Radioactive Waste Management 2016 F inancing the Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities NEA Radioactive Waste Management Financing the Decommissioning of Nuclear Facilities © OECD 2016 NEA No. 7326 NUCLEAR ENERGY AGENCY ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT The OECD is a unique forum where the governments of 35 democracies work together to address the economic, social and environmental challenges of globalisation. The OECD is also at the forefront of efforts to understand and to help governments respond to new developments and concerns, such as corporate governance, the information economy and the challenges of an ageing population. The Organisation provides a setting where governments can compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practice and work to co-ordinate domestic and international policies. 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Current NEA membership consists of 31 countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States. The European Commission and the International Atomic Energy Agency also take part in the work of the Agency. 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Table of contents Context ........................................................................................................5 Overview of decommissioning financing .............................................7 Decommissioning cost estimation.........................................................9 Decommissioning funding ...................................................................13 NEA activities in the field of decommissioning .................................17 References and further reading ............................................................19 3 Context*1 As commercial nuclear power continues into its sixth decade, a growing number of nuclear reactors are at or reaching the decommissioning phase. Since the beginning of the commercial nuclear industry, as of July 2016, 157 civilian nuclear power reactors had ceased operation in 19 countries, including 33 in the United States, 30 in the United Kingdom, 28 in Germany, 12 in France, 16 in Japan, 6 in Canada and 5 in Russia (IAEA, 2016). These 157 reactors include mostly commercial power reactors, but also prototypes (~30) and experimental reactors (~15), either shut down at the end of their life as originally envisaged in the design, or prematurely closed as a result of financial, political or other considerations (NEA, 2016). Nuclear power reactors worldwide * This document was originally prepared by Inge Weber, Nuclear Decommissioning Specialist in the NEA Division of Radiological Protection and Radioactive Waste Management, as a background note for the April 2016 policy debate of the NEA Steering Committee for Nuclear Energy. 5 A total of 446 nuclear reactors are in operation around the world, providing about 11% of global electricity and the second largest low-carbon source of energy globally after hydroelectric power. However, the average age of the operational nuclear fleet is close to 30 years. Nearly 250 reactors are more than 30 years old, and some 75 are over 40 years old. Another 66 nuclear reactors are currently under construction, mainly in Asia and in non-NEA member countries. There are two opposing trends which may impact the timing of when reactors are closed and enter into the decommissioning phase. In recent years, refurbishments for long-term operation and operating licence extensions have become more common, with many licences granted for nuclear power plant operation up to 60 years in some countries, notably in the United States (NEA, 2016). However, it is unclear whether all such life-extension plans will be pursued to completion and/or be successful. Moreover, changes to political (e.g. Germany) or economic conditions (e.g. Sweden, United States) may impact the operating periods of reactors. There is a sound technical basis existing for the execution of decommissioning work (i.e. issues around decommissioning have largely been resolved from a technical point of view). Several commercial and research facilities have been fully decommissioned, but recent experience with completed decommissioning projects and thus data on decommissioning costs for current plants is limited. Therefore, decommissioning financing still relies primarily on cost estimates rather than actual decommissioning cost data, and it is not clear how well current decommissioning cost estimates reflect actual decommissioning costs in many countries. In 2012, the NEA published the International Structure for Decommissioning Costing (ISDC) to provide an improved basis for preparing comprehensive and comparable decommissioning cost estimates internationally. A variety of financing mechanisms are in place to cover the costs of nuclear reactor decommissioning, but the adequacy and robustness of these mechanisms are largely untested because of the limited number of completed nuclear power reactor decommissioning projects. 6 Overview of decommissioning financing A characteristic feature of policies and strategies for the decommissioning of nuclear facilities is the relatively long time horizons involved. Thus, today’s generations have to make – and are already making – decisions with consequences reaching out to future generations. In order to be sustainable, these decisions should be based on ethical considerations, be possible to implement and take into account a wide range of uncertainties. The purpose of this report is to offer a brief overview of relevant considerations on decommissioning financing with a focus on processes, responsibilities and uncertainties. Key considerations in terms of sustainability are as follows: zz The health and safety of current and future generations is the primary concern of decommissioning and decommissioning funding. zz The generations using nuclear power facilities have an obligation to assemble and to preserve the financial, technical and scientific resources necessary for the later decommissioning of these facilities. The generally acknowledged “polluter pays principle”, stating that those causing pollution should meet the clean-up and other costs to which it gives rise, should be applied when funding the costs of decommissioning nuclear facilities. zz A principle of intergenerational continuity (a chain of responsibilities whereby the present generation must transfer resources and reasonable obligations