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Names and Reality in Mao Zedong's Political Discourse on Intellectuals

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Names and Reality in Mao Zedong's Political Discourse on Intellectuals Transtext(e)s Transcultures 跨文本跨文化 Journal of Global Cultural Studies 5 | 2009 Varia Names and Reality in Mao Zedong’s Political Discourse on Intellectuals Maurizio Marinelli Electronic version URL: http://journals.openedition.org/transtexts/268 DOI: 10.4000/transtexts.268 ISSN: 2105-2549 Publisher Gregory B. Lee Printed version Date of publication: 1 June 2009 ISSN: 1771-2084 Electronic reference Maurizio Marinelli, « Names and Reality in Mao Zedong’s Political Discourse on Intellectuals », Transtext(e)s Transcultures 跨文本跨文化 [Online], 5 | 2009, document 5, Online since 03 April 2010, connection on 19 April 2019. URL : http://journals.openedition.org/transtexts/268 ; DOI : 10.4000/ transtexts.268 © Tous droits réservés Journal of Global Cultural Studies 5 | 2009 : Varia (Re)Inventing "Realities" in China Names and Reality in Mao Zedong‘s Political Discourse on Intellectuals MAURIZI MARINELLI Résumé This essay addresses the topic of the political use of formalized language. In the Chinese historical tradition the -correctness. of language has always been considered a source of moral authority0 official legitimacy and political stability. 1olitical language has always had an intrinsic instrumental 2alue0 since its control is the most suitable way to e3press and con2ey the orthodo3 State ideology. 4ormalized language has also ser2ed as a de2ice to standardize the range of e3pressi2eness of Chinese intellectuals. 5ittgenstein argues that words ha2e the power to set the limit for the -e3pression of thoughts.0 because the boundaries of language indicate the boundaries of one.s own world. My focus is on specific forms of power embodied in language practices and discursi2e formations recognizable in selected te3ts. This in6uiry illuminates 2arious possibilities for normalization and inculcation of formalized language. The internal constitution of selected te3ts is e3amined with an eye to the dialogic interaction with the production and reception of Mao.s and post7Mao.s political discourses on intellectuals. Analysis of 1 language formation and use in a comparati2e perspecti2e considers the socio7historical conte3ts and re2eals a pattern of e2olution0 in2olution0 and finally de2olution of language. Texte intégral The legacy of Confucius: ”What is necessary is to rectify the names‘ 必也 )1 1 The term evolution indicates a process of continuous change: it alludes to the process in which the whole uni2erse is a progression of interrelated phenomena. It intrinsically carries a positi2e connotation0 suggesting a de2elopment0 a deepening or a growth.2 4or the purpose of this study0 this term refers to the evolution of a specific relation between language0 the representation of reality and the art of go2erning0 since this article analyses contemporary political language within the framewor9 of Confucian epistemology30 which was based on the zhengming () theory. 2 4rom a semantic perspecti2e0 the compound rd [usually translated as -rectification of names. but preferably as -(creation of the) correct names.] contains the character , which can function bothasa 2erb 77meaning to rectify0 to correct (as in the compound words 端0 改0 糾)77 and as an adjecti2e 77meaning correct0 right0 but also formal or official (as in the compound words 規0常0式). 4rom an etymological perspecti2e0 this character literally means -to stop. ”at the line. 一一一: is therefore associated with the creation of orthodo3y. 3 The character is also a constituent part of three policy7related characters. The first is zheng 0 which as a Verb means to go2ern [literally: correct (phonetics) + stri9ing (semantic component)] and as a Noun0 indicates the go2ernment or administration. The second character is zheng整0 which as a Verb means to put in order or rectify0 and as an Adjecti2e: proper0 in good order. 整 was used0 for e3ample0 in 19A2 at the launching of the -rectification mo2ement. (zhengfeng yundong整风动). The third character is cheng惩0 which means to punish or punishment. In the e2olution of the theory0 has a clear association with the art of go2erning (). Therefore0 can be interpreted as a politically connotated mechanism aimed at creating a prescripti2e order of things (整)0 which responds to a sort of imposed and self7imposed regulatory practice (惩). The possible range of e3pression of reality 2ia language is confined within the perimeter strategically defined by the epistemological limit of -stopping at the line.. 4 Beginning with ancient China0 language has always played a crucial role in the 2 construction of a 2irtual symbolic order and a claimed socio7political reality.A 5 According to Confucius an e3tremely precise relationship e3ists between the notion of -correctness. ()0 as e3pressed in the theory of -correct names.0 and the art of go2erning the State (). Confucius stated: -If names are not correct0 the saying is not in accordance with the truth of things. If the saying is not in accordance with the truth of things0 affairs (of the State) cannot be carried on with success (ming bu zheng ze yan bushun 0 yan bushun ze shibucheng不则言不 0 言不则不)..5Confucius meant that names0 and therefore language0 embody norms and ha2e a performati2e functionC: the art of go2erning the State is based on the a3iomatic principle of gi2ing correct names to things and acting accordingly. This is one of the fundamental ideas of his political theory: Confucius argued that a good go2ernment is obtained only when all the relati2e duties0 defined by their names0 are maintained. This is the -real. meaning of , in the sense of -stopping at the line.. This is thereason why0 when one of his disciples as9ed: -5hat does it mean to go2ernD. Confucius ga2e a uni2ocally clear answer: -To go2ern means to rectify the names (zhengzhi0 zhengye者，也). If you lead the people by being rectified yourself0 who will not be rectifiedD.E 6 A crucial political strategy is to lead by correct e3ample. Confucius argued also that a ruler able to -rectify names.0 could set a clear e3ample for his subjects to follow. 5hen the ruler.s beha2iour was in line with the standards defined by his words0 the ruler was thought to literally embody codes of proper social beha2iour. Con2ersely0 when the beha2iour of either ruler or ruled was out of line with the idealized standards ascribed to their social position0 the prerogati2es that normally attended that position no longer held. A 9ing who misruled was no longer a proper -9ing.0 and could be legitimately o2erthrown and replaced. Confucian rhetoric propounded a 2ertically structured social and ethical hierarchy0 and the -rectification of names. played a crucial role in mediating the mo2ement between written ideal and social practice. 7 Feeping in mind the range of significance of the character 0 I belie2e that the interrelation between the triad of -correct name (ming) G saying (yan言) G actuality (shi 实). on the one hand0 and politics on the other0 is an epistemological paradigm e3tremely useful in analyzing language and political discourse in contemporary China. Yan is particularly important since it refers to the codified sayings or propositions0 which are connecting elements between the names and the claimed reality0 and contribute to the setting of the line which cannot be crossed. 8 During Mao Zedong.s era the -correct names. theory was fully implemented through the mechanism of 2ertical propaganda. A logocentric model of representation of a claimed reality was fully enforced through the definition of a common set of rules and con2entions shared by the spea9er and the listener. These rules were per2asi2e0 to the point where they became encoded in the patterns0 style0 syntagmatic bonds and le3ical items typical of formalized language. Speech followed the e3pressi2e de2ices of regulated discursi2e 3 formations: inculcated from top7down it carried an intrinsic performati2e power. The linguistic beha2iour and metalinguistic acts of the indi2iduals were supposed to operate in the ways re6uired of him0 according to a criterion of formal correctness based on the -harmony. between the name (ming) and a claimed reality (shi) 2ia the saying (yan). 9 The second dialectical term that I employ in my analysis is involution0 which literally indicates the action of enfolding or entangling something. ne can thin9 of it literally as folding one thing inside another. In2olution alludes to the change of shape or degree0 usually implying a mo2e from higher to lower0 but in mathematics0 for e3ample0 it also means e3ponentiation0 indicating the process of raising a 6uantity to some assigned power. The range of significance of in2olution is particularly broad0 since it could also mean engagement0 in2ol2ement0 participation0 indicating the act of sharing in the acti2ities of a group. Generally spea9ing0 the idea of in2olution is associated with the concept of elaborateness0 elaboration0 intricacy0 or abstraction0 as something which is mar9ed by elaborately comple3 details. In linguistics0 the term in2olution refers to a long and complicated grammatical construction0 characterised by the insertion of clauses between subject and predicate. But in2olution in medical science indicates either the reduction in size of an organ or part0 or the regressi2e alterations of a body or its parts characteristic of the aging process. Therefore0 the term in2olution is used in different conte3ts to indicate a more complicated scenario compared to a pre7e3isting one. 10 In this case0 I use the term in2olution associated with e2olution0 to address the topic of the political use of formalised language in socialist China.
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