Jordan, J. The Origination of and Its Stadiums 1

Running header: THE ORIGINATION OF BASEBALL AND ITS STADIUMS

The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums:

Justin A. Jordan

North Carolina State University

Landscape Architecture 444

Prof. Fernando Magallanes

December 7, 2012

Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 2

Abstract

Baseball is America’s Pastime and is home for some of the most influential people and places in the USA. Since the origination of baseball itself, fields and ball parks have had emotional effects on Americans beginning long before the creation of the USA. In this paper, one will find the background of the sport and how it became as well as the first ball parks and their effects on people in the USA leading up to the discussion about Wrigley Field in , .

Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 3

Baseball. This one word could represent the American pastime and culture. Many believe it to be as old as dirt. Peter Morris in his book, Level Playing Fields, explains “Baseball is sometimes said to be older than dirt. It is one of those metaphors that sounds silly on its face but that still resonates because it hints at a deeper truth. In this case, the deeper truth is that neither baseball nor dirt is quite complete without the other” (Morris, 2007). Morris practically says that baseball cannot thrive without proper fields to play on or parks to play in. Before describing early playing fields and stadiums in baseball, one must know where the sport and idea originated from in the first place.

Little is known about the origination of baseball as a sport. Some believe the sport originated from the medieval Romans. Other sports such as 1cricket and 2rounders are believed to have influenced the creation and adaptation of baseball. According to baseball-reference.com, baseball more than likely was born from folk games in the British Isles stating “A number of early folk games in the British Isles had characteristics that can be seen in modern baseball (as well as in and ). Many of these early games involved a ball that was thrown at a target while an opposing player defended the target by attempting to hit the ball away.” Since games were not very well documented, the origination of the sport is still very much a mystery. These old sports were not extremely popular among the higher classes of society and for that reason were not documented and kept up with for future view. These old folk games did not have a particular set of rules. They were played throughout fields and city streets. Well-kept documentation was not introduced until 1801 when a man by the name of Joseph Strutt published a book entitled The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England that claimed that there was documentation showing baseball-like games being traced back to the 14th century and that the sport of baseball is derived from the British game of 3stool ball. Baseball-reference.com described stool ball in this manner, “In stool ball, a batter stood before a target, perhaps an upturned stool, while another player pitched a ball to the batter. If the batter hit the ball (with a bat or his/her hand) and it was caught by a fielder, the batter was out. If the pitched ball hit a stool leg, the batter was out. It was more often played by young men and women as a sort of spin the bottle.” This game was originally played with bare hands to deflect the ball until the game

1 Cricket- British organized bat/ball/base game. International game. 2 Rounders – Originated in the British Isles, a game out of which baseball evolved from. 3 Stool ball – Developed in 11th century, this game is played with a player throwing a ball at a target while another defends the target. Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 4 eventually evolved for use of a bat. This sport is thought to be the most influential beginnings of the present sport of baseball. There are even reports that a baseball-like (thought to be rounders) game was played amongst the men during the American Revolutionary War as seen through the eyes of General George Washington at the Valley Forge (Morris). Through the 18th and 19th century, the sport evolved more and more until a modern like version of the sport was developed in 1845 with a specific set of rules named the Knickerbocker Rules, for the recognition of the 4Knickerbocker Club of New York City (baseball-reference). These set of rules were created by a man named , commonly known as “the father of baseball”. He was actually given official credit as the inventor of baseball in 1953 by Congress (baseball- reference). This is where the discussion of playing fields begins.

In 1845, the Knickerbocker Club of New York City began using 5Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey to play baseball. The sport and Elysian Fields jump-started a new tourist aspect. The form of baseball that many know and love today had begun and sprouted its wings. Baseball was more than a sport at the time; it was a means of escaping city life. Morris describes the early era as baseball being a “means of countering the unhealthy tendencies of city living” (Morris, Intro XV). He also explains that the sport flourished and grew exponentially during the late 1850’s 1860’s, even with the emergence of the Civil War feud between the North and South. Morris describes this time as being “baseball fever” where the gentleman’s sport transformed into a potential career with payment for skills. Since the sport was beginning to branch out and become worthy of a spent dollar, many fields became enclosed and started charging for attendance. Thus, establishing the first official baseball stadiums. During the 1862 season, William Cammeyer enclosed the 6Union Grounds in , New York to begin charging admission. The fee was 10 cents. The stadium could seat up to 4,000 fans and later was home for the first (MLB) team, the 7Red-Stockings (Baseball-Almanac.com). These fields were made up by 2 different parts: infield and . According to Morris in his book, Level Playing Fields, the newly established game of baseball made adjustments for poor

4 Knickerbocker Club of NYC – First organized baseball club. Established in 1842, first official game in 1846. 5 Elysian Fields in Hoboken, New Jersey – Site for the earliest organized baseball games played. New York City was already built up so there was no room for a at the time but New Jersey still had plenty of wide open space. 6 Union Grounds – First official enclosed stadium, later home to the first Major League Baseball team (Red- Stockings modern day Cincinnati Reds) 7 Red-Stockings – Modern Day Cincinnati Reds, first MLB team established in 1869. The team was undefeated for its entire first year as a team, recruiting players and traveling across the country. Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 5 grounded fields by appropriating the terms “infield” and “outfield” from Scottish farming practices. “Infield” referred to the land near the farmhouse that was kept fertilized and tilled (dirt), whereas the “outfield” denoted the arable land farther from the farmhouse that was cropped but not tilled or fertilized. In my personal imagination, I think of the movie “The Field of Dreams” with the cornfield in the outfield. Anyway, moving on. Morris then begins to describe the effects on people in general. Morris describes baseball fields and ballparks as aesthetic “garden-like” approach. He explains, “Once baseball had outstripped cricket and other rivals and a standard version of its playing rules had emerged, the game began a more fitful transition to professionalism. The story of this extraordinary period in the game’s development has been told often and from many different vantage points… Just as children who enter the ball park are struck first by the dirt and grass, so too mid-nineteenth century Americans encountering baseball must have been powerfully struck by the use of valuable urban or arable land for so transient a purpose as a ball game” (Morris, 2007). This impression of the soil reflected the profound bond between the mid-nineteenth century Americans and the ground by which baseball is played on. Agriculture dominated the nation at the time of the emergence of ball parks. People became infatuated with sounds, smells, and aesthetic views of the ball field.

During this time, greens-keepers and gardeners were becoming assets in the ball parks. People not only wanted to come out and watch baseball be played but they wanted to feel in touch with nature and the soil. Morris explains that these keepers were the backbone of the ball park, creating aesthetic views for the crowd to enjoy. With the emergence of mowing and greens- keeping tools, the job was made more complex. It was very time consuming and most machines did not cut close enough to the ground for the liking of these gardeners. Grounds-keeping became a vocation that attracted the rugged individuals that wished to gain a sense of achievement in their work. Thus, emerged 8Billy Houston. He floated from job to job, once being a prizefighter until he finally stuck as a baseball field grounds-keeper. One sportswriter described his constant job change and insurance of constant demand of services as “a mysterious method of procedure which he refuses to divulge to anybody” (Morris, 2007). The schedule of a baseball grounds-keeper was grueling at the time. Billy Houston, being one of the best at his job, knew everything there was about it. Morris describes Houston as having eagle eye vision during

8 Billy Houston – Top greens-keeper during the 1880’s. Former prizefighter. Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 6 the game watching everything and everyone on the field. “If a ball takes an erratic shoot after striking the ground Billy notes the spot, and remedies the defect at the earliest opportunity” (Morris, 2007). The magnitude of the greens-keeper’s task is reinforced by a description from 1893 of the daily routine of Pittsburgh greens-keeper James Pridie:

“Every day the club is home the ground is rolled with five ton rollers, and the field is thoroughly sprinkled with water; then the ground-keeper goes over the entire infield with a rake and levels the ground, fills up all the ground, and every little defect is looked after. Then the ground is rolled again. After the work has all been attended to the pitcher and batter’s box is chalked, then the base lines, the coachers’ and the outside boundary lines are all lined with chalk. After every game the pitchers’ and batter’s boxes are covered over with large tarpaulins, in case it should rain before the next game, and to keep the ground from dew” (Morris, 2007)

Grounds-keepers were gardeners in their own minds where the baseball field is their personal garden and canvass. Their work was never finished and neither was their dedication to their product. Morris describes grounds-keepers as this and he believed that many grounds-keepers consider their job as “building castles on ground made of sand.” These men had to deal with criticism and being taken for granted. Grounds-keepers had to deal with rain, flooding and poor drainage and were sometimes blamed for the destruction of ball fields and postponements that could have potentially ruined the club all together. Enough with the keeping of the field, let’s begin introducing more famous ball parks of the late 19th century as well the new ball parks of the 20th century.

Next, we’ll discuss on of the most historic ball parks in baseball history which actually had four different versions over 80 years, 9The . The Polo Grounds is one of the most historic fields in all of baseball history for a list of accolades. These grounds consisted of four different versions ranging from its creation in 1883 to its demolition in 1963. The first version of

9 The Polo Grounds – Established in NYC in the year 1883, it had 4 versions, due to fires and destruction of the stadium itself. Birthplace of the first “” played between the best in the American Association League and the best in the . First ballpark to host more than 20,000 fans and the first to host a double- header. Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 7

The Polo Grounds had its first game in May of 1883 and was the home for the very first 10World Series in 1884. This version of The Polo Grounds did not have fences, was surfaced with grass and held just over 20,000 marking history. The field would hold games for the host teams, The New York Gothams of the National League and the New York Metropolitans, or Mets for short, of the American Association until its demolition in 1885 when the city seized it for street construction. Thus, became The Polo Grounds version two (II). It became the home for the New York Mets for the 1889 and 1890 season before moving to Player’s League Park due to increased size and seating capacity. This version did not have any fences and could hold just over 14,000 fans. Then came Pol Grounds version 3 (III) (Pictures 3, 4 and 5). This version hosted the New York Mets from its establishment in 1891 until its destruction in an enormous fire that lasted two full days in 1911 (Baseball-Almanac, 2012). This version held just over 16,000 and was the first Polo Ground version to implement fences in the outfield. When it was first established, the park implemented one of the furthest center field fences known to baseball history. Left field was 335 feet; center field was a whopping 500 feet and right field was 335 feet. This was actually one of the trademarks of the third and fourth versions of the Polo Grounds. The fences were eventually shortened by around 70 feet each in 1890 to allow players to have the chance to hit one over. The highest attendance for the third version was 38,805 coming in the year 1904 (Baseball- almanac, 2012). After the destruction of version III in 1911, the fourth and final version was implemented. The Polo Grounds Version Four (IV) (Pictures 6, 7 and 8) was the longest tenured version lasting from its establishment in 1911 to its retirement and eventual destruction in 1963. This version was home for the New York Mets yet again and a short tenure for the famous until the creation of in 1923. This version kept the trademark of a deep centerfield fence and became widely known for that sole reason. In its 52 year tenure, its highest attendance was 64,417 in 1936 and only four sluggers put the ball over the center field there one of which was the eventual Home-Run King in 1962, 11Hank Aaron (Smith, 2001).

The Polo Grounds was one of the most influential ball parks of baseball and was considered to be one of the classic ball parks that sparked the “crusade of ball parks”, according to Curt Smith in his book entitled Storied Stadiums. This so called “crusade” began in 1909 and ended in 1923

10 World Series – A series of games between the 2 distinct baseball leagues that present their best team to play against the other league’s best. The Leagues were named the American Association and the National League and are still named the same in today’s game. Winner determines which league is better 11 – Baseball’s King during the 1960’s with the most home-runs in history. Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 8 and was the era of ball parks such as Yankee Stadium, Fenway Park, and the historic Wrigley Field which we will focus on and use as the main example of design. Smith describes baseball in the following statement: ““At the time, these urban, mainly structural steel, reinforced, concrete parks spun a globe of big-league hue. Yet birth was indigent, not immaculate. “The most ignored parks in history come before the Wrigleys and Ebbets Fields,” said the late Hall of Fame historian Lee Allen. “If we don’t love them it’s because we don’t know them”” (Smith, 2001). Stadiums were considered to be similar to gardens or parks that people go to escape reality and enjoy nature. Many of these early stadiums and ball parks were built by the public for the public with no government financial backing to support it. These stadiums were created by people who wanted an escape from the city. Smith explains that football stadiums are nothing like baseball stadiums. People don’t go to football games to enjoy nature and the greenery of the park. Basketball stadiums do not even have an appeal to nature since they play indoors. Baseball stadiums, in Smith’s eyes, were works of art and garden like structure that appealed more to the naturist Americans in society. Those that not necessarily attend a ball game just to witness competition but they attend the ball game to become in touch with nature. Many, including myself, believe baseball stadiums to be more than a playing field but an artistic canvass. Even playing on the field, one wants to just sit in the grass and gasp in the naturist aspect of the sport. This is why baseball fanatics are so in touch with their respective, classical stadiums. Think back to ancient Rome, where some consider the sport to really originate. Baseball stadiums were considered to resemble to Roman Coliseum in a time where nature was the key to happiness. When there was nothing else to do, Romans would go to the Coliseum. Sure it’s different because baseball is not a sport to the death but the ideas of nature symbolism from that time lives on through baseball stadiums. Since the origination of the sport and stadiums has been discussed as well as garden-like aspects of the stadiums, it’s time to move on to the main example: Wrigley Field.

During the “crusade” years, as described by Smith, many historical stadiums were created. The 12“House That Ruth Built” was created in 1923 along with other notable parks as 13Fenway Park

12 House That Ruth Built – Nickname for the original Yankee Stadium built in 1923. It was given this nickname due to the legendary King of Swat and home run king, playing there for over a decade. 13 Fenway Park – Home of the and one of the oldest standing stadiums. This stadium is known for its giant wall in left field nicknamed “The Green Monster.” Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 9 created in 1912 and our main example, 14Wrigley Field which was built in 1914. Just before World War I broke out in Europe, Weeghan Park was created, known today as Wrigley Field. Weeghan Park was named after its owner Charles Weeghan who bought the of the (Ball Parks of Baseball). Ballparksofbaseball.com describes the early Weeghan Park and its architect, in this segment:

“Before the start of World War I, bought the Chicago Whales of the Federal League. Weeghman constructed his team a new ballpark in the largely undeveloped north side area of Chicago along Addison and Streets which is now fully developed with businesses, residential areas and local Chicago hotels. Zachary Taylor Davis was hired to develop plans for the ballpark that was initially known as North Side Park until Weeghman named it after himself. Construction of the 14,000 seat ballpark began on March 14, 1914. The ballpark had only a one deck of in a V-shape, with wooden bleachers in the outfield. The $250,000 ballpark was completed by April 23, 1914 when the Whales played their first game at the ballpark. Original dimensions at Weeghman Field were 310 ft. (left), 440 (center), and 356 (right). It was the first ballpark to have permanent concession stands. Weeghman Field was home to the Chicago Whales for two years before the Federal League went bankrupt.”

Weeghan Field was a new attraction on the north side of Chicago. The field was just an upcoming ball park with a basic fence in the outfield. After the 1915 season, Weeghan bought the west side who he then moved to his up and coming ball park on the north side. The field would keep the Chicago Cubs through present day. The name Weeghan Field, however, was changed in 1920 when Weeghan sold the club to a Mr. William Wrigley Jr. who then changed the name of the Park to “Cubs Park”. New ownership meant new renovations. Mr. Wrigley’s first action was to move the grandstands back another 60 feet to add wooden bleachers to allow a more heavy capacity of fanatics (Picture 14). The renovation to the grandstand was double-checked, where the playing field was actually lowered. Cubs Park underwent several renovations beginning in 1922. In 1923, William Wrigley Jr. laid down Merion bluegrass and

14 Wrigley Field – Original named “Weeghan Park” named after its first owner Charles Weeghan. Eventually named Cubs Park before finally being named Wrigley Field. Based in Chicago, Illinois, this stadium is known for its prestigious ivy wall. Nicknamed the “Friendly Confines”. Pictures 9-14 Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 10 clover for the field. This gave the field one of the most fertile and beautiful grasses in baseball stadiums across the USA. In 1926, major renovations as well as the name change to Wrigley Field named after Mr. William Wrigley Jr. himself. The renovations increased capacity to 38,396. Even more renovations were completed in 1937 adding bleachers in the outfield and the famous 27 by 75 foot hand operated scoreboard placed behind the bleachers in centerfield. An even more famous aspect was added to the field fences in 1937 with the addition of the legendary outfield ivy vines purchased and planted a man by the name of (Golenbock, 1996). The ivy is the most distinct addition to this landscape. “Before World War II, the grandstand in left field was circled so all the seats faced home plate instead of centerfield. Lights for Wrigley Field were originally to be installed for the 1942 season. However because of the United States involvement in World War II and the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Phil Wrigley donated the lights to the government” (Ball Parks of Baseball). In the book 15Wrigleyville, Peter Golenbock explains a picture by an artist by the name of Scott Mutter as an amusement. Scott Mutter created a picture of Wrigley Field showing fans using flashlights and camera lights to light the paths and actions for the players. This was a joke because a fan group of Wrigley Field was having a hard time converting to lighted parks and destroying the “classic” feel of the stadium. Eventually, the park was overcome by the sensation of night games and decided to add lights in 1982 after the Tribune Company bought the Cubs from William Wrigley Jr. in 1982. For the past 40 years, the stadium had changed little. With the addition of the lights, the last stadium to not have lights finally altered. Finally, the lights were installed in 1988. “In 1989, the stadium was renovated even more. Private boxes were constructed on the mezzanine level that was originally occupied by the press box and broadcasting booths. A press box and broadcasting booths were constructed in the upper deck directly behind home plate” (Ball Parks in Baseball).

Wrigley field has been the birthplace for many popular baseball traditions. Derek Miller from baseball.us explains: “The first permanent concession stand was built at Weeghman Park in 1914 where it sold overpriced hot dogs and beer. It is said William Wrigley Jr. started the custom of allowing fans to keep foul balls, but that presumption is disputed by the Phillies who believe the tradition started in Philadelphia after a young fan was arrested for keeping a foul ball as a

15 Wrigleyville – name given to the area/neighborhood surrounding Wrigley Field Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 11 souvenir. In either case, the custom of fans throwing back opponent's homerun balls certainly started at Wrigley, and it continues today. Fans will even throw balls hit out of the stadium back from Waveland or Sheffield Avenues, to the chagrin of Reds' announcer . Many of the balls thrown back are more than likely not the original balls hit out, but it is the action of throwing the ball back that counts. The tradition of singing "Take Me Out To The Ballgame" began at Wrigley, and was sung by venerable broadcaster Harry Caray from 1982 until his death before the 1998 season. His grandson took over in the broadcast booth from 1998 until 2004, and a cavalcade of celebrities and Chicagoans have sung the song since Harry's death. The tradition of signing the National Anthem before every game also began at Wrigley when it was first sung before the . Wrigley was also the first field with an organist in 1941, and is one of the few fields to still play organ music more than popular music through the sound system. Although more than half the fields in baseball have organs many of those organs don't get much use” (Miller, 2012). There is much more tradition surrounding Wrigley Field including Babe Ruth’s famous “calling his shot” moment where he point out to centerfield and hit a home run in the exact spot.

Many people have spoken out about this historic landmark saying “there is no other place like it on Earth”, “if Wrigley is ever torn down, baseball will never be the same” and “This place is like a cathedral. It’s the baseball version of St. Patrick’s Cathedral” (Miller, 2012). Today, Wrigley Field is the last Federal League ball park standing. Even with addition of the lights in the 1980’s, it is still one of baseball’s most old-fashioned parks representing classical Roman qualities. The field has stayed advertisement free ever since its creation in 1914. The neighborhood around the landscape has been given the name Wrigleyville where local residents go to the top of the apartment buildings outside the centerfield wall that have bleachers attached to them just for the occasion. Even though there have been a lifetime of renovations, there are rumors that there will be even more renovations in the future. This statement, according to chicago.cbslocal.com explains that there are renovation plans in order that are waiting for a deal:

“The Cubs want to use $200 million in public funds to construct the long-planned Triangle Building along in front of the ballpark. The Triangle Building would house team offices, a restaurant and parking, and would feature a Chicago Cubs Hall of Fame, a Cubs Pro Shop, and new ticket windows.” Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 12

These renovations are from the new owners, The Ricketts family, who bought the Cubs back in 2009. The Chicago.cbslcal.com website explains that the Ricketts family and the city of Chicago want to renovate the stadium not for monetary value but for the restoration of the historic landscape. Renovation plans can be found on the pictures page at the end of the paper (Pictures 9 and 10). The family and city wants to make a huge impact on the stadium becoming a 100 years old. The Ricketts family plans to buy property surrounding the stadium for even more future renovations and additions to raise the fanatical performance of the historic stadium. According to the Chicago.cbslocal.com website, the family have already put in over $200 million in the future renovation plan and are still calling up for public donations of over another $200 million.

Even today, this historic landscape and stadium still thrives to keep its classic feel. The scoreboard in center-field is still manually operated, fans still sit atop of the buildings outside of the walls, and the legendary Ivy still covers the fence surrounding the ball field. Many fans have said that the only thing missing is the legendary Cubs broadcaster Harry Caray 16singing out the lyrics to “17Take Me Out To The Ballgame” during the 187th inning stretch. The stadium had displayed many different views of nature and historical detainment. If you have the chance, everyone needs to visit this historic landmark. It is said that going to the ball park is like taking a jump back in time. In closing, I leave Harry Caray and his memorable version of “Take Me Out To The Ballgame” for the Chicago Cubs:

“HARRY CARAY: “Take me out to the ball game, take me out to the crowd, buy me some peanuts and Cracker Jack. I don’t care if I ever get back, so it’s root, root, root for the Cubs team, if they don’t win it’s a shame, for it’s one, two , three, strikes you’re out at the old ball game!””

“Win or lose, we’re in heaven” (Golenbock, 1996).

16 Harry Caray – Broadcaster for 4 MLB teams during his career/life. Known for his singing of “Take Me Out To The Ballgame” during the 7th inning stretch. Also, he was known for his hysterical broadcasting techniques and sense of humor. He passed away in 1998. 17 Take Me Out To The Ballgame – A song created in 1908 by Jack Norworth and Albert Von Tilzer and has become the unofficial anthem of baseball. The song is usually sung during the “7th inning Stretch” of a ball game. 18 7th Inning Stretch – A tradition that takes place between the halves of the 7th inning of a game – in the middle of Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 13

Pictures

1. Elysian Fields 

2. Union Grounds

3. Polo Grounds (III) Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 14

4. Polo Grounds (III)

5. Polo Grounds (III)

6. Polo Ground (IV)

7. Polo Grounds (IV)

8. Polo Grounds (IV) Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 15

9. Future renovation plan for Wrigley Field

10. Renovation Plan

11. Overview of Wrigley Field Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 16

12. Ivy of Wrigley Field 

13. Capacity and Seating Chart 14. Grand stand renovation

 My personal Great Uncle, Don Cardwell, who pitched for the Chicago Cubs during the 1960’s.

Jordan, J. The Origination of Baseball and Its Stadiums 17

Bibliography

Ballparks of baseball (201). Retrieved from http://www.ballparksofbaseball.com/nl/WrigleyField.ht m

Baseball-almanac. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.baseball-almanac.com/stadium.shtml

Baseball reference: (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.baseball- reference.com/bullpen/Origins_of_baseball

(2012). Chicago local. Chicago, Illinois: Retrieved from http://chicago.cbslocal.com/2012/04/03/emanuel-city- cubs-nearing-deal-on-wrigley-field-renovation-plan/

Golenbock, P. (1996). Wrigleyville. (1st ed., pp. 1-541). New York, NY: St. Martin's Press.

Miller, D. (2012). Wrigley field: Chicago, IL. Chicago, Illinois: Retrieved from http://baseball.derekmiller.us/wrigley.html (Wrigley field: Chicago, 2012)

Morris, P. (2007). Level playing fields. (pp. 1-184). University of Nebraska: Lincoln & London.

Smith, C. (2001). Storied stadiums. (1st ed., pp. 1-592). New York, NY: Carroll & Graf Publishers.