons (underground variety and inter-cultural implements or stems) during early spring season. The seed tools used. The furrows are opened about 5 rate used is about 400-500 kg of stolons for to 6 cm deep manually or through tractor per hectare area. Whereas the spacing driven harrow. Within a furrow, stolon is which is required for its cultivation is varies placed in rows at 10 cm of its distance and from 40 to 60 cm. depending upon soil furrows are then closed with top soil. The fertility and the type of intercultural tools bed is irrigated (life irrigation) immediately and implements used. In northern India, after placing the stolon. An average about 4 planting of Japanese mint is suitable from quintals of stolons is required for planting in first week of February to second week of one hectare area. The stolons sprout in March. about 2 to 3 weeks when planted in

February month. Generally the planting Nursery Management should be done early depending upon The nursery plot should preferably be the ground temperature. best piece of land. It should be given high level of FYM during land preparation.

Around 200 m2 plot is required to produce Water Management

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Mint crop demands good moisture content Weed control / Intercultural operation well distributed throughout the growing In mint crop, from 4th week onwards to its period. About 10 -12 irrigations should be 14th week of a period after planting is given in summer season @ 10 -12 days of considered to be crucial phase for Japanese time interval whereas on other hand 5 – 6 mint for controlling the weeds and irrigations should be given for autumn crop. unwanted plants. Avoid water stagnation in rainy season by providing good soil drainage.

Manures and Fertilizers application Japanese mint requires about @ 25 tonnes of well-rotten farm yard manure (FYM) should be applied per hectare area at the time of field preparation and planting. Whereas it requires Nitrogen 125 kg, Fig.7.1: Weeding operation in Japanese Phosphorus 65 kg and Potassium 45 kg is mint recommended for per hectare area cultivation. At the time of planting, mix the soil with entire quantity of P2O5 and K2O along with 1/5th dose of N as a basal dose and the remaining 4/5th dose of N is given as top-dressing twice for after its each harvest in a equal available split of doses.

Fig.7.2: Dense weeding operation conducted in Japanese mint

Intensive weeding method should be carried out in mint crop by mechanical hoes or hand pulling. Since controlling the weeds in mint crop it is a very expensive process, Fig.6: Application of Manures & Fertilizers use of wheel hoes either driven by hand or bullock drawn would reduce the cost. There are several herbicides are recommended

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 but these cannot control monocot weeds after monsoon (rainy) season. To effectively control the weeds, combine mechanical, manual & chemical methods were consecutively adopted. Apply the herbicide first followed by mechanical or manual methods @ 8 to 10 weeks when mulching should be applied. Some of the effective herbicides like Atrazine & Simazine @ (1 kg a.i. per hectare), Pendimethalin @ (0.75 kg a.i. per hectare) and Oxy-flurofen @ (0.5 kg Fig.8.2: Intercropped with Aonla Orchard a.i.per hectare) is recommended. Crop rotation Intercropping: - Japanese mint is integrated Best way of controlling weeds is to follow with existing perennial orchards, using the crop rotation with other food crops. intercropping systems. The intercropping of Continuous mint cropping is not advisable arable crop like Japanese mint is grown in the same field. The best rotation in under perennial orchard viz Aonla, Mango Japanese mint is Mint+ Potatoes: Mint + and Guava to increase the substantial Rice and Mint + Leguminous vegetables. biomass production per unit area because of the roots of trees can exploit water and Plant-protection nutrients below the shallow roots of crops Insect-Pest Control and a mixed canopy can intercept more  Hairy Caterpillar- To control this, solar energy. apply Malathion (or) Thiodan @ 1.7ml / lit of water.  Cutworms- To control, treat the soil with Phorate 10 g before planting.  Red Pumpkin Beetle- To control this, spray Malathion @1ml/lit of water.  Mint Leaf Roller- To control this, 2 to 3 sprays of Thiodan @1.5ml/lit of

water @ weekly intervals. Fig.8.1: Intercropped with Guava Orchard

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Harvesting Usually harvesting in mint crop is done 2-3 times in a year.  1st crop harvesting should be done in May – June (Before rainy season starts).  2nd crop harvesting should be done in September – October (after monsoon). Fig.9.1: Formulation of Rogar Spray  3rd crop harvesting should be done in November – December.

Seasonality Generally, mentha cuttings are sown in the month of January and harvested during May-June. The end product–mentha oil–is abstracted from the leaves by processing and steam distillation. The arrival of the oil to the physical market starts from July and Fig.9.2: Spray of insecticide extends till November. Two to three cuttings can be done for one crop. About Disease Management 350-400 drums (1 drum = 180 kg) arrive into  Stolon Rot- To control, adopt 3- market during June-November, and the year-crop rotation with rice, wheat arrivals decline in the off season. and mint should be followed.b) Treat the stolons with 0.25% solution of Captan or 0.3 % Agallol Jan Feb March April May June solution, or 0.1% Benlate, for 2 to 3 minutes before planting.  Fusarium Wilt- To control, apply Bavistin, Benlate, and Topsin.  Leaf blight-To arrest, apply Sowing Growth Harvesting (fungicide) CuSO4 @ 1.5-2 ml/ liter of water in a form of foliar spray. Fig: Crop Calendar for Mentha Oil

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Yield Prospects steam under pressure. The steam that Yield of Japanese mint crop usually depends comes out of the tank is then passed on management practices and varieties of through a condenser. The condenser the region or state. During 1st year, an receiving the steam, carrying the oil average yield is about 150 to 160 kg of oil extracted from the herbage in the tank is per hectare can be obtained. Subsequently kept constantly cool by circulating cold- on 2nd and 3rd year average oil yield of water over/around it. The condensed oil Japanese mint increases upto 225 – 250 kg and water mixture is collected in a receiver. per hectare. The average yield of fresh Since the water and oil have different herbage is about 20-25 tonnes per hectare densities, oil floats on the surface of the in two harvest. water in the receiver. The oil is skimmed off and collected.

Post- Harvest Management Purification of Menthol oil Storage of herbage The oil that is skimmed off must be cleaned Mint herbage should be shade dried for of traces of water that it may carry. For this about 1 day before it is distilled. Care purpose, a separator funnel is used. should be taken so that decomposition of Treating with anhydrous sodium sulphate the herbage does not initiate during the and decanting removes any remnant drying process. There would be some moisture in the oil. The whole process is reduction in oil yield if wilted herbage crop highly critical. Steam rectification process is stored for a longer period of 2-3 days. As may be applied in case the colour of the oil such, storage of herbage for a longer period changes due to rusting. is not recommended.

Storage & Packing of Menthol oil Steam distillation for oil recovery PVC drums of good quality (200-2000 liters The recovery of oil from the herb is 0.5- capacity) and galvanized iron (GI) drums or 0.8%. Oil is obtained through steam aluminum containers are suitable for short distillation process. The oil is of golden and long term storage respectively. The yellow colour, containing not less than 75% containers should be kept in cool and dark menthol. The duration of steam distillation place. is about 2 to 2.5 hours for complete recovery of the oil. About 80% of the oil is received in the receiver in about one hour’s Economics & Return time. The oil that is received later is richer The per annum yield from the mint in menthol. The fresh or semi dried herbage plantation is estimated at 100 kg in terms of is placed in a tank and treated with passing oil which valued at Rs.900-1100 per kg

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http://www.agrifoodmagazine.co.in AGRICULTURE & FOOD: e-Newsletter ISSN: 2581-8317 Volume 1 – Issue 7 – July 2019 according to the current market. The annual also given income of Rs.15, 000- 20000/- return is Rs.90000-110000. One acre Thus the total income would be Japanese mint would also gives 25 qt of Rs.90000+15000= 105000/- or suckers / stolon @ Rs.600-800/qt. would 110000+20000= 130000/- per acre

CONCLUSION: The aim of this article were to inform the farming community regarding change in yield and quality of essential oil under varying environment conditions and also to integrate aromatic Japanese mint crops with existing perennial orchards, using intercropping systems to increase substantial biomass production per unit area.

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