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Olea Europaea (Olive) Management Information Olea europaea (olive) Management Information Prepared by the IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group Contents 1.0 Introduction...................................................................................................Page 1 2.0 Preventative Measures..................................................................................Page 1 3.0 Monitoring......................................................................................................Page 2 4.0 Physical Control.............................................................................................Page 3 5.0 Chemical Control ..........................................................................................Page 3 6.0 Biological Control..........................................................................................Page 5 7.0 References...................................................................................................... Page 5 1.0 Introduction Olea europaea is a long-lived tree that ranges in height from 8 – 15 m, depending on environmental conditions (Parsons & Cuthbertson, 1992; Martin, 2003). While it is capable of persisting in most environments, O. europaea is most prolific in semi-arid to sub-humid warm- temperate regions (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992), in sandy loam soil of moderate depth (Spennemann & Allen, 2000). Olea europaea subsp. europaea has been cultivated around the world for thousands of years, not only for its edible fruit and the production of oil, but also as an occasional ornamental and shade species (Martin, 2003; Starr et al., 2003b). While of less economic importance O. europaea subsp. cuspidata (also known as O. e. africana) has also been widely cultivated in some areas such as Hawaii and Australia as a wind break and hedge species as well as a source of timber and for erosion control (Starr et al., 2003a). Both subspecies have been known to escape from cultivation primarily through the high production of bird and mammal dispersed seeds (Spennemann & Allen, 2000) where they are capable of forming a dense canopy which shades out native species while still allowing conspecific seedlings to establish. The result of this is the formation of dense monocultures, capable of altering ecosystems and habitats through the loss of native biodiversity (Cuneo & Leishman, 2006). The control of O. europaea is generally labour intensive due to the large amount of seed produced and its coppicing ability (Spennemann & Allen, 2000). Follow up operations are therefore to be recommended and care must be taken to avoid the dispersal of seed and fruit during control operations (Spennemann & Allen, 2000). These control methods are described as most effective in spring or summer in Australia (Spennemann & Allen, 2000) and are described in more detail below. 2.0 Preventative Measures A Risk Assessment of O. europaea for Hawaii and other Pacific islands was prepared by Dr. Curtis Daehler (UH Botany) with funding from the Kaulunani Urban Forestry Program and US Forest Service. The alien plant screening system is derived from Pheloung et al. (1999) with minor modifications for use in Pacific islands (Daehler et al., 2004). The result is a score 2 of 5 and a recommendation of: "The species has been assessed using the WRA system; however, no assessment of risk can be provided at this time because 1) crucial information is missing from the assessment or 2) the species possesses a combination of traits and characteristics that make its likely behaviour difficult to assess using the WRA system." The same Risk Assessment for Australia was prepared by David Cooke in 2001 with a score of 2 and the same recommendations. In Australia O. e. cuspidata has been declared a Class 4 noxious weed under Section 7 of the New South Wales Noxious Weeds Act 1993 for the Ryde (Local Government Area) LGA where its growth and spread must be controlled according to the measures specified in a management plan published by the local control authority. Furthermore, the plant may not be sold, propagated or knowingly distributed (NSW DPI, 2006; in Cuneo & Leishman, 2006). Olea europaea (including all subspecies) is also listed as a Class 5d weed under the South Australia Natural Resources Management Act 2004, stating that the landowner must control and keep controlled all plants of that class on the owned land and may be liable for the cost of adjacent roadside weed control measures (Parliament of South Australia, 2004; in Cuneo & Leishman, 2006). A number of cultural preventative measures have been developed by the Tasmanian Feral Olive Working Group following a resurgence in the olive industry experienced in Australia in the 1990s (Holding, 2004). These include the creation of a voluntary olive register to track to size, growth and distribution of the industry while storing information on age, location, numbers and variety into a database to determine whether groves are in proximity to susceptible vegetation (Holding, 2004). A code of practice was also developed for the olive industry aiming to help managers reduce the risk of O. e. europaea escaping from cultivation and includes wildlife monitoring and management, seedling surveillance in the bush and on roadsides, thorough harvest, and planning for abandoned groves (Holding, 2004). Each grove was also assessed for potential weed risk, providing growers with the ability to gauge the potential weed risk of their groves and improving their management and surveillance (Holding, 2004). Finally, education efforts have been focussed on both commercial growers and home gardeners to increase awareness of the weed status of O. e. europaea in other parts of Australia and measures that can be taken to reduce the risk of escape (Holding, 2004). In New Zealand, O. europaea is listed as a "Research Organism" in the Auckland Regional Pest Management Strategy 2007 - 2010. As such it is not legally recognised as a pest species, with more research needed into its impacts and limiting the spread from cultivated specimens to natural habitats (Auckland Regional Council, 2007). As of 2003, O. europaea is still widely available for purchase in Hawaii despite its recognised invasive tendencies (Starr et al., 2003a). 3.0 Monitoring On Raoul Island, detection of invasive plant species including O. e. cuspidata was carried out through grid searching accessible areas (West, 2002). Aerial surveillance using helicopters was also used to detect more visually distinct species such as O. e. cuspidata (West, 2002). The landscape distribution of O. e. cuspidata in southwest Sydney, Australia was able to be mapped by Cuneo et al. (2009) using satellite imagery; the primary data source in this case being Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM). Multispectral satellite imagery such as Landsat ETM has moderate spatial resolution (25 m pixel size) and large area coverage, with each image covering 185 km x 172 km, making it highly cost-effective (Cuneo et al., 2009). ERDAS® Imagine 8.4 software was used to classify the land covers of O. e. cuspidata and other major vegetation types using a technique known as “supervised classification” in which areas of known vegetation cover type are matched onto the image to define the spectral signature for each (Cuneo et al., 2009). This data was used to identify 1907 ha of O. e. cuspidata infestation in southwest Sydney and to quantify the conservation threat to several Endangered Ecological Communities by total area occupied (Cuneo et al., 2009). 4.0 Physical Control Hand pulling of O. europaea seedlings and small plants has been found to be effective for both subspecies (Spennemann & Allen, 2000; Starr et al., 2003a; 2003b; Department of Conservation, 2010), and is encouraged over herbicide spraying for isolated patches (Spennemann & Allen, 2000). Slashing established seedlings or cutting down mature individuals has no lasting effect at all due to rapid resprouting (Spennemann & Allen, 2000). Cut trees have been known to reach 1 – 2 m high within 20 months of cutting (Dellow et al., 1987; in Spennemann & Allen, 2000). Mulching using a drum mulcher attached to an excavator has been used successfully for large scale mature infestations of O. e. cuspidata in Australia where there is sufficient access and a low erosion risk (Cuneo & Leishman, 2006). It is reportedly highly effective provided that trees and seedlings are treated with herbicide prior to mulching (Cuneo & Leishman, 2006). Although it does not kill larger individuals, burning at low intensity was tested as a control method for small O. e. cuspidata shrubs and seedlings in western Sydney (von Richter et al., 2005). While the majority of plants smaller than 20 mm diameter were killed, results may have been confounded by a lower than average annual rainfall rate for the previous three years, increasing the effectiveness of the fire by reducing the ability for seedlings to resprout due to water stress (von Richter et al., 2005). The data collected by von Richter et al. (2005) are consistent with assertions that burning at 10 year intervals can control smaller O. e. cuspidata plants, however frequent burning could also compromise the conservation of any native species also present. Larger individuals would also need to be removed through other means (von Richter, et al., 2005). The reduction of grazing is thought to be a significant factor in the spread of O. e. cuspidata in New South Wales (Cuneo & Leishman, 2006). While systematic grazing of roadside edges and land adjacent to plantations would reduce the survival of seedlings, if
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