A Chronology (1893-1976)

1893 Mao born to a farming family in province. 1895 China defeated by Japan in the Sino-Japanese War. 1900 Boxer Rebellion and counterattack by foreign powers. 1905 ends the civil service exams. 1911 Republican revolution; fall of the Qing dynasty. 1912 General replaces Sun Yat-sen as president of the republic. 1913 Sun Yat-sen founds the Guomindang (GMD), or Nationalist party. 1915- 1925 New Culture Movement. 1919 in opposes the Versailles treaty. 1921 Official founding of the (CCP) in Shanghai; is one of the founding members. 1923 CCP and GMD cooperate in the first united front; Mao then works in the GMD Propaganda Department and the Peasant Training Institute. 1925 Sun Yat-sen dies; Chiang Kai-shek eventually takes over the GMD. 1926 Northern Expedition under GMD leadership starts out from Guangzhou in southern China to reunify the country. Mao returns to Hunan to work in the countryside. 1927 Mao writes his "Report on the Peasant Movement in Hunan." Chiang Kai-shek turns against the CCP and in April massacres CCP activists. GMD forms a new national government and moves the capital of the Republic of China to Nanjing. 1930 Changsha uprising, led by Mao, fails; Mao moves to develop rural soviets. 1931 Japanese begin to occupy northeast China and will declare Manchukuo a separate country the next year. Formal establishment of the Jiangxi soviet; Mao elected chairman of the soviet.

232 CHRONOLOGY 233

1931- 1934 GMD national government launches five "encirclement cam• paigns" to destroy the Communist party and Jiangxi soviet; CCP survives the first four. 1934 Communists flee the Jiangxi soviet and set off on the Long March. 1935 Mao gains a central leadership position in the CCP at the Zunyi Conference during the Long March. 1936 Communists make their new capital at Yan'an, in the northwest province of Shaanxi. 1936- 1947 Yan'an period, during which Mao consolidates his supreme posi- tion and develops policies that lead to CCP victory in 1949. 1937 Japan invades China, beginning World War II in Asia. 1942- 1944 Yan'an Rectification Movement promotes Mao's ideas and leader• ship. 1945 Japan formally surrenders to the Allies on September 9, ending World War II. 1945- 1949 between the CCP and GMD. 1949 CCP declares a new national government, the People's Republic of China (PRC), with Mao as its head. 1950 February China and the Soviet Union sign the Treaty of Friend• ship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance. October Chinese forces enter Korea, joining the Korean War. 1952 Land reform completed in most areas of China. 1955 First Five-Year Plan (1953-57) formally adopted to organize China's planned economy. Nationwide mass campaign to criticize two intellectuals, Hu Shi and Hu Feng. 1956 Khrushchev denounces Stalin in the USSR. Mao calls for public criticism of the CCP in the , but the response is muted. CCP holds its Eighth Party Congress in Beijing; celebrates suc• cesses of the PRC. 1957 February Mao delivers his speech "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People" to boost the Hundred Flowers Campaign. 234 CHRONOLOGY

May Hundred Flowers Campaign blooms, but with biting criti- cism of the CCP. June Anti-Rightist Campaign attacks those who spoke up in the Hundred Flowers Campaign; Mao's "Contradictions" speech is published in a highly edited form. 1958 CCP adopts Mao's plan. August Mao's talks at Beidaihe popularize collectivization of agriculture in the people's communes. 1959 Uprising in Tibet against Chinese rule is suppressed by the People's Liberation Army (PIA). April succeeds Mao as state chairman (Mao remains as party chairman). August criticizes the Great Leap Forward and is purged, showing that Mao can no longer be criticized even by his senior colleagues. 1960 Soviet Union withdraws all experts from China. Famine deepens in China. 1961 CCP begins economic and political reforms to undo the damage of the Great Leap Forward. 1964 China explodes its atomic bomb. 1966 begins as an attack on Beijing party intellectu• als but quickly spreads to the purge of senior party leaders, including, by 1967, Liu Shaoqi. Mao writes a big-character poster, "," to encourage to attack "the " and "to rebel is justified"; Red Guard terror begins. 1969 Mao declares the ''victory" (that is, end) of the Cultural Revolu• tion and supports General as his new successor; radical policies continue. 1971 July U.S. secretary of state Henry Kissinger secretly visits Beijing. September Lin Biao dies in a plane crash while trying to escape Mao's secret police; he is formally denounced. October China joins the United Nations, leading to the expul• sion of . 1972 U.S. president Richard Nixon visits China. 1976 January , the highest ranking moderate in the CCP, dies. September Mao Zedong dies. Questions for Consideration

1. How would you sum up Mao Zedong's life? Try making a list of dichotomies: Mao as hero vs. Mao as demon, Mao as state founder vs. Mao as voice of the people, Mao as thinker vs. Mao as actor, or Mao as historical figure vs. Mao as living icon. What other contrasts can you find? 2. Consider the different objects of Mao's attention in the three peri• ods covered in our selections: social movements in the 1920s, state power and nationalism in the 1940s, and problems of admin• istration and development in the 1950s and 1960s. Why did Mao's focus shift? What continuities do you find in Mao's writings over these years? 3. In what ways do the concrete policy suggestions and ways of look• ing at the world suggested in Mao's major writings before 1949 address the issues of imperialism and how to deal with the West• issues that confronted China so forcefully by 1900? 4. What experiences informed Mao's approach to rural revolution? Compare the picture Mao gave Snow (see Document 11) with other accounts of Mao's early life. 5. Why did Mao take the oppression of women and youths seriously? How did their liberation fit into his model of revolution? What became of Mao's "feminism"? Did the CCP follow his lead on women's and youth liberation over the years? Did Mao himself return to this theme in his later writings? 6. Why were the ideals for China outlined by Mao in "On New Democracy" (see Document 2) attractive to China's students and urban middle class in the 1940s? 7. Who were Mao's competitors for top leadership in the CCP in the 1940s, and how did his Yan'an writings (see Documents 2-4) answer their challenge? How did these writings function in the 1942-44 Rectification Movement?

235 236 QUESTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION

8. How does Mao's view on revolutionary leadership (see Document 4) relate to his philosophical method, as explained in Document 13? 9. What issues confronted the ruling CCP in 1956? How did Mao try to address them in "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People" (Document 7)? Why was Mao out of synch with his senior colleagues in the CCP? 10. How do Mao's Beidaihe talks of 1958 (see Document 8) compare with his Yan'an talks (see Documents 2-4)? Look at the contextual readings, such as Li Zhisui in Document 14 and Stuart Schram in Document 12, as you consider what contributed to these differ• ences. 11. Why is it so difficult to separate Mao from the CCP today? Con• sider, for example, the party resolution of 1981 in Document 16 and popular views in the 1990s in Document 18. 12. How does the Mao cult, especially in the Cultural Revolution (see Documents 10 and 15) compare and contrast with other notable leadership cults of the twentieth century, such as Stalin's, Hitler's, or Mussolini's? 13. Land reform, or "land to the tiller," was a key issue for develop• mental states in the twentieth century. How did CCP policy and practice change from the 1940s to the 1960s to the 1980s? 14. Developmental states need to find a way to link an elite that can function in an international environment defined by Western sci• ence, legal norms, and commercial practices with a majority agrar• ian population that often holds radically different attitudes, values, and practices that are contrary to those international norms. How did Mao and the CCP try to bridge this gap? 15. Developmental states must find a way to achieve security-both international respect and domestic order. What were Mao's answers to these fundamental state questions? Selected Bibliography

This bibliography gives a taste of the scholarship on Mao and his context.

MOVIES AND DRAMA The images of films (many now available on video) and modern plays are an effective way to present the history of Mao's times and to give a sense of how various Chinese experienced Mao's revolutions. The movie Huozhe (To live) by Zhang Yimo is a vivid account of a commoner's life through these years. It is readily available on video (with subtitles). Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine provides a parallel history from the perspective of the Chinese intellectual and artistic elite. Small Well Lane, a play written by Ii Longyun and translated by Hong Jiang and Timothy Cheek (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), is the compelling story of how people in a small Beijing neighborhood experienced Mao's revolu• tions from the 1940s to the 1980s.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND GUIDES The best bibliography for those new to China studies is Charles Hayford, China (Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1997). There are several other fine bibliographies, such as the Bibliography of Asian Studies, available at research and college libraries. The only English index of topics and names in Mao's works is John Bryan Starr and Nancy Anne Dyer, Post-Liberation Works of Mao Zedong: A Bibliography and Index (Berkeley: Center for Chinese Studies, Univer• sity of California, 1979). However, the indexes in the comprehensive series of Mao's works in English by Schram and by Kau and Leung (see "Mao's Writings") are also useful. Handy historical dictionaries with short entries on names, terms, and events in China's revolutions include the following:

He, Henry Yuhuai, Dictionary of the Political Thought of the People's Republic of China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 2001).

237 238 SELECTED BIBUOGRAPHY

Leung, Edwin Pak-wah, ed., Historical Dictionary of Revolutionary China, 1839-1976 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1992). Schoppa, R. Keith, The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000). Sullivan, Lawrence R., with Nancy Hearst, eds., Historical Dictionary of the People's Republic of China: 1949-1997 (Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 1997).

TEXTBOOKS Fairbank, John King, and Merle Goldman, China: A New History (Cam• bridge: Harvard University Press, 1998). Lieberthal, Kenneth, Governing China: From Revolution through Reform (New York: W. W. Norton, 1995). Saich, Tony, Governance and Politics of China (London and New York: Pal• grave, 2001). Spence, Jonathan, The Search for Modern China, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000).

MAO'S WRITINGS The standard edition from China is Selected Works. There are now major scholarly editions of all periods of Mao's writings in English, which also include guides to the Chinese sources and interpretive issues.

Kau, Michael Y. M., and John K Leung, eds., The Writings of Mao Zedong, 1949-1976, 2 vols. (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1986, 1992). MacFarquhar, Roderick, Timothy Cheek, and Eugene Wu, eds., The Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao: From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward (Cambridge: Harvard Contemporary China Series, 1989). Schram, Stuart, The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1969). Schram, Stuart, Mao Tse-tung Unrehearsed: Talks and Letters 1956-1971 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 197 4). Schram, Stuart R., and Nancy]. Hodes, eds., Mao's Road to Power: Revolu• tionary Writings, 1912-1949 (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1992-). Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung (Peking: Foreign Languages Press, vols. 1-4, 1975; vol. 5, 1977). Available on-line at .

BIOGRAPHIES AND STUDIES OF MAO There are numerous studies of Mao, but these are among the best. Of the three fine short biographies (Breslin, Davis, and Spence), Spence's is the most engaging. Schram's classic study, Mao Tse-tung, still repays reading. There are also a number of useful specialized studies. This section ends SELECTED BIBUOGRAPHY 239 with some of the more thoughtful scholarly essays that assess these and other studies and put them in the context of scholarly opinion.

Breslin, Shaun, Mao: Profiles in Power (London: Longman, 1998). Davin, Delia, Mao Zedong (Phoenix Mill: Sutton Publishing, 1997). Dirlik, Arif, Paul Healy, and Nick Knight, Critical Perspectives on Mao Zedong's Thought (Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1997). Martin, Helmut, Cult & Canon: The Origins and Development of State (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1982). Schram, Stuart, Mao Tse-tung, rev. ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967). Schram, Stuart, The Thought of Mao Tse-tung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Spence, Jonathan, Mao Zedong (New York: Viking Penguin, 1999). Starr, John Bryan, Continuing the Revolution: The Political Thought of Mao (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979). Wakeman, Frederic, Jr., History and Will: Philosophical Perspectives on Mao Tse-tung's Thought (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973). Womack, Brantly, The Foundations of Mao Tse-tung's Political Thought (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1982).

Knight, Nick, "Mao and History: Who Judges and How?" Australian jour• nal of Chinese Affairs, no. 13 (January 1985): 121-36. Scharping, Thomas, "The Man, the Myth, the Message-New Trends in Mao-Literature from China," The China Quarterly, no. 137 (1994): 168-79. Schram, Stuart, "Mao Zedong a Hundred Years On: The Legacy of a Ruler," The China Quarterly, no. 137 (1994): 125-43. Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N., "Mao Matters: A Review Essay," China Review International, vol. 3, no. 1 (1996): 1-21. Womack, Brantly, "Mao Zedong Thoughts," The China Quarterly, no. 137 (1994): 159-67. Womack, Brantly, "Mao before Maoism," The Chinese journal, no. 46 (July 2001): 95-117.

CHINA'S REVOLUTIONS AND MAO

Long-Term Perspectives Mao's contributions and faults can most fully be appreciated with an awareness of some long-term perspectives in Chinese history, as well as a sense of how Americans report on China. These are some challenging studies.

Jespersen, T. Christopher, American Images of China: 1931-1949 (Stan• ford: Stanford University Press, 1996). 240 SELECTED BIBUOGRAPHY

Levinson, Joseph, Confucian China and Its Modern Fate (Berkeley: Uni• versity of California Press, 1968). MacKinnon, Stephen, and Oris Friesen, China Reporting: An Oral History of American journalism in the 1930s and 1940s (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987). Pussey, James, China and Charles Darwin (Cambridge: Harvard Council on East Asian Studies, 1983). Schwartz, Benjamin 1., In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964). Wong, R Bin, China Transformed: Historical Change and the Limits of European Experience (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997).

Chinese Communist Party History These fine studies and documentary collections give a sense of when and why Mao was in synch and out of synch with the Communist party (if not the broader Chinese population).

Guillermaz, Jacques, A History of the Chinese Communist Party 1922-49 (New York: Random House, 1972). Hartford, Kathleen, and Steven M. Goldstein, Single Sparks: China's Rural Revolutions (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1989). Hunt, Michael H., The Genesis of Chinese Communist Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996). Lampton, David M., Same Bed Different Dreams: Managing U.S.-China Relations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). Roy, Denny, China's Foreign Relations (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Little• field, 1998). Saich, Tony, The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party: Documents and Analysis (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996). Teiwes, Frederick C., Politics and Purges in China: Rectification and the Decline of Party Norms, 1950-1965, 2nd ed. (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1993).

1920s-1930s Dirlik, Arif, Anarchism in the Chinese Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). Jui, Li, The Early Revolutionary Activities of Comrade Mao Tse-tung (White Plains, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1977). Saich, Tony, and Hans]. van de Ven, eds., New Perspectives on the Chinese Communist Revolution (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1995). Stranahan, Patricia, Underground: The Shanghai Communist Party and the Politics of Survival, 1927-1937 (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998). SElECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 241 van de Ven, Hans ]., From Friend to Comrade: The Chinese Communist Party, 1920-1927 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991). Yang, Benjamin, From Revolution to Politics: Chinese Communists on the Long March (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1990).

1940s Apter, David E., and Tony Saich, Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Repub• lic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1994). Dai Qing, Wang Shiwei and "Wild Lilies": Rectification and Purges in the Chinese Communist Party, 1942-1944 (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1994). Goldman, Merle, Literary Dissent in Communist China (Cambridge: Har• vard University Press, 1967). Levine, Steven I., Anvil of Victory: The Communist Revolution in Manchuria, 1945-1948 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1987). Pepper, Suzanne, Civil War in China: The Political Struggle, 1945-49 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978). Selden, Mark, China in Revolution: The Yenan Way Revisited (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1995). Watson, Andrew, Mao Zedong and the Political Economy of the Border Region (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980). Wylie, Raymond F., The Emergence of Maoism: Mao Tse-tung, Ch'en Po-ta, and the Search for Chinese Theory, 1935-1945 (Stanford: Stanford Uni• versity Press, 1980).

People's Republic of China Barme, Geremie R., Shades of Mao: The Posthumous Cult of the Great Leader (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996). Chan, Anita, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village under Mao and Deng, updated ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Cheek, Timothy, and Tony Saich, eds., New Perspectives on State Socialism in China (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1997). Davies, Gloria, ed., Voicing Concerns: Contemporary Chinese Critical Inquiry (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001). Landsberger, Stefan, Chinese Propaganda Posters: From Revolution to Mod• ernization (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1995). MacFarquhar, Roderick, The Origins of the Cultural Revolution, vols. 1-3 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974-97). Meisner, Maurice, Mao's China and After (New York: Free Press, 1986). Schoenhals, Michael, ed., China's Cultural Revolution, 1966-1969: Not a Dinner Party (Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1996). 242 SELECTED BIBliOGRAPHY

Schrift, Melissa, Biography of a Chairman Mao Badge: The Creation and Mass Consumption of a Personality Cult (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 2001). Yan Jiaqi and Gao Gao, Turbulent Decade: A History of the Cultural Revolu• tion, trans. and ed. D. W. Y. Kwok (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996). Acknowledgments Geremie R. Barme. "Shades of Mao." From Shades of Mao: The Posthumous Cult of the Great Leader. Copyright © 1996 by Geremie R. Barme. Reprinted by permission of M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk, NY 10504. Jack Belden. "Land and Revolution." From China Shakes the World by Jack Belden. Copyright© 1949 by Jack Belden. Reprinted by permission. Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en. "Snow." From Mao and the Chinese Revo• lution, translated and edited by Michael Bullock and Jerome Ch'en. Oxford University Press, London, 1965. Reprinted by permission. Central Committee on the Chinese Communist Party. "Some Questions on Party History, June 1981." Translation from Beijing Review, July 6, 1981. For• eign Language Bureau, Beijing Review Publishing Company. Boyd Compton. "Resolution of the Central Committee of the Chinese Commu• nist Party on Methods of Leadership, June 1, 1943." From Mao's China: Party Reform Documents 1942-1944, edited and translated by Boyd Compton. Copy• right © 1952 by Boyd Compton. Reprinted by permission of the University of Washington Press. Nick Knight. "Mao Zedong's 'Sinification of Marxism.' " From Marxism in Asia, edited by Colin Mackerras and Nick Knight. Copyright © 1985 by Colin Mackerras and Nick Knight. Reprinted with the permission of St. Martin's Press. Li Zhisui. "The Emperor of Zhongnanhai, 1994." From The Private Life of Chairman Mao, translated and edited by Tai Hung-chao. Copyright © 1994 by Tai Hung-chao. Reprinted with permission of Random House, Inc. Roderick MacFarquhar, Timothy Cheek, and Eugene Wu. "Talks at the Bei• daihe Conference, August 1958." Excerpts from The Secret Speeches of Chair• man Mao: From the Hundred Flowers to the Great Leap Forward, translated and edited by Roderick MacFarquhar, Timothy Cheek, and Eugene Wu. Copy• right © 1989 by the Harvard University Asia Center. Reprinted by permission. Mao Zedong. "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People, June 1957.'' Translated from Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung. Foreign Lan• guage Press, 1977. "Bombarded the Headquarters." (New China News Agency, August 4, 1967). Translated from Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse• tung, Foreign Language Press, 1968. Bonnie S. McDougall. "Talks at the Yan'an Conference on Literature and Art: A Translation of the 1943 Text with Commentary.'' Copyright © 1980 by the Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan. Reprinted with per• mission.

243 244 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Rae Yang. ''At the Center of the Storm." From Spider Eaters: A Memoir. Copy• right © 1997 The Regents of the University of California. Reprinted by permis• sion of the University of California Press. Michael Schoenhals. Excerpt from China's Cultural Revolution 1966-1969: Not a Dinner Party. Reprinted by permission of M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk, NY 10504. Stuart R Schram and Nancy ]. Hodes. "Report on the Peasant Movement in Hunan, February 1927." From Mao's Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912-1949: Volume II: National Revolution and Social Revolution, December 1920-june 1927, translated and edited by Stuart R Schram and Nancy ]. Hodes. Copyright © 1994. Reprinted by permission from M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk, NY 10504. Stuart R Schram and Nancy J. Hodes. "On New Democracy, January 15, 1940." From Mao's Road to Power: Revolutionary Writings, 1912-1949: Volume VII, 1940-1941, translated and edited by Stuart R Schram and Nancy]. Hodes. Reprinted by permission from M. E. Sharpe, Inc., Armonk, NY 10504. Stuart R Schram. "The Chinese People Have Stood Up, September 1949," ''American Imperialism Is Closely Surrounded by the Peoples of the World, 1964." From The Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung, Second Edition, translated and edited by Stuart R Schram. Copyright © 1969 Praeger Publishers, a divi• sion of Greenwood Publishing Group. Reprinted by permission. Stuart R Schram. "Just a Few Words (Talk at the Central Work Conference), October 25, 1966," "The Struggle on Two Fronts, 1967." From Mao Tse-tung Unrehearsed: Talks and Letters 1956-1971, translated by Stuart R Schram. © 1967 Penguin Books Ltd. Reprinted by permission. . "Interview with Mao." From by Edgar Snow. Copyright © 1968 by Edgar Snow. Used by permission of Grove/ Atlantic, Inc. Jeffrey Wasserstrom. "Mao Matters." From China Review International, vol. 3, no. 1 (Spring 1996). Copyright © 1996 University of Hawaii Press. Reprinted with permission. Index

Note: Chinese names appear with family name first: Mao Zedong is "Mr. Mao" and is indexed under "M." absolute power, 25, 30, 221, 223 armed forces. See also Eighth Route Army; accumulation, by cooperatives, 144-45 New Fourth Army; People's libera• Acton, Lord, 25 tion Army; Red Army Africa, 159 irregular household militia, 60 African Americans, 187 of landlords, overthrow of, 59-60 Agrarian Revolution, 82, 107-8, 218 of peasants, establishment of, 59-60 agricultural colleges, 161 standing household militia, 60 agricultural cooperatives, 143-45, 234 art accumulation by, 144-45 freedom of thought in, 150 disturbances by, 156 revolutionary work and, 113-17 "little Red Book" quotations on, 176 social role of, 113 agricultural production subordination to politics, 113, 116-17 backyard steel furnaces and, 208 Asia, 159, 168 deep ploughing and, 160, 161-62 atomic bomb, 234 five year plans and, 161 ''At the Center of the Storm" (Rae Yang), inflated figures for, 25, 143, 208-9 210-15 laborers, 98 Austria-Hungary, 105 vegetable farmers, 66-67 authorities airports, 160, 164 clan, 62-66, 175 Analects (Confucius), 189 masculine (husband), 11, 62,64,175 anarchy, 133 overthrow of, by peasant associations, animal food, 69 62-66 Anshan Steel Mill, 22[, 163 of peasant associations, 43-44 antagonistic contradictions, 130. See also political, 62, 175 contradictions religious, 175 defined, 130 types of, 175 resolution of, 136 Autumn Harvest uprising, 5 anti-Americanism, 167 anti-communism, 107-8 backyard steel furnaces, 205-6, 208-9 anti-feudalism, 104, 105, 110-12. See also baihua, 9, 103n. See also Chinese language feudalism bailiffs, overthrow of, 60-62 anti-imperialism, 104, 105, 110-12. See also banditry imperialism elimination of, 71-72 Anti-Japanese Theater, 185-86 peasant movement and, 53 Anti-Japanese United Front, 90, 92, 94, bans, by peasant associations, 67-71 104 Bao'an, 185 Anti-Rightist Campaign, 24, 25, 129, Barme, Geremie 234 Shades of Mao, 226-31 Apter, David, 33, 219-25 beef, 69-70 aristocracy. See gentry beggar-bullies, 70

245 246 INDEX beggars, 52 decline of, 82, 93 Beidaihe Conference, 160 democracy and, 90 Beijing, 5 fear of, 229 Beijing Evening News, 229 imperialism and, 93-94 Beijing University, 210n regulation of, 92-93 Belgium, 168 remoulding of capitalists, 145-46 big-character posters, 169, 170-71 socialism vs., 151-52 by Mao Zedong, 169, 170-71, 178 "capitalist roaders," 38 by Nie Yuanzi, 170n, 178 card games, 67 by Red Guards, 210, 211-12 Catholic missionaries, 8 birth control, 162 cave dwellings, Yan'an, 14/ Bolsheviks, 10 Central Bureau of Guards, 208 "Bombard the Headquarters" poster (Mao Chamberlain, Neville, 195n Zedong), 169, 170-71 Changsha, 5 bourgeois/capitalist world revolution, Changsha Normal School, 5 85-86 Changsha uprising, 232 bourgeois-democratic revolution, 83, 87. See Chang Zhongshi, 85 also democratic revolution chanting, 70 stages of, 101-2 Chattopadhyaya, Suhasini, 187 bourgeoisie. See also petty bourgeoisie Chen Duxiu, 9 characteristics of, 87-89 Chen Yi, 208 class struggle and, 151-52 Chiang Kai-shek, viii, 5, 11, 12, 18, 28, 49, 50, culture and, 101 84,88n, 143,165,193-97, 195n, 232 democracy as tool of, 91 chickens, 69 dictatorship by, 93-94, 133-34 children education and, 102 cadres, 161 ideological remoulding of, 145-46 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 175-76 imperialism and, 87, 88 China. See also economic system; People's May Fourth Movement and, 105-6 Republic of China; political system; mutual coexistence with, 154-55 social system opposition to Cultural Revolution by, capitalism in, 86, 101, 145-46 170-71 historical background, 6-9, 76, 78-81 prejudices of, 115 historical map, 4-5/ refutation of dictatorship by, 93-94 Mao's understanding of, 6, 15-17, 25 revolution and, 88, 89 map, 2-3/ role in Cultural Revolution, 104 old vs. new, 79-81 social contradictions and, 131 revolutions, 5-9, 41-75, 80, 81-86 Boxer Rebellion, 7, 232 transformation to modern state, 6 brainwashing, 142n. See also ideological China Quarterly, 221 remoulding China's Great Revolution, 83. See also Braun, Otto, 184n Northern Expedition Britain, 105, 168, 186-87 Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Soviet Union and, 95-96 32 Buddhist chants, 70n Chinese civil war, 17-18, 233 bullies, peasant attacks against, 43-45, "Chinese classes," 73 46-48,53,55,59,61,62 Chinese Communist Party (CCP), 134-35 bureaucratism,21, 128, 165n, 166 acknowledgment of errors by, disturbances and, 155-56 216-19 mass campaigns dealing with, 23 capitalism and, 26 businessmen, 145-46 Central Committee of, 40, 217 mass line, 15 cadres, 13 resolution on leadership methods, children of, 161 112-17 discipline required of, 15 "Some Questions on Party History," goals of, 13 216-19 manual labor participation by, 161 cooperation with, 95, 97, 106 policy, 120 criticism of, 112, 127-29 Cambodia, 168 distrust of ordinary citizens by, 34-35 capitalism emergence of, 10-12 in China, 86, 101 founding of, 103, 106, 232 Communist Party and, 26 Guomindang (GMD) and, 10-13, 16, 233 INDEX 247

historical background, 76 communes. See people's communes Hundred Flowers Campaign and, 23-24, communism 128-29,149-55,233,234 labor and, 163 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 172-73 as long-term goal, 77 long-term coexistence and mutual super• opposition to, 96-97 vision among political parties, people's communes and, 163 154-55 restricting, 94 Mao's alienation from, 22-23, 26-27 in Soviet Union, 164-65 Mao's influence on, 33, 216-19 Communist Party. See also Chinese Mao's leadership of, vi, 1 Communist Party (CCP) Mao's writings and, 39-40, 216-19 legality of, in capitalist countries, 133-34 May Fourth Movement and, 105 comprador, 151 newspaper support of, 107 Confucianism, 8, 100, 227n party cell organization, 10 New Culture Movement and, 9-10 party unity, 135 Confucius, 47n persecution of, 108 Congo, 167-68 political opposition and, 33-34 congress system, 91 reactionary campaigns against, 107-8 consumers' cooperatives, 74 resolution on leadership methods, contradictions 112-17 antagonistic (with enemy countries), resolution on the role of Mao, 33 130-41 support for, 103-4 co-operative transformation of Three People's Principles and, 99 agriculture, 143-45 Chinese Culture Gournal), 78 correct handling of, 129-59 Chinese language counter-revolutionaries, 141-43 biahua, 9, 103n democratic resolution of, 134-35 changes in, 103 denial of, 138 romanization, vii-viii distinguishing social and antagonistic, 137 vernacular, 9, 103n emergence of, 128 writing system, 9 Hundred Flowers Campaign, 149-55 "Chinese People Have Stood Up, The" immunity and, 129 (Mao Zedong), 125-27 industrial, 145-46, 158-59 Chinese Political Consultative Congress, intellectuals, 146-48 125 lessons from, 157-58 Chinese Sciences, 32 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 17 4 Chongqing, 5 minority nationalities, 148-49 civil rights, 133 Red Guards and, 211 civil service examinations, 9, 232 resolution of, 128-29, 131, 138 clan authority in socialist vs. capitalist countries, 138 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 175 social (within China), 130-41 overthrow of, by peasant associations, strikes and disturbances, 155-57 62-66 types of, 130-41 class struggle, 31-32 unity of opposites law and, 137-38 during Chinese civil war, 17-18 cooperatives, 74 contradictions and, 140-41 accumulation by, 144-45 development of Marxism through, 150-52 agricultural, 143-45, 156, 176, 234 Hunan peasant uprisings and, 41 consolidation of, 144 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 17 4, 177 credit, 71, 74 social contradictions and, 131 industrial, 163-64 universal laws and, 199 corruption coercion, avoiding, 134, 136 in county government, peasant associa• coexistence tions and, 60-62 with imperialist countries, 159 peasant attacks against, 43-45 of parties within China, 154-55 power and, 25, 30 collectivization of agriculture, 143-45, 156, counter-revolution 176,234 elimination of counter-revolutionaries, colonialism, 80, 88, 90 141-43 Comintern (Communist International orga• fear of, 229 nization), 10 county magistrates, overthrow of, 60-62 commercialism, 34/ Coup of 1898, 81 communal dining, 163 Cow Demons and Snake Spirits, 229 248 INDEX credit cooperatives, 71, 74 December Ninth Movement, 82, 108n criticism deep ploughing, 160, 161-62 of Chinese Communist Party (CCP), deities invited by Mao, 233 banned, 70 criteria for, 154 folk religion, 227, 230 Cultural Revolution and, 30-32 Mao as deity, 35/, 226-31 Hundred Flowers Campaign, 23-24, democracy. See also New Democracy 128-29,149-55,233,234 capitalism and, 90 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 173 freedom and, 134 of Marxism, 152-55 Guomindang (GMD) and, 91 by Red Guard, 210-12 Mao's definition of, 77 of revisionism, 153 old vs. new, 100-102 Cui Zhiyuan, 36 relative nature of, 133-34 cultural army, 113-14 resolving contradictions in, 134-35 Cultural Revolution, vii, 5, 21, 26-27, 77, as tool of bourgeoisie, 91 169, 234 Western ideals, 10 acknowledgment of errors of, 216, 217 democratic centrism, 91, 132-33 bourgeoisie and, 104, 170-71 democratic dictatorship, 132-33, 136-37 commercialization of, 34/ democratic revolution decade of, 169n bourgeois-, 83, 87, 101-2 deification of Mao under, 35/, 229-31 as part of world revolution, 81-86 Exposing Third Layer of Thoughts stages of, 80 campaign, 212 Deng Uqun, 227, 230 Four Olds, 234, 238 , 32, 179, 208, 216 historical characteristics of, 102-4 Deng Zihui, 164 irrationality of, 169-70 de-Stalinization, 23 legacy of, 227 destitute peasants. See poor peasants; "little Red Book" and, 169-70 poverty Mao's writings on, 40 dictatorship, 15 mass culture, 111-12 democratic, 132-33, 136-37 May Fourth Movement and, 104-6 functions of, 132 national culture, 110, 112 discipline periods of, 104-9 of cadres, 15 public criticism under, 30-32 Red Army, 191-92 Red Guards and, 210-15 distilling spirits, 68-69 responsibility for, 217 disturbances scientific culture, 110-11, 112 causes of, 155-56 utopian visions, 160 dealing with, 156-57 victory (end) declared, 169n, 234 learning from, 157-58 and, 178n "doctrine of going up the mountains," "Cultural Revolution Readings" (Mao 97-98 Zedong), 169-79 Doctrine of Oriental Culture, 71 culture dominoes, 67 decline in 1910s and 1920s, 7 drumming, 70 of imperialism, 100, 101 ducks, 69 mass, 111-12 national, 110, 112 Eastern Europe, 23 New Culture Movement, 9-10, 20, 76, 232 economic base, 138 of New Democracy, 100-102, 111 economic development, 18 "no construction without destruction," 77 New Democracy and, 92-93 old vs. new, 79-81 privatization and, 26 patriarchal, 43, 45, 62-64, 175 promoting, 158-59 petty bourgeoisie and, 101 recovery, 18, 26 proletariat and, 101 revolutions, 6 revolutionary, 111-12 in socialist vs. feudalist China, 139 scientific, 110-11, 112 economic planning, 20, 140, 233 Five-Year Plans, 149, 161, 233 dazibao, 210. See also big-character posters economic system deaths. See also violence under communism, 163-65 from famine, 25 cooperatives, 163-64 of landlords, 50 foreign commercial interests and, 7 INDEX 249

in the 1910s and 1920s, 7-9 flower drum, 68 old vs. new policy, 79-81 folk religion. See also religion privatization,25-26 banned, 70 education. See also intellectuals; scholars; deities, 70, 227, 230 students Mao as deity, 35/, 36, 226-31 ''foreign-style school," 73 restoration of, 230 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 177 rites banned, 70-71 manual labor and, 161 smashing idols, 63, 64-65 new (Western) learning, 102 superstition, 30, 62-66, 228 old-style ("Chinese classes"), 73 foreign relations peasant movement and, 72-73 contradictions between China and enemy, policies, 148 131-32 universal, 73 Mao's knowledge of, 186-87 egg-cake feasts, 69 "foreign-style school," 73 Eight Characters, 65 Four Classics, 189 eight hexagrams, 226 Four Olds, 228, 234 Eighth Route Army, 114, 196. See also four pests, 166 armed forces "fragrant flowers and poisonous weeds," "Eight Proletarian Points," 163 129, 150, 153 embankment construction and France, 105 maintenance, 74 freedom "Emperor of Zhongnanhai, The" in the arts and sciences, 150 (Li Zhisui), 204-9 relative nature of, 133-34 "encirclement and suppression" campaigns, funeral gifts, 70-71 107-8, 233 enemy gambling, 53, 67, 71, 72 confusion over, 217 gaming, 67, 71, 72 external, 130-41 ganbu (cadres), 13. See also cadres internal, 132 Gandhi, Mohatma, 187 "equalization of land ownership," 92-93 , 27, 32 equal pay, 176 Genghis Khan, 124 European missionaries, 8 gentry examination system, 9, 232 bad gentry, peasant attacks against, Exposing Third Layer of Thoughts 43-45,46-48,49,53,55,59,62 campaign, 212 joining peasant associations, 44 peasant rebellions and, 45-46 Falungong group, 36 geomancy, 65 tnrUnes, 21,25,234 Germany, 105 farm produce cooperatives, 74 "going up the mountains," 97-98 feasts, 69, 71 government feminism, 11. See also women centralized state administration, 20 feng shui, 65n corruption in, peasant associations and, Festival of the Dead, 70 60-62 feudalism, 80. See also anti-feudalism honesty in, 15 economy under, 139 political problems in 1910s and 1920s, 7 education and, 102 scholars and, 7 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 175 grain harvests, inflated reports of, 25, 143, Marxism as an alternative to, 10 208-9 in 1910s and 1920s, 9 "Great Helmsman," 169, 220 peasant attacks against, 43-45 Great Imperial War. See World War I peasant overthrow of, 55, 59, 62-66 Great Leap Forward, 21, 22, 24, 25-26, 30, semi-feudalism, 80, 100-101 160, 169, 205, 234 First Five-Year Plan, 149, 233 legacy of, 25-26 First Imperialist War. See World War I Mao's plans for, 207 first line, of leadership, 177 Guangming Daily, 230 fish, 69 Guangzhou (Canton), 5 Five Black Categories, 229 "guerrilla practices," 166 Five Red Categories, 214 Guomindang (GMD) (Nationalist Party), 6, Five-Year Plans, 149, 161, 233 8, 28, 183-84, 232 flies, 166n characterization of peasant movement by, floating population, 231 48-49 250 INDEX

Guomindang (GMD) (Nationalist Party) by the United States, 167-68 (continued) world revolution and, 83 defeat of, 125, 126 incense-burning deleted comments about, 39 popularity of, 230 democracy and, 91 processions banned, 70 encirclement campaigns, 233 India, 187 Manifesto of the First National Congress, Indonesia, 168 91,92,94 industrialists, 145-46 retreat to Taiwan, 18 industrialization right-wingers, 46n cooperatives, 163-64 struggle with Chinese Communist Party promoting, 158-59 (CCP), 10-13, 16, 233. See also utopian ideals, 164 Chiang Kai-shek workers, 98 inquisitions, 20 Han chauvinism, 148-49 intellectuals. See also education; scholars handicraft workers, 52, 98 alienation of, 32 Han dynasty, 124 attitudes toward, 147 Hangzhou, 5 contradictions and, 146-48 "heroes without a battlefield," 115 Cultural Revolution and, 107, 234 hezuo, 74 cultural trends and, 78 hezuoshe, 74 deification of Mao and, 227 highways, 164 Hundred Flowers Campaign and, 23-24 Hitler, Adolf, 187 ideological remoulding of, 147-48 "Hot Red Pepper, The" (song), 186 Mao and, 15, 188 Hu Feng, 21, 23, 233 May Fourth Movement and, 105 Hunan peasant movement, 41-75 prejudices of, 115 Hundred Flowers Campaign, 23-24, reeducating, 20 149-55, 233, 234 Interview with Mao (Snow), 183-92 purpose of, 128-29 irregular household militia, 60 Hundred Regiments' Offensive, 196 Italy, 105 Hungarian incident, 23, 105, 133, 136 learning from, 157 Japan, U.S. imperialism and, 168 repercussions in China, 141 Japanese aggression, 26 husbands, masculine authority of, 11, 62, capitalism and, 93-94 64, 175 in Central China, 12 Hu Sheng, 32 communism and, 96-97 Hu Shi, 9, 20, 23, 233 Mao's analysis of, 194-96 occupation of China, 232, 233 ideological remoulding, 142, 145 peasant resistance to, 97-98 of bourgeoisie, 145-46 Versailles Treaty (1919) and, 9 of capitalists, 145-46 War of Resistance, 78, 82, 88, 95, 108-9, Exposing Third Layer of Thoughts 123,135-36,165,218 campaign, 212 western powers and, 195n of intellectuals, 147-48 World War II and, 12 idols, smashing, 63, 64-65 , 27, 32, 217 immunity, 129 Jiangxi Soviet, 233 imperialism. See also anti-imperialism Jiang Yihua, 36 alliance with, 95-96 Jiang Zemin, 33 bourgeoisie and, 87, 88 Jianhua Machinery Plant, 163 capitalism and, 93-94 Jingganshan, 5, 191, 192 in Chinese history, 80, 83 Johnson, Chalmers, 195n culture of, 100, 101 journey to the West (Sun Wukong), decline of, 171 211n Eastern vs. Western, 96 judicial system, peasant associations and, by Japanese, 9 61-62 Marxism as an alternative to, 10 June Third Movement, 105 peaceful coexistence with imperialist countries, 159 , 217 peasant movement attacks on, 66 Khrushchev, Nikita, 23, 233 role in Chinese history, 77 Kissinger, Henry, 27, 234 INDEX 251

Knight, Nick, 29, 40 "literature for the common people," 105-6 "Mao Zedong's "Sinification of Marxism," literature, political nature of, 116-17 197-204 "little Red Book" (Quotations from Chair- Korean War, 20 man Mao Zedong), vii Cultural Revolution and, 31/, 169-70 labor lin Biao's preface to, 171-72 cadre participation in manual labor, 161 public use of, 30, 31 under communism, 163 quotations from, 171-77 by women, 176 Red Guards and, 27, 30 labor movement, 103 liu Bang, 75n landlords liu Shaoqi, 26, 27, 170, 177n, 178n, 179, "little Red Book" quotations on, 174, 175 208, 234 overthrow of armed forces of, 59-60 liu Yuezhi, 75 peasants and, 17, 44,46-48, 50, 55 li Zhisui, 25, 30, 33, 219 redistribution of land of, 92-93 "Emperor of Zhongnanhai, The," 204-9 land reform, 17, 20, 233 local-nationality chauvinism, 148-49 Anti-Rightist Campaign and, 25 Long March, 12, 13, 108n, 165, 184, 188, Cultural Revolution and, 32 233 ownership equalization, 92-93 "long-term coexistence and mutual super- Land Revolution, 165 vision," 154-55 "land to the tiller," 92-93 lotus rhymes, 70 Laos, 168 Loyalty Dance, 229 laws, universal, 199-201 Lumumba, 167 leadership Luo Pinghui, 192 bourgeoisie and, 89 Lu Ping, 178n Central Committee resolution on, 112-17 LuXun,21, 103,104,108,116 Cultural Revolution attack on, 234 disturbances and, 155-56 MacDonald, Ramsay, 186-87 first line, 177 MacFarquhar,Roderick,22-23n,24,40, 160n "Little Red Book" quotations on, 173 mahjong, 67 masses and, 118-23 Malaysia, 168 methods, 122-23 Manchukuo, 232 by poor peasants, 52-53 Manchus,8, 149n proletariat role, 89 mangliu, 231 Red Guard and, 169, 211 manual labor, 161 relationship to masses, 120-21 "Mao Becomes a God Phenomenon," 227 second line, 177 MaoCraze, 230 slogans and, 118-19, 120, 123 Maoism, 15 Stalin on, 120 "Mao Matters" (Wasserstrom), 219-25 work and, 122 "Mao studies," 220-25 Left Mao Tse-tung. See Mao Zedong counter-revolutionaries, 141 Mao Tse-tung (Stuart Schram), 193-97 dogmatism of, 135 Mao Tse-tung in the Scales of History responsibility for Cultural Revolution, 217 (Wilson), 221-22 Lenin, 10, 79, 85,99, 105, 116n, 197,206 Mao Zedong "Let a hundred flowers blossom," 149-50, in Bao'an, 185 153-54 big-character posters, 178 "Let a hundred schools of thought biography, 193-97 contend," 149-50, 153-54 birth of, 232 levies, exorbitant, 72 botanical research by, 184 Levi-Strauss, Claude, 224 character of, 170, 188, 194, 204, 217, liang Qichao, 9 220-25 lice, 188n Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and, li De, 184 22-23,26-27,232 li Fuchun, 161 chronology, 232-34 lighter, commercializing Mao, 34/ complexity of, 220-25 Uling prohibitions, 70 Cultural Revolution errors, 217 linBiao,27, 170,186,191-92,217,234 death of, 28-29, 32, 216, 234 preface to "little Red Book," 171-72 deification of, 35/, 226-31 Lin Ke, 208-9 democratic ideals, 15-16 252 INDEX

Mao Zedong (continued) "On the People's Democratic Dictator• denunciation of, 33, 204 ship," 136-37 education of, 187, 189 "On the Ten Great Relationships," 21n early life, 189-92 "Reform in Learning, the Party and Liter• family, 1, 7, 189-91 ature," 202 Father Mao poster, 31! "Reform our Study," 201 food preferences, 186 "Report on the Peasant Movement in as "Great Helmsman," 169, 220 Hunan," 41-75, 232 "hard" vs. "soft," 222-23 "Revolution of the Central Committee of health of, 184 the Chinese Communist Party historical context of, 6-9, 37 on Methods of Leadership," 117-23 influence of, vii, 1, 28-36, 184-85, Selected Works, 37 216-19,218 "Snow," 123-24 knowledge of world politics, 186-87 Socialist Upsurge in the Country Side, 164 as leader of Chinese Communist Party "Talk at the Yan'an Conference on (CCP), 39-40 Literature and Art," 112-17 personality cult, 206-7, 217 "Mao Zedong's 'Sinification of Marxism'" personal security of, 206-7 (Knight), 197-204 photograph, 16/ Mao Zedong Thought, 39 popular support for, 30, 125, 169, 184-85, Chinese Communist Party and, 216-19 194,205,207-8,217,219 development of, 218 prejudices as a student, 115 floating population and, 231 public appearances by, 206-7 publication of, 37-38 rebellion against father, 1, 7, 189-90 Mao Zedong Unrehearsed, 40 Red Guard and, 27, 213 maps reputation, 183-84 China today, 2-3/ rise to power, 12-18 historical, 4-5/ rural poor and, 11 marketing cooperatives, 74 as a scholar, 185, 187 Marx, Karl, 30 Snow's interview with, 183-92 Marxism and the National Question (Stalin), as storyteller, 183, 222 85 at Tiananmen Gate, 19/ Marxism-Leninism. See also socialism as tyrant, 221, 223, 225 Chinese culture and, 10-12, 77, 110 understanding of Chinese people by, 6, development of, through class struggle, 15-17,25 150-51 on violence, 187 emergence in China, 10 Mao Zedong, writings, vi-viii, 37-40 intellectuals' acceptance of, 147 big-character posters, 169, 170-71 lack of political feedback in, 127 "collected wisdom" collections, 37-38, leadership basis, 121 216 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 172-73 edited editions, 38-39, 160, 234 Mao Zedong's thought on, 171-72 "genius" editions, 37-38, 40 opposition to, 150 "historicist" editions, 37-38, 40 Sinification of, 30, 38, 196-204, 218 interpretation of, 40 Stalinist model, 18, 20 praise for, 171-72 universality of, 199 study urged, 172 universal laws of, 200-201, 203, 204 text translations, 37 urban revolution and, 10-12 types of, 37-38 masculine authority, 64 ''American Imperialism is Closely Sur• "Little Red Book" quotations on, 175 rounded by the Peoples of the overthrow of, by peasant associations, World," 167-68 62 "Chinese People Have Stood Up, The," women and, 11, 62 125-27 mass campaigns "Cultural Revolution Readings," 169-79 as solution to public problems, 23 "Little Red Book" (Quotations from Stalinist model, 20-21 Chairman Mao Zedong), 171-77 mass culture, 111-12 "On the Correct Handling of Contradic• masses. See peasants tions among the People," 127-57, mass line, 15 233,234 mass organizations, 20 "On New Democracy," 76-112 maxims. See slogans "On the New Stage," 202 "maximum program," 77 INDEX 253

May Fourth Movement, 9, 76, 77, 82, 87, public support for, 93 102, 103, 104, 109, 232 scientific nature of, 110-11 Cultural Revolution and, 104-6 New Fourth Army, 114 historical significance, 105 New People's Society, 10 participation in, 105 new revolutionary period, 107-8 , 82, 106 newspapers media,169 falsehoods in, 209 attacks on scholars, 20 support of communism by, 107 newspapers, 107, 209 new (Western) learning, 102 mercenaries, 52 New Year greetings, 70 middle peasants, 49 New Youth journal, 9 peasant movement and, 49, 51 Nie Yuanzi, 170n, 178 support of cooperatives by, 144 Nixon, Richard, 27, 167, 234 military system, 20 "no construction without destruction," 77 Ming Tombs Reservoir, 161 North, Robert, 199 minority nationalities, 187 Northern Expedition, 11, 82, 83n, 87, 106, chauvinism by, 148-49 107, 232 missionaries, 8 Northern Expeditionary Army, 49, 50, 68 mobile warfare, 12, 192 modern (Western) learning, 102 October Revolution (Russia), 10, 82, 86, 105 Mongols, 8, 149n significance of, 84-85 mosquitoes, 166n 101 (high school, Beijing), 210 Movement for Constitutional Government, 90 "On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Movement of the Taiping Heavenly among the People" (Mao Zedong), Kingdom, 81 vi-vii, 21-24, 30-32, 33, 127-57, 233 mu, 46n edited, 39, 234 "Musical Chairman" (anonymous), 231 "On New Democracy" (Mao Zedong), vii, Mussolini, Benito, 187 12-13,15-16,18,32,76-112 "On the New Stage" (Mao Zedong), 202 Nanchang, 5 "On the People's Democratic Dictatorship" Nanjing, 5 (Mao Zedong), 136-37 Nanyang, 8 "On the Ten Great Relationships," 21n Nanyue, 230n opium smoking, 67-68, 71, 72 Nathan, Andrew, 223 Opium War, 8, 76, 81 national culture, 110, 112 opposition parties, 33 nationalism, 6, 35, 77, 125. See also Three Ouyang Xiu, 230-31 People's Principles oxen, 69-70 national pride, 18-19, 125-27 Nationalist Party. See Guomindang (GMD) "paper tiger," 167 (Nationalist Party) "parading through the fields," 49, 50 national humiliation, 18 "parading through the township," 49, 50 nationalities. See minority nationalities Pareto, Vilfredo, 188 national liberation, 125-27, 168 patriarchal culture national mobilization, 17 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 175 national security, 8 overthrow of, by peasant associations, Nazi-Soviet pact, 195 62-64 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 187 peasant attacks against, 43-45 neo-colonialism, 168 paupers' co-op, 144 neutrality, 96 peaceful coexistence. See coexistence New Culture Movement, 9-10, 20, 76, 232 peaceful evolution, 227 New Deal, 187 peasant associations, 11. See also peasant New Democracy, 32-33, 76-112 movement appropriateness of, 90 attitudes toward, 49-50, 53-54 bourgeois dictatorship and, 93-94 authority of, 43-44, 46 culture of, 100-102, 111 gentry attempts to join, 44 economy of, 92-93 membership in, 43, 44, 54, 56-58 emergence of, 80-81 peasant organization by, 54 European-American capitalism vs., 89 as riffraff, 48-49 "minimum program," 77 targets of attacks, 43-45 origins of, 81-86 township, 48-49, 52 politics of, 87-92 violence by, 50 254 INDEX peasant movement. See also peasant communal dining, 163 associations facilities, 164 achievements of, 53-75 future of, 163-64 attitudes toward, 45-46 operation of, 162-64 bailiffs and, 60-62 terminology for, 162 banditry and, 71-72 wages, 162-64 bans and prohibitions, 67-71 People's Daily, 24, 170, 209 clan authority and, 62-66 People's Liberation Army (PIA), 27, 114n, contributors to, 49-53 126, 170, 234. See also armed forces cooperative movement and, 74 People's Republic of China (PRC). See also county magistrates and, 60-62 China criticisms of, 42 alliance with Soviet Union, 233 defense of extreme actions by, 46-48 diplomatic relations with U.S., 27-28 education and, 72-73 founding of, 17, 18, 19[, 125, 233 feudal politics and, 55, 59 future of, 126-27, 130 landlord armed forced and, 59-60 Mao's leadership of, vi, 1 landlords and, 55 map of, 2-3 levies abolished by, 72 national unity in, 126 "Uttle Red Book" quotations on, 174 overpopulation, 160 Mao's report on, 41-75 population, 126, 143, 160, 162 middle peasants and, 49, 51 territory, 126 periods of, 42-43 U.S. embargo of, 167 political propaganda spread by, 66-67 personality cult, 206-7, 217 poor peasants and, 51-53 pests, 166 rich peasants and, 49-50 petty bourgeoisie. See also bourgeoisie road and embankment building by, cultural revolution and, 107 74-75 culture and, 101 significance of, 42-48 May Fourth Movement and, 105-6 targets of, 43-44 mutual coexistence with, 154-55 urban revolution vs., 10-12, 41 prejudices of, 115 violence, 41, 50 War of Resistance and, 109 peasant rebellions. See peasant movement picul, 72 peasants pigs, 69 active, 119-20 system of romanization, vii-viii assistance to, 95, 97-98, 106 planned economy, 20, 140, 233 attitudes toward, 53-54 poetry, 123-24, 231 average, 119-20 Poland, 23 backward, 120 political authority cooperatives and, 144 "core leader," 34-35 cultural revolution and, 107-8 "Little Red Book" quotations on, 175 landlords and, 17 overthrow of, by peasant associations, leadership role of, 89 62 literature and art and, 114-15 political propaganda, 66-67 "Uttle Red Book" quotations on, 173, 17 4, political system 175 legitimate opposition, 33 Mao's reliance on, 11 in the 1910s and 1920s, 7-9 organization of, 54 old vs. new, 79-81 persecution of, 108 organization, 91 resistance to Japan by, 97-98 political parties, 33, 154-55 roving, 231 subordination of art to, 113 solidarity with, 113 Political Thought of Mao Tse-tung (Schram), types of, 49-53 40 working in rice paddies, 13/ "politics-Marxist; art-bourgeois," 116 "peasant schools," 73 poor peasants, 49. See also peasants; peasant uprisings. See peasant movement poverty Peng Dehuai, 234 banned from temples, 63 Peng Peiyun, 178n peasant movement and, 51-53 , 178n support of cooperatives by, 144 people's communes, 24, 160 "popularization," of literature and art, 115 collectivization of agriculture in, 234 popular religion. See folk religion INDEX 255 population, 126, 143, 160, 162 Mao's writings during, 194 floating,231 origins of, 193-97 growth encouraged, 160, 162 purposes of, 196 overpopulation, 160 self- and mutual criticism, 128 populist reform, 15 Red Army, 29 pork, 69 discipline, 191-92 posters slogans, 192 big-character, 169, 170-71, 178, 210, tactics of, 192 211-12 Red China, 184n Father Mao Cultural Revolution, 31/ Red Guard, 22n, 169, 178, 210-15. See also poverty Cultural Revolution floating population, 231 big-character posters, 210 peasant movement and, 51-52 criticism of teachers by, 210-12 poor peasants, 49, 51-53, 63, 144 disbanding of, 32 riffraff, 48-49, 52-53 idealism of, 210 social revolution and, vi "Little Red Book" and, 27, 30 power Mao and, 27, 213 corruption and, 25, 30 Tiananmen Square parade, 28/ Mao's lust for, 221, 223 violence by, 210, 213-15, 234 Private Life of Chairman Mao (Li Zhisui), "Red Sea," 229-30 204-9 Red Star over China (Snow), 183, 224 review, 219-25 Red Sun, Mao Zedong as, 34/, 227, 229 privatization, 25-26 Red Sun, The: Odes to Mao Zedong Sung to "Problems of Strategy in China's Revolu- a New Beat, 226-27 tionary War" (Mao Zedong), 199 "Red Sun Phenomenon," 227 productive forces, 138 "Reform in Learning, the Party and Litera- prohibitions, by peasant associations, 67-71 ture" (Mao Zedong), 201 proletarian-socialist world revolution, 83, reform movement of 1942, 119 86 "Reform our Study" (Mao Zedong), 201 proletariat relations of production, 138 awakening of, 87 religion. See also folk religion bourgeoisie and, 88 deification of Mao and, 35/, 36, 226-31 class struggle and, 151 Mao's views on, 188 contradictions and, 158 overthrow of, by peasant associations, cultural revolution and, 107 62-66 culture and, 101 suppression of, 228 June Third Movement and, 105 religious authority, "Little Red Book" quota- role of, 89 tions on, 175 size of, 10 remoulding, ideological, 142, 145-46 War of Resistance and, 109 rent reduction, 15 propaganda,66-67 "Report on the Peasant Movement in public criticism. See criticism Hunan" (Mao Zedong), vi, 11, 41-75, purges,20 118, 232 Republican Daily News, 107 Qing dynasty, 6-7, 8, 227, 232 Republican Revolution (of 1911). See Revolution of 1911 Rae Yang, 31-32 "Resolutions on Some Questions on Party "At the Center of the Storm," 210-15 History Since the Founding of the Rain God temple, 70 Nation" (CCP Central Committee rats, 166n Resolution), 40 reactionaries revisionism campaigns, 107-8 criticism of, 153 Cultural Revolution and, 170-71 repudiation of, 229 literature and art and, 114 revolutionary culture, 111-12 rebellions. See revolutions Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic Rectification Movement, 12-13, 20, 22n, 76, (Apter and Saich), review, 219-25 112, 135, 233 "revolution is not a dinner party," 41, 47 bureaucratism and, 166 Revolution of 1911, 5, 7, 46, 76, 82, 87, 106, defined, 112 126 Hundred Flowers Campaign, 23-24 Hunan peasant uprisings and, 41 256 INDEX revolutions, 5-9. See also Cultural Secret Speeches of Chairman Mao Revolution (MacFarquhar), 40 Hunan peasant uprisings, 41-75 sectarianism, 165n Mao and, 5-6, 16-17 sedan chairs, 46, 68 Mao's definition of, 47 "seek the truth from facts," 78, 110 Marxist-Leninist, 18-21 Selected Works of Mao Zedong, 37, 38 rural, 47 editing of, 39 utopian, 21-29 self-criticism. See criticism rice self-determination, 85 inflated harvest reports, 25 self-interest, struggle against, 229 paddies, 12f semi-colonialism, 80, 88 price of, 71-72 socialism and, 90 rich peasants, 49-50 semi-feudalism, 80, 100-101. See also riffraff. See also poor peasants feudalism peasant movement and, 48-49, 52-53 semi-proletariat, 158. See also proletariat Right opportunism, 153 sexual freedom, 64 right-wingers Shades of Mao (Barme), 226-31 counter-revolutionaries, 141 shamans,230 defined, 46n Shanghai, 5 peasant rebellions and, 45 Shaoshan, 5 rituals, 70-71. See also folk religion She, Lord, 75 road construction and maintenance, 74 sijiu, 228n romanization, of Chinese names and words, Sinification of Marxism, 30, 197-204, 218 vii-viii as guide to action, 202, 204 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 187 Mao's goals for, 196-97 roving peasants, 231 Mao's motivation for, 198-99 Ruijin, 5 Mao's writings and, 38 running dogs, 173 universal laws and, 199-201 rural areas Sino-French War, 81 government decline, 7 Sino-Japanese War, 12, 81-82 revolution in, 11, 12, 47 slave ideology, 100 women's associations, 64 slogans youth "sent down" to, 31-32 "deep ploughing," 160 rural poor. See peasants "distinguishing the fragrant flower from Rural Work Department, 164 poisonous weeds," 129, 150, 153 "rural work style," 166 "doctrine of going up the mountains," Russia, 105. See also Soviet Union 97-98 alliance with, 95-96, 106 functions of, 118-19 October Revolution, 10, 81, 82, 84-85, 86, "heroes without a battlefield," 115 105 "land to the tiller," 92-93 Three People's Principles and, 99-100 leadership and, 118-19, 120, 123 rustication movement, 27 "Let a hundred flowers blossom," 149-50, 153-54 Saich, Tony, 33, 219-25 "Let a hundred schools of thought con• salary system, 164-65 tend," 149-50, 153-54 salt cooperatives, 74 "literature for the common people," scholars. See also education; intellectuals 105-6 loss of ties with government, 7 "long-term coexistence and mutual super- media attacks on, 20 vision," 154-55 Schram, Stuart R., 17, 29, 33, 40, 178n, "no construction without destruction," 77 198-99 "paper tiger," 167, 168 "Struggle on Two Fronts, The," 193-97 "politics-Marxist; art-bourgeois," science 116 freedom of thought in, 150 Red Army, 192 scientific approach, 78 "revolution is not a dinner party," 41, 47 scientific culture, 110-11, 112 "seek the truth from facts," 78, 110 Second Five-Year Plan, 149 "struggle against self-interest and repudi- Second Imperialist War. See World War II ate revisionism," 229 second line, of leadership, 177 "Sun that never sets," 229 secret agents, 143 "theory-practice-theory," 118 secret police system, 20 "to rebel is justified," 234 INDEX 257

"unity-criticism-unity," 135, 156 strikes, 155 "We have stood up," 125 "struggle against self-interest and repudiate Smedley, Agnes, 194 revisionism," 229 Snow, Edgar, vii, 13, 15-16, 29, 193-94, "Struggle on Two Fronts, The" (Schram), 224 193-97 Interview with Mao, 183-92 students. See also Red Guard; youth Red Star over China, 183 cultural trends and, 78 "Snow" (Mao Zedong), 16-17, 123-24 ideological remoulding of, 147-48 social contradictions, 130-41 patriotism of, 142n class struggle and, 131 persecution of, 108 defined, 130 prejudices of, 115 socialism. See also Marxism-Leninism Red Guards, 26-27 advance of, 171 studying and remoulding, 146 in China vs. Soviet Union, 89-90 "little Red Book" quotations on, 177 economic production and, 139-40 subjectivism, 165n implementation of, 18-21 sugar-making, 68-69 revolutions, 6 Sukarno, 206 Soviet model for, 18-21 Sun Chuanfang, 68 spread of, 93 Sun Wukong, 211 "with Chinese characteristics," 6 Sun Xiaoshan, 63 socialist revolution, 80 Sun Yat-sen, viii, 8-9, 41, 66, 77, 82, 93, 94, as part of world revolution, 81-86 97,98, 106,108,126,164,232 world, 83-86 Guomindang (GMD) (Nationalist Party) Socialist Upsurge in the Country Side (Mao and, 10-11 Zedong), 164 reinterpretation of Three People's social sciences, 103 Principles by, 99-100 social system supernatural system, 62-66. See also folk contradictions and, 138-39 religion; superstition in the 1910s and 1920s, 7-9 superstition. See also folk religion "Some Questions on Party History" Eight Characters, 65 (Central Committee), 216-19 elimination campaign, 228 Song Shuo, 178n "little Red Book" and, 30 South Korea, 168 overthrow of, by peasant associations, South Vietnam, 168 62-66 Soviet Union, 83n, 157, 218. See also Russia superstructure, 138 alliance with, 233 supply system, 165 assistance to China from, 11 communism in, 164-65 , 5 de-Stalinization in, 23 Taiping Rebellion, 8 influence of, 197 Taiwan, 18, 28, 168, 234 minorities in, 187 Talk at the Yan'an Conference on Literature socialism model, 18-21 and Art (Mao Zedong), 21, 24, solidarity with, 159 112-17, 160-68 technical advisors in China, 26, 234 Tang Mengxiao, 47 sparrows, 166n , 66 spear corps, 60, 62 Tang Tsou, 15 Spider Eaters (Rae Yang), 210-15 taxation, 72 "Spiritual Atom Bomb," 229 teachers, Red Guard and, 210-12 Stalin, Joseph, 84-85, 97, 98, 120, 197, 206 technical advisors, Soviet, 26, 234 denunciation of, 233 teenage gangs, 27. See also Red Guard Stalinism, 18 Teiwes, Frederick, 32-34, 35 Khrushchev's denunciation of, 23 temples modified model, 20 ban on women and poor peasants in, 63 Stalin on the National Question (Stalin), 85 Rain God, 70 standing household militia, 60 restoration of, 230 state examination system, 9, 232 terror, 24. See also Red Guard; violence state-owned enterprises, 92 peasant rebellions and, 48 state system, 91-92 teenage gangs and, 27 steel production, 139 "theory-practice-theory," 118 Anshan Steel Mill, 22[ Third Five-Year Plan, 149 backyard steel furnaces, 205-6, 208-9 "three-all policy," 196 258 INDEX

Three Great Policies, 77, 89, 92, 95, 98 Mao's views on, 187 Three People's Principles and, 98, 106-7 by peasant associations, 41, 50 Three People's Principles, 49, 50, 66-67, by Red Guard, 210, 213-15, 234 77,89,92,94-100,112 Guomindang (GMD) interpretation of, wages 94-95 under communism, 164-65 historical interpretations of, 95 equal pay, 176 importance of, 98-100 in people's communes, 162-63 old vs. new, 94-95, 99, 106-7 Wang Guofan Co-operative, 143-44 Russia and, 99-100 Wang Jingwei, 88, 96, 100 Sun Yat-sen's reinterpretation of, 99-100 Wang Jingxian, 208 Three Great Policies and, 98, 106-7 Wang Ming, 197 Tiananmen Gate, 19/, 125 WangRenzhong,209 Tiananmen Square, 28/, 210 Wang Shiwei, 17 Tianjin Conservatory, 160 WangYi, 226 Tibet, 148-49, 234 War of Liberation, 165 "to rebel is justified," 234 War of Resistance, 78, 82, 88, 95, 123, township peasant associations, 48-49, 52 135-36, 165, 218 traditional customs, peasant attacks on, Wasserstrom, Jeffrey, 33 43-45 "Mao Matters," 219-25 translations, 37 water pipes, 70 transmogrification, 229n "We have stood up," 125 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual wenyan, 9 Assistance, 233 Western democracies, 10 treaty ports, 8 Westernization, 110 Trotsky, Leon, 116 West Germany, 168 Tshombe, 167 wheat harvests, 25 Twenty-three Articles, 178 "wholesale Westernization," 110 two-party system, 133-34. See also Wilson, Dick, 221 democracy Womack, Brantly, 15, 40n women Uighurs, 149n labor power of, 176 United Front See Anti-Japanese United Front "Little Red Book" quotations on, 175-76 United Nations, 28, 234 Mao's concerns for, 11, 63, 64, 160, 170, United States, 143 175-76,225 diplomatic relations, 27-28 masculine authority and, 11, 62, 64, 175 embargo, 20 no longer banned from temples, 63 imperialism by, 167-68 workers minorities in, 187 disturbances by, 155-57 as "paper tiger," 167, 168 importance to revolution, 98 Soviet Union and, 95-96 leadership and, 122 "unity-criticism-unity," 135, 156 persecution of, 108 unity of opposites law, 137-38 social contradictions and, 131 universal education, 73 wages, in people's communes, 162-63 universal laws, 199-201, 203, 204 world revolution, 105 urban elite, 32 bourgeois/capitalist, 85-86 urban revolution, 10-12, 41 Chinese revolution as part of, 81-86 utopian ideals proletarian-socialist, 86 industrialization, 164 World War I, 10, 82, 86, 95, 157 people's communes, 160 World War II, 86, 157, 195, 233 women's liberation, 170 Wu Han, 178, 178n utopian revolutions, 21-29 Wuhan, 5 WuPeifu,49, 50,68 vagabonds, 70 Wylie, Raymond, 201 vegetable farmers, 66-67 vernacular language, 9, 103n Xian, 5 Versailles Treaty (1919), 9 Xin Yuan, 226 Vietnam, 167-68 violence Yan'an, 5, 184n, 233 future of China and, 109 cave dwellings, 14! Hunan peasant uprisings, 41 Yan'an Conference on Literature and Art, 113 INDEX 259

Yan'an period, 15, 160, 193-97, 233 yuan (dollar), 44 Yan'an Rectification Movement. See Yuan Shikai, 9, 232 Rectification Movement Yan'an Round Table, 24 Zen Guofan, 227-28 Yan'an Way, 15, 16-17, 20, 29 Zeng Xisheng, 205, 207, 209 Yan Fu, 102 Zhang Jumai, 109 Yang Zhize, 50 Zhang Zhizhong, 205, 206 Yan Rongqiu, 50 Zhao Hengti, 43 Ye Kaixin, 66 Zheng{eng, 196, 202. See also Rectification Yellow River, 123 Movement Ye Qing, 109 Zhou dynasty, 80 yin and yang, 77 Zhou Enlai, 27, 32, 208, 234 youth. See also Red Guard; students Zhu De, 29, 184, 192 Cultural Revolution and, 31-32 Zigong, 47n Red Guards, 26-27 zougou (running dog), 173n "sent down" to villages, 31-32 Zunyi Conference, 5, 233 Youth League, 148 Zuozhuan, 227