Complete Thesis

University of Groningen

Reconstructing diet, tracing mobility Panagiotopoulou, Eleni

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Citation for published version (APA): Panagiotopoulou, E. (2018). Reconstructing diet, tracing mobility: Ιsotopic approach to social change during the transition from the Bronze to the Early Iron Age in Thessaly, Greece. University of Groningen.

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Isotopic approach to social change during the transition from the Bronze to the Early Iron Age in Thessaly, Greece

PhD thesis

to obtain the degree of PhD at the University of Groningen on the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. E. Sterken and in accordance with the decision by the College of Deans.

This thesis will be defended in public on

Thursday 13 September 2018 at 11:00 hours

Eleni Panagiotopoulou

born on 19 July 1976 in Athens, Greece

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 1 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Supervisors Prof. S. Voutsaki Prof. J. van der Plicht

Co-supervisor Dr. A. Papathanasiou

Assessment committee Prof. J.P. Crielaard Prof. J.K. Papadopoulos Prof. M.P. Richards

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 2 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. To my family

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 3 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen

ISBN: 978-94-034-0935-1 (printed book) 978-94-034-0934-4 (e-book)

©2018 by Eleni Panagiotopoulou All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilised in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior permission of the author.

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 4 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Acknowledgements

Having reached the end of my PhD I would like to thank all the people that contributed to the successful completion of this project and for making this period a unique experience that definitely transformed me. First of all I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors Prof. Sofia dr. Voutsaki, Greek Archae- ology, Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen and Prof. dr. ir. Johannes van der Plicht, Centre for Isotope Research (CIO), Faculty of Science and Engineering Isotope Research – Energy and Sus- tainability Research Institute Groningen, University of Groningen and co-supervisor Dr. Anastasia Papathana- siou, Ephorate of Paleoanthropology and Speleology, Greek Ministry of Culture for believing in me and for their support during the entire period of this research project. Their academic influence was immense and I learned so much as their student. I would also like to deeply thank the three external examiners Prof. dr. J.P. Crielaard, Faculty of Humani- ties, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Prof. J.K. Papadopoulos, Department of Classics, Cotsen Institute of Ar- chaeology, UCLA and Prof. M.P. Richards, Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University for reading my work, for giving me very constructive comments that improved my thesis and for coming to the cer- emony of my PhD defence. Of course, I would like to thank all the people that I had the pleasure to meet, work with and co-author the articles of this thesis. I will start with the archaeologists that honoured me with their trust working on the archaeological material they excavated and the corresponding archaeological ephorates that granted me access to the excavated assemblages to conduct my research: Dr. A. Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou, Director Emerita of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Magnesia and excavator and researcher of the site of Chloe; Mrs. P. Arachoviti, Archaeol- ogist of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Magnesia and excavator and researcher of the site of Chloe; Dr. S. Katakouta, Archaeologist of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Larisa and the excavator and researcher of the site of Pharsala; Mrs. F. Tsiouka, Archaeologist of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Karditsa and researcher of the site of Voulokaliva; and Mrs. E. Nikolaou, Archaeologist of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Magnesia and excavator and researcher of the site of Kephalosi. I will continue with the lab people that accepted my request to work in the laboratories and conduct all the isotope analyses myself, taught me a lot, helped to go through the lab requirements, and created a very friendly and happy atmosphere to work in: Dr. J. Montgomery, Associate Professor (Reader) in Archaeologi- cal Science at the Department of Archaeology, Durham University; Dr. G.M. Nowell, Senior Research Officer in the Department of Earth Sciences at Durham University; Ms. J. Peterkin, Research Laboratory Technician at the Department of Earth Sciences at Durham University; everyone at the laboratory of the CIO, Faculty of Science and Engineering Isotope Research – Energy and Sustainability Research Institute Groningen for the friendly environment but special thanks to Mr. F.N. Ghebru, Analyst at the CIO with whom I closely col- laborated; Dr. O. Nehlich, post-doctoral fellow (Stipend of the German Science Foundation - DFG) at The University of British Columbia - Department of Anthropology, at the time I visited the laboratory; and Ms. E. Jarvis, Laboratory Technician at the University of British Columbia - Department of Anthropology, also at the time I visited the laboratory. Many thanks to all the people at the Groningen Institute of Archaeology, both academic and non-academic staff because I learned from them so much more outside my own research field, they helped me to resolve simple everyday difficulties and the introduced me to their wonderful country, the Netherlands. Furthermore, I would like to thank my peers at the department for the influential conversations we had both on academic and non-academic topics. Special gratitude to my academic roommates Tamara M. Dijkstra, Olivia A. Jones, Dr. Tanja van Loon and Dr. Sarah Willemsen for their warm and open heart and moral and academic support as well as for becoming lifetime friends. Of course I want to express separately my deep gratitude to Tamara M. Dijkstra and Olivia A. Jones for

Acknowledgements 5

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 5 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. accepting the role of paranymph at my PhD defence, for improving my thesis with their clear view and comments and for organizing the defence party. Last but not least I would like to say to my family and friends in Greece thank you for your moral support and for being patient with the difficulties that my absence might have caused to you. A significant part of my future is dedicated to you.

6 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 6 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Contents

PART I PART II 1.1 Summary ...... 11 Introduction...... 57 Samenvatting ...... 13 Περίληψη ...... 15 Chapter 2 1.2 Scope and Aims...... 17 Isotopic (13C, 15N) investigation of diet and social 1.3 The Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age...... 18 structure in Early Iron Age Halos, Greece...... 59 1.3.1 The End of Late Bronze Age...... 18 2.1. Introduction...... 59 1.3.2 The Early Iron Age (EIA)...... 19 2.2. Materialς and methods...... 61 1.3.3 Thessaly in the Early Iron Age...... 20 2.2.1 Materialς...... 61 1.3.4 Mortuary practices in Protogeometric i. The Protogeometric cemetery Thessaly (c. 1100-900 BC)...... 21 of Kephalosi...... 61 1.4 Questions and Theories...... 25 ii. The Protogeometric cemetery 1.5 Methodology...... 26 of Voulokaliva...... 61 1.5.1 Contextual analysis of mortuary practices...... 26 2.2.2. Methods...... 62 1.5.2 Isotope analysis...... 26 i. Age-sex determination...... 62 Tissue...... 27 ii. Contextual analysis...... 62 Stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope iii. Sampling strategy for diet reconstruction....62 analysis (CNS)...... 27 iv. Isotope analysis...... 62 Strontium isotope analysis...... 32 2.3. Results ...... 64 1.5.3 Sampling osteological material...... 34 2.3.1. Collagen preservation...... 64 i. Carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope 2.3.2. Demographic profile and contextual analysis (CNS)...... 34 analysis...... 64 ii. Strontium isotope analysis...... 34 2.3.3. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis...... 66 1.6 Contextual analysis of the mortuary practices 2.4. Discussion ...... 68 of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Halos, 2.5. Conclusions...... 71 Chloe, and Pharsala...... 35 i. Quality of documentation...... 35 Chapter 3 ii. Assumptions underlying the contextual Diet and social divisions in protohistoric Greece: analysis of mortuary practices ...... 35 integrating analyses of stable isotopes and 1.6.1 The Protogeometric cemeteries of Halos: mortuary practices...... 73 Voulokaliva and Kephalosi...... 37 3.1. Introduction...... 73 The cemetery of Voulokaliva...... 37 3.2. Materials and Methods...... 75 The Cemetery of Kephalosi...... 39 3.2.1. Materials...... 75 Discussion...... 41 i. The cemeteries of Pharsala...... 75 Discussion of Main Patterns...... 43 ii. The cemetery of Chloe...... 75 Research Questions concerning Halos...... 43 iii. The human osteological assemblage...... 75 1.6.2 The Protogeometric cemetery of Chloe...... 43 3.2.2. Methods...... 75 Discussion...... 45 i. Osteological analysis...... 75 Discussion of main patterns...... 46 ii. Contextual analysis...... 75 Research questions concerning Chloe...... 46 iii. Sampling design...... 76 1.6.3 The Protogeometric cemeteries iv. Isotope analysis...... 76 of Pharsala...... 46 3.3. Results and Discussion...... 76 Site 1-“cemetery”/”tumulus”...... 47 3.3.1. Demographic profile...... 76 Site 2...... 48 3.3.2. Contextual analysis of the mortuary data...... 77 Discussion...... 49 3.3.3 Sampling...... 80 Discussion of main patterns...... 51 3.4. Isotope analysis...... 82 Research questions concerning Pharsala...... 52 3.5. Conclusions...... 87 1.7 Main Patterns of the Sites...... 52 1.8 Conclusions, Questions, and Hypotheses...... 52 Chapter 4 1.8.1 Variation and differentiation...... 52 Fish consumption in Early Iron Age Greece? 1.8.2 Change and continuity...... 53 Sulfur stable isotope analysis of human populations...... 89 4.1. Introduction...... 89 4.1.1. Ar chaeological, archaeozoological, and isotopic evidence of fish consumption in Greece...... 90

Contents 7

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 7 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 4.1.2. Sulfur isotope ratios in mammalian 5.7.1. Chloe...... 108 collagen...... 91 5.7.2. Voulokaliva...... 109 4.2. Material and methods...... 92 5.7.3. Pharsala...... 110 4.2.1. Materials...... 92 5.8. Population movements in the Early Iron Age...... 111 i. Voulokaliva...... 92 5.9. Conclusions...... 112 ii. Kephalosi...... 92 iii. Pharsala...... 92 iv. Chloe...... 93 PART III 4.2.2. Methods...... 93 Chapter 6 4.3. Results and Discussion...... 93 Discussion & Conclusions...... 117 4.4. Conclusions...... 97 6.1 Discussion ...... 117 6.1.1 Social Variation and Differentiation...... 118 Chapter 5 6.1.2 Change and Continuity...... 122 Detecting mobility in Early Iron Age Thessaly 6.2. Conclusions ...... 123 by strontium isotope analysis...... 99 5.1. Introduction...... 100 Chapter 7 5.2. Archaeological context...... 101 Appendices ...... 127 5.3. Variation in burial practices...... 101 7.1 Appendix 1: Maps...... 127 5.4. The environmental context of Greece 7.2 Appendix 2: Excavation Plans...... 131 and Thessaly...... 102 7.3 Appendix 3: Charts...... 133 5.5. Materials and method...... 103 7.4 Appendix 4: Tables...... 138 5.5.1. Enamel and environmental samples...... 103 7.5 Appendix 5: Isotopic Plots...... 149 5.5.2. Strontium isotope analysis...... 105 5.6. Laboratory procedure...... 105 5.7. Strontium isotope results...... 108 References ...... 151

8 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 8 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. PART I

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 9 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 10 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Chapter 1 • Introduction

1.1 Summary

The aim of this thesis is to shed light on the beginning of the Early Iron Age in Greece (1100 – 900 BC), the so-called Protogeometric period. This period was characterised by social regression, but also by partial and incipient recovery and increased population mobility. The region of focus is Thessaly (central Greek mainland), which constituted the northern margin of the old Mycenaean world and was, therefore, affected by the decline and disintegration of the Mycenaean civilization. The centuries after the collapse of the Mycenaean palatial system (12th century BC) were traditionally referred to as the Dark Ages, as there was insufficient archaeological evidence, compared to earlier or later periods, as well as loss of hierarchy, script, and monumentality. The highly stratified and centralised Mycenaean system broke down and communities had to adapt to new social and cultural conditions; material culture, technology, living conditions, and mortuary practices were all affected in this process of regression and decline. Intense population mobility occurred at the same time, perhaps as a result of these fluid and unstable conditions. How were communities organised during the EIA? Do we see continuity or abrupt changes after the end of the Bronze Age? These are the central questions for anyone studying the Early Iron Age in Greece, and are also the central questions of my doctoral dissertation. My main aim is to reconstruct social structure and social change in EIA Thessaly through the study of burial practices, dietary variation, and population movements. It is essential to understand how people related to the Mycenaean traditions, how they adapted to new living conditions, how they organised their social life and whether they were affected by population movements. To answer these questions, I employed two different methods, the carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and strontium isotope analysis of human skeletal material for the reconstruction of diet and population movements, and the contextual analysis of mortuary practices. Isotope analyses of light elements (carbon and nitrogen) as well as heavier elements (strontium) are well-known and long-established methods for the reconstruction of diet and the study of population movements, respectively. Sulfur isotope analysis, however, is a new method that aims to complement both dietary reconstruction and mobility studies. The contextual analysis of mortuary practices is also a long-established method for the reconstruction of social structure of living communities. I would like to argue that the study of human skeletal remains along with the detailed analysis of funerary practices, and the exploration of dietary variation and population movements can provide invaluable insights to social change during a crucial period of Greek protohistory. I hope that my research will promote the use of scientific methods and the study of skeletal assemblages, as this is highly necessary in Greek archaeology, especially for the protohistorical and historical periods. I firmly believe that an integrated approach is necessary in the study of the process of social formation and social change. My main argument is that the results from the isotope analysis can only be interpreted if compared with the results from the contextual analysis of mortuary practices and the osteological analysis of the skeletal assemblage. The detailed contextual analysis of mortuary variation will provide the basis for an informed sampling strategy, and is essential for a nuanced interpretation of the isotope data and a deep- er understanding of social structure during this turbulent period. The thesis is divided into three main parts:

i. PART I: Chapter 1 The introduction provides information on the historical background of the period and region. The main methods employed are presented in detail, as well as the contextual analysis of the funerary practices in the four sites –Voulokaliva, Kephalosi, Chloe, and Pharsala.

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 11

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 11 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ii. PART II: Chapters 2-5 The main body of the thesis is composed of four articles (published or submitted), which discuss the dietary variation and population movements in the different sites. The results of the isotope analyses are compared to, and interpreted in line with, the results of the contextual analysis of the funerary practices.

iii. PART III: Chapter 6 The final discussion and conclusions, which draw together the various arguments presented in the four articles, integrate the results of the contextual analysis of mortuary practices and the results of the different isotopic analyses and reach conclusions on social structure, dietary variation and mobility in Early Iron Age Thessaly.

The main conclusions of my research are as follows: The contextual analysis of the mortuary data revealed mainly subtle variation rather than rigid divisions between the different social groups in the Protogeometric period. Age seems to be an important criterion of differentiation in EIA communities. In contrast, gender differentiation could also be observed though, only in a few aspects of mortuary behaviour, mostly in the provision of grave goods. Status differences within communities –as much as they can be reconstructed on the basis of tomb elaboration and offerings– are not very pronounced, and these different aspects of the mortuary treatment do not always coincide. However, differences in wealth placed in the tombs are observed between communities. We can conclude that during this period the social structure is still in flux, but differentiation is already emerging. Detecting status differences is complicated by another factor, as it is not always possible to establish if elaborate tombs are an indication of status, or adherence to old Mycenaean funerary tradition. The mortuary practices show both continuity and change, sometimes in the same community –though the situation varies among the sites studied.

In terms of diet, during the Early Iron Age, human diet in Thessaly relied mainly on C3 plant and animal protein; fruits, vegetables, cereals, and pulses were being consumed, while meat and/or dairy

products were a significant share of the diet. The use of C4 resources was very limited. It is possible that

the signal comes from deliberate consumption of millet (the main edible C4 plant in Greece) and not coincidentally through animal fodder. Consumption of aquatic resources has not been positively attested, despite the proximity of the sites to aquatic sources. This implies some cultural preferences, as aquatic resources were accessible in the sites under study. The analysis of differences in dietary preferences did not produce any rigid patterns, but rather subtle differentiation, which corresponds well with the analysis of mortuary variation. Interestingly, animal protein is not associated with higher status, as individuals, both males and females, from poor graves also showed high δ15N values. Population mobility was attested in the beginning of the Early Iron Age as newcomers have been identified in the populations studied here; we cannot, however, yet trace the provenience of these individuals. The comparison between the results of the mobility analysis and those of the study of mortuary practices revealed a complex picture where newcomers were buried in the traditional Mycenaean way, while at least some local individuals preferred newer and simpler forms which will become the norm in the Early Iron Age. A final note: the data used in this research all come from rescue excavations, carried out under difficult conditions and under time pressure. Despite the many problems of uneven documentation, this study proves that these data can be used and can lead to important new insights on past societies.

12 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 12 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Samenvatting

Het doel van dit onderzoek is het verkrijgen van nieuwe inzichten het begin van de vroege IJzertijd (1100-990 v. Chr.) in Griekenland, de zogenaamde Protogeometrische periode. Dit tijdperk staat bekend als een periode van sociale achteruitgang, maar wordt ook gekenmerkt door een beginnend herstel en een toenemende bevolkingsmobiliteit. Het onderzoek richt zich op Thessalië in centraal Griekenland. Dit gebied vormde de noordelijke grens van de Myceense wereld en de teloorgang van de Myceense beschaving had dan ook een grote invloed op Thessalië. De eeuwen na de ineenstorting van het sterk gestratificeerde en gecentraliseerde Myceense paleissysteem in de 12de eeuw v. Chr. worden gewoonlijk de ‘Dark Ages’ genoemd. Niet alleen omdat er voor deze periode erg weinig archeologisch bewijs is vergeleken met eerdere en latere tijdperken, maar ook omdat sociale hiërarchieën, monumentaliteit en het schrift verloren raakten. De lokale gemeenschappen moesten zich aanpassen aan nieuwe sociale en culturele omstandigheden; materiële cultuur, technologie, leefomstandigheden en grafpraktijken werden allemaal beïnvloed door het proces van regressie. Ook trad op dit moment een intense mobiliteit op, mogelijk als gevolg van deze vloeibare en onstabiele omstandigheden. De belangrijkste onderzoeksvragen voor de vroege IJzertijd zijn gericht op het begrijpen van de invloed van al deze veranderingen op lokale gemeenschappen. Hoe werden gemeenschappen georganiseerd? Zien we na het einde van de Bronstijd continuïteit in de sociale organisatie, of juist abrupte veranderingen? Ook in dit proefschrift staan deze vragen centraal. Het voornaamste doel van dit onderzoek is het reconstrueren van de sociale structuur en sociale verandering in Protogeometrisch Thessalië. Dit wordt gedaan door een interdisciplinair contextueel onderzoek naar grafpraktijken, variatie in voedingspatronen, en migratie. Het is van groot belang om te begrijpen of en hoe mensen vasthielden aan de Myceense tradities, hoe ze zich aanpasten aan nieuwe levensomstandigheden, hoe ze hun sociale leven organiseerden en of gemeenschappen werden beïnvloed door bevolkingsmigratie. Om deze vragen te beantwoorden, heb ik twee verschillende onderzoeksmethoden toegepast: de eerste is een analyse van koolstof-, stikstof-, zwavel- en strontiumisotopen van menselijk skeletmateriaal om zo voedingspatronen en migratie vast te kunnen stellen, en de tweede is een contextuele analyse van grafpraktijken. Isotopenanalyses van lichte elementen (koolstof en stikstof) evenals zwaardere elementen (strontium) zijn bekende en gevestigde onderzoeksmethoden voor dergelijke vraagstukken; de analyse van zwavelisotopen is nieuw, maar vult de resultaten op belangrijke wijze aan. De contextuele analyse van grafpraktijken wordt binnen de archeologie al decennia lang gebruikt voor de reconstructie van de sociale structuur van gemeenschappen. Ik ben ervan overtuigd dat de combinatie van een studie van menselijke skeletresten met een gedetailleerde analyse van funeraire praktijken, voedingsvariaties en migratie uiterst waardevolle inzichten biedt in sociale veranderingen tijdens deze cruciale periode in de Griekse geschiedenis. Ik hoop dat mijn onderzoek duidelijk maakt dat het gebruik van wetenschappelijke methoden en de bestudering van skeletresten noodzakelijk is in de Griekse archeologie, en dat deze studie het gebruik hiervan zal bevorderen. Ik ben ervan overtuigd dat een geïntegreerde aanpak noodzakelijk is bij het bestuderen van het proces van sociale vorming en sociale verandering. Mijn belangrijkste argument is dat de resultaten van de isotoopanalyse alleen kunnen worden geïnterpreteerd als ze worden vergeleken met de resultaten van de contextuele analyse van grafgebruiken en de osteologische analyse van de skeletresten. De analyse van variatie in hoe men omging met de doden vormde de basis voor de gekozen bemonsteringsstrategie en is daarnaast essentieel voor een genuanceerde interpretatie van de isotoopdata en hoe deze zich verhouden tot de sociale structuur in deze turbulente periode. Het proefschrift is opgedeeld in drie hoofdonderdelen:

DEEL I: Hoofdstuk 1 In de inleiding worden de historische achtergrond van de periode en regio geschetst en worden de gebruikte methoden in detail gepresenteerd. Ook wordt hierin de contextuele analyse van de begrafenispraktijken op vier sites die de case studies van dit onderzoek vormen: Voulokaliva, Kephalosi, Chloe en Pharsala.

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 13

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 13 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ii. DEEL II: Hoofdstukken 2-5 De kern van het proefschrift bestaat uit vier artikelen (reeds gepubliceerd/ingediend), waarin de variatie in voedingspatronen en bewijs voor migratie op de verschillende locaties worden besproken. De resultaten van de isotoopanalyses worden vergeleken met, en geïnterpreteerd in samenhang met de resultaten van de contextuele analyse van de grafgebruiken.

iii. DEEL III: Hoofdstuk 6 In het laatste hoofdstuk worden de verschillende argumenten en conclusies uit de vier artikelen samengevat en bediscussieerd. De resultaten van de contextuele analyse van grafgebruiken en de isotopenanalyses worden samengetrokken en aan de hand daarvan worden conclusies gepresenteerd over sociale structuur, voedingsvariatie en mobiliteit in Protogeometrisch Thessalië.

De belangrijkste conclusies van mijn onderzoek zijn als volgt: De contextuele analyse van de grafgebruiken liet zien dat er een subtiele variatie is in de manier waarop doden uit verschillende sociale groepen werden behandeld. Leeftijd lijkt een belangrijk criterium voor differentiatie te zijn; verschillen in gender zijn zichtbaar in de giften die werden meegegeven in het graf. Statusverschillen binnen gemeenschappen – voor zover deze überhaupt gereconstrueerd kunnen worden door middel van graftypes en grafgiften – zijn niet erg uitgesproken. Tussen de verschillende gemeenschappen echter is er wel een verschil te zien in de hoeveelheid en rijkdom van de objecten die in de graven zijn aangetroffen. We kunnen hieruit concluderen dat de sociale structuur nog in beweging is en niet vastomlijnd was, en dat er een sociale differentiatie in opkomst is. De identificatie van statusverschillen wordt verder gecompliceerd door het feit dat het niet altijd mogelijk is om vast te stellen of een bepaald type tombe altijd toe te schrijven is aan status of dat de keuze voor een graftype te maken heeft met het vasthouden aan Myceense tradities. Al met al laten de grafpraktijken zien dat er zowel sprake is van continuïteit als van verandering, soms zelfs binnen éénzelfde gemeenschap. De situatie tussen de onderzochte sites verschilt echter wel. De studie naar voedingspatronen in de vroege IJzertijd liet zien dat het menselijk dieet vooral

gebaseerd was op C3-planten en dierlijke eiwitten; er werden groenten, fruit, granen en peulvruchten geconsumeerd, en vlees en/of zuivelproducten vormden een belangrijk deel van het dieet. Het gebruik

van C4-voedingsbronnen was zeer beperkt. Het is goed mogelijk dat het signaal afkomstig is van

opzettelijke consumptie van gierst (de belangrijkste eetbare C4-plant in Griekenland), en niet bijvoorbeeld via veevoer. De consumptie van aquatische voedingsstoffen is niet aangetoond, ondanks de nabijheid van waterstromen en/of zee bij de verschillende sites. Dit impliceert dat er een culturele voorkeur was voor zuivel en vlees, ten koste van vis en zeevruchten. Ook de analyse van voedingspatronen leverde geen duidelijke patronen op, maar van subtiele variatie was zeker sprake. Dit komt overeen met de gegevens uit de grafanalyse. Het valt op dat van status- en genderdifferentiatie geen sprake is als het om dierlijke proteïnes gaat: zowel mannen als vrouwen en individuen uit arme en rijke graven hadden hoge δ15N-waarden die wezen op vlees- en zuivelconsumptie. Mobiliteit, ten slotte, is bewezen voor het begin van de vroege IJzertijd omdat nieuwkomers werden geïdentificeerd in de populaties die hier zijn bestudeerd. Op dit moment kunnen we echter nog niet de herkomst van deze personen traceren. De vergelijking tussen de resultaten van de mobiliteitsanalyse en die van de grafraktijken onthulde een complex beeld van nieuwkomers die begraven werden op de traditionele Myceense manier, terwijl ten minste sommige lokale individuen de voorkeur gaven aan nieuwere en eenvoudigere vormen die de norm zouden worden in de Protogeometrische periode. Een laatste opmerking: de gegevens die in dit onderzoek zijn gebruikt, komen allemaal uit noodopgravingen die werden uitgevoerd onder moeilijke omstandigheden en onder tijdsdruk. Ondanks de nadelen die aan dergelijk materiaal kleven, bewijst deze studie dat de gegevens zeker kunnen worden gebruikt en kunnen leiden tot belangrijke nieuwe inzichten over vroegere samenlevingen.

14 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 14 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Περίληψη

Ο σκοπός της διατριβής αυτής είναι να ρίξει φως στην Πρώιμη Εποχή του Σιδήρου στην Ελλάδα (1100- 900 π.Χ.), την επονομαζόμενη Πρωτογεωμετρική περίοδο. Αυτή η εποχή χαρακτηρίζεται από έντονη κοινωνική υποβάθμιση αλλά μία σχετική και αρχόμενη βελτίωση έχει ήδη αρχίσει να διαφαίνεται, με αυξημένη μετακίνηση πληθυσμών. Η μελέτη επικεντρώνεται στη Θεσσαλία, η οποία αποτελεί το βόρειο όριο του παλαιού Μυκηναϊκού κόσμου και κατά συνέπεια είχε υποστεί τις συνέπειες της διάλυσης και της πτώσης του Μυκηναϊκού πολιτισμού. Οι αιώνες μετά την πτώση του Μυκηναϊκού ανακτορικού συστήματος (12ος αι. π.Χ.) παραδοσιακά αποκαλούνταν ως Σκοτεινοί Αιώνες, κυρίως λόγω της έλλειψης αρχαιολογικών δεδομένων, συγκριτικά με άλλες εποχές, αλλά και λόγω της απώλειας της κοινωνικής ιεραρχίας, της γραφής και της μνημειακότητας της προηγούμενης περιόδου. Το ιδιαίτερα στρωματοποιημένο και συγκεντρωτικό Μυκηναϊκό σύστημα διαλύθηκε και η κοινωνία έπρεπε να προσαρμοστεί στις νέες πολιτισμικές και κοινωνικές συνθήκες. Ο υλικός πολιτισμός, η τεχνολογία, οι συνθήκες ζωής και οι ταφικές πρακτικές επηρεάστηκαν έντονα τόσο κατά την υποβάθμιση όσο και κατά τη διάρκεια της ύφεσης. Ταυτόχρονα, εμφανίζεται έντονη κινητικότητα πληθυσμών, πιθανώς ως αποτέλεσμα των ρευστών και ασταθών συνθηκών. Πώς ήταν οργανωμένες οι κοινωνίες κατά τη διάρκεια της Πρώιμης Εποχής του Σιδήρου; Μπορούμε να δούμε κάποια συνέχεια από την Εποχή του Χαλκού ή οι αλλαγές ήταν απότομες και αιφνίδιες; Τα δύο αυτά ερωτήματα καταλαμβάνουν κεντρικό ρόλο στη μελέτη της Πρώιμη Εποχή του Σιδήρου, και φυσικά απο- τελούν και το κέντρο της διδακτορικής μου διατριβής. Ο κύριος σκοπός μου είναι να σκιαγραφήσω την κοινωνική οργάνωση και κοινωνική αλλαγή στη Θεσσαλία κατά την Πρώιμη Εποχή του Σιδήρου μέσα από τη μελέτη των ταφικών πρακτικών, των διατροφικών συνήθειών και μεταβολών και των μετακινήσεων πληθυσμών. Είναι ιδιαιτέρως σημαντικό να καταλάβουμε πώς κάποιοι άνθρωποι συνέχισαν να σχετίζονται με τη Μυκηναϊκή παράδοση, πώς άλλοι προσαρμόστηκαν στις νέες συνθήκες διαβίωσης, πώς οργάνωσαν τις κοινωνικές τους σχέσεις και αν επηρεάστηκαν από την έντονη κινητικότητα. Για να απαντήσω τα παραπάνω ερωτήματα χρησιμοποίησα δύο διαφορετικές μεθόδους, αφενός τις αναλύσεις ισοτόπων άνθρακα, αζώτου, θείου και στροντίου σε ανθρώπινο σκελετικό υλικό για την ανασύ- σταση της διατροφής και των μετακινήσεων και αφετέρου τη συστηματική μελέτη των ταφικών πρακτικών. Η ανάλυση των ισοτόπων άνθρακα και αζώτου όπως επίσης και του στροντίου είναι γνωστές μέθοδοι με πολύ καλά αποτελέσματα στην ανασύσταση της διατροφής και των μετακινήσεων πληθυσμών, αντίστοι- χα. Οι αναλύσεις ισοτόπων θείου είναι νέα μέθοδος η οποία μπορεί να συμπληρώνει τις δύο προηγούμε- νες και να ενισχύσει τα αποτελέσματά τους. Η συστηματική ανάλυση των ταφικών πρακτικών είναι επίσης μια γνωστή μέθοδος για την μελέτη κοινωνικών διαφοροποίησεων. Θα ήθελα εδώ να επισημάνω πως η μελέτη του αρχαιολογικού σκελετικού υλικού σε συνδασμό με τη συστηματική μελέτη των ταφικών πρα- κτικών και την έρευνα της διατροφής και των μετακινήσεων μπορεί να προσφέρει πολύτιμα στοιχεία για τις κοινωνικές μεταβολές κατά την καίρια αυτή περίοδο της Ελληνικής πρωτο-ιστορίας. Προσδοκώ η έρευνά μου να προάγει τη συνδυασμένη μελέτη του σκελετικού υλικού με τη χρήση αναλυτικών μεθόδων κυρίως στις πρωτο-ιστορικές και ιστορικές εποχές. Πιστεύω βαθιά πως ο συνδυασμός των παραπάνω μεθόδων είναι απαραίτητος για την μελέτη της κοινωνικής δομής και κοινωνικής αλλαγής. Το κύριο επιχείρημά μου είναι πως τα αποτελέσματα των ισο- τοπικών αναλύσεων μπορούν να ερμηνευτούν, προσφέροντας σημαντικές πρόσθετες πληροφορίες, μαζί με τα αποτελέσματα της μελέτης των ταφικών πρακτικών και της οστεολογικής μελέτης του ανθρωπίνου υλικού. Η λεπτομερής συστηματική μελέτη των ταφικών πρακτικών και διαφοροποιήσεων προσφέρει τη βάση για ενημερωμένη στρατηγική δειγματοληψίας για τις ισοτοπικές αναλύσεις. Επίσης είναι σημαντική για μία σε βάθος ερμηνεία των ισοτοπικών δεδομένων και την κατανόηση της κοινωνικής δομής κατά τη διάρκεια μιας ταραχώδους περιόδου. Η διατριβή χωρίζεται σε τρία τμήματα:

i. ΜΕΡΟΣ Ι: Κεφάλαιο 1 Αποτελεί την εισαγωγή της διατριβής. Περιλαμβάνει τη θεωρία και την ιστορική βάση της εποχής και της περιοχής που μελετάται. Παρουσιάζονται λεπτομερώς οι κύριες μέθοδοι που χρησιμοποίηθηκαν, κα- θώς και η συστηματική ανάλυση των ταφικών πρακτικών των τεσσάρων θέσεων –Βουλοκαλύβα, Κεφάλω- ση, Χλόη και Φάρσαλα. ii. ΜΕΡΟΣ ΙΙ: Κεφάλαια 2-5 Το κύριο σώμα της διατριβής αποτελείται από τέσσερα άρθρα (ήδη δημοσιευμένα ή προς δημοσίευ-

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 15

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 15 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ση), στα οποία γίνεται η ανάλυση διατροφικών διαφοροποιήσεων και πληθυσμιακών μετακινήσεων στις διαφορετικές θέσεις που μελετώνται. Γίνεται σύγκριση των αποτελεσμάτων των ισοτοπικών αναλύσεων τα οποία και ερμηνεύονται σύμφωνα με τα αποτελέσματα της μελέτης των ταφικών πρακτικών.

iii. ΜΕΡΟΣ ΙΙΙ: Κεφάλαιο 6 Το τελευταίο μέρος περιλαμβάνει τη συζήτηση και τα συμπεράσματα. Συγκεντρώνονται τα αποτελέ- σματα και τα συμπεράσματα των τεσσάρων άρθρων και ενοποιούνται με σκοπό την εξαγωγή συμπερα- σμάτων για την κοινωνική δομή, τις διατροφικές διαφοροποιήσεις και μεταβολές και την κινητικότητα στη Θεσσαλία κατά την Πρώιμη Εποχή του Σιδήρου.

Τα κύρια συμπεράσματα της έρευνάς μου είναι τα ακόλουθα: Η συστηματική μελέτη των ταφικών πρακτικών έδειξε πως οι διαφοροποιήσεις ήταν λεπτές ενώ δεν πα- ρατηρήθηκε έντονος διαχωρισμός μεταξύ διαφορετικών κοινωνικών ομάδων κατά την Πρωτογεωμετρική πε- ρίοδο. Ενώ η ηλικία φαίνεται πως είναι σημαντικό κριτήριο διαφοροποίησης, διαφοροποίηση βάση φύλου μπορούμε να παρατηρήσουμε μόνο σε ελάχιστες όψεις της ταφικής συμπεριφοράς, κυρίως στα κτερίσματα. Δεν είναι σαφής διαφοροποίηση της κοινωνικής θέσης, όσο αυτό μπορεί να ανασυσταθεί βάση της πολυπλο- κότητας των τάφων και των κτερισμάτων, ενώ οι διάφορες πρακτικές της ταφικής μεταχείρησης δε συνάδουν πάντα. Παρόλα αυτά, παρατηρούνται διαφορές μεταξύ των θέσεων κυρίως στην ποσότητα –αλλά και κάποιες φορές και στην ποιότητα- των κτερισμάτων που τοποθετήθηκαν μέσα στους τάφους οι οποίες δεν είναι τόσο έντονες μεταξύ των ατόμων της κάθε θέσης. Μπρούμε να συμπεράνουμε πως κατ’αυτήν την περίοδο η κοι- νωνική δομή είναι ακόμα ρευστή αλλά κοινωνικές διαφοροποιήσεις κάνουν ήδη την εμφάνισή τους. Η ανίχνευση διαφορών βάση της κοινωνικής θέσης γίνεται περίπλοκη από έναν ακόμα παράγοντα. Δεν είναι πάντα εύκολο να διακρίνει και να καταλάβει κάποιος αν η κατασκευαστική πολυπλοκότητα ενός τάφου είναι ένδειξη ανώτερης κοινωνικής θέσης ή οφείλεται στην προσκόλληση στη Μυκηναϊκή παρά- δοση. Παρόλο που τα ταφικά έθιμα δείχνουν εν μέρη μια συνέχεια των προηγούμενων παραδόσεων, συχνά διακρίνεται έντονα η μεταμόρφωσή τους ακόμα και μέσα στην ίδια κοινότητα –η κατάσταση βέβαια ποκίλλει από θέση σε θέση. Περνώντας στη μελέτη της διατροφής γίνεται κατανοητό πως στη Θεσσαλία κατά την Πρώιμη Εποχή

του Σιδήρου αυτή βασιζόταν κυρίως σε C3 φυτική και ζωική πρωτεϊνη. Καταναλώνονταν φρούτα, λαχανι- κά, δημητριακά και όσπρια αλλά και σημαντικές ποσότητες κρέατος και/ή γαλακτοκομικών προϊόντων. Η

κατανάλωση C4 φυτικών προϊόντων ήταν περιορισμένη. Είναι πιθανό το ισοτοπικό C4 σήμα να προέρχεται

από άμεση και εσκεμμένη κατανάλωση κεχριού (το μόνο βρώσιμο από τον άνθρωπο C4 φυτό στην Ελλά-

δα) και όχι έμμεσα από την κατανάλωση ζώου που είχε το ίδιο καταναλώσει C4 ζωική τροφή. Η κατανά- λωση τροφής από περιβάλλοντα όπως η θάλασσα, οι λίμνες και τα ποτάμια δεν έχει επιβεβαιωθεί, παρά την εγγύτητα των θέσεων σε υγρά περιβάλλοντα. Αυτό ίσως υποδεικνύει κάποια πολιτισμικά κριτήρια στην επιλογή της τροφής εφόσον τα ψάρια είτε του γλυκού νερού είτε της θάλασσας ήταν προσβάσιμα από τους πληθυσμούς που μελετήθηκαν στη διατριβή αυτή. Κατά τη σύγκριση των διατροφικών επιλογών παρουσιάστηκαν κυρίως μικρές και λεπτές διαφοροποι- ήσεις οι οποίες ταιριάζουν με τα αποτελέσματα από την ανάλυση των ταφικών εθίμων. Ενδιαφέρον έχει πως η ζωική πρωτεϊνη τελικά δε φαίνεται να σχετίζεται με την κοινωνική θέση κάποιου ατόμου ή ομάδας μέσα στην κοινωνία εφόσον οι δ15N ήταν υψηλές και σε άντρες και γυναίκες που προέρχονταν από ταφές με φτωχικά κτερίσματα. Όσον αφορά τις μετακινήσεις πληθυσμών, εντοπίστηκαν άτομα -ή μικρές ομάδες- τα οποία είχαν με- τακινηθεί από άλλη περιοχή χωρίς όμως να είναι δυνατός ο προσδιορισμός αυτής. Η σύγκριση μεταξύ των αποτελεσμάτων της ανάλυσης των μετακινήσεων και των ταφικών εθίμων απεκάλυψε μια πολύπλοκη εικόνα όπου οι Μυκηναϊκοί παραδοσιακοί τρόποι ταφής ακολουθούνταν είτε από γηγενή πληθυσμό είτε από άτομα που είχαν μεταναστεύσει εκεί από άλλες περιοχές. Παράλληλα μεγάλο ποσοστό των γηγενών πληθυσμών προτίμησαν νέες και πιο απλές φόρμες ταφής, οι οποίες έγιναν τελικά ο κανόνας. Ένα τελικό σημείωμα πριν το τέλος την περίληψης: τα ανασκαφικά δεδομένα που χρησιμοποίηθηκαν στην έρευνα προήλθαν από σωστικές ανασκαφές, οι οποίες διεξήχθησαν υπό δύσκολες και πιεστικές συνθήκες. Παρά, λοιπόν, τα όσα προβλήματα της ανομοιόμορφης καταγρφής του υλικού, η μελέτη αυτή έδειξε πως τα δεδομένα αυτά μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την εξαγωγή σημαντικών συμπερασμά- των που αφορούν προηγούμενες κοινωνίες.

16 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 16 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 1.2 Scope and Aims

The Early Iron Age (EIA) in Greece dates to the 1025-770 BC and marks the transition from the decline of the Mycenaean civilization to the beginning of the Archaic period (ca. 770 BC). The first half of EIA is referred to as the Protogeometric period (1025-900 BC), a term deriving from the first appearance of geometric decoration on pottery (Desborough 1948; Desborough 1952: 119-126, 291-295; Lemos 2002: 2). During the 12th century BC both social and economic structures of mainland communities were disturbed, resulting in various changes in technology, material culture, mortuary and other social practices across the entire Aegean (Map 7.1.1) (Dickinson 2006: 242-255). These changes were not as abrupt as initially believed and continuity can also be observed (Crielaard 2011). The new conditions affected Thessaly significantly because the region has been considered the northern margin of the Mycenaean world, and therefore was part of the Late Bronze Age networks1 (Map 7.1.1) (Papadimitriou 2008; Eder 2009; Feuer 2011; Crielaard 2011). Based on the ceramic sequence, a chronological framework is provided below (Dickinson 2006; Shelmerdine 2008; Lemos 2013; Papadopoulos et al. 2011):2

Period Date (BC) Submycenaean (Bronze Age) 1100 – 1025 Protogeometric (Early Iron Age) 1025 – 900 Geometric (Early Iron Age) 900 – 770 Archaic (Iron Age) 770 – 500

It has been argued that during the Early Iron Age, communities experienced regression, although the first signs of a partial and incipient recovery have also been observed, and population movements intensified (Morris 2007: 216-217). Recently, resilience theory (Holling 1973; Redman 2005) has been applied to the Early Iron Age, and specifically to the transitional period between the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (Papadopoulos & Smithson 2017: 973-974), in order to discuss the cause and consequences of change in adaptive systems. The changes observed in the material culture and in burial practices have been considered as evidence of population mobility (Bouzek 2002; Rückl 2014; Lis et al. 2015). However, the new practices may have been the result of trade links and contacts or internal social change, making things more complex (Middleton 2010: 288-289, 370). Indeed, a certain degree of continuity, from the preceding period, in overseas contacts and in the organisation of the communities has been proposed (Crielaard 2006; Crielaard 2011) as well as in the burial practices (Georganas 2009). Funerary practices of the Protogeometric period appear to be very diverse; some Mycenaean practices had either survived or were still imitated though they were not as elaborate and rich as in the Mycenaean period. At the same time, new practices were also introduced (Dickinson 2006: 174-195). This increased diversity may indicate significant changes in the social structure of the new communities, or different attitudes to tradition. The diversity could also be attributed to the presence of non-local individuals. In the following sections I will present the mortuary evidence from EIA Thessaly with emphasis on the diversity in funerary practices. At the end of the chapter I will conclude with the main questions I will address in my thesis. The main aim of the thesis is to shed light on Early Iron Age society and its internal organisation.

1. The evidence comes mainly from eastern Thessaly, as evidence from inland Thessaly is scarce (see Papadimitriou 2008: 99; Voutsaki 1993: 99-118). 2. The debate surrounding the chronology, periodization, and especially the transition to the Early Iron Age makes it difficult to adopt a definitive chronological framework – see, for instance, the debate on whether the term Submycenaean describes a pottery style or a chronological phase between Late Helladic IIIC and Protogeometric (for extensive discussion and new 14C dates see Papadopoulos et al. 2011 and relevant references). Resolving these problems is beyond the scope of this study’s, and I have therefore decided to follow the generally accepted chronology and the sequence I have obtained from the excavators of the sites I have included.

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 17

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 17 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. However, it is now generally accepted that mortuary practices do not faithfully reflect social organisation (Morris 1992), often seen as some kind of static order. Instead, it will be argued here that a detailed contextual analysis of the mortuary practices allows us to reconstruct social structure, i.e., the organisational principles governing social life, such as divisions along age, gender, and possibly status. In addition, two more variables are investigated in this thesis, namely diet in correlation to social differentiation (Ross 1987) and the presence of non-local individuals in the community.

1.3 The Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age

1.3.1 The End of Late Bronze Age Around the 12th century BC (Late Helladic IIIB2, 1190 BC) the palatial system, a centralised economic organisation of a rigidly stratified society, known as the Mycenaean Civilization, came to its final end (Deger-Jalkotzy 2008: 387; Wright 2008: 248-249). The destruction of the palaces occurred within a short time in the entire Mycenaean world (central and southern Greek mainland, Map 7.1.1) and was followed by a period of disintegration (Dickinson 2006: 242-245; Galaty & Parkinson 2007: 14- 15; Deger-Jalkotzy 2008: 287-415), though a degree of continuity is also observed (Crielaard 2006; Crielaard 2011). This research will not investigate the collapse as such but its aftermath, i.e., the unrest, instability, and regression during the centuries which followed, but also any signs of continuity as well as the gradual recovery. Living conditions during the Submycenaean and the Protogeometric period deteriorated, population declined,3 and material culture changed. The Mycenaean civilization has attracted a lot of attention in the scholarly literature. I will attempt to summarise briefly the main features of this complex civilization, in order to facilitate the comparison with the Early Iron Age. The Mycenaean civilization is characterised by relative homogeneity and some overarching developments, although of course each region followed (more or less) different trajecto- ries. A clearly stratified society and a centralised political system developed, where the palaces held the economic and political power supported by local elite groups (Shelmerdine 1997; Cavanagh & Mee 1998; Bennet 2006; Galaty & Parkinson 2007). Trade and contacts with neighbouring areas (Minoan Crete and Aegean islands), as well as more distant regions (Cyprus, Egypt, and the Near East) intensified (Map 7.1.1). Furthermore, the Mycenaean world was characterised by a sophisticated material culture and technological achievements, with rich and elaborate objects produced for artistic, domestic, and funerary use, as well as for warfare (Dickinson 1994; Shelmerdine 1997; Shelmerdine 2008). Material production was influenced and further developed due to contacts with more advanced civilizations, while imports (luxury goods) played an important role in social life (Voutsaki 1998; Burns 2010). Burial practices in the Mycenaean period were quite elaborate with a large degree of differentiation. The Mycenaeans were buried according to their social status, or that of their family. Already in the Early Mycenaean period (Late Helladic I – Late Helladic IIA – LHI/LHIIA – ca. 1700-1600 BC) tholos tombs were used by elite families, while chamber tombs, introduced in the same period, were probably used by a wider segment of society (Mee 2010; Voutsaki 2010). These tombs were elaborate, often rich or very rich, and contained multiple inhumations. They were used for longer periods by several generations, a practice indicating strong kinship bonds (Cavanagh & Mee 1998). The rich, diverse, and sometimes unique grave goods in elaborate and occasionally monumental tombs (tholoi and chamber tombs) indicate an emphasis on display and the ostentatious representation of status, implying intense competition between elites at both the local and regional level (Cavanagh 2008). Simpler grave types, such as pits and cists were also used, probably by poorer groups indicating a high degree of stratification, though regional variation also plays a role here (Cavanagh & Mee 1998; Lewartowski 2000; Dakouri-Hild 2012).

3. Population decline has been inferred on the basis of the number known sites, the size of the sites and the number of graves found (Snodgrass 1971: 364-367) – though these data need to be revised. More recently, Morris (Morris 1991: 25-34; Morris 2007) also suggested that settlement size and house size decreased, but also that population movements took place.

18 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 18 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 1.3.2 The Early Iron Age (EIA) The post-Mycenaean period was mainly characterised by regression and decline though, as already mentioned, signs of continuity are also attested. The Submycenaean period in particular, is marked by disturbances, depopulation, and unrest; it seems to last until the first, usually localised, signs of recovery that made their appearance at the beginning of the Early Iron Age during the Protogeometric period (Snodgrass 2006; Morris 2007; Papadopoulos et al. 2011). According to the evidence thus far, in the Early Iron Age a decrease in the number of settlements has been noted, while their size and population also seem to have had seriously declined (Mazarakis- Ainian 2007; Morris 2007; Whitley 2007: 84-85). However, we need to keep in mind that the picture we have so far may be biased because of a) the relatively few systematic excavations which have been undertaken, b) the perishable materials which were probably used for houses (Mazarakis-Ainian 2007: 164; Whitley 2007: 84-85), c) the fact that the small EIA settlements remained inhabited in the historical and even modern periods, and therefore their remains are often obscured (Lemos 2002: 196) - or a combination of all these different factors (Dickinson 2006: 43; Crielaard 2011: 87). In the Submycenaean period there was a change in settlement patterns and a fluctuation of population levels –for instance, population decreased in the Argolid, Thessaly, Messenia, and Laconia but probably increased in eastern Attica, Euboea, Kephallenia, and Achaia (Map 7.1.2) (Desborough 1972; Dickinson 2006). At many Mycenaean sites, such as the Lower Town of Tiryns, continuity in habitation can be observed, while other settlements and cemeteries were abandoned, such as Gla and Orchomenos in Boeotia (Maps 7.1.2 & 7.1.3). New settlements, however, were also established (Des- borough 1964; Deger-Jalkotzy 2008; Middleton 2010). In the beginning of the EIA, settlements were mostly dispersed and consisted of small clusters of houses. In later periods the settlements started to increase in size and by the end of the 8th century BC small villages begun to merge and form larger units (Coldstream 2003: 406-8). Protogeometric society, because of the dispersed settlement pattern and low population levels, which set limits to political developments, shows predominantly low levels of social differentiation (Lemos 2002: 220) though exceptions such as Lefkandi (Thomas & Conant 1999: 85-114; Lemos 2002: 218-219; Lemos 2006; Crielaard 2006), Athens (Papadopoulos & Smithson 2017), Torone (Papadopoulos 2005), and Crete (Catling 1996; Cavanagh 1996) may represent more differentiated societies. The material culture underwent a substantial transformation during this period. The Protogeometric pottery (mainly from cemeteries, as fewer settlement sites have been excavated) had a narrower reper- toire and consisted of simpler forms (mainly oenochoai and skyphoi – forms for pouring and drinking) (Lemos 2002: 27-99). However, pottery typology and decoration still indicates trade connections or the imitation of foreign styles (Papadopoulos 2015). Iron became the new raw material, which dominated metal production. Ornaments (fibulae, pins, hair spirals, and earrings), tools (spindle whorls and knives) and weapons (daggers, arrowheads, spearheads, and swords) were mainly made out of iron; though bronze did not disappear, its use decreased significantly. Gold and silver were also sporadically used for ornaments, and stone was used for tools (Dickinson 2006: 114-115, 144-150, 155-171; Papadopoulos 2014: 181-184, 188-190). The mortuary practices of the Protogeometric period are characterised by diversity. Many of the old Mycenaean cemeteries were still in use, e.g., the burial plots south of the Acropolis in Attica and Nea Ionia in Volos (Map 7.1.3) (Lemos 2002: 154, 173-174), but new ones were also established, as new settlements were founded after the collapse already in the LHIIIC period, e.g., Perati in Attica (Map 7.1.3) (Lemos 2013: 88; Deger-Jalkotzy 2008: 392, 398). Similarly, many Mycenaean practices continued but new ones were also spread. Tholoi and chamber tombs, or rudimentary constructions which seem to imitate these types were also found. Pits and cists, although used already in the My- cenaean period (Lewartowski 2000) became widespread in the Protogeometric period, when many cemeteries consist, either exclusively or predominantly, of such graves. Moreover, internments were also found in vases, especially for infants (enchytrismos) but also for adults –small amphorae for infants or large pithoi for adults. The same burial ground may contain all these different tomb types (Lemos 2002: 186-188; Georganas 2009).

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 19

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 19 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. As far as body treatment is concerned, both inhumations and cremations are found, sometimes in the same cemetery. Inhumations have been found single or sometimes double in simple graves, while multiple inhumations, just like in the Mycenaean period were most often found in tholoi and chamber tombs (or imitations thereof). In contrast, cremation is introduced in the Protogeometric period and represents a clear departure from earlier tradition (Desborough 1964; Thomas & Conant 1999: 89-91; Lemos 2002: 186-188; Dickinson 2006: 174-195). Different interpretations for the introduction of cremation have been offered: Cremations have been attributed to newcomers arriving at the end of the Late Bronze Age (Snodgrass 1971: 162; Hammond 1972: 403-404); seen as a response to changing political and social realities (Georganas 2002) or as a strategy of status expression and distinction (Crielaard 2016).

1.3.3 Thessaly in the Early Iron Age As Thessaly is located between northern and southern Greece, during the Protogeometric period there is evidence for contacts and corresponding influences in both directions (Lemos 2002: 191, 205-207). The disintegration of the Mycenaean system and the ensuing changes from the Submycenaean to the Geometric period affected Thessaly. Just as in the rest of southern Greece, changes in social organisation, trade and interaction, production and technology, and material culture continued in Thessaly. The region of Thessaly forms a distinct geographical region, though it can be divided in sub-regions as the large central plains are interrupted by hills, mountains, and rivers. The region is rich in archaeological evidence as it was continuously occupied since the Neolithic period –and even earlier– due to its fertile soils. Having said that, the number of excavations in eastern Thessaly by far outnumber the excavations in inland Thessaly. The uneven intensity of research creates an unbalanced picture for the archaeology of Thessaly (Arachoviti 1994: 135). In this study Thessaly is treated as a unity because the mortuary practices show certain similarities despite some sub-regional differences which will be discussed in more detail below (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.3.4: MORTUARY PRACTICES IN PROTOGEOMETRIC THESSALY (ca. 1100-900 BC)). The sites I focus on are located in eastern Thessaly –Halos and Chloe– and inland Thessaly – Pharsala; the site of Halos –cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi– are situated be the coast of Pagasetic Gulf; the site of Chloe is situated north of the site of Halos, near the lake Voiviis; the site of Pharsala is located in a fertile valley between the rivers Pharsaliotis and Enipeas (see Figure 5.1 of PART II, CHAPTER 5, DETECTING MOBILITY IN EARLY IRON AGE THESSALY BY STRONTIUM ISOTOPE ANALYSIS). These sites represent very well the diversity of mortuary practices in Early Iron Age Thessaly and therefore offer excellent case-studies for an investigation of social structure, dietary variation and the presence of non-local individuals and natural environments. Thessaly demonstrates considerable variation of funerary customs and material culture. Some customs survived from the Mycenaean period, as has been observed in other regions. Tholoi, chamber tombs, and rock-cut tombs were used alongside each other in many sites, while some pit graves and cists also exist. Only one Mycenaean tumulus has been found in Thessaly, at Hexalophos in Trikala (Map 7.1.3), though more have been located in neighbouring regions (Hourmouziadis 1968; Theocharis 1968; Voutsaki 1993: 110, 119, 121). Departure from traditional practices has also been observed. Contacts with southern Greece and Euboea as well as northern regions in the 11th c. BC are attested in the wider use of cist tombs, and the presence of northern Aegean amphorae, and the hand-made burnished ware (brought either by trade or migration). Cremation was not widely used in Thessaly in the beginning of the period, as was the case in Euboea; the practice gradually spread mainly from the Late Protogeometric to the Geometric period,4 as can be seen in the cremation tumuli of Halos (Morris 1989: 76-85; Lemos 2002: 186-7, 211; Coldstream 2003: 43, 87; Snodgrass 2008: 673; Lemos & Mitchell 1997; Deger-Jalkotzy 2008: 398- 400; Georganas 2009; Lagia et al. 2013).

4. There is, as yet, no detailed chronology of EIA cremations in Thessaly.

20 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 20 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 1.3.4 Mortuary practices in Protogeometric Thessaly (c. 1100-900 BC) The following description of Protogeometric Thessalian mortuary practices is based on the published material up to date.

i. Location and spatial organisation The Early Iron Age burial grounds were either intramural or extramural. Graves within the confines of a settlement or in areas with a few buildings, as well as organised cemeteries have been exposed mainly by rescue excavations and only occasionally by systematic excavations (Snodgrass 1971: 140-97; Leekley & Efstratiou 1980: 129-160; Lemos 2002: 187-90; Georganas 2009). During the period, new cemeteries were established, sometimes close to existing Mycenaean ones. Old Mycenaean burial grounds remained in use or were reused, such as those at Kapakli and Pteleon in Magnesia (Map 7.1.3) (Lemos 2002: 174- 5). The proximity to Mycenaean cemeteries or the reuse of old tombs can be seen either as “…a sign of respect or reverence…” or “…a desire of status by association” with the Mycenaean past (Georganas 2000). The association of cemeteries with settlements cannot be established with certainty as only a few Protogeometric settlements have been excavated or preserved (Georganas 2000; Lemos 2002: 195-7). At the same time, single tholoi or small clusters of tombs have been found across Thessaly either in remote areas, away from settlements or other cemeteries, or associated with organised cemeteries (for the location of the sites mentioned below see Map 7.1.3). For instance, a cluster of four tholoi was found at Kallithea in Pharsala (Theocharis 1964; Katakouta 2012), a cluster of three tholoi at Lestiani (Arvanitopoulos 1911a: 292-294) and several tholoi (the exact number has not been reported) at Milies in Pelion (Arvanitopoulos 1910b); one tholos was found at each of the following sites: Agioi Theodoroi in Karditsa (Intzesiloglou 1990), Argyropouli in Tyrnavos (Arvanitopoulos 1911b), Chasam- bali in Larisa (Lemos 2002: 177), Argalasti (Arvanitopoulos 1910a), Paspalia (Arvanitopoulos 1914) and Pyrasos in Magnesia (Batziou-Efstathiou 2011); the Mycenaean tholos at Kapakli in Iolkos was reused during the EIA (Arvanitopoulos 1912; Lemos 2002); more tholoi were found at the following sites together with other tomb types: one tholos with several cists at Gonnoi in Larisa (Arvanitopoulos 1910b; Arvanitopoulos 1911a: 315-329), one tholos and five chamber tombs at Homolion (Theocharis 1961) and six tholoi and one cist at Marmariani (Heurtley & Skeat 1930; Tziafalias 1989b). The dispersed clusters of tombs have been tentatively associated with small residential units, which have not been located or not been preserved. They may have been used as family burial grounds, indicating perhaps an emphasis on kin relations (Lemos 2006: 524-7). Tomb clusters within organised cemeteries cannot be identified easily; most cemeteries have been discovered during rescue excavations where the entire extent of the burial ground has rarely been revealed. Eastern Thessaly has yielded more burial grounds than western Thessaly –the site of Fiki dating to the Early Iron Age, near the Mycenaean tumulus of Exalophos, has yielded a few cist graves but the excavators expect to be part of an larger cemetery (Batziou-Efstathiou 1984)– but this may well be the result of investigation bias.

ii. Tomb type The tomb types used in Thessaly during the EIA were pits, cists, pithoi and other vases (as cinerary urns), burial enclosures, tholos tombs, chamber tombs, and tumuli. Sometimes these types co-exist in the same burial ground (Desborough 1972: 101-4, 206-16, 266-77; Lemos 2002: 173-8; Dickinson 2006: 174-95; Georganas 2009). Each type is described separately below. Pit graves are simple pits dug in the earth, covered with stones or schist slabs. This type has been found in Magnesia and the eastern Larisa region.5 Cists were constructed with four vertical (usually schist) slabs forming the four sides. They are covered with one to three schist slabs and the floor is usually covered with pebbles, sand, or smaller slabs (Georganas 2009). The cist grave is the most commonly used type in this period; they seem to prevail in eastern Thessaly but this observation may also have to do with investigation bias.

5. In the following sites: Volos, Volos-Nea Ionia, Velestino, Velestino-Temple of Enodia, Halos, Platykambos, Sesklo, Gon- noi, and Peneiada

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 21

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 21 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Pithoi and other vases, such as amphorae, were used for inhumations. Desborough suggested that pithoi were not used in Thessaly (Desborough 1972: 272); however, later excavations revealed burials in pithoi at Trikala, Volos, and Kallithiro (Map 7.1.3) (Georganas 2009). These vases contained inhumations. Cremations have also been placed in vases (cinerary urns). They have been found at Krannon and Halos (Map 7.1.3) (three cremation urns from Tumulus Beta) (Georganas 2009). This practice was already in use in earlier periods (Gallis 1979; Deger-Jalkotzy 2013), but became more common during the EIA, especially in the later phase, i.e., the Late Protogeometric and Geometric periods. The tholos tomb is a popular type in Early Iron Age Thessaly. According to some scholars (Kurtz & Boardman 1971: chapter 9; Snodgrass 1971: 154-5), tholoi did not disappear after the collapse at the end of the Mycenaean period, as they did in other regions, but were used without a break. However, according to Georganas (2009) all tholoi in EIA Thessaly seem to date to the LPG, with an exception of one Submycenaean tholos in Pharsala (Map 7.1.3). Because of the absence of accurate dates, no firm conclusions can be reached. The EIA tholoi retained the basic characteristics of the Mycenaean prototypes –dromos, stomion, tholos– but with a few differences: the Thessalian Protogeometric tholoi are small and not elaborate, while in the Mycenaean period both large monumental and small rudimentary tholoi occurred; the entrance was usually blocked with stones, schist slabs or a combination of the two but there were no jambs and the doorway was not distinguished from the dromos as it led straight into the circular chamber (Heurtley & Skeat 1930; Georganas 2000; Georganas 2009). Regarding location, cemeteries with tholoi were usually built on hill slopes, following the Mycenaean practice. However, because Pro- togeometric tholoi were small, they were also constructed in flat terrain. The construction material of a Thessalian tholos tomb is schist. Heurtley & Skeat (1930: 11) suggested that the preservation of tholos constructions were associated with the abundance of schist geological formations in Thessaly. Although schist slabs may be easier to build with, tholoi could be built with many different materials sometimes brought from a distance, and were not necessarily constructed near schist sources (Heurtley & Skeat 1930; Georganas 2000). A type that is similar to a tholos, and was perhaps used as an imitation of a tholos, is the burial enclosure –a circular stone-built construction with an entrance. A few burial enclosures have been found in Thessaly– one at Krannon and one at Kastri Agias (Map 7.1.3) (Tziafalias & Zaouri 1999). Chamber tombs are rare in EIA Thessaly, and were not very common in the Mycenaean period either. The Mycenaean chamber tomb has a dromos, a stomion, and a chamber dug into the rock, but the Protogeometric ones should better be described as rock-cut tombs (Dickinson 1983; Lemos 2002: 173-8). Six chamber tombs have been reported –five at Homolion and one at Mesorrachi (Map 7.1.3)– however none resemble a Mycenaean chamber tomb. At Homolion they look more like rock-cut caves than chamber tombs. At Mesorrachi the chamber is circular resembling more a tholos tomb, but it had no dromos (Theocharis 1961; Tziafalias 1989a; Lemos 2002: 176-7; Georganas 2009). Tumuli are mounds of stones, slabs, and soil covering burials of various tomb types. While they occurred frequently in Macedonia, Epirus, and Phthiotis (Map 7.1.2), they became popular in Thessaly during the later years of EIA (Desborough 1972: 273-4; Leekley & Efstratiou 1980; Georganas 2002; Georganas 2009). When first introduced, they covered inhumations in various grave types, while later– Late Protogeometric to the Archaic period– tumuli are gradually found only over cremations (Georganas 2008). Most known tumuli come from Halos in Magnesia, Chyretiai in Larisa and Agioi Theodoroi in Karditsa (Map 7.1.3). At Agioi Theodoroi the excavated tumulus covered only one tholos. At Chyretiai the tumulus covered four or five tholoi (Map 7.1.3) (Georganas 2009). The excavated tumulus at Halos covered pits with cremations. All of them date from the Late Protogeometric, Subprotogeometric to the Geometric period6 (Wace & Thompson 1911; Lagia et al. 2013). The existence of all these various tomb types in the cemeteries of EIA Thessaly already reveal the diversity in mortuary practices. The main aim of this thesis is to interpret this diversity and reconstruct the social structure of the period.

6. In Thessaly, Euboia and adjacent regions the Subprotogeometric period corresponds to the Early Geometric period in Athens based on pottery (Papadopoulos and Smithson 2017: 31 with relevant references)

22 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 22 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. iii. Treatment of the dead In Thessaly in the Protogeometric period, different ways to dispose the body can be found in the same burial ground. The dominant mode of disposal was inhumation, especially in the beginning of the EIA. However, both inhumation and cremation were present as well as single and multiple inhumations (Desborough 1972: 267-77; Dickinson 2006: 174-95). While inhumation was the old and widely used practice, cremation is considered new to this period and signifies a change in burial customs. Single graves, i.e., pits and cists, included primarily single inhumations. In contrast to the Mycenaean multiple inhumations, in the EIA single inhumation was the dominant practice. Double inhumations, consisting of either two primary or a combination of one primary and one secondary burial, were also often present in the same cemetery but were not as common (Lemos 2002: 166, 189; Georganas 2008). In EIA Thessaly, alongside simple graves, tholoi and burial enclosures were still in use for multiple inhumations continuing the Mycenaean practice (Desborough 1972: 267-77; Georganas 2009). Multiple inhumations in cists, however, have also been reported at Krannon. Detailed information on body position of the deceased is not always available but from available reports both extended and contracted body positions were noted (Lemos 2002: 173-8). In the beginning of the EIA, cremation is new in Thessaly and used only sporadically, as inhumation was still the dominant custom (Snodgrass 1971). Cremations have been found in pits, tholos tombs, burial enclosures, and tumuli such as those found at Kastri Agias and Halos. The Halos tumuli, which date to the Subprotogeometric – Geometric period, contained cremations (Georganas 2002; Stissi et al. 2004; Dickinson 2006: 186-7; Lagia et al. 2013). At Kastri Agias the cremations dated to the Geometric period and were placed in pits inside burial enclosures; no evidence of a pyre was found. As mentioned earlier, cremations were also placed in cinerary urns (Lagia et al. 2013).

iv. Grave goods There is a range of materials and types of grave goods in the Protogeometric period. However, imports, valuable, and wealthy objects are not as common as in the Mycenaean period. The most common grave goods were pottery, bronze and iron ornaments, and weapons (Lemos 2002: 189-90). Ceramic vases were of types mainly used for pouring and drinking, such as jugs, cups, oenochoai, and feeding bottles. Iron and iron-working is considered a new feature in the EIA – only a few small iron objects are known from the Late Bronze Age Aegean (Waldbaum 1978: 11). Because of the properties of this material, iron replaced the earlier bronze and was widely used for ornaments, tools, and weapons during the Protogeometric period. However, the new material was also used exclusively for weapons, i.e. the Mycenaean swords Naue II type, which were considered valuable and must have accompanied prominent individuals, or warriors. In the EIA this type, now made of iron, was probably also associated with warriors, or generally elite burials (Georganas 2005; Crielaard 2011; Papadopoulos 2014). Only a few valuable materials have been found in Protogeometric tombs; these are gold ornaments, objects made of faience, glass, and stone (Arachoviti 1994). The number of grave goods also varied; we find tombs with numerous grave goods, with a few grave goods or empty within the same burial ground (Georganas 2009). Tombs with multiple burials, for example burial enclosures such as the one at Krannon (Tziafalias & Zaouri 1999), contained sometimes meagre and sometimes rich grave goods. Tholoi are considered wealthy tombs, as they contained vases, metal, stone, glass ornaments, and iron weapons (Georganas 2000). For instance, in one of the tholoi at Chloe (Map 7.1.3), 20 vases, two iron knives, six iron arrowheads, six pins (five of iron and one of bronze), a bronze fibula, five hair spirals made of gold, five bronze rings, two bronze and several faience and glass beads, clay buttons, and a whetstone were found (Arachoviti 1994; Georganas 2008). Cists are reported as less wealthy than tholoi. The difference, however, may be due to the greater number of individuals buried in tholos tombs (Lemos 2002: 186-90); for instance, cists in Halos-Voulokaliva (Map 7.1.3) may be considered wealthier than a tholos if we compare individual burials. Tholos tombs in the EIA may not always have been used for the most prominent individual in a community. Distinctive burials, such as a warrior, are found in simple single cists.

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 23

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 23 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. v. Discussion of the Thessalian mortuary practices On the basis of the published literature, we can conclude that burial practices in Early Iron Age Thes- saly are quite diverse. Organised cemeteries and isolated burial clusters are found in various sites. The tomb types also vary from simple graves, such as pits, cists, and burial vases, to more complex constructions such as tholoi and chamber tombs –though the latter are simpler in form than their Mycenaean counterparts. There are also intermediate forms, i.e., burial enclosures and circular constructions, possibly imitating complex tombs. Inhumations and cremations were both practiced, sometimes even in the same burial ground. Both practices are found in various tomb types without any clear patterns and associations. As for grave goods the range of types and differences in quantity confirms the diversity and fluidity of the practices of this period. The degree of social stratification which was reconstructed for the Mycenaean period is not present anymore in the Protogeometric period. However, the clusters of graves, tholos tombs, cists, and remote and isolated groups of tholos tombs (the significance of which has not yet firmly been determined) constitute an indication of some kind of social differentiation or at least an attempt of some groups or individuals to differentiate themselves in the social strata. In most cases a burial may be distinguished in terms of location, tomb elaboration, or wealth, but these aspects only rarely coincide in the same tomb. For instance, Lemos suggests that individuals buried as warriors with the sword Naue II can be considered members of an elite casta (Lemos 2002: 188- 89; Tsiouka 2008: 177, 183-5) –but these individuals were buried in a simple cist grave. The idea of a warrior grave belonging to an elite casta has been reconsidered; Whitley (2002) proposed that burials with weapons may express a claim on, rather than reflect a distinct status. Recent studies also stress that firm conclusions can only be reached after complete study of a burial, including osteological analysis (D’Onofrio 2011). In Krannon, the burial enclosure was built on top of a mound, perhaps indicating a prominent burial, but the grave goods of the tomb were not wealthy. Therefore, quality, quantity, and diversity of grave goods do not always correlate with tomb size, type, and elaboration. The observations on gender and age divisions that are presented below are often based on grave goods and grave size analysis, which are not considered reliable age or gender indicators. Unfortunately, only very few osteological analyses have been undertaken on Early Iron Age Thessalian assemblages (Pa- pathanasiou et al. 2013; Lagia et al. 2013). Following such analyses, gender differentiation may perhaps be observed when weapons accompany males. It has been suggested that in the burial grounds of Early Iron Age Thessaly both sexes were included. Significant divisions are not attested between males and females; we see some differences only in grave goods, i.e., weapons attributed to males (Snodgrass 1971; Lemos & Mitchell 1997). Regarding age divisions, all age groups were included, but differentiation between different age groups can be observed in intramural and extramural cemeteries. Intramural burials were intended for subadults under the age of 10 years old and especially for infants. This was also the case in the early Mycenaean period, where infants were underrepresented in extramural cemeteries but older subadults received extramural burial (Lewartowski 2000: 22-3). Consequently, mainly adults were mainly buried in extramural cemeteries (Snodgrass 1971; Lemos 2006; Georganas 2009), though young subadults have also been reported (Lemos 2002 :189; Dickinson 2006: 175). In earlier years, it was believed that age differentiation occurred in burial location as well as in tomb types; tholoi were thought to contain adults and cists to be used for subadults (Snodgrass 1971). Later excavations revealed that cists were used by all age groups while young subadults have occasionally been found in tholoi (Lemos 2002: 189). Age divisions are also reflected on grave goods. While objects accompanying both adults and subadults were mainly of the same type, a few differences can be observed: objects for subadults were sometimes smaller; special objects were intended for infants, such as feeding bottles. Regarding wealth, both adult and subadult graves showed different levels of wealth, from empty to rich (not as rich as the Mycenaean tombs), though occasionally subadult burials were richer than adult graves (Georganas 2009). It has been suggested by Langdon (2008) and Papadopoulos (2010) that during the EIA the rich- est burials in many cemeteries are of younger women that may have died before marriage. We could therefore conclude that age differentiation seems to be more pronounced than differentiation

24 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 24 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. along sex. However, as mentioned in the beginning, these inferences have not been reached on the basis of osteological analyses. These issues need to be re-examined on the basis of contextual analyses as well as skeletal data. Kinship may be emphasised in the burial practices. Clusters in cemeteries, the multiple burials, intramural burials, the burial of young subadults with adults, the remote groups of tholoi which are probably associated with small residential clusters, and tumuli may all indicate the significance of kin relations.

1.4 Questions and Theories

The main question in EIA mortuary analysis has been the following: How can we explain the diversity in mortuary practices? One way to approach this is to study variation in the different aspects of the mortuary evidence and observe differentiation along gender, age and status. Another way to investigate diversity is to examine change and continuity in burial practices. Earlier theories saw a sudden break between the Mycenaean period and the Early Iron Age and attributed it to the invasion of northern tribes into the Greek mainland (Desborough 1972: 107-11). Modern schol- arship recognises also evidence for continuity from the Mycenaean period and reconstructs gradual changes in funerary customs (Lemos 2002: 184-6; Dickinson 2006: 246-8; Georganas 2007; Snodgrass 2008; Crielaard 2011). For instance, Mycenaean burial grounds were often used during the Protogeo- metric period. Tholoi were still constructed, though they were much smaller when compared to the Mycenaean ones; some can be considered more a distant imitation of Mycenaean tholoi. In other sites, a Mycenaean tholos was reused. This continuity is accompanied by some new practices, such as the spread of single burials in cist graves, the cremations, and the use of iron for jewellery, tools, and weapons. The study of the pottery and metalwork of the period has identified both northern and southern influences which could be attributed to trade activities or cultural influences (Lemos 2002: 184-6). However, the changes could also indicate the arrival of newcomers bringing along their lifestyle and customs (Rückl 2014). Alternatively, the diversity in forms and practices could also have been prompted by internal social change. To conclude, the observed diversity can be attributed to different causes –internal social change, external influences, and population mobility– the latter not so much in the form of grand invasions or migrations but interaction and movements within the old Mycenaean territories, as well as contacts with other regions. The changes in living conditions, social organisation, and population composition could result in such diversity. More targeted questions arise:

How should we explain the diversity in mortuary practices and forms? Does it indicate differentiation, and if so, along which dimensions –status, age, gender, or kin? Can the diversity be attributed to the co-existence of old Mycenaean and new practices? If so, were the new practices adopted by the local population or were they brought by newcomers?

The key question in this research is the relation between mortuary variability (i.e., the use of different mortuary practices), social organisation, dietary variation, and provenience of the buried groups in four Protogeometric communities in Thessaly, Greece. I try to reconstruct social differentiation and examine whether it correlates with dietary preferences and the provenience of individuals. In order to investigate these questions and study the variation systematically, the following methods are employed: a. contextual analysis of mortuary practices. b. osteological analysis of the skeletal assemblage of the cemeteries. c. stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope analysis of human and animal bone collagen –for diet reconstruction. d. strontium isotope analysis of human tooth enamel –for the analysis of provenience. These methods are presented in more detail in the section which follows.

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 25

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 25 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 1.5 Methodology

1.5.1 Contextual analysis of mortuary practices As we have seen in the previous section, several theories about the variation in mortuary practices in EIA Thessaly have been presented, but no systematic analysis of the mortuary data has ever been undertaken. Therefore, in this study I propose to carry out a detailed and systematic contextual analysis of mortuary practices. The study of mortuary practices of past societies has been a central question in theoretical debates in archaeology and their interpretation has undergone different theoretical paradigms. Here, I will not discuss these different theoretical approaches – i.e., the processual approach (New Archaeol- ogy) (Binford 1982; Renfrew 1976) and its post-processual critique (Parker-Pearson 1982; Tilley 1982; Hodder 1985) –in detail, as these have been discussed at length in different publications (Parker-Pearson 1982; Nilsson Stutz & Tarlow 2013). I would like to focus instead on one important methodological point made by the proponents of the post-processual approach, who emphasised that burial practices should be analysed and understood within their context. The notion of context includes different aspects: the immediate context constitutes the associations and correlations between different aspects of the mortuary practices, while spatial context and historical context should also be incorporated in the analysis (Parker-Pearson 1982). Therefore, mortuary practices should be studied within their own period and region and under their particular historical circumstances in order to understand their form, variation, and social meaning (Voutsaki 1998). A central tenet of my study is that the contextual analysis of mortuary practices facilitates the study of variation and helps detecting patterns underlying this variation. Following Voutsaki (1998) and Parker-Pearson (1999), during this analysis I take into account the following aspects of the evidence: a) the spatial organisation of the cemetery, b) the different grave types that have been used, c) the different modes of treatment of the body, and finally, d) the different grave goods that have been placed in the grave.7 Based also on the correlation between the number, sex, and age of the individuals buried in these cemeteries and in terms of their statistical occurrence, my main aim is a) to identify social status (on the basis of tomb elaboration and the quantity, quality, and diversity of the grave goods)8, but also b) to examine differentiation along age, gender and kin, i.e., reconstruct the social structure of each community, and c) examine the continuity with, or the departure from My- cenaean funerary tradition and explore the possible presence of non-local individuals.

1.5.2 Isotope analysis Social organisation and population movements in the Early Iron Age have been hotly debated by both archaeologists and historians who have used archaeological and literary evidence respectively to approach the problem (Desborough 1972: chapter 6; Snodgrass 1971: chapter 7; Dickinson 2006: 110-2; Lemos 2002: chapter 6; Whitley 1991; Middleton 2010: 68-122; Morris 2007). Reconstructing social organisation in the Protogeometric period is quite problematic because substantial information is lacking –settlement evidence is scarce. Moreover, population movements do not always leave archaeological traces which can be recognised by traditional archaeological methods. Isotope analysis can complement traditional methods of investigating the protohistoric past. The study of mortuary practices alongside bioarchaeological and isotope analyses of the buried individuals are extremely useful tools that can be used for a) the reconstruction of social structure and b) the identification of non-local individuals buried in the cemeteries. In the following section, these methods will be presented in more detail.

7. Of course, these aspects are taken into account as much as possible given the limitations, problems and biases discussed in PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.i QUALITY OF DOCUMENTATION. 8. The issue of social status reconstruction is discussed in more detail in PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.ii ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF MORTUARY PRACTICES.

26 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 26 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. TISSUE i. Bone and tooth Bone is a composite structure of organic and inorganic matter. Dry inorganic matter constitutes 70%

of the bone, and the remaining 30% is organic matter and water. Hydroxyapatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] is the inorganic part of the bone consisting of carbonates and various ions such as potassium, sodium, magnesium, fluorine, and chlorine (Cornwall 1974: 204; Jans 2005: 5-6). The organic fraction of the bone consists of 80% collagen and 20% non-collagenous proteins with water. Collagen is a protein consisting of amino acids. There are several types of collagen but only the so-called type I is the main component of bone (Mbuyi-Muamba et al. 1988; Trebacz & Wojtowics 2005; Jans 2005: 6). Bone collagen is a tissue that changes and remodels throughout the lifetime of each individual (Jans 2005: 6-8; White & Folkens 2005: 42-6). Collagen remodelling time ranges from 2-10 years. The remodelling rate depends on the bone type; e.g., rib remodelling occurs in a time period of two years while for femora the rate is longer, up to 10 years. The essential elements and amino acids, which are incorporated into the inorganic as well as the organic parts of the bone, are provided through diet. Therefore, by analysing bone collagen through measuring the stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotopes we can reconstruct the diet of an individual. In particular, we can identify the type of protein a living organism has consumed the last 2-10 years of his life (Pate 1997). The composition of human tooth is similar to bone but it has a totally different formation history. Teeth consist of three layers – enamel, dentine and cementum. The enamel, the thin, outer layer of the tooth, is a non-porous white mineralised substance (97% hydroxyapatite). Dentine is attached onto the enamel; it is a yellow, porous, less mineralised inorganic material (68%) with organic matter (collagen) up to 20%. Cementum is similar to bone, with 45% hydroxyapatite, 33% collagen, covering the tooth root; its main purpose is to stabilise the tooth in the pulp (Cornwall 1974: 74; White & Folkens 2005: 127-8; Bocherens & Drucker 2007).

ii. Diagenesis and contamination of bone While bone collagen is more suitable than bone apatite for diet reconstruction because it is resistant to post-mortem contamination, it can still be diagenetically altered due to its porous body but to a much lesser extent; it becomes vulnerable to exogenous materials (Ambrose 1987; Price et al. 1992). Post-mortem diagenesis occurs on account of the burial environment. Water in the burial ground can be very destructive; bones soak in water resulting in an altered chemical structure. Furthermore, lipids and carbonates from the apatite or the environment, temperature, acidity (pH) of the burial environment caused by humic acids, various bugs and microbes, and rootlets contribute to further damage of collagen. Consequently, all environmental conditions letting exogenous material to enter the body of the bone and alter the constituents of the bone increase the porosity and alter the chemical composition resulting in degraded collagenous matter (Katzenberg 2000; Lidén 1995; Jorkov et al. 2007; Bocherens et al. 1997; DeNiro 1985; Jans 2005; Ambrose & Krigbaum 2003; Hedges & Millard 1995).

STABLE CARBON, NITROGEN, AND SULFUR ISOTOPE ANALYSIS (CNS) i. Carbon Carbon is present in various compounds in the biosphere (Hoefs 2006: 48). In nature, the element carbon (C) consists of three isotopes with the following abundances: 12C: 98.89% 13C: 1.11% 14C: 10-10% The isotopes 12C and 13C are stable; the isotope 14C is radioactive. The carbon isotope ratio in a tissue is the heavier 13C against the lighter 12C isotope. They are calculated as deviation from a standard known as PDB, or calcium carbonate of a fossil belemnite from the PeeDee Formation in South Carolina, 13 13 12 13 12 USA. The deviations are calculated as: δ C=[( C/ C)sample / ( C/ C)standard]-1 and expressed in per mil (‰). Carbon is transferred from the biosphere to biological systems through photosynthesis of green

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 27

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 27 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. plants in terrestrial environments as well as symbiotic bacteria in deep-sea in marine environments. During photosynthesis the content of 12C is increased against 13C (13C content becomes smaller) in

living organisms in relation to the carbon source. The isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 and the photosynthetic pathway of the plant determine the isotopic value of carbon δ13C (Schoeninger & Moore 1992; Ehleringer 1991; DeNiro 1987). Plants use inorganic starting materials to produce organic compounds by using solar radiation, which provides the necessary energy to capture and assimilate carbon dioxide from the environment and

transform it to carbohydrate. There are three photosynthetic pathways utilizing carbon – C3, C4, and CAM (Furbank & Taylor 1995; Ranson & Thomas 1960). The photosynthetic pathway that a plant uses depends on the environmental conditions in which the plant grows. The difference between the photosynthetic pathways lies on the way the plants cap-

ture and assimilate carbon during photosynthesis (Boutton 1991). In C3 photosynthesis, the first prod-

uct of CO2 reduction to carbohydrate through the Calvin cycle, is a molecule of three (3) carbon atoms

(C3) (Furbank & Taylor 1995). C3 plants grow mainly in temperate environments with abundant water, cool temperature and medium to low sunlight. Among others, these plants are: wheat, barley, oat, rice, legumes (pulses such as lentils, beans, chickpeas and peas), fruits and vegetables, most trees and shrubs (Sealy 2001).

C4 carbon fixation process is an adaptation of C3 pathway in dry and hot environments, in which plants capture carbon from the environment through the stomata of their leaf surface; the stomata

open and close to prevent water loss. Hence, CO2 absorption is low and the carbon fixation needs a booster pump to increase the concentration in the plant. This booster pump is a two-step process,

taking place in C4 plants, which increases the concentration of CO2 approximately by a factor of 10.

Initially an organic acid of four (4) carbon atoms (C4) is produced and then by decarboxylation of the

acid, the reduction of CO2 follows through the Calvin cycle. C4 plants grow in environments where the sunlight and heat are high and water concentration low –subtropical climates. Examples of such plants are maize, sugarcane, sorghum, millet, and some weeds (nutgrass, barnyard grass, papyrus) (Furbank & Taylor 1995; Sealy 2001). The CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) photosynthetic pathway is used by succulent plants as an adaptation to dry and arid environments (Ranson & Thomas 1960). Because these plants have not been used as human food in ancient Greece, this photosynthetic pathway is beyond the scope of this study.

ii. Nitrogen

Nitrogen is present mostly in the form of N2 in the atmosphere (99%) or dissolved in the ocean (Katzenberg 2000). The abundance of the two natural nitrogen isotopes is: 14N: 99,64% 15N: 0,36% Both isotopes are stable. Analogous to the isotopes of carbon, the isotope ratio is calculated as: 15 15 14 15 14 δ N=[( N/ N)sample / ( N/ N)standard]-1 (DeNiro 1987). The standard here is ambient air. Most organ-

isms cannot utilise N2 straight from the atmosphere but absorb/incorporate it in other forms. Plants - - use ammonia (NH3) from the soil. In the form of nitrate (NO3 ) and nitrite (NO2 ) in the air, nitrogen is converted into ammonia through reduction steps by an enzyme called nitrogenase (biological nitrogen fixation) (Petroutsa 2007; Garvie-Lok 2001). There are two types of plants based on the way they incorporate nitrogen –leguminous and non-leguminous plants. Leguminous plants (pulses: lentils, peas, beans, chickpeas) use nitrogen-fixing symbiotic bacteria that live in the plants’ roots (in terrestrial environments these are nodules and in aquatic environments these are blue-green algae). The bacteria utilise atmospheric nitrogen along with hydrogen to produce ammonia in, most of the time, anaerobic conditions. Then, the organic compounds of the plant assimilate ammonia to synthesise amino acids, which are incorporated into collagen (Schoeninger & DeNiro 1984; Ambrose 1987). In non-leguminous plants (cereals, fruits, vegetables) bacterial decomposition of nitrogenous organic material produces nitrates that can be utilised by vascular plants (Katzenberg 2000).

28 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 28 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. iii. Sulfur The analysis of stable sulfur isotopes from bone collagen complements the analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the investigation of past diets (Richards et al. 2001). Sulfur is present in the biosphere, as the 15th most abundant element on earth, while it is the 7th most abundant in organic human tissue (Nehlich 2015). Sulfur mainly exists in the environment as an oxidised form of sulphates. Oceanic sulphate, evaporitic sulphate and pyrite are the main forms of sulfur presence on earth (Hoefs 2006: 71-2; Nehlich 2015). Sulfur isotope geochemistry studies were done as early as the late 1940s (Thode 1991). The relative abundance of natural sulfur isotopes has thus been found to be: 32S: 94.93% 33S: 0.76% 34S: 4.29% 36S: 0.02% The isotope of interest to archaeology is 34S. As with C, the content is expressed in δ values: 34 34 32 34 32 δ S=[( S/ S)sample / ( S/ S)standard]-1 (Hoefs 2006: 71-2; Nehlich 2015). The standard used was the Troi- lite (FeS) from the Canyon Diablo iron meteorite (Thode 1991). However, because it has been observed that the Canyon Diablo iron meteorite was not homogeneous, an artificially prepared international

standard reference has been introduced, Vienna-CDT (V-CDT) – Ag2S (IAEA-S-1) which is 0.3‰ lower than the original standard (Hoefs 2006: 72). In the human and animal body, two amino acids contain sulfur – cysteine and methionine (Brosnan & Brosnan 2006). However, only methionine is present and can be measured in collagen type I, the tissue that is analysed for diet reconstruction (Eastoe 1955).

iv. Diet reconstruction During various nutritional processes, and while ascending the trophic chain in the biological system, isotope fractionation occurs. Isotope fractionation is a process that occurs when an element is divided in two phases with different isotope ratios due to a) different reaction rates of isotopic molecules (kinetic mechanisms) and b) isotope exchange reaction. This process is caused by either chemical or physical differences between the isotopes of an element (Hoefs 2006: 5-11).

The fractionation of carbon assimilation by plants results in three different plant groups –C3, C4, and CAM– depending on the photosynthetic pathway they use for carbon assimilation. There are various processes during photosynthesis that affect the assimilation rate of the two carbon isotopes 12C and 13 C. Here, I will only focus on C3 and C4 plants because only these could have been consumed by the hu-

mans in the study region. C3 and C4 plants yield very distinct carbon isotopic values and do not overlap 13 (Katzenberg 2000; Ehleringer & Cerling 2001). C3 plants discriminate heavily against C yielding 20‰ lower isotopic values than atmosphere, from -22‰ to -33‰ with mean value -27‰ (Ambrose 1987;

Kelly 2000; Schoeninger & Moore 1992; Farquhar et al. 1982). C4 plants, on the other hand, use all the 13 available CO2 and they discriminate less than C3 plants against C. Therefore, they yield values closer to

atmospheric CO2, from –8‰ to –16‰, with mean value -12,5‰ (Ambrose 1987; Sealy 2001). Frac- tionation occurs in carbon isotopes while ascending the food chain by about 1‰ per level. Therefore,

human values should be expected to be approximately –20‰ to –19‰ for C3 plant protein consump-

tion, and approximately –11‰ to –10‰ for C4 plant protein consumption (Vogel 1980; Bocherens & Drucker 2007; Richards 2015).

The values described above represent the values for a diet exclusively based on either C3 or C4 plants. A combination of both plant types could also have occurred in some cases. In Greece, where the flora

consists mainly of C3 plants, the cut-off point to identify a C4 signal has been set at –19‰. In their paper, Papathanasiou & Richards (2015) studied a large number of samples from various sites in Greece;

they concluded that carbon values less negative than this value point to the presence of C4 resources. Marine and freshwater environments have different effects on the fraction and values of carbon. Carbon dissolved in seawater shows enriched δ13C values (approximately 7‰) compared to atmospheric values. A similar difference has been proved to follow all trophic levels of a food chain (Chisholm et al. 1982; Schoeninger & DeNiro 1984). Therefore, plants and herbivorous and carnivorous animals are

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 29

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 29 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. similarly enriched compared to terrestrial animals. In addition, the marine food chain is longer than the terrestrial one, with more carnivorous levels, hence producing even more positive values for fish from the deep sea. Therefore, a purely marine diet signal should be approximately –13‰, while that of a terrestrial diet should be approximately –20‰. Coastal populations would show similar values to those of a marine diet, because of the sea spray effect that influences the values of water, precipitation and soils. Freshwater environments (rivers and lakes), on the other hand, exhibit a wide range of δ13C values because they derive carbon from various sources, such as the surrounding geological formations and the atmosphere. The δ13C of a freshwater diet may overlap with that of a terrestrial diet. Furthermore,

the values corresponding to a marine diet discussed above may be confused with C4 resources that have been consumed by humans because they overlap. Therefore, for a refined interpretation of both marine and freshwater resource consumption, nitrogen isotopes need to be analysed in conjunction with stable carbon isotope analysis (Chisholm et al. 1982; DeNiro & Epstein 1978; Richards 2015; Schoeninger & DeNiro 1984). In nitrogen isotopes fractionation occurs while ascending the trophic levels; there is gradual enrichment of 15N of approximately 3‰ per level. During metabolism in animal organisms 14N chemical bonds break down easier than those of 15N, leaving more 15N available for tissue synthesis; therefore, a consumer is isotopically enriched compared to its food –plants, herbivores (goats, cows, and sheep), omnivores (pigs, humans), carnivores (wolves) (Schoeninger & Moore 1992; Hedges & Reynard 2007). Similar enrichment is observed in aquatic environments, where, as mentioned earlier the food chain is longer than the terrestrial equivalent, due to more trophic levels. The enrichment is hence increased at higher levels, yielding more positive isotope ratios (Kelly 2000; Price 2015; Sealy 2001). The consumption of resources from the lower trophic levels, such as molluscs, yields values that may overlap with terrestrial isotope ratios (Garvie-Lok 2001; Triantaphyllou et al. 2008). Another group that can be distinguished using nitrogen isotope analysis is legumes. The way legumes assimilate nitrogen produces lower nitrogen isotope ratios than the non-leguminous plants because they have assimilated less 15N from the atmosphere, compared to 14N (Schoeninger & Moore 1992). This consequently affects the subsequent trophic levels of herbivores, omnivores and carnivores. Nitrogen isotope values are also used to examine breastfeeding and the weaning period (Fuller et al. 2006). The subadult that is fed by breast milk, consumes the mother’s tissue (milk) and in isotopic terms sits one trophic level (15N approximately 3‰ enriched) higher than the mother. When weaning begins, supplementary food is introduced to the subadult’s diet and the 15N values are depleted; the depletion ends when breastfeeding no longer occurs and the individual is dependent exclusively on other foods. It takes 3-5 months for the breastfeeding effect to disappear (Dupras et al. 2001). The analysis of stable sulfur isotope ratios should be conducted in conjunction with the analysis of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios, thereby allowing for a more thorough diet reconstruction. Sulfur isotope analysis may further refine palaeodietary assumptions based on the carbon –nitrogen values especially when concerning freshwater sources (Privat et al. 2007; Richards et al. 2003). Studies undertaken on modern ocean water sulfate have shown that the sulfur isotope ratio is constant, approximately δ34S=21‰ (Rees et al. 1978). Conversely, samples coming from freshwater environments show more variable isotope ratios. That is because of the fractionation of sulfur isotopes that happens in lake environments due to the bacterial reduction of sulphates (Thode 1991). Furthermore, a wide range of sulfur isotopic values also occurs in riverine environments because water flows through various geological formations and the values will reflect this (Thode 1991). Measurements undertaken to examine the differences in methionine content in mammalian as well as fish collagen have shown that methionine is increased in fish collagen at least 3 times compared to mammalian collagen (Eastoe 1957). Terrestrial sulfate derives from precipitation; in contrast, the sulfate that marine phytoplankton uses comes from ocean water sulphate (Hoefs 2006: 182). Since there is little or no fractionation of the sulfur isotopes in plant metabolism, plants in these areas will have δ34S values reflecting those in the rainwater (Thode 1991). The European rivers are considered to have been affected by anthropogenically derived sulfur sources with δ34S-values between 2‰ and 6‰ (Hoefs 2006: 156). The sulfur of each area originates from groundwater, precipitation, and streams. It constitutes a mixture and its isotopic presence in a diet depends on the isotope ratios of the ecosystem. Because of

30 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 30 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. the association with the environment, the water and the underlying geology, sulfur isotope analysis is used to distinguish between aquatic (freshwater or marine) and terrestrial –based diets. Furthermore, because of the high portion of methionine in fish, it is possible to trace even small amounts of fish in a diet (Privat et al. 2007; Nehlich et al. 2010). The isotope analysis of bone collagen detects groups of foods based on the protein that has been consumed. Distinction between specific types of food such as fruits or vegetables, pig or cattle does not occur. However, by integrating the aforementioned methods –stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope analysis, we can achieve a more complete picture of the groups of foods past communities

consumed; we can distinguish between C3 and C4 plants, terrestrial, marine and freshwater resources; we can also detect variation between regions, between social groups as well as through time (Ambrose 1990; Fuller et al. 2006; Richards & Hedges 1999; Richards 2015).

v. Limitations of CNS isotope analysis Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis is now an established method which can help resolve different questions relating to diet. However, we need to be aware not only of the potential, but also of certain limitations of the method. Various environmental conditions, such as water availability, light, temperature and availability of nutritional elements (Ambrose & Norr 1993; van Klinken et al. 2002), may affect the isotopic ratios. Reduced values of carbon isotope ratios may be a result of the canopy effect. This occurs in forests where light intensity is low and photosynthetic activity is reduced generating more negative carbon isotope delta values in the plants than in normal environmental conditions for each species. In this 13 environment plant decomposition and plant respiration add small amounts of CO2 with δ C=–26‰ 13 in the lower part of the canopy. Biogenic CO2 is recycled and thus reduces the δ C values of CO2. The 13 combination of low light, high humidity and biogenic CO2 reduces the δ C values of the plants. The animals that consume these plants have lower values, about 5‰, than animals that consume leaves from the upper part of the canopy (Ambrose 1987; van der Merwe & Medina 1991; Ambrose & Norr 1993; Hsueh-Wen & Wei-Min 2001; van Klinken et al. 2002). Water shortage (water stress causes higher excretion of urea in an animal) and nutritional stress result in elevated nitrogen isotope ratios, indicating incorrectly high animal protein consumption. Further elevated nitrogen isotope ratios are generated by sea-spray effect. Isotope values from coastal sites are affected by sea-water precipitation or evaporation of sea-water and exhibit values similar to marine values (DeNiro & Epstein 1981). Individuals that have consumed foods from these environments exhibit elevated carbon and nitrogen isotope values. Therefore, these values may be incorrectly interpreted as indicative for marine diet. Last but not least, manuring cereals is another factor that could lead to misinterpretation. The use of manure in land fertilizing produce elevated nitrogen isotopic values in the plants. Therefore, since the primary food product exhibits high δ15N, the consumers will exhibit values similar to animal protein intake (Bogaard et al. 2007). Animal manure has been used to improve soil fertility and boost agricultural crops. This practice enriches 15N in soil due to 14N loss by bacterial reactions (Kendall et al. 2007). It has been suggested that the available soil nitrogen isotope ratios to plants influence their δ15N by raising them, even up to 8‰. When δ15N values are higher than 9‰ an alternative explanation, rather than animal protein, should also be considered (Bogaard et al. 2007). Fraser et al. (2011) suggested that regarding pulses, only intensive manuring for very long periods would affect their δ15N, something that is not likely to have happened in ancient periods. Regarding cereals, however, the part of the plant, used for consumption by humans or animals, is most important, because the δ15N they produce differs. Carbon and nitrogen isotopes can potentially detect marine resources in a diet. There are studies that reveal traces of marine diet, especially based on nitrogen, but generally this is possible mainly when the diet consists exclusively of marine products or marine resources from the higher levels of the trophic chain; marine resources from lower levels overlap with terrestrial values. A study of fish consumption in the Aegean by means of isotope analysis of carbon and nitrogen on fish bone collagen aimed to investigate the isotopic values of fish collagen and set a baseline in order to make comparison with human

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 31

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 31 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. values feasible (Vika & Theodoropoulou 2012). The study showed that the isotope ratios in the Aegean are lower compared to other seas. The three groups examined in this study (freshwater, euryhaline and marine fish) exhibited similar ranges, which in some cases could also overlap with terrestrial isotope

range (in the case of C4 plants). This finding suggests that fish consumption might not be conclusively detectable solely by the use of these two elements because of the possibility of non-distinguishable fish ratios. High nitrogen values or a large difference between two trophic levels (humans-animals) show large variability in dietary sources; if fish was a significant dietary resource then the sulfur isotope ratios should fall either within the fish sulfur isotope ratios (if fish collagen has been analysed) or out of the terrestrial sulfur isotope range. If none of the above occurred then an alternative explanation should be sought, e.g., consumption of young animals (still nursing), which exhibit high nitrogen values and that will be, in turn, reflected in the human values (through even higher nitrogen values) (Nehlich et al. 2010). Sulfur values may also be affected by some environmental parameters and may not always reflect access to aquatic sources. In geological areas, where terrestrial variation is smaller, it is easier to distinguish between terrestrial and freshwater sources than in areas where the surface geology is more complex (Privat et al. 2007). Both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems demonstrate a great range of sulfur isotopic values, starting from -10‰ and reaching up to +20‰, while marine water is found to be very uniform, close to +20‰, because of the constant mixing of ocean water. Coastal soils are close to that value because of the sea-spray effect; its effect may even reach areas that are located some kilometers away from the coast. This effect from the environment, geology and agronomics may have an impact on sulfur isotopic values (Richards et al. 2001). Human δ34S values higher that +14‰ are indicative for marine resources consumption (Rees et al. 1978; Nehlich et al. 2010; Nehlich 2015). To conclude, knowing the physical environment in which a community has developed and collecting environmental samples to set the local sulfur isotopic baseline are essential factors for the reliable interpretation of the data.

vi. Collagen quality control The integrity of carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis results is determined by long-established collagen quality parameters. As discussed earlier, the collagen is the most suitable tissue to be analysed for diet reconstruction but even this tissue is subject to contamination. Collagen is not considered degraded or contaminated and is safe to be used for diet reconstruction when at least 0.5%, but preferably 1%, of the collagen is preserved. Furthermore, the atomic C/N ratio should range from 2.9-3.6, like the range demonstrated for fresh bone, while the content of carbon should be 34.8±8.8%wt and of nitrogen 11-16%wt. Values higher than these indicate contamination, while lower values indicate severely degraded collagen (DeNiro 1985; Schoeninger et al. 1989; Ambrose 1990; van Klinken 1999; Mcnulty et al. 2002). Like carbon and nitrogen, in sulfur analysis the collagen is also considered well preserved and can be used when the amount of sulfur in mammalian bone collagen is 0.28±0.07‰ and the atomic ratios are C:S=600±300, N:S=200±100. If the sulfur content is less than 0.15%wt or more than 35%wt then the tissue is problematic because it either represents only part of the original sulfur or it has been increased due to the addition from the environment (Nehlich & Richards 2009).

STRONTIUM ISOTOPE ANALYSIS The measurements of strontium (Sr) isotope ratios on human tissues (tooth enamel apatite) by means of mass spectrometry may provide information about provenience and population movements. Stron- tium analysis is now an established method. The natural abundance of strontium isotopes is: 84Sr: 0.56% 86Sr: 9.86% 87Sr: 7.0% 88Sr: 82.58% Strontium is incorporated into human tissues through diet. Plants and animals, used as food by humans are the strontium providers. Radiogenic isotope 87Sr is formed in the underlying rocks through

32 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 32 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. the decay of radioactive isotope 87Rb (Rubidium). Therefore, distinctive rock types have distinctive Rb/Sr ratios and there are differences in the Sr isotope compositions of different regions on Earth. Through the weathering of the underlying rocks from water and other factors, strontium is absorbed by plants, which are then eaten by herbivores; this is the way strontium isotope ratios get into the trophic chain (Price et al. 1994; Beard & Johnson 2000; Evans et al. 2006). Unlike light elements (C, N, and S), in strontium, following its formation in the rocks, no further fractionation occurs while entering or ascending the food chain. That means that the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the tissue is a result of the average isotopic composition of the diet and is related to the rocks of the bedrock of a region. Combining information from human tissues and the bedrock one may identify immigrant and local individuals (humans or animals). To distinguish the immigrants in a community one needs to compare the isotopic Sr values of the individuals under study with those of the region they were found. If they differ, it means that these individuals were born somewhere else. But these values will be distinguishable only if the regions of birth and death exhibit unequal strontium isotope ratios (Beard & Johnson 2000; Evans et al. 2006; Evans et al. 2012). In order to make correct assumptions and interpretations of the measurements and to assess the relationship of the humans with the area in which they were found, the measurements of the humans need to be compared to a baseline, that is, to the biosphere strontium compositions. Geochemists have tried to determine the Sr compositions of all different types of rock; the variation on Earth of these types is a function of both the age of the crust and their bulk compositions. Therefore, a good understanding of the biosphere variations within the area of interest is important. Even if there are no measurements of the strontium isotope ratios of specific bedrock, they can be inferred from rocks of the same composition and age. Measurements on samples of local soil, water and modern biota (plants, shells) are useful to establish the local strontium isotopic signature (Beard & Johnson 2000; Price et al. 2002; Evans et al. 2006). Unlike bone, tooth enamel is a non-porous material which does not remodel from the time that it is deposited. For strontium isotope analysis tooth enamel is the most suitable tissue. The non-porous material minimises the possibility of exotic materials to be introduced by ground water; therefore, contamination and diagenesis of strontium isotopes are not likely to occur. Furthermore, teeth are formed during childhood and the permanent denture is complete by the age of 12 years.9 Therefore, bioapatite, and consequently also strontium isotopes, are formed during childhood and remain unaltered throughout lifetime, unlike collagen (Kohn et al. 1999; Hoppe et al. 2003; Bentley 2006). Thus measurements reflect the strontium isotopic values of early life of humans/animals, which means that they reflect the environment in which an individual was born and raised. Hence, an individual that moved from one place to another will demonstrate different Sr isotopic values from the area where they were buried (Beard & Johnson 2000; Bentley 2006; Montgomery 2010).

i. Limitations of strontium isotope analysis There are various parameters that may affect the results of strontium isotope analysis, and as a result the human values may not always exactly reflect the geological values. Parameters like the weathering of local soils, or the introduction of air/waterborne sediments may change the “bioavailable” strontium of an area and differentiate the isotopic signature from the one of the underlying solid geology (Price et al. 2002; Montgomery 2010). Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, the measurements relate to the geology of a region and the available environmental strontium sources. Therefore, the mean value of a region which is reflected on the human values, may not be distinguishable from another region and the interpretation will be difficult (Montgomery 2010).

9. Only the 3rd molar may erupt later during adolescence or adulthood.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 33 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 1.5.3 Sampling osteological material i. Carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope analysis (CNS) Sampling archaeological osteological remains for isotope analysis requires consideration of all factors that may affect the collection of the samples. The preservation state of the osteological material is a major factor that affects the analysis; poorly preserved or contaminated collagen and apatite will alter the isotopic results for dietary reconstruction and human mobility. Likewise, the collagen content of each bone should be considered. Hence a full record of the osteological assemblage is required. The skeletal elements to be sampled should not be important for identification of the skeleton or the health condition of the individual (pathologies, lesions etc.). Furthermore, the sampling strategy has to take into account some key archaeological and anthropological questions, and include samples from a) the different phases of a cemetery, b) different tomb types, c) different modes of burial, d) different age and sex categories, and e) different wealth / offerings categories. Unfortunately, cremations present severe problems for stable isotope analyses. The method of stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotopes analyzes bone collagen, which is destroyed during cremation and only the inorganic part of the bone is left. Even if there is some collagen left, it will most likely be contaminated from the burial environment as well as the pyre itself (Harbeck et al. 2011; Lemmers 2012). For the CNS analysis the preferred part of the skeleton is a fragment from a long bone (preferably femur), because it yields the best-preserved collagen. However, frequently rib fragments are sampled instead; this type of bone is not used for age/sex determination and does preserve good quality collagen. In addition, rib fragments provide information for the most recent diet as its remodelling rate is approximately 2 years compared to femora which have a 10 year remodelling rate (Ambrose 1990; Schoeninger et al. 1989; van Klinken 1999; Brock et al. 2010). For sulfur analysis it is important to have baseline data of the region studied in order to be able to account for the sea-spay effect or for modern pollution sulfur deposition (Richards et al. 2001; Craig et al. 2006). Therefore, sampling animals from the same period –if possible including carnivores, herbivores and omnivores –is an important precondition of isotope analysis for diet reconstruction.

ii. Strontium isotope analysis The sampling strategy for strontium isotope analysis requires a full osteological study and detailed inventory of the skeletal material. Because strontium analysis will be conducted on tooth apatite, samples should be selected on the basis of the teeth preserved and available for study. Sampling teeth needs a lot of consideration, as they bear important information about the age, diet and health of the deceased individual. It is better to use premolars that show no signs of infections. In addition, the context within which the individuals were found should be well defined prior to sampling; samples to be collected should belong to possible non-locals –such as those exhibiting deviant practices, or any foreign influences, etc. Establishing the local baseline of strontium isotope ratios of the region under study is important. For this reason, environmental and modern animal samples should also be collected prior to, or alongside, the human enamel sampling (Price et al. 2002; Bentley et al. 2003). Having now presented the methodology employed in this study, it is time to apply these methods on the material from EIA Thessaly, starting with the contextual analysis of mortuary practices in the four communities under study.

34 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 34 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 1.6 Contextual analysis of the mortuary practices of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala

In this section I will present the contextual analysis of mortuary variability, as presented above in PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.5.1 CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF MORTUARY PRACTICES. I will start with some general remarks about the quality of the documentation and the biases and limitations of the evidence, and will also discuss some basic assumptions on which the contextual analyses are based.

i. Quality of documentation A contextual analysis has to start by discussing the biases in the documentation of the material and the evaluation of the data. The cemeteries studied in this thesis were discovered by rescue excavations;10 therefore, the size and extent of the cemeteries is not known and their spatial organisation is imperfectly understood. In addition, ground plans of the sites are not available as the excavations are still unpublished (for the location of these sites see Map 7.1.4). For instance, in Halos, a site occupied from Mycenaean times to the Hellenistic period, the partially excavated cemeteries produce an incom- plete picture of the use of the site and occupation history. Therefore, while analysing the data we need to keep in mind that we are dealing with only a part of the entire burial ground and that any observations on the spatial organisation are tentative. In Chloe, excavations are still occasionally carried out in the area, and more tombs are being discovered (Naoumi 2002); therefore, for the analyses of this thesis only the two best-documented tholoi have been selected (EII and ZI). In Pharsala, it is believed that more tumuli exist in the area. Consequently, our spatial observations at this moment can only be partial and preliminary. The analysis further depends on the preservation of the osteological material. Poor preservation is caused either by the burial environment (i.e., acidity in soil and incoming water) or by the deliberate actions and specific funerary customs of the period (e.g., secondary treatment). As a result, there is a number of individuals of indeterminate sex in each site and, therefore, observations on sex differentiation are hampered. No radiocarbon analyses have been carried out. As a result, the dating of the graves is based on the ceramic typology and pottery sequence, which can provide us with relative, and only approximate dates. Last but not least, itemised lists or inventories of grave goods from the tombs are not always available, as the sites are still unpublished. In addition, the poor preservation of the osteological material and/or the existence of multiple burials in the same tomb do not always allow the attribution of grave goods to specific individuals. Therefore, the grave wealth as a variable is defined differently in each cemetery. A detailed analysis of grave goods is carried out whenever possible, and in these cases comparisons are made between the graves of each cemetery. When detailed data are not available, the overall wealth of the cemetery is estimated on the basis of the published evidence and comparisons are made between entire burial grounds. I will explain my method in more detail in the following section (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.ii ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF MORTUARY PRACTICES). Despite some problems and limitations caused by the quality of documentation, the positive aspects make this analysis important. In this contextual analysis different sites are compared as well as different grave types, treatments, and wealth levels. It is the first time that this kind of systematic contextual analysis is carried out on assemblages from EIA Greece. It is to be hoped that more such analyses will be carried out in the future and more comparative material will be made available. It is also important that the material originates from rescue excavations; this study therefore demonstrates that rescue material –which constitutes the bulk of the archaeological material in Greece– can and should be analysed in detail.

ii. Assumptions underlying the contextual analysis of mortuary practices The contextual analysis facilitates the study of variation in burial practices and allows the detection of any underlying patterns. As discussed above (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.5.1 CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF MORTU-

10. In some cases, excavations still continue in the sites or in their general area.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 35 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ARY PRACTICES), the analysis will take into account a) the spatial organisation of the cemetery, as much as this can be reconstructed due to the problems discussed above (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.i QUALITY OF DOCUMENTATION), b) the different grave types that have been used, c) the different modes of treatment of the body, and finally, d) the different grave goods that have been placed in the grave (Voutsaki 1993). All these aspects will be studied in terms of their statistical occurrence and proportional representation, and will be examined against the sex and age of the deceased individuals. My aim is to identify the social status (on the basis of tomb elaboration, grave goods, and wealth), to reconstruct the social structure of each community, to examine diet as another axis of differentiation (Ross 1987), to examine the evidence for continuity or departure from the Mycenaean funerary tradition, and to investigate the presence of non-local individuals among the burial group. Before I present the contextual analysis of each site and discuss the results, I would like to clarify some important assumptions regarding the notions of wealth and status adopted in this study. In this study, status will not be reconstructed solely on the basis of wealth. A first attempt to identify status divisions will be made by correlating wealth with tomb elaboration (Georganas 2000; Lemos 2006: 525; Lemos 2013: 89). While location of the burial is also taken into account, no major differences in spatial organisation –e.g. choice of very prominent locations– can be observed. Even tumuli, traditionally conceived as conspicuous monuments (Parker-Pearson 1999: 124), are not always as prominent and visible as previously thought.11 The tumulus at Pharsala has another particularity: it covers other types of graves (cists and tholoi).12 Tomb elaboration is examined on the basis of construction techniques and tomb size (Voutsaki 1998). I consider tholoi as elaborate and complex constructions which require time and more specialised skills for their construction, even if Protogeometric tholoi are small. Therefore, a first distinction when investigating status is between tholoi (there are no chamber tombs in the cemeteries studied here) on one hand, and simple pits, cists, and jars with inhumations on the other. Intermediate types, such as circular constructions and burial enclosures are considered imitations of complex tombs and are, therefore, initially grouped with them. Regarding the notion of wealth, an attempt has been made to define and quantify the wealth deposited in graves (Crielaard 1998; Voutsaki 1999; Whitley 2002). However, because of the problems of documentation discussed above, the measures adopted are quite schematic, and differ slightly among the four sites analysed. Before I explain this further, I would like to make some general observations. There are three possible dimensions to ‘wealth’: quality (the presence of valuable raw materials such as gold, faience, and/or the use of more complex decorative techniques), diversity and quantity (Voutsaki 1993: 71-73). In the first instance, the analysis has to examine if the quantity of grave goods in the graves coincides with other aspects of burial practices, e.g., location or tomb type and elaboration. The second question is if quantity, quality, and diversity of offerings coincide –i.e. whether graves with valuable goods also contain a more diverse assemblage and larger number of offerings. Finally, the main question is if all these aspects combined together could be used as an indication of social status and social acknowledgement by the community (Hodder 1982; Voutsaki 1998). Here we need to keep in mind that mortuary practices constitute a claim to status (either by the deceased or by his/her family) rather than an accurate reflection of status held in life (Hodder 1982). In terms of quality and diversity, the raw materials mostly used for the grave goods in all cemeteries are clay, iron and bronze for ornaments or personal decoration, tools and weapons, and in few cases stone and bone. In general terms, the quality of materials did not differ markedly among and within burial grounds. However, in the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Chloe graves with special objects, such as gold, faience, and swords were present showing sometimes increased diversity in the offerings. In cases when graves contained special objects, this is mentioned explicitly in the text during the analysis, alongside the quantified measure of wealth. The quantity of offerings is used as the main indication of ‘wealth’ –although quality and diversity are also taken into account. When measuring quantity, a slightly different approach is followed for each site. While I generally adopt the divisions of empty, poor, and rich, I chose to use different “wealth”

11. See tumulus of Lofkënd (Papadopoulos et al. 2014) – though it should be noted that this is a rescue excavation. 12. The tumulus at Pharsala could also be called “complex tumulus” (cf. Voutsaki’s term (Voutsaki 1998: 43) for similar tumuli of the Middle Helladic III – early Late Helladic date). However, as this is the only tumulus I include in this study, I retain the term ‘tumulus.

36 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 36 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. measurements because there are both differences in wealth and in the quality of documentation across the different sites. In the cemeteries of Halos, graves are characterised as poor when they contained one grave good per individual, and as wealthy when they contained more than one grave good per individual. Among the rich graves, a few contain not only more objects, but also special objects, made of valuable materials (gold) or objects that may denote a special role (e.g., swords). In the analysis I always examine whether quantity correlates with the presence of special objects. In Chloe, as mentioned previously (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.i QUALITY OF DOCUMENTATION), it is not possible to attribute grave goods to specific individuals mainly because of the commingled state of the skeletal assemblage. Therefore, for these two tholoi wealth is assessed for each tomb as a whole on the basis of all the offerings found (i.e. the number of grave goods, the quality of objects and raw materials, and their diversity). This composite wealth is then compared to the other tombs and sites in Halos and Pharsala. In Pharsala, where an itemised inventory of the grave goods is available and no significant differences in the type and material of the objects can be noted, I consider poor the graves with two or fewer grave goods ascribed to each individual, and wealthy the graves where three or more grave goods are ascribed to each individual. I made a distinction between empty and poor graves because an empty grave may indicate two different things; a) it could be a deliberate action (not using objects from the world of the living) which may not necessarily imply a low social status for the deceased; b) the empty graves could have contained grave goods of perishable material. Therefore, the division helps to avoid the error of considering an empty grave as poor. The system of assigning wealth adopted in this study may be schematic, but the underlying idea is to find a workable and consistent method to measure funerary wealth and to compare graves. Having presented the main assumptions underlying the analysis, it is time to turn to the contextual analysis of the four Thessalian cemeteries.

1.6.1 The Protogeometric cemeteries of Halos: Voulokaliva and Kephalosi The area of ancient Halos in Thessaly (Prefecture of Magnesia) has yielded cemeteries dating to different periods (Early Iron Age and Hellenistic period) (Maps 7.1.2 & 7.1.3). Two out of the three known Protogeometric cemeteries are included in this study –the cemetery of inhumations of Voulokaliva and the cemetery of Kephalosi; the cemetery not included is the one at Agrielia (Map 7.1.3). These cemeteries were found during public works to improve the highway in the years 1998 and 2001-2002; both are located on the coast of the Pagasetic Gulf (Map 7.1.4). The distance between the two sites is approximately two kilometres, with the cemetery of Voulokaliva being to the north of the cemetery of Kephalosi (Excavation plan 7.2.1). The latter was found within the borders of the Hellenistic town of Halos (Reinders 2003; Malakasioti 2009), but it dates earlier than the foundation of this town. The three cemeteries of Voulokaliva, Keph- alosi and Agrielia are considered to have been used by the same population, whose contemporaneous settlement has still has not been discovered (Excavation plan 7.2.1) (Reinders 2003; Malakasioti 2009; Malakasioti 2001; Malakasioti 2006; Malakasioti & Tsiouka 2011; Tsiouka 2008).

THE CEMETERY OF VOULOKALIVA i. Extent of excavation Voulokaliva is an extended cemetery, the size of which is estimated at approximately 14000m2. The excavation has not revealed the entire extent of the cemetery. The temporal use of the cemetery ex- tends from the end of Middle Helladic III to Late Helladic IIIC (ca. 1700-1100), Submycenaean (ca. 1100- 1050 BC), and Protogeometric (ca. 1050-900 BC) periods. In addition, it is reused in the Hellenistic period (ca. 300-265 BC). The dates are based on the chronology of the grave goods (Malakasioti 2006; Malakasioti 2009; Tsiouka 2008: 23-25; Tsiouka & Agnousiotis 2015). For the purpose of this thesis I

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 37 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. will focus only on the Submycenaean and Protogeometric graves (Excavation plan 7.2.2) (Malakasioti & Tsiouka 2011). The data discussed below have been collected in the literature cited.

ii. Number of tombs, spatial organisation, orientation In the cemetery of Voulokaliva, 38 graves have been discovered (Table 7.4.1). Due to the rescue character of the excavation, the extent of the cemetery is not yet known. The most prevalent orientation of the graves is E/W (n=23), but N/S (n=9) was also present. Two other burials have a different orientation –NW/SE (n=1) and NE/SW (n=2). The jar burials were placed upright in the pit (n=3) (Figure 7.3.1). There was no correlation between orientation and sex or age (Table 7.4.1).

iii. Type of tombs The grave types in the cemetery of Voulokaliva were pits, cists, jars, and one circular construction (Table 7.4.1) (Figure 7.3.2). The jars were ceramic amphorae. The cist graves and the circular construction (1.70m diameter) were built using limestone. The preserved wall of the circular construction (0.30m height) was slightly corbelled and a limestone slab, placed at the northeastern side, marked the entrance. This led to the suggestion that the circular construction either imitated a tholos tomb (a Mycenaean tomb type) or was a burial enclosure. The upper part of the tomb was disturbed. Two cases of cist graves are interesting to mention here. One grave (HaVo/e-t45: tile-grave) was placed on top of a cist (HaVo/e-c46); it consisted of a ceramic tile13 covered by a heap of limestone slabs.14 Another interesting case is the combination of two cists –HaVo/w-c46 was placed under the cist HaVo/w-c11. Carefully placed layers of limestone slabs covered both cists, possibly forming a marker.

iv. Treatment of the dead In Voulokaliva only inhumation was practiced (Figure 7.3.3). Pit and cist graves enclosed primarily single inhumations, but a few double inhumations were also present in cists, either a combination of primary and secondary depositions15 or as double primary burials. The secondary burials cannot be discussed in detail, as there is no information on the chronological sequence of the burials. The circular construction enclosed only two primary burials (Figure 7.3.4) possibly due to its small dimensions. There- fore, we can say that the correlation of simple tombs with single burials, and of more complex tomb with multiple burials is weak –even though this circular construction is a poor imitation of a complex tomb. The dominant position of the body is either contracted or semi-contracted but there are also a few extended burials (Table 7.4.1, Figure 7.3.5); the two deceased in the circular construction were placed in semi-contracted position, opposite one another. The same weak correlation is observed between body position and tomb type. It is not certain if double burials are contemporaneous or successive. The burials are found at a similar depth. Therefore, if they were deposited one after the other, the time difference must have been small (Tsiouka 2008: 100-1).

13. This grave’s floor is the cover slab of the cist HaVo/e-c46. The cranium of the deceased had been placed on a ceramic tile – hence the name tile-grave. However, the grave could be better described as a cist grave covered by heaped slabs. 14. The grave contained a subadult 15. The practice of ‘secondary treatment’ (Voutsaki 1998: 45; Jones 2018: PhD, chapter 3 (Mycenaean secondary Burial revisited: legacy data, taphonomy and the process of burial in Achaia, Greece); for the introduction of the PhD thesis, see also Jones 2014) or commingling has received a lot of attention recently, also beyond the Aegean (Parker-Pearson 1999: 50-52; Knüsel 2014, including relevant references). According to recent studies, secondary treatment should involve the dislocation of earlier remains –into another grave, an ossuary, or –as in our case– in a pit or heap inside the same tomb. There is however, the possibility that a body –either skeletonized or not fully decomposed– was pushed aside to free space for a new burial. The quality of the documentation does not always allow us to establish the motivations behind the dislocation of burials. The term “secondary deposition” is used throughout this thesis to refer to multiple interments some of which have been pushed away/ heaped on the floor or placed in pits. In the analysis of the graves, specific cases are discussed in more detail when adequate information is available.

38 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 38 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. v. Grave goods The ceramic artefacts accompanying the dead consist of skyphoi, handleless small skyphoi, cups with conical foot or ring base, oinochoae, small amphorae, jugs, spindle whorls and one spherical pyxis. The pottery is mainly for drinking and pouring purposes, but there is also a spherical pyxis in a cist (Table 7.4.1; Figures 7.3.6 & 7.3.7). Furthermore, both iron and bronze ornaments and tools were found – fibulae, buckles, a hair spiral, rings, an earring, bracelets, pendants, nails and knives. Among the bronze and iron ornaments, a gold hair spiral was also found in a grave with a rich assemblage. Other materials are bone and stone for buttons, rings and beads (Table 7.4.1; Figures 7.3.6 & 7.3.7). Other objects found in the graves are weapons, i.e., daggers, iron spearheads, knives, an armour attachment and a sword of Naue II type. The latter was found by the left hand of an individual in a cist –HaVo/e-c72 (Table 7.4.1; Figures 7.3.6 & 7.3.7). The jar burials seem to be poorly furnished while pits and cists show a lot of variation in grave goods as well as wealth. In contrast, the circular construction was moderately wealthy. Generally speaking, despite the divisions of poor and wealthy, and with the exception of the sword and the gold ornament, the cemetery does not appear very wealthy overall. There seems to be a correlation between diversity, presence of valuables, and quantity.

vi. Evidence for ritual In the area of the cemetery, between the graves, apothetes (pits with broken artefacts, possibly ritual deposits) were discovered, containing ceramic fragments and animal bones. Based on the ceramic chronology they date to the Protogeometric period (Table 7.4.2).

vii. Demographic profile Based on the osteological study of the cemetery of Voulokaliva, a Minimum Number of 41 Individuals is estimated – 20 adults (eight males, six females, six indeterminate) and 21 subadults (five infants, five children 3-10 years old, four adolescents and seven subadults whose age could not be estimated further) (Figure 7.3.8) (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2). We see equal representation of males and females. We also see equal representation of adults and subadults. However, because of the high infant mortality attested in pre-industrial societies –expected to be up to 50% or more in some cases (Masset 1973; Bocquet-Appel & Masset 1977)–, young subadults (infants and babies) are underrepresented in Voulokaliva. These representation rates indicate that there is some exclusion on the basis of age, but not on the basis of sex.

THE CEMETERY OF KEPHALOSI i. Extent of excavation The cemetery of Kephalosi dates to the Protogeometric period, based on the pottery sequence (Nikolaou 1998; Nikolaou 2006). During the construction works in the area of the cemetery, an apsidal building and kilns were also found, roughly dating to the same period. The data discussed below have been collected from the literature cited. The excavator of the site has suggested that the burials of Kephalosi are intra-mural because a roughly contemporary apsidal building with storage pithoi and kilns indicates the existence of an Ear- ly Iron Age (but contemporary?) settlement. It is beyond the scope of the present study to conclude whether the burials at K are or are not intramural16 –though as we will see, the demographic composition of the burial population and the homogeneity of the mortuary practices may point to this direction.

16. The contrary example of Vitsa, probably a small unwalled village with two adjacent (and therefore not intramural) cemeteries (Vokotopoulou 1986) could be mentioned here.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 39 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ii. Number of tombs, spatial organisation, orientation The excavation of the cemetery of Kephalosi exposed 22 graves (Table 7.4.3). No pattern has been identified in the spatial organisation of the graves. The graves did not share the same orientation; W-E and NW-SE were prevailing while N-S, NE-SW and W/NW-E/SE are also found (Figure 7.3.9). It is not possible to examine the relation between graves and houses, if indeed the graves are intramural.

iii. Type of tombs The cemetery of Kephalosi consists only of simple graves (pits and cists); complex tombs, such as tholoi or similar types (circular constructions or enclosures), have not been found (Figure 7.3.10). The cists were built and covered by limestone slabs. In many cases the limestone bedrock was used as a grave wall while in other cases limestone slabs were used for the sides of the cist. Unlike Voulokaliva, which included other grave types than cists, Kephalosi appears to be more homogeneous.

iv. Treatment of the dead Only inhumations were placed in the cists of Kephalosi (Figure 7.3.11). The prevailing positions of the bodies were either extended (5) or semi-contracted (4), although two contracted bodies were also found (Figure 7.3.12). As the body position of nine graves could not be identified, the ratio mentioned above is uncertain. All burials were single and primary, which reinforces the general picture of homogeneity; only one grave contained a double burial of two neonates.

v. Grave goods Eleven graves, out of 22, included grave goods; there are four graves without information on grave goods. Seventeen ceramic vases, one knife, and ornaments were collected from the cemetery during the excavation. The materials of the grave goods are clay, bronze, and iron (Table 7.4.3; Figures 7.3.13 & 7.3.14). It is evident that the diversity and quantity of the grave goods is smaller in Kephalosi when compared to the cemetery of Voulokaliva, stressing even more the homogeneity of the cemetery. The ceramic vases found in the cemetery of Kephalosi are the typical shapes and types used in the cemetery of Voulokaliva for pouring and drinking, but some of them are smaller in sizes. A thelastro (feeding bottle) was also found in Kephalosi in a grave containing a foetus. A thelastro is closely associated with the feeding of infants and is usually found in infants’ graves (Gallou 2015: 62). This object was not found in the cemetery of Voulokaliva, despite the presence of infant graves. Other vase types found in the graves are cups with a conical foot, monochrome at the upper part and unpainted at the lower part of the body, cups with ring base, trefoil oinochoae and jugs (Table 7.4.3; Figures 7.3.13 & 7.3.14). The non-ceramic artefacts were mainly bronze and iron ornaments: bracelets, finger rings, buckles and fibulae. Only one iron knife was found, while no other tools or weapons were present. Four subadults had metal objects. All the other subadults had pottery, shells, a bone pendant, and a stone bead (Table 7.4.3; Figures 7.3.13 & 7.3.14). Nine graves were empty. The cemetery of Kephalosi is modest in wealth, like the cemetery of Voulokaliva. However, the smaller diversity and the absence of valuable grave goods emphasises the higher homogeneity of the cemetery.

vi. Demographic profile The osteological analysis identified a Minimum Number of 22 subadult Individuals (MNI) and one adult of indeterminate sex. The subadults were all younger than ten years. Five individuals range between the ages of five to ten years. The remaining 17 individuals range from new-borns to five years of age. There is also a case of twin neonates with possible concurrent death (Table 7.4.3, Figure 7.3.15) (Nikolaou & Papathanasiou 2012). It is clear that in the cemetery of Kephalosi, age was a significant criterion for inclusion or exclusion in the cemetery.

40 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 40 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. DISCUSSION i. Location, organisation of the cemetery The cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi were in use during the same period and both were located closely within the wider area of ancient Halos. The cemetery of Kephalosi is characterised by more homogeneity, both in terms of demographic composition and mortuary practices than the cemetery of Voulokaliva, which exhibited diversity in mortuary practices (grave types, treatment, offerings) and a more inclusive demographic structure. Age is the main criterion for differentiation in the cemeteries of Halos. Generally speaking, adults were buried in the cemetery of Voulokaliva, while the main cemetery for ages up to 10 years was the (perhaps intramural) cemetery of Kephalosi. However, in both cemeteries exceptions are found. In Voulokaliva there were cases of subadults under the age 10 years and the cemetery of Kephalosi contained one adult (Figures 7.3.8 & 7.3.15). Observations on sex differentiation between the two cemeteries are not possible because there is only one indeterminate adult found in Kephalosi. Regarding wealth, in Voulokaliva wealthy tombs were distributed across the cemetery; in Kephalosi, rich and poor graves also occurred without showing a specific pattern in spatial distribution (Tables 7.4.1 & 7.4.3). Differences in wealth between the cemeteries can be observed in the number of grave goods (more in Voulokaliva), diversity (larger in Voulokaliva) and special objects that were absent from Kephalosi, such as weapons (sword, arrowheads) and gold found in Voulokaliva, but were absent in Kephalosi. The only object found in Kephalosi, but not in Voulokaliva, was the feeding bottle. The main patterns of differentiation observed between the cemeteries are along age and grave goods (Figures 7.3.8 & 7.3.15). Differentiation, is seen mostly a) in the grave goods (more diverse in Voulokaliva versus less diverse in Kephalosi), b) in the wealth deposited (Voulokaliva included more wealth than Kephalosi), and c) in the wider diversity of tomb types (pits, cists, jars and the circular construction in Voulokaliva, only cists in Kephalosi (Figures 7.3.27 & 7.3.28). However, the presence of subadults and the presence of both wealthier and poorer subadult graves in both cemeteries indicate that the differences between the two burial groups are not rigid. We cannot attribute this differentiation to status because the demographic profile was different. The cemetery of Kephalosi, which was almost exclusively used for young subadults, possibly comple- mented the cemetery of Voulokaliva because the age group from Kephalosi coincides with the missing age group from the cemetery of Voulokaliva. Therefore, the burial ground of Kephalosi must have been used by the same community, which also used the cemetery of Voulokaliva. These observations may strengthen the hypothesis of intramural burials in Kephalosi.

ii. Type of tombs Age differentiation can be observed not only between the cemetery of Voulokaliva and the cemetery of Kephalosi but also within the cemetery of Voulokaliva. In Voulokaliva, the circular construction type had been used only for adults. Therefore, Kephalosi did not contain such a type, since it was a cemetery for young individuals up to ten years old. In contrast, some grave types used only for subadults in Voulokaliva –pits, jars and, the tile-grave– were not present in Kephalosi. This observation once more highlights age differentiation in Halos. As far as we can say, sex differentiation between the grave types in Voulokaliva cannot be attested. Observations regarding the number of individuals included in the graves showed that pits and cists have been mainly used for single inhumations; this practice is seen in earlier periods as well (Lewartowski 2000: 20). However, nine graves in Voulokaliva and one in Kephalosi contained more than one inhumation in the same simple grave type, the cist. The circular construction contained a double burial of primary inhumations. Furthermore, the circular construction is possibly a rather poor attempt to imitate a complex prototype, such as a tholos; in Voulokaliva there are no real complex constructions with multiple burials. Therefore, despite the fact that diversity is observed in the number of individuals buried in different grave types, there is no obvious correlation between grave type and number of burials/individuals.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 41 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. The study of grave goods indicated that while all jars and the tile-grave were poor or empty, in all other grave types the quantity and quality of grave goods varied, though with no discernible pattern. The grave goods in the circular construction were modest and did not differ in type of artefacts, quantity or quality from those in pits and cists. Therefore, there is no evidence for clear-cut wealth or status differentiation, but it can be suggested that there were attempts at differentiation sometimes by means of the grave type, and sometimes by means of the offerings.

iii. Treatment of the dead In the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi, there were mainly primary burials. Four secondary depositions in Voulokaliva and one in Kephalosi indicate the reuse of graves and secondary deposition of earlier burials, a Mycenaean practice, even though in Halos the grave size was small. The double and triple burial could have occurred either at the same time or successively. The choice of the body position was only made by age criteria and not by sex or wealth; no child in Voulokaliva was buried in fully extended position. In contrast, in Kephalosi extended bodies dominate. This observation indicates that differentiation along age affected different aspects of the burial practices in Voulokaliva.

iv. Grave goods The analysis of grave goods showed that the cemetery of Voulokaliva was more diverse than the cemetery of Kephalosi since it included objects (gold hair spiral, spherical pyxis, and the Naue II sword) that were not found in Kephalosi. However, the differences were not that pronounced. Furthermore, there were wealthy, poor, and empty graves in both cemeteries, but in Voulokaliva, due to presence of special grave goods, a few graves are considered wealthier than those in Kephalosi. It should be noted here that the special objects in Voulokaliva were found with adults, while in Kephalosi only subadults were buried. On the basis of the detailed analysis of grave goods in Voulokaliva, we can say that females are not attested with weapons, tools, or pottery – as far as we can say, due to the number of indeterminate individuals. Males and indeterminate individuals had metal (bronze and iron) ornaments, tools and weapons and/or pottery as grave goods; the graves of a male, an 11 year old adolescent, and an indeterminate individual were furnished with weapons. The indeterminate individual did not receive pottery, while the adolescent was offered a trefoil oinochoe alongside an iron dagger. As individuals of indeterminate sex were buried with pottery, the correlation between female sex and the absence of pottery is uncertain. Ornaments accompanied both sexes and all ages in both cemeteries. Differences based on the sex of the individual have not been identified in the provision of wealth. The grave (HaVo/e-c72) with the sword Naue II type, which belonged to a 25-45 year old male, indicates that the Mycenaean tradition persisted in Voulokaliva, as this sword has a Mycenaean bronze prototype (Papadopoulos & Smithson 2017: 956-957). The sword is associated here with the male gender. Further study of the distribution of pottery reveals that pottery was rarely found with male individuals in Voulokaliva, while it accompanied mostly subadults, i.e., infants, children or adolescents. Therefore differences between age groups can also be seen in the grave goods; this observation further strengthens our earlier conclusion regarding age differentiation. Small ceramic vases were found with young subadults, although we could not estimate the age of all individuals. However, not all subadults had smaller vases than adults. In Voulokaliva, richer grave goods seem to be found in graves dating to the earlier phases –Submycenaean and Early Protogeometric periods, while later graves seem to be modest or poor; only one rich grave dates to the Late Protogeometric period. The existence of richer furnishing may indicate continuity from the traditional Mycenaean practices. If this is the case, then this tradition was gradually forgotten or abandoned and more austere practices were adopted. The analysis of wealth and age showed that adults and subadults received wealthy grave goods in both cemeteries, with subadult rich graves being greater in number than adults. Likewise, empty and poor graves contained both subadults and adults. In terms of diversity and volume of wealth, however, some adult graves should be considered wealthier because of the special objects they contained. Age differentiation in wealth does occur as has been observed in other aspects of burial practices.

42 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 42 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. DISCUSSION OF MAIN PATTERNS In this section I summarise the conclusions of the contextual analysis and the evidence that supports them. The discussion will start with age and sex differentiation, then I address the connection between wealth and status and conclude with other aspects of differentiation. The cemeteries of Halos show some subtle differences though these are not very pronounced. The differences are in the grave types, the body position, and the diversity, quality, and quantity of goods. The tomb types, grave goods, and the separate (possibly intramural) burial ground for young subadults indicate that age differentiation was the most prominent pattern. Sex differentiation is not visible in the use of different grave types, or modes of burial. It may be discernible in the grave goods, especially in the provision of some grave goods (pottery and weapons) though not in others (ornaments), but the number of indeterminate individuals prevents clear conclusions. Status differentiation can be discussed by combining observations on differences in offerings and differences in grave size and construction. There are differences in the quantity, quality, and diversity of grave goods, though they are not very pronounced –but there is no clear correlation between grave goods and grave type. Richer goods can be found in simple cists; the possible warrior grave is an example. Most graves are fairly simple constructions, e.g., cist and pit graves. The presence of the circular construction in Voulokaliva could indicate an attempt for differentiation. However, because it is neither an elaborate construction nor does it have distinguished grave goods, we cannot conclude that it was intended for more prominent individuals. It is possible that the choice of the circular construction is due to the desire to use a traditional Mycenaean form or, rather, an imitation of it. Although the increase of single graves marks a break from the Mycenaean period where multiple burials was the norm, kin relations remain important. The double and triple burials as well as the clustered subadult graves indicate that family ties are not forgotten at death and that these relations are expressed in burial practices. Furthermore, the (possible) intramural burials in Kephalosi strengthen this inference; most children and infants were buried near or inside the settlement. The patterns discussed above show subtle variation rather than rigid differentiation. There are neither strict rules in burial nor clear and absolute patterns, and exceptions often occur. The fairly homogeneous picture of the cemeteries may suggest a society without marked or rigid status differences; indeed, age and, to a lesser extent, sex were more important criteria of differentiation than status. Kin remains important despite the adoption of single burials.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS CONCERNING HALOS The systematic examination of all aspects of burial practices in the cemeteries of Halos allows us to formulate a number of questions about the nature of the diversity and subtle variations in the mortuary practices:

• Could the subtle variation discussed above be strengthened by the study of other aspects of social life, such as diet? Does diet differ along age, sex, kin and status groups? • Does the generally homogeneous picture (especially if we leave out age differentiation) imply a homogeneous, and, therefore, most probably an indigenous community? Do any divergent practices coincide, and do they point to the existence of foreigners or newcomers?

The questions will be examined in PART II, CHAPTER 2, the article is entitled “Ιsotopic (13C, 15N) investigation of diet and social structure in Εarly Iron Age Halos, Greece” and published in December 2016 by the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, vol. 10, pp. 212-220.

1.6.2 The Protogeometric cemetery of Chloe In the area of Pherai (or Pherae) (Prefecture of Magnesia) (Map 7.1.3) there are three organised cemeteries as well as more burials dispersed around the area dating to the PG and G periods (Doulgeri- Intzesiloglou & Arachoviti 2006: 239). One of these three cemeteries was found near the modern vil-

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 43 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. lage of Chloe. It has been suggested that this location must have been associated with the road that connected Pherai with Larisa and Iolkos (Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1996; Arachoviti 2000) (Excavation plan 7.2.3). Constructing tholos tombs along frequently used roads that connected major centres (McDon- ald & Simpson 1961) seems to be a Mycenaean practice, the location of the cemetery may therefore indicate a certain continuity from the Mycenaean period, in the general association between routes and important tombs. Near this area a pyre has been found which has been carbondated to the Submyce- naean period (Arachoviti 2000:14). In the cemetery of Aerino both Mycenaean and Early Iron Age tholoi were found. The site of Chloe and the site of Aerino are considered to have been used by the same community residing in Pherai (Arachoviti 2002).

i. Extent of excavation The works of the highway in Thessaly revealed eight tholos tombs near the village of Chloe (Map 7.1.3). The grave goods showed that these tombs were used during the Late Protogeometric and Early Geometric / Subprotogeometric I period, 1000 BC-875 BC; the first use of this burial ground is estimated to have occurred a little later than the first use of the cemeteries of Halos, Voulokaliva and Kephalosi. The burial ground in Chloe belongs to the site of Pherai, an important Mycenaean centre. Many other cemeteries have been located in the area around the site (Georganas 2008). The osteological analysis by Dr. Anastasia Papathanasiou and Ms. Anna Lagia has already been conducted for two of the eight tombs and, therefore, this study will focus on these two tombs, EII and ZI. The data discussed below have been collected from the literature already cited in the last two para- graphs.

ii. Number of tombs, spatial organisation, orientation The tombs were built on a plain and not against a slope, as a Mycenaean tholos would have been built. The tombs were constructed only a few meters apart and followed the same NW/SE orientation.

iii. Type of tombs In the cemetery of Chloe tholoi, and a few pits uncovered by recent excavations, were found (Table 7.4.4; Figure 7.3.16). The ground plan of the tholoi was circular. The diameter was approximately 3 m, and, according to the excavator the estimated height would not exceed 3 m (Arachoviti 2000: 362). They were built with rough unworked stones, in the Mycenaean corbelling system; the roof is not preserved. The entrance of the tomb (stomion) faced the south-southeast and was blocked with a mass of stones and schist slabs. A small dromos, built with stone slabs, inclined downwards and led to the stomion; the part near the stomion was roofed with three limestone slabs (Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1996).

iv. Treatment of the dead The tholoi of Chloe contained multiple inhumations (Figures 7.3.17 & 7.3.18). Three primary burials were found in situ deposited in extended position, a position which was less common in Voulokaliva, and more common among the subadult burials of Kephalosi. More skeletal material was found commingled in these tombs, either scattered on the floor, placed/pushed aside, or in heaps. This was most likely a result of deliberate action; the re-use of a tomb and secondary treatment were traditional My- cenaean practices.

v. Grave goods The grave goods exhibited great variety in shape, decoration, type, and raw material –the objects were made of clay, iron, gold, bronze, faience, and glass (Arachoviti 2000) (Table 7.4.4). In general terms, the same shapes and types as those we have seen in Halos have been found. However, the tholoi of Chloe are wealthier, contain a more diverse assemblage than the graves of Halos and contain special objects and rare raw materials, such as faience and glass. The commingled state of the burials and the lack of an itemised description of the grave goods make it impossible to attribute grave goods to specific individuals.

44 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 44 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Many different pottery shapes were found, up to thirty vases in each tholos. However, detailed information of shapes, types and quantity are not available. The non-ceramic group consisted of the same categories as in Halos, i.e., ornaments, tools and weapons. The grave goods were gold and bronze jewellery, iron weapons, iron pins, and objects of glass and faience. Fibulae and buckles were made of bronze and iron. Beads of gold, bronze, glass, faience, and stone were also found. The grave goods were wealthier than the grave goods found in the cemeteries of Halos.

vi. Demographic profile The osteological analysis showed Minimum Number of ten Individuals in Chloe-tholos EII –four males, one female and five indeterminate individuals (Table 7.4.4; Figure 7.3.19). They were all adults. Tholos ZI differs from tholos EII because it also included subadults (Table 7.4.4; Figure 7.3.19). The Minimum Number of Individuals has been estimated to be 15. The adult group consists of two males, three females and two indeterminate individuals; hence no observations on sex differentiation can be made. The subadult group consists of one individual at age five, one individual at age seven, five individuals between ten and fifteen, and two adolescents –i.e., they include mostly older children and adolescents and no individuals under five years old (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter 3).

DISCUSSION i. Location and organisation of the cemetery The cemetery of Chloe itself is quite homogeneous, though a few pits have also been found among the tholoi. When compared to Halos, however, the graves are both more complex and wealthier. The existence of contemporary burial grounds in the area with different tomb types suggest that there is differentiation in terms of burial location and choice of tomb type. However, this point cannot be pursued further, as in this study we focus only on the data from the two tholoi from Chloe.

ii. Type of tombs The tomb type used in the cemetery of Chloe is the tholos, alongside a few pits. The excavator argues that in terms of construction these tholoi resemble Mycenaean ones because they incorporated all Mycenaean features; stomion, dromos, tholos. However, compared to their Mycenaean counterparts (Cavanagh 2008) they are poorer and smaller. The grave goods and wealth of the two tholoi included in this study are comparable. Both tholoi in the study contained multiple burials, with both sexes being present. In tholos ZI sexes are more equally represented than tholos EII, which includes more males than females; tholos EII contained four indeterminate individuals and we, therefore, cannot reach conclusions on sex differentiation. Age differentiation can be observed in both tombs. First, tholos ZI contained nine subadults, while tholos EII had none. Second, in tholos ZI subadults under the age of five were excluded. However, we need to keep in mind that the sample is too small and we cannot make general inferences for all tholoi of the period.

iii. Treatment of the dead The treatment of the deceased is quite homogeneous, at least in the two tholoi included here. Only inhumation was practiced. The only differentiation is between the three extended primary burials and the commingled material, which shows that secondary treatment of the bodies was still taking place.

iv. Grave goods The tholoi of Chloe were quite wealthy. Gold and bronze jewellery and items of faience and glass were found in the tombs. There is no information about the quantity of grave goods found

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 45 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. (Arachoviti 2000). In terms of diversity in material of grave goods, these tholoi appear to be richer than the cemeteries of Halos (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.1 THE PROTOGEOMETRIC CEMETERIES OF HALOS: VOULOKA- LIVA AND KEPHALOSI). Although gold was present in the cemetery of Voulokaliva, it was only in the form of a simple hair spiral; other materials such as faience and glass were absent. Indeed, these materials are unique to Chloe among the sites included this study. This variety and unique character of the grave goods could indicate groups of elevated status, while at the same time the aspect of kinship is strongly expressed by the choice of the specific tomb type. Furthermore, it is evident that the groups buried in Chloe adhere to traditional Mycenaean practices, as the use of tholoi, primary/secondary depositions, and commingled osteological material were present. The possibility of different provenience of the buried population should also be explored, although the evidence is not very strong.

DISCUSSION OF MAIN PATTERNS The tholoi of Chloe exhibit many traditional Mycenaean characteristics. However, some differences allude to the new social conditions in the Protogeometric era. They are smaller than the Mycenaean tholoi, subterranean, and not built against a slope (Arachoviti 1990: 138; Arachoviti 2000: 362). These differences can be attributed to the loss of construction expertise or to structural limitations (the tholoi being built in flat terrain). Furthermore, the tholoi were used for multiple inhumations, mainly for adults, though subadults older than 5 years old were included, at least in one of the tholoi. The fact that these tombs were tholoi, i.e., more labour-intensive constructions (though not quite as labour intensive as their Mycenaean prototypes) in combination with the rich(er) grave goods, strengthens the suggestion of a higher social status for the people buried in them.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS CONCERNING CHLOE The contextual analysis of burial practices in the two tholoi of Chloe included in this study allows us to formulate a number of questions about the relation between the mortuary record and social relations in the Chloe community:

• Can we confirm that the people buried in the two Chloe tholoi are the buried individuals of higher status and correlate their status with their diet? • Are they locals adhering to Mycenaean tradition? Or newcomers from other regions of the Mycenaean world?

These questions will be pursued in PART II: Chapter 3; the article is entitled “Diet and social divisions in protohistoric Greece: integrating analyses of stable isotopes and mortuary practices” and is accepted for publication by the Journal of Greek Archaeology in 2018, vol. 3.

1.6.3 The Protogeometric cemeteries of Pharsala The site of Pharsala belongs to the prefecture of Larisa (Map 7.1.3). The town is situated 45 km to the south of the modern city of Larisa, in the valley of Enipeas. This is a fertile land suitable for cultivation but also for pasture use, because of the abundance of water and the proximity of the Enipeas estuary. It is already known that this town has a long history from prehistoric to modern times (Barisano & Helly 1985; Katakouta & Touphexis 1990). It is believed that the habitation of this valley starts in the Mycenaean period, as the discovery of other settlements in the area indicates (Katakouta 2012). In the area of Pharsala two cemeteries have been exposed during the construction works in the highway from Pharsala to Larisa, from the end of 2003 to 2008 (Map 7.1.4). One more burial ground has been found south of Pharsala at the village Kallithea (Map 7.1.3) – a cluster of four tholoi (Theo- charis 1964; Katakouta 2012). The three excavation sectors correspond to three different parts of the highway. They are: “Odopiia”, which from this point onwards will be referred to as “Site 1-cemetery”, “Periferiakos”, which from this point onwards will be referred to as “Site 1-tumulus”, and “Epilektos”, which from this point onwards will be called “Site 2” (Excavation plan 7.2.4).

46 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 46 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. The excavator dated all these graves to the Early Iron Age (1050-850 BC). These cemeteries were used only during the Protogeometric period (Tziafalias & Batziou-Efstathiou 2012; Katakouta 2012). There is no detailed pottery analysis yet and, therefore, the individual tombs cannot be dated accurately. The poorly preserved skeletal material and looting further restricted the number of graves that can be studied. The data discussed below have been collected in the literature cited above and from information kindly provided by the excavator.

SITE 1 – “CEMETERY”/”TUMULUS” i. Extent of excavation Site 1 is situated in the western side of Pharsala and constitutes a continuation to the north of the Mycenaean and Submycenaean cemetery of the site. The two excavated sectors of Site 1, “cemetery” and “tumulus” are found near to each other and form an extended burial ground, which contains a large number of graves and one tumulus.

ii. Number of tombs, spatial organisation, orientation The cemetery covered the eastern area of Site 1 and contained 36 graves. The tumulus is located at the western part of Site 1 and covered eight graves; the tumulus is situated very close to the cemetery. As this is a rescue excavation, we cannot ascertain the exact spatial relation between the tumulus and in the other graves. In the same area other tumulus-like features have been located. They have not been excavated yet, so it is possible that more tumuli were present in the area. The cist graves at the Site 1-cemetery generally followed the E/W orientation, like in Voulokaliva; graves with orientation across the N/S, NE/SW and SE/NW axis were also present (Table 7.4.5; Figure 7.3.20). The bodies were placed either with the head towards east or west when the cists had E/W orientation, or towards north or south when the graves followed the N/S orientation. The graves covered by the tumulus followed an E/W orientation, like those from the Site 1-cemetery, except two cases in which the orientation is N/S and NE/SW (Table 7.4.5; Figure 7.3.20). It becomes evident that E/W orientation predominates, although other orientations are also found.

iii. Type of tombs During the excavation of the Site 1-cemetery 27 cists, one double cist, five burial vases placed between cist graves, two burial enclosures and one tholos were exposed (Table 7.4.5; Figure 7.3.21). Un- der the tumulus one pit, five cists and two tholoi were found. In terms of tomb types, the cemetery of Pharsala is much more diverse than the cemeteries of Halos and Chloe. The cists were built and covered by limestone slabs. The double cist was composed by two simple cists sharing one common limestone slab. All burial vases were ceramic amphorae. The burial enclosures had a circular ground plan, were built by unworked stones and covered by a mass of soil and unworked stones. The tholoi also had a circular ground plan (1.90 m-2.30 m diameter), like the burial enclosures, and they were built with limestone stones, in corbelling fashion; their roof had collapsed. A slightly inclined dromos lead to the entrance of the tomb, the length of which is 2 m and the width 0.60-0.80 m. A blocking wall of soil and stones closed the entrance of the tholos (Katakouta 2012), like in the tholoi of Chloe. The burial enclosures probably imitated tholos tombs and had similar dimensions, but lack the corbelled construction and entrance.

iv. Treatment of the dead The main treatment of the bodies at Site 1 was inhumation (Table 7.4.5; Figure 7.3.22). Pits, cists, burial enclosures and tholoi contained only inhumations placed directly in the ground. Both single and multiple inhumations were found. As a rule, single inhumations were found in simple graves, such as pits and cists, while multiple inhumations were placed in the burial enclosures and tholoi, following the pattern of Halos and Chloe (Table 7.4.5; Figure 7.3.23). Single inhumations were primary depositions; when a cist included two inhumations the burials were

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 47 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. not simultaneous. In Voulokaliva double inhumations could consist of two primary or a combination of primary and secondary. When the position of primary burials in Site 1 could be identified, they were either extended or contracted, and sometimes both positions co-existed in the same grave.17 Multiple inhumations consisted of either a combination of primary and secondary burials or only of secondary depositions. The secondary depositions were placed in burial pits, pushed away in heaps or scattered across the tombs. These complex practices are usually attested in burial enclosures and tholoi. Unlike in the other cemeteries, cremations were also present, although there were only five (much fewer than inhumations) and they were all secondary cremations placed in amphorae (Table 7.4.5; Figure 7.3.22); no fire pits were found in the area. Two of the amphorae were covered by a small skyphos, placed upside-down as a lid. The cremations will not be discussed further in this study, as collagen is not preserved in cremated bones and, therefore, isotope analyses cannot be carried out on them.

v. Grave goods The pottery assemblage consisted mainly of wheel-made vases for drinking and pouring, as in the cemeteries of Halos and Chloe (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.1 THE PROTOGEOMETRIC CEMETERIES OF HALOS AND 1.6.2 THE PROTOGEOMETRIC CEMETERY OF CHLOE). One-handled cups with conical feet and cups with ring bases, trefoil oinochoai, small oinochoai, amphorae, skyphoi and jugs are the dominant shapes. Hand- made pottery was also used, e.g., beaked and cut-away jugs, skyphoi and amphorae. Other ceramic objects, such as spindle whorls, beads, or buttons have also been found (Table 7.4.5; Figures 7.3.24 & 7.3.25). The assemblage of non-ceramic objects consisted of ornaments, tools, and weapons (Table 7.4.5; Figures 7.3.24 & 7.3.25). Ornaments included bronze and iron fibulae, buckles, rings and hair spirals, bracelets, and earrings. Tools and weapons included iron knives, grindstones, a dagger, and arrowheads; these are similar to the weapons found in Voulokaliva, though the prestigious Naue II type sword has not been found in Pharsala. Interestingly, the diversity in grave goods in the cemeteries of Pharsala is lower than the diversity observed at the cemeteries of Halos and Chloe, while the diversity in grave types and body treatment is higher.

vi. Evidence for ritual One of the two burial enclosures in the cemetery of Site 1 contained also the burial of a horse. The horse was the last burial at the eastern side of the tomb since it was found in the first two layers of the tomb during excavation. The horse was lying on the missing part of the wall across the entrance. It was found complete but not very well preserved.

vii. Demographic profile The MNI is 45: 38 adults and seven subadults. The adult assemblage consists of eight males, 11 females, and 19 indeterminate individuals. The number of indeterminate individuals is quite high because of the poor preservation of the osseous material (Table 7.4.5; Figure 7.3.26) (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2018, in press: Chapter 3). Therefore, making observations on sex differentiation is difficult and the results would be questionable. The adult ages ranged from 20 to 50 years old. The subadults range from newborns to 16 years old and all of them were found at Site 1; infants and children up to 7 years old were buried in cist graves, while subadults older than 10 years old were found in a tholos under the tumulus, together with adults. Despite the two cases of adolescents, the burial enclosures and tholoi enclosed mainly adults. The cemetery of Pharsala essentially lacks the age group of young subadults under the age of 10, although there are two cases of newborns and one infant of 2-3 years old. The pattern of certain age groups being excluded from a cemetery was seen also in Chloe and Halos. Age differentiation is thus evident in the cemeteries of Pharsala.

17. Example of this practice is the F/Per-th1 where two bodies were placed contracted but the third one was extended. The double burial of F/Od-23 had one contracted male adult and the presence of a female was revealed between the male’s bones.

48 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 48 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. SITE 2 i. Extent of excavation Site 2 is located 6 km north of the modern town of Pharsala and Site 1, near the road that leads to Larisa (Map 7.13); no settlement has been found so far around the area to be associated with these two tombs.

ii. Number of tombs, spatial organisation, orientation The excavation exposed only two tombs. They were built close to each other. Tomb 1 was located to the south of tomb 2. The orientation of both is E/W, similar to the main orientation of Site 1, with the entrance located to the west (Table 7.4.5).

iii. Type of tombs The two tombs were both tholoi. Their construction is identical to those found at Site 1 and similar to the tholoi of Chloe, but their roofs had collapsed (Table 7.4.5).

iv. Treatment of the dead Both tholoi contained only inhumations (Table 7.4.5). In tholos 1 a small number of bones were found, while tholos 2 contained two primary burials and two secondary depositions in shallow pits. The primary burials were placed extended in the middle of the tholos; parallel to one another, their feet towards the entrance, like in tholos 1 of Site 1-tumulus and the tholoi of Chloe. The secondary depositions were heaped close to the walls of the tholos. Tholos 2 was used for multiple burials, following the pattern of the tholoi at Site 1 and Chloe.

v. Grave goods Tholos 1 was empty.18 Tholos 2 contained both ceramic vases and metal objects. The metal finds were mainly of iron, with the exception of one bronze ring. Iron objects were ornaments, tools, and weapons (Table 7.4.5). The grave goods suggest that the same types were used in the graves of Pharsala as in the graves of Chloe and Halos, though in Pharsala no special items (gold, faience or the sword of Naue II type) have been found. Therefore, EIA tholoi were not always provided with rich grave goods, and thus a range of variation in wealth can be observed.

vi. Demographic profile Only adults were buried in the tholoi, a practice seen also in the burial enclosure and in the tholoi of Site 1 and Chloe. In tholos 1 only one young adult was found, while tholos 2 contained three males and two females (a total of five individuals); two more individuals were identified in secondary deposition A of tholos 2 –one adult male and one adult female (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2018, in press: Chapter 3) (Table 7.4.5).

DISCUSSION i. Location, organisation of the cemetery Three burial grounds are found in Pharsala: a) two groups at Site 1, the “cemetery” and the “tumulus”, which are located side by side; b) one group at Site 2 located 6 km away; and c) one group of four tholoi south of Pharsala which is not included in this study (Theocharis 1964). The observed spatial differentiation between Site 1-tumulus and Site 2 could be attributed to the existence of different kin groups. However, the presence of a burial ground that contained non-clustered individual graves suggests that in this period the clustering of graves is not a universal practice. It may be worth noting that these two tholoi were constructed in a distant location.

18. It is not known whether the tomb was looted or left empty.

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 49

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 49 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. The differences between these clusters lie mostly in the tomb types that they included; pit, pot burials (enchytrismos), burial enclosures and a tumulus were found only in Site 1; Site 2 consisted exclusively of tholoi. Tholoi were present in every cluster, while cists were present in two out of three clusters, making the differences less rigid. If we examine the treatment of the bodies, it becomes clear that the cemeteries appear, at first sight, homogeneous because of the general practice of inhumation. However, the existence of five cremations –clustered in Site 1-cemetery– show departure from traditional practices. All clusters contained multiple primary or secondary burials in complex tombs (burial enclosures and tholoi), while single primary inhumations in simple graves (pits and cists) were present in two out of three clusters.19 At Site 1 single burials in cists predominate, while at Site 2 only multiple burials in tholoi were present. We can, therefore, conclude that during this period there were no firm rules. We see more diversity in Site 1-cemetery than in Site 1-tumulus, while Site 2 appears to follow the Mycenaean tradition more closely. In terms of wealth, the clusters did not demonstrate substantial differences; empty, poor, and rich graves were present in all clusters. While there was some variation between burial locations, there is also significant overlap. The comparison of the burial grounds showed that all contained wealthy tombs in terms of quantity (already noted in PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.i QUALITY OF DOCUMENTATION, that the graves from Pharsala do not exhibit differences in the quality of the grave goods); however, the tombs in Site 1 were wealthier than Site 2. Moreover, comparing the two clusters of Site 1 we see that the wealthiest graves are mainly under the tumulus and only one is in the Site 1-cemetery. We, therefore, see a correlation between location, tomb elaboration, and wealth. As far as we can say, because of the number of indeterminate individuals, we see no sex differentiation in the burial grounds. The male to female ratio is more or less the same, and male and female adults seem to have been buried in the same way. In contrast, age differentiation is marked. Young subadults, under the age of ten years, were only buried in the Site 1-cemetery in cist graves, while the tombs of Site 1-tumulus and Site 2 contained mainly adults. However, the inclusion of a few adolescents in the tumulus makes this differentiation less rigid. Despite the fact that a few subadults were buried in Site 1, they are underrepresented. No cemetery used exclusively for subadults (such as that in Kephalosi) has been discovered in Pharsala; we can thus conclude that the burial ground of this age group has not yet been located.

ii. Type of tombs The main pattern of the cemetery of Pharsala seems to be the diversity of tomb types, though simple types predominate. In simple graves single burials were placed, while the complex tombs covered more inhumations, both primary and secondary, as in Chloe. All cremations were placed in a different grave type, a vase (a grave type used for subadult inhumations in Voulokaliva). It becomes clear that in Pharsala there is a correlation between tomb type and body treatment. If we now turn to wealth, there is no correlation between wealth and tomb types. Tholoi contain more offerings, but also more individuals. The analysis showed that any tomb type could range from “wealthy” to empty. We therefore cannot always associate tholoi, or tholos imitations, with more wealth or with higher status. The use of a tholos, or an imitation of a tholos in the Protogeometric period could be attributed to the need to claim higher status through a link to the past, or to the desire to adhere to traditional burial practices commemorating and honouring the ancestors. Based only on the individuals whose sex has been determined, there seem to be no differentiation between males and females in the use of grave types. In contrast, age differentiation is quite evident in the use of tomb types. Tholoi and burial enclosures contained mainly adults; when subadults were present they were older than 10 years. Subadults younger than 10 years were clearly excluded from complex tombs. This is a pattern similar to Chloe, where all subadults were older than 5 years old. The subadults found at the cemetery of Pharsala were buried in cist graves.

19. The only exception is F/Od-c23, where a double burial of a male (primary) and a female (unknown, probably secondary) were discovered.

50 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 50 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. iii. Treatment of the dead In Pharsala inhumation was the predominate practice; however, cremation was also practiced though to a lesser extent. This is in contrast to Chloe and Halos where bodies were exclusively inhumed. There was, therefore, more diversity in both tomb types and treatment at Pharsala. The position of the inhumed bodies varies in Pharsala, but not as much as in Halos. The contracted position dominates in cist and tholos tombs but there are also cases of extended position in both tomb types; the semi-contracted position attested in Voulokaliva is not found. In Site 2 the primary burials were only placed extended, like the bodies in the tholoi of Chloe. The body position does not correlate with the sex of an individual. Only age differentiation can perhaps be seen here because two of the identified subadults were buried in a contracted position. The unknown position of most of the other tombs, however, does not allow us to reach firm conclusions.

iv. Grave goods In general, we can say that simple graves contained fewer grave goods as they enclosed single inhumations than complex tombs which included more grave goods but also more individuals. However, simple graves sometimes had more grave goods than multiple burials in complex tombs. The same type of grave goods (in terms of function or material) is deposited in all tomb types, whether simple or complex tombs. The same observation was made for Chloe and Halos. I have already pointed out that it is not possible to attribute grave goods to individuals in complex tombs due to the commingled state of the osteological material. Therefore, we can only examine the distribution of grave goods in single inhumations where we can observe sex differentiation, since pottery, tools, weapons, and iron ornaments have not been attested with females. This is only a tentative conclusion though, because there are too many indeterminate individuals. Age differentiation can be observed in Pharsala. Subadult graves contained only ceramic vases and bronze ornaments. Weapons, tools, or iron objects were absent. Interestingly, most subadults had more grave goods than adults. Therefore, while age differentiation is observed in the quality and diversity of grave goods, no marked differentiation in quantity of grave goods is detected. Males, females or subadults were either unfurnished, or were accompanied by grave goods of either poor or modest quantity and quality. Any discussion, therefore, of elite groups would not really be appropriate.

DISCUSSION OF MAIN PATTERNS The cemeteries of Pharsala show intense diversity in burial practices; various different grave types have been used, different modes of treatment, as well as different levels of wealth are present. This diversity could be attributed to different causes, such as social differentiation (including age or sex differentiation), to different attitudes to the traditional Mycenaean practices or to the presence of individuals of different origin within the same community. The contextual analysis of the mortuary data of the cemeteries of Pharsala highlighted some significant patterns. Age differentiation is evident in Pharsala. Subadults were not buried in complex tombs and were not accompanied by grave goods intended for adults. Due to poor preservation of the material, it is difficult to reach definite conclusions on sex differentiation. However, it seems that men and women have been included in all tomb types, though some evidence for differentiation in grave goods has been observed. Reaching conclusions on status differences is not easy. The analysis has revealed variation both in tomb types and in wealth (Figure 7.3.30). However, wealth does not correlate with tomb types nor with tomb elaboration, and clear wealth ranks cannot be detected. Tholoi and burial enclosures were not wealthier than simple graves or the clusters of tombs –or, to put it differently, it is difficult to attribute the tumulus or the tholoi in Site 2 to differentiation along status. Here, we should allow also for different attitudes to innovation and tradition, but also examine the possibility of the presence of non-local individuals. The organisation of graves in clusters, the overlap in tomb types, the poor or modestly wealthy tombs and the demographic composition of the burial population could indicate that the burial grounds and clusters represent most likely kin rather than different status groups. Some of these clusters are more open to innovation and experimentation –see for instance the diversity and adoption of cremations

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 51

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 51 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. in Site 1-cemetery. Once more the possibility of newcomers should be mentioned, but since isotope analyses constitute the main body of this dissertation, cremations have not been included. It should be however mentioned that nowadays new techniques have been introduced which have made the strontium isotope analysis of cremated remains possible (Snoeck et al. 2014).20

RESEARCH QUESTIONS CONCERNING PHARSALA Having presented the contextual analysis of the different cemeteries in Pharsala, and having attempted some first comparative observations, it is time to formulate more explicitly the research questions to be pursued in the isotope analyses of the Pharsala material. In particular, the analyses will have to help us explore further the large diversity which is apparent in the cemeteries of Pharsala and helps us understand its social structure, cultural preferences and the provenience of the people buried. The following questions arise: How should we interpret the marked diversity in the burial practices? Does the more pronounced variation in tomb types, or the more subtle variation in grave goods coincide with dietary preferences? Could the marked diversity indicate the presence of non-local individuals? Do we see gender differences in other aspects, e.g., in diet or provenience?

These questions will be addressed in PART II, CHAPTER 3, the article is entitled “Diet and social divisions in protohistoric Greece: integrating analyses of stable isotopes and mortuary practices” and is accepted for publication by the Journal of Greek Archaeology in 2018, vol. 3.

1.7 Main Patterns of the Sites

The contextual analyses of all Protogeometric cemeteries in Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala have shown some important differences in the burial record of the period. Age differentiation is observed in all cemeteries. Status differences on the other hand, are more difficult to observe. Status differences seem to be manifested in different aspects of the mortuary practices (separate location, more elaborate and larger tombs, richer grave goods), but these aspects do not always coincide. Therefore, no rigid status divisions have arisen from the analysis; rather we seem to be observing subtle variation which may imply emerging social differences. Gender differentiation is less pronounced, and any differences observed are not always consistent in all cemeteries. Finally, kinship seems to be an important organisational principle –at least, it is plausible to attribute several features of the mortuary practices to kinship relations. These would include the existence of different cemeteries and clusters; the inclusion of some graves in a tumulus, or of multiple burials in tholoi and enclosures; the double, triple or multiple burials of both sexes in both simple graves and complex tombs; and finally the intramural burials of subadults. Given the parameters of the present study, the issue of kinship relations in these cemeteries would be an important avenue for future research. The diversity in practices cannot be attributed solely to social factors, i.e. to differences along age, sex, status or kin divisions. Another factor, the choice between adherence to tradition or adoption of innovative practices and its articulation with the emerging social differentiation, also needs to be kept in mind. Finally, the diversity in mortuary practices could be attributed to yet a third factor, namely the existence or arrival of newcomers to the communities using the burial grounds examined in this study. The main patterns will be discussed in more detail in the concluding discussions in the next section.

20. The possibilities to extend the analyses carried out in this PhD to contemporary cremations will, I hope, be explored in post-doctoral research.

52 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 52 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 1.8 Conclusions, Questions, and Hypotheses

1.8.1 Variation and differentiation The contextual analysis has revealed evidence of differentiation, although the main characteristic of the Protogeometric period is the diversity observed and the absence of any absolute and rigid rules. While new burial forms were introduced alongside more traditional ones, differentiation along different dimensions seems to be emerging. Here I summarise the patterns that arise from the contextual analysis of each cemetery. a. Age has been discussed extensively. Age was an important criterion for inclusion or exclusion in formal cemeteries and certain tomb types, but had an impact also on other aspects of the burial practices. b. Sex differences were less pronounced; they were visible perhaps in the grave goods, but not (as far as we can say) in the choice of grave types, location, or body treatment. The issue of gender differentiation needs further investigation in other aspects of social life, and by means of new methods. I will return to this point below. c. Status has also been discussed extensively, and it has been proposed that social differences may have emerged in the Protogeometric period, although they were not as salient as in previous periods. During the EIA, status can be seen as the attempt by some individuals or groups to distinguish themselves, or their families. This can be visible in i) the spatial organisation of tombs and the presence of clusters separating groups of tombs from the cemetery; ii) the complex construction of tombs; and iii) the wealth and types of grave goods in some tombs. However, the lack of correlation between location, tomb type, and grave goods indicates perhaps emerging differentiation, but not established and rigid stratification. The contextual analysis has allowed us to formulate new questions in order to investigate further the social structure of the EIA communities. My main question is this thesis is: How can we interpret the diversity in the burial practices? A further aspect we can deduce on the basis of the skeletal evidence, and we should take into account is diet. Food should not be considered only as a means of subsistence, but an important component of social relations and cultural preferences. In this case, new questions arise: Does dietary variation correlate with variation in mortuary practices? Do wealth and tomb elaboration correlate with different dietary choices? Do we see gender differentiation in diet? Indeed, differential access to foodstuffs can be a further indication of social or gender differences. This new aspect will add another perspective to the study of social structure in the EIA.

1.8.2 Change and continuity The contextual analysis has shown that there was great diversity in the burial practices in the Protogeo- metric period. Some traditional Mycenaean practices continued to be used in Thessaly; these include the use of the tholos type, the use of valuable grave goods, and the multiple burials, including the secondary treatment of the dead. Although cist tombs already existed in the Mycenaean period, by the Protogeometric period there is a fairly sudden increase of single burials in cist graves, a type of mortuary treatment already known in the Mycenaean period which spread much more widely in the period I examine here. In contrast, although the deposition of valuables is still attested, their quantity, quality and diversity clearly decrease when compared to the Mycenaean period. Finally, a new practice, namely the cremation of the deceased, was introduced sporadically in the Protogeometric period and became more widespread later. An important question addressed in this thesis is: How can this parallel use of traditional and new practices be explained? It has been pointed out above that cultural attitudes, the choice between following tradition or adopting new practices, need to be taken into account. For instance, it would be important to examine if, for instance, conformity to tradition is consistently observed across different aspects of the mortuary practices, or can be observed for wider groups inside a cemetery. However, ex-

Part I • Chapter 1 • Introduction 53

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 53 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ploring this possibility remains difficult, and there is a risk of entering a circular argument if we attribute, for example, the adoption of new practices to a propensity towards innovation. Another possibility we need to consider when explaining the diversity in the burial practices is personal choice and preference. Can we detect personal preferences in the mortuary practices? Personal choice will result in a much more fragmented and complex picture with few patterns and no consistent correlations. It may be difficult to reach any firm conclusions, but it is important to keep in mind the possibility in order to prevent ourselves from over-interpreting the data. This more cautious approach will, I hope, lead to a more balanced and objective interpretation of mortuary practices and social structure in EIA Thessaly. A final, and most important possibility needs to be investigated: The presence of newcomers, and population movements in general, either on an individual or on a group basis, may explain the observed diversity in mortuary practices. When moving from one place and settling in another, people may either bring their own customs or adopt local practices –alternatively, a fusion of ‘foreign’ and local practices may come about. The question needs to be formulated explicitly: Are there non-local individuals buried in the cemeteries of Voulokaliva, Chloe, and Pharsala? However, “new” customs may not be really new because a local community might already be in a process of changing. The distinction of local from non-local individuals is very difficult if we base our analysis only on cultural considerations or personal preferences. The new methods of analysis of the skeletal material which have been presented in PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.5.2 ISOTOPE ANALYSIS allow us to reach firmer conclusions, to complement the traditional studies of cultural or personal preferences, and come up with a better interpretation of variation and differentiation in the EIA mortuary record.

54 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 54 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. PART II

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 55 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 56 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Introduction

The following chapters (2-5) consist of articles published or submitted in highly ranked international peer-reviewed journals. In each article the archaeological questions that have arisen from the archaeological analysis are discussed and specific theories are examined. The aim of these papers is to examine the diversity in the burial practices and the variation in social forms as these have been reconstructed by the contextual analysis of the burial practices. The articles / chapters focus on two aspects –dietary variation and different provenience– which have never been studied for EIA Thessaly before and which may help us understand the diversity in mortuary practices and reconstruct social structure. The first article (Chapter 2), entitled “Isotopic (13C, 15N) investigation of diet and social structure in Early Iron Age Halos, Greece” has already been published by the Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2). It discusses dietary variation in relation to social differentiation in the area of Halos (Voulokaliva and Kephalosi), Thessaly. This paper emphasises the importance of an informed sampling strategy for the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human bone collagen. It is argued that a careful sampling design can only be based on the archaeological questions arising from detailed contextual analyses of mortuary practices –such as the analyses carried out in CHAPTER 1, 1.5.1 CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF MORTUARY PRACTICES above– and facilitates a nuanced interpretation of the data. The aim of the article is to reconstruct the social structure of the EIA community living in Halos, Thes- saly by means of a detailed analysis of mortuary practices and to correlate the observed differentiation with dietary variation as reconstructed by means of a stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of human and animal bone collagen. The paper demonstrates a correlation between diet and social divisions; differences along sex are visible in the use of millet by females; furthermore, differences along status are visible in the higher levels of animal protein consumption by individuals with weapons or other valuable grave goods. However, these are subtle variations rather than rigid divisions between social groups. As carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis also reveals breastfeeding and weaning age, this investigation showed differences between the subadult groups of the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in both carbon and nitrogen isotope intake. This difference is difficult to explain, but a possible factor could have been status differences between the mothers of the subadults from Kephalosi and the those from Voulokaliva. The second article (Chapter 3), entitled “Diet and social divisions in protohistoric Greece: integrating analyses of stable isotopes and mortuary practices”, has been accepted for publication by the Journal of Greek Archaeology (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter 3). The article follows the method described in CHAPTER 2, and discusses the social structure of Early Iron Age societies through the comparison of two burial sites located in central (Pharsala) and eastern Thessaly (Chloe). The site of Pharsala is located in a fertile valley (between the rivers Pharsaliotis and Enipeas). The site of Chloe is located in eastern Thessaly north of the site of Halos, near the lake Voiviis. The aim of the article is to explore variation in mortuary practices, to reconstruct social differentiation and to examine if it correlates with dietary variation. The emphasis is on the diversity of mortuary practices in the cemeteries of the three sites (Pharsala, Chloe, and Halos). The analysis showed that when the diet of the individuals within each community was compared there was no correlation between higher consumption of animal protein and status. On the contrary, when the diet of whole communities was compared, a correlation could be established between higher animal protein consumption and the diversity of grave goods and grave elaboration at each site. To conclude, this paper showed the fluid social conditions and differences in social structure between communities at the beginning of Early Iron Age. The third article (Chapter 4), entitled “Fish consumption in Early Iron Age Greece? Sulfur stable isotope analysis of human populations” aims to investigate the consumption of aquatic resources during the Early Iron Age (Panagiotopoulou & Nehlich, submitted: Chapter 4). This article is submitted at the

Part II • Introduction 57

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 57 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports. This paper attempts to examine the contribution of marine as well as freshwater resources in the diet of populations living near aquatic sources, whether these are rivers, lakes or the sea. The paper has a two-fold goal: a) to explore all available dietary sources in order to reach a complete picture of the diet in EIA populations of Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala; and b) to study exploitation of land and sea resources. In order to examine if aquatic resources constituted a significant part of human diet, sulfur isotope analysis of human bone collagen was employed. This is the first time this analysis is conducted on EIA Greek material; in general, the method has not been used in Greek archaeology very widely. Stable sulfur isotope analysis provides a new tool to investigate consumption of aquatic resources. The analysis showed that while archaeological evidence has indicated sea exploitation during the Protogeometric period, marine products were not a staple resource in the three EIA communities studied despite the fact that they were situated in littoral places. However, the use of freshwater resources should be investigated further, as no clear signal could be obtained due to biases and limitations of the archaeological material. The last article (Chapter 5), entitled “Detecting mobility in Early Iron Age Thessaly by strontium isotope analysis” is currently published online by the European Journal of Archaeology (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2018: Chapter 5). It investigates the theory of population movements during the EIA and suggests that one aspect of the diversity observed in burial practices could be the presence of non-local individuals within these communities. The method employed here is the strontium isotope analysis of human tooth enamel from the populations of Halos (Voulokaliva), Chloe, and Pharsala in Thessaly. As discussed in the Introduction of this thesis (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.3 THE LATE BRONZE AGE AND THE EARLY IRON AGE), the changes in the mortuary practices observed in the Early Iron Age have been attributed to the arrival of newcomers and to population movements. In this paper the issue of migration, a key topic in current archaeological debates, is discussed, in order to explore the role of population movements in the transformation of, and diversity in, burial practices. An important conclusion of this paper is that individuals identified as locals by strontium analysis are the ones who chose to depart from the traditional Mycenaean burial practices, while in contrast some non-locals seem to have adhered to earlier traditions.

58 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 58 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Chapter 2 • Diet and social stucture in Halos

Isotopic (13C, 15N) investigation of diet and social structure in Early Iron Age Halos, Greece1

Eleni Panagiotopouloua,2, Johannes van der Plichtb,c, Anastasia Papathanasioud, Sofia Voutsakie, Elisavet Nikolaouf, Fotini Tsioukag

a Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, Poststraat 6, 9712ER Groningen, the Netherlands b Center for Isotope Research, University of Groningen, the Netherlands c Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, the Netherlands d Ephorate of Paleoanthropology and Speleology, Greece e Groningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, the Netherlands f Ephorate of Antiquities of Magnesia, Greece g Ephorate of Antiquities of Karditsa, Greece

Abstract

This paper integrates the isotopic results on dietary variation with an in-depth contextual analysis of mortuary data from two Early Iron Age cemeteries in Halos, Thessaly, central Greece. While the diet was

mainly based on C3 plant and animal protein, there is evidence for the consumption of C4 resources (millet) by a few females, but also increased meat consumption by some individuals, sometimes furnished with weapons or other wealthy offerings. In addition, infants, children and adults in the two cemeteries show a difference in δ15N values. The analysis therefore reveals possible emerging differentiation between age, sex and possibly status groups in a crucial period of Greek prehistory, after the disintegration of the Mycenaean palatial societies and the ensuing period of regression.

Keywords: Stable isotopes, Diet, Mortuary analysis, Early Iron Age, Greece

2.1. Introduction

The Early Iron Age in mainland Greece (EIA, 1100-700 BCE) is a transitional period, which starts after the gradual disintegration of the Mycenaean palatial societies and ends with the formation of the Ar- chaic city-state. While the period is characterized by decline and social regression in the earlier part of the period (Submycenaean and Protogeometric periods, 1100-900 BCE), there are nevertheless some signs of nascent divisions between social groups (Dickinson 2006; Georganas 2009; Georganas 2002; Lemos 2013). These are primarily visible in the mortuary record, which is characterized by diversity

1. JASREP 2016, Panagiotopoulou et al. – Isotopic (13C, 15N) investigation of diet and social structure in Early Iron Age Halos, Greece, © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. , https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.09.020, Received 25 March 2016, Received in revised form 5 September 2016, Accepted 29 September 2016. 2. Corresponding author.

Part II • Chapter 2 • Diet and Social Stucture in Halos 59

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 59 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. and the co-existence of traditional forms and new practices. In this paper, we explore the correlation between the diet and the social structure of an EIA community. We employ two methods: a) stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen for paleodietary investigation, and b) the contextual analysis of the mortuary practices for the reconstruction of social differentiation. We argue that an in-depth contextual analysis of the mortuary data allows us to reconstruct the social structure of the Early Iron Age communities (Mee and Cavanagh 1984; Voutsaki 1998), but also provide the starting point for an informed sampling strategy and the framework for a nuanced interpretation of the isotopic results. Isotop- ic data need to be controlled against the contextual observations on the mortuary data. In this way, isotopic data and observations on dietary variation Figure 2.1: Map of Greece showing the location of the are controlled against the patterning in the mor- Halos site. tuary record. The site of Halos (Figure 2.1) is excellently suit- ed for an integrated analysis of isotopic and mortuary data. The site is located in eastern Thessaly, in the northern margins of the Mycenaean world (Eder 2009; Feuer 2011; Papadimitriou 2008) and was affected by the demise of the Mycenaean centres. Halos is situated on the land routes that connected the southern and northern mainland and very near important maritime routes along the Pagasetic Gulf (Stissi et al. 2004) (Figure 2.1). The Early Iron Age has been well studied (Dickinson 2006; Georganas 2002; Georganas 2009; Lem- os 2002; Lemos 2013; Mazarakis-Ainian 1997; Mazarakis-Ainian 2012; Snodgrass 2006) but only few detailed contextual analyses of mortuary data (Tsiouka 2008; Viziinou 2010) have been undertaken. Even fewer isotope analyses have been undertaken on material from this period (Panagiotopoulou and Papathanasiou 2015; Papathanasiou et al. 2013; Triantaphyllou 2015). An indirect aim of our study therefore, is to emphasize the potential of isotopic studies for a better understanding of social change in this key period of Greek prehistory. This paper focuses on the mortuary practices and osteological assemblages of two cemeteries of Halos dating to the Protogeometric period. These cemeteries, Voulokaliva and Kephalosi, were discovered during rescue excavations for the construction of the Athens-Thessaloniki highway (Malakasioti 2001; Nikolaou 1998). The cemetery of Kephalosi is situated within the borders of the Hellenistic town of Halos (300-265 BCE). The cemetery of Voulokaliva, is situated ca. 2 km to the north of Kephalosi. Both possibly belonged to the same settlement (Figure 2.2). As pointed out above, the Protogeometric period shows marked variety in burial practices; cemetery settings, tomb types, modes of treatment and offerings vary considerably (Dickinson 2006; Georganas 2009; Lemos 2013; Tziafalias and Zaouri 1999; Viziinou 2010). The question therefore is: What causes this variation? Can we reconstruct age, sex and status divisions on the basis of the mortuary data? And are any patterns in the mortuary record confimed by the isotope analyses? Cemeteries in this period are either intra-mural or extramural. It has already been observed that mostly subadults are buried among the houses (Mazarakis-Ainian 2010). In contrast, extra-mural, formal cemeteries nearby the settlement, for example in Lefkandi (Lemos 2002), were used for both adults and subadults, and for both men and women. The dominant tomb types are pits, cists and small tholoi (Dickinson 2006; Georganas 2009), the latter being a traditional, ‘Mycenaean’ form. The bodies are either inhumed as in the Mycenaean period (Lewartowski 2000), or cremated (Dickinson 2006; Lemos 2002). While previously multiple burials constituted the norm, in this period multiple and single burials

60 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 60 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. co-exist in the same cemetery (Georganas 2009). Protogeometric tombs contain, in general, fewer offerings than in the Mycenaean period, though pottery (usually cups, jugs or feeding bottles) as well as a few metal (both iron and bronze) weapons, tools and ornaments are found. The distribution of richer offerings does not always show a clear pattern, though rich offerings tend to accompany subadults or men, in which case they sometimes include weapons (Georganas 2005; Lemos 2006).

2.2. Material and methods

2.2.1 Material i. The Protogeometric cemetery of Kephalosi There is good evidence that Kephalosi was an intramural cemetery, as the graves are associated with a contemporary domestic building, which contained storage jars (Malakasioti, 2009; Nikolaou and Papathanasiou, 2012). The fact that the graves contain almost exclusively subadult burials strengthens this conclusion. The prevailing burial practice is single primary inhumation in cists; the dead are buried in extended (n=5), semi-contracted (n=4) or contracted (n=2) position. Seventeen out of 22 graves contained offerings such as ceramic vases, copper and iron ornaments as well as one iron knife, a bone pendant, a stone bead and shells (Megalokonomou and Spanodimos 2007; Nikolaou 1998).

ii. The Protogeometric cemetery of Voulokaliva The site of Voulokaliva (Figure 2.2) is a large cemetery, which was used continuously from the later Mycenaean period (Late Helladic IIIB and LH IIIC phases, ca. 1300-1100 BCE) through to the Submy- cenaean (ca. 1100-1050 BCE) and Protogeometric (ca. 1050-900 BCE) periods, and re-used during Hellenistic times (ca. 300-265 BCE) (Malakasioti 2009; Reinders 2003). This paper focuses on the thirty-eight Submycenaean and Protogeometric graves (Malakasioti and Tsiouka 2011; Tsiouka 2008). A number of graves form clusters (2 to7 graves), whereas others are scattered across the burial

Figure 2.2: Photograph of the investigated cemeteries of Halos: Kephalosi and Voulikaliva.

Part II • Chapter 2 • Diet and Social Stucture in Halos 61

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 61 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ground (Tsiouka 2008). Due to the fact that this was a rescue excavation and only part of the cemetery has been exposed, we cannot fully reconstruct the spatial organisation of the cemetery. Tomb types in Voulokaliva are more diverse than in Kephalosi; they include pits, cists, burial jars and one circular construction with single and double inhumations. The circular construction may represent a rudimentary imitation of tholoi, that is subterranean vaulted tombs used for multiple burials during the Mycenaean period (Georganas 2000). It contains only two primary burials, just as a few cists with double burials found in the same cemetery. Most bodies were placed in contracted (n=12) or semi-contracted position (n=13), but few extended burials (n=6) were found as well. The offerings in the tombs consist mainly of pottery, iron tools and weapons, bronze and iron ornaments, but also a gold hair spiral, as well as bone and stone buttons, rings and beads.

2.2.2. Methods i. Age-sex determination The osteological analysis of the material was based on the standard procedures of Buikstra and Ube- laker (1994) for complete and commingled material. The basic demographic parameters of the population (Minimum Number of Individuals or MNI, age and sex) were estimated in order to provide the basis for the contextual and isotope analysis. Sex and age estimation was carried out following the methods presented in Buikstra and Ubelaker (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) including patterns of robusticity and cranial and pelvic morphology. Only adults with mature characteristics have been sexed.

ii. Contextual analysis Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen is an established method used to reconstruct the diet of past societies (Fry 2006; Fuller et al. 2006; Hedges and Reynard 2007; Kuitems et al. 2015; Richards et al. 2005). Human diet is of course closely related to access to resources and therefore to an individual’s social and economic position and to the social structure of the community as a whole. Since this paper examines the relation between diet and social structure, the contextual analysis of the archaeological data is a fundamental component of the study. For this purpose, variation in all aspects of evidence such as cemetery organisation, tomb types, treatment of the body, and offerings was studied, and all these aspects were then correlated with the sex and age of the deceased. The observed patterns reveal the degree of differentiation within a community, as well as the main principles and divisions structuring social life.

iii. Sampling strategy for diet reconstruction Our main goal was to examine whether the diet of the buried individuals varied significantly, and whether it correlated with variation in the mortuary treatment. Our sampling strategy was based on the results of the contextual analysis therefore had to include samples from both cemeteries and all clusters, from different tomb and burial types, from all mortuary wealth groups, but also different age and sex groups. Poor preservation of the skeletal material also had to be taken into account. While all graves were included in the contextual analysis of the cemetery, isotope analysis was carried out only on well-preserved skeletons. In addition, animal bones from contemporary layers were also sampled in order to establish the local food web. Twenty-two human and two animal samples (goat/sheep, cattle) from Kephalosi and 31 human and seven animal samples (cattle, goat/sheep and equine) from Voulokaliva have been processed. No pathological bone was sampled. The samples from humans were taken from femora or ribs.

iv. Isotope analysis The carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bone collagen from the two cemeteries of Halos was carried out at the Center for Isotope Research at the University of Groningen. The collagen was

62 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 62 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. extracted following an improved version of the Longin method (Longin 1971). First the samples were cut to the appropriate size and weight. Loose soil and dirt were removed mechanically and the samples were placed in acid (1% HCl) to demineralize the bone. A weaker than usual acid solution was used because of the preservation state of the samples. A 1% NaOH bath removed humic acids. Next, the samples were first placed in slightly acidic demineralized water and then in an oven in order to solubilize the organic part, that is the collagen fraction of the bone. The solution was filtered (50 μm) in order to collect the pure collagen solution. Finally, the solution was dried into solid collagen. 15 The collagen was combusted and purified into gas (CO2 and N2 for 13C and N analysis, respectively) using an Elemental Analyser (EA), coupled to an Isotope Ratio Mass Spectometer (IRMS). We used two instruments, a Carlo Erba/Optima and an Isocube/Isoprime EA/IRMS combination. The instruments provide the isotope ratios 13R=13C/12C and 15R=15N/14N as well as the C and N yields of the collagen. The isotope ratios are expressed in permil deviations from a reference material, reported as delta values:

δ=[Rsample/Rreference] – 1(x1000‰) The reference materials are the internationally recommended compounds VPDB (belemnite carbonate) for δ13C and ambient air for δ15N (DeNiro, 1987; Mook, 2006). The analytical precision is 0.1‰ and 0.2‰ for δ13C and δ15N, respectively. For bone collagen, quality parameters are widely accepted values for the carbon content, nitrogen content and the atomic C/N ratio. These values should be in the range 30-45%, 11-16% and 2.9-3.6, respectively (Ambrose 1990; DeNiro 1985; van Klinken 1999). When these values differ significantly, the bone is considered (partly) degraded, and this may produce deviating isotope ratios, and lead to possibly erroneous conclusions.

Table 2.1: Demographic profile and isotopic data for the population of Kephalosi. The abbreviations indicate, I: Indeterminate, YA: Young adult.

Sample number Lab no Sex Age Coll. (%) δ13C (‰) C% δ15N (‰) N% C/N Halos-Kephalosi HK/B7-c3 57219 – <0 1.1 –19.1 42.4 9.7 15.5 3.2 HK/B7-c6 57220 – ≤ 2 y 1.0 –18.0 45.1 9.9 16.7 3.2 HK/B7-c7 57221 – 1–1.5 y 0.0 – – – – – HK/B7-c8 57222 – 9 m 1.2 –18.7 45.7 9.5 16.8 3.2 HK/B7-c9 57223 – 6–9 m 3.7 –18.1 42.9 11.7 15.7 3.2 HK/B7-c10 57224 – 3 y 2.1 –19.1 43.1 10.0 15.8 3.2 HK/B7-c11 57225 – <0 7.2 –18.6 42.1 10.0 15.3 3.2 HK/B7-c12 57227 – 0 1.1 –19.4 41.6 9.9 15.2 3.2 HK/B7-c14 57228 – 0 5.5 –18.9 44.1 8.8 16.2 3.2 HK/B7-c15 57229 – 7–8 y 7.8 –19.3 43.7 10.2 16.0 3.2 HK/B7-c16 57231 I YA 3.6 –19.1 44.4 9.7 16.4 3.2 HK/B7-c18 57232 – 8–9 y 2.8 –19.3 42.5 8.7 15.5 3.2 HK/B7-c19 57233 – <0 3.9 –19.3 42.5 9.2 15.6 3.2 HK/B7-c20 57234 – 4 y 0.7 –18.3 43.4 10.3 16.0 3.2 HK/B7-c22 57235 – 4 y 1.2 –19.6 44.0 8.9 16.2 3.2 HK/B7-c23 57236 – ≤ 2 y 0.6 –17.2 46.5 11.3 17.3 3.1 HK/B7-c24 57237 – 5–6 y 1.9 –19.4 43.0 8.9 15.7 3.2 HK/B6-c43 57238 – 6 y 0.02 –19.4 28.4 9.5 11.4 2.9 HK/B6-c46 57239 – 3–6 m 4.0 –19.0 42.8 9.7 15.7 3.2 HK/B6-c49 57240 – 0 0.3 –19.1 41.4 10.7 15.1 3.2 HK/B6-c54 57241 – 1 y 0.8 –19.2 43.1 9.2 16.1 3.1 HK/B1-c-52 57242 – 7 y 0.1 –19.5 44.9 7.8 16.8 3.1

Part II • Chapter 2 • Diet and Social Stucture in Halos 63

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 63 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 2.3. Results

2.3.1. Collagen preservation The samples from Kephalosi fall within the acceptable range of the C/N ratio (3.1 to 3.2) as well as the C and N contents, except two (sample HK/B7-c7 yielded no collagen while sample HK/B6-c43 did not exhibit acceptable parameters %Coll: 0.02%, %C: 28.4%). Thus, almost all samples (91%) are well preserved and suitable for this study (Table 2.1). Twenty-six of the 32 human samples from Voulokaliva yielded collagen. Four samples were excluded either because of non-acceptable diagenetic parameters (C/N: HaVo/e-c37/ind1=2.88 and HaVo/w-c12/ind1=2.6, %Coll: HaVo/e-cc8/ind2, HaVo/e-p65, HaVo/ e-c81 and %C-%N: HaVo/w-c7/ind2=85.8%/31.4%). The accepted samples from Voulokaliva represent 81.5% of the total number. This high percentage shows that the collagen is well preserved (Table 2.2). Almost all animal samples yielded collagen; one sample from Voulokaliva had very low C (7.7%) and N (2.88%) content, and one from Kephalosi did not yield collagen. Both are excluded from our study.

2.3.2. Demographic profi le and contextual analysis The demography of the Kephalosi cemetery is composed of 22 subadults, all younger than 10 years-old, and only one indeterminate adult. Eight individuals ranged between the ages of three to ten years. The remaining 14 individuals ranged from neonates to 3 years old (Table 2.2); three individuals from this group are foetuses. There was also one case of twin neonates with concurrent death (Nikolaou and Papathanasiou 2012). Voulokaliva, a formal extramural cemetery, has more varied demographic composition. Twenty adults –males or probable males (n=8), females or probable females (n=6), and individuals of indeterminate sex (n=6) – and 21 subadults – infants (n=5), children 3 y–10 y (n=5), adolescents (n=4) and subadults whose age could not be determined further (n=7), were identified in Voulokaliva. Therefore, adults and subadults (0–18 y) were almost equally represented in Voulokaliva. How- ever, since infant mortality in pre-industrial societies was very high –it is expected to be up to 50% (Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1977; Masset 1973)– infants are actually underrepresented here. In formal extra mural cemeteries the exclusion of infants and their burial in intra mural cemeteries was practiced. However, we cannot, yet, be con- clusive on the above observation because the cemetery of Voulokaliva is not fully excavated and we still do not know the complete assemblage buried in this ground. In Kephalosi, on the other hand, infants predominate, which suggests that this site may contain the individuals missing from Voulokaliva (Figure 2.3). We see therefore that age divisions under- lie the differentiation between intramural and extramural burial. Age affects also other aspects of the evidence. Children in Voulokaliva were often buried in jars, or in cists together with an adult or another subadult. However, the differentiation is not rigid: both cemeteries contain all age groups –young children are found in Voulokaliva and one adult was buried in Kephalosi; cists predominate in both Figure 2.3: Demographic proﬁ le of the cemeteries of Halos cemeteries and inhumation is the rule for (Single column). everyone.

64 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 64 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Table 2.2: Demographic profile and isotopic data for the population of Voulokaliva. The abbreviations indicate, M(?): Male or probable male, F(?): Female or probable female, I: Individual of indeterminate sex, OA: Old adult, YA: Young adult, Ad: Adult.

Sample name Lab no Sex Age Coll. (%) δ13C (‰) C% δ15N (‰) N% C/N Halos-Voulokaliva HaVo/e-c5 57304 I 20–25 y 1.6 –19.2 42.3 9.4 15.4 3.2 HaVo/e-cc8/ind1 57305 I Ad 1.9 –19.4 39.0 8.7 14.1 3.2 HaVo/e-cc8/ind2 57306 I Ad 0.0 – – – – – HaVo/e-c12/ind1 57307 M Ad 2.5 –20.0 42.1 8.5 15.6 3.1 HaVo/e-c12/ind2 57308 F Ad 1.0 –19.4 42.5 8.6 15.8 3.1 HaVo/e-c29 57309 – 9 m 0.6 –19.4 45.0 8.5 16.4 3.2 HaVo/e-c36 57310 – 4 y 0.4 –18.5 41.4 9.0 15.6 3.1 HaVo/e-c37/ind1 57311 – 1 y 0.2 –19.3 38.2 8.6 15.6 2.9 HaVo/e-c37/ind2 57312 – 3 y ± 12 m 1.5 –19.9 42.5 8.1 15.9 3.1 HaVo/e-p40 57313 – 18 m 0.3 –18.2 44.9 10.7 16.8 3.1 HaVo/e-c46 57314 M? 18–20 y 1.9 –19.4 41.9 6.8 15.4 3.2 HaVo/e-c59 57315 – 11 y 3.0 –20.0 44.2 8.3 16.2 3.2 HaVo/e-p65 57316 M? 35–45 y 0.0 – – – – – HaVo/e-p66 57317 F? 25–40 2.1 –19.6 42.2 8.1 15.7 3.1 HaVo/e-c70 57318 – 3 y 3.1 –19.2 42.5 7.1 15.6 3.2 HaVo/e-c72 57319 M? 25–45 y 2.3 –18.5 42.2 8.7 15.6 3.2 HaVo/e-c81 57320 – 18 m 0.0 – – – – – HaVo/w-c7/ind1 57321 M 30–50 y 2.0 –19.5 31.0 8.7 11.3 3.2 HaVo/w-c7/ind2 57322 F 35–40 y 2.1 –17.8 85.8 7.7 31.4 3.2 HaVo/w-c11/ind1 57323 I OA? 2.2 –19.6 41.5 7.5 15.3 3.2 HaVo/w-c11/ind2 57621 I 20–35 y 2.9 –19.4 39.9 8.3 14.9 3.1 HaVo/w-c12/ind1 57622 – 11 y 0.03 –19.6 37.3 6.8 16.5 2.6 HaVo/w-c12/ind2 57623 M M>30y 0.1 –19.7 31.0 8.1 11.6 3.1 HaVo/w-c13 57624 – 16–18 y 0.5 –19.6 41.2 6.9 15.5 3.1 HaVo/w-c17 57625 – 4 y 1.2 –18.3 40.9 9.4 15.1 3.2 HaVo/w-c21 57626 F 30–40 y 2.8 –17.5 41.5 8.6 15.3 3.2 HaVo/w-p31 57627 I YA 1.9 –19.7 31.3 8.7 11.4 3.2 HaVo/w-p38/ind1 57628 M YA 1.9 –18.5 41.4 9.1 15.2 3.2 HaVo/w-p38/ind2-sec 57629 F 35–39 y 1.7 –17.0 36.8 8.5 13.4 3.2 HaVo/w-c46 57630 – 16–18 y 2.6 –18.0 43.2 9.1 15.9 3.2 HaVo/w-c52/ind1 57631 M 35–45 2.7 –19.8 42.8 8.0 15.8 3.2 HaVo/w-c52/ind2 57632 F 30–40 y 0.3 –18.8 39.3 7.3 15.1 3.0

Most tombs are non-monumental simple cists and pits, as could be expected in a period of social regression. The circular construction –including two primary inhumations– could be regarded as a more elaborate structure, but also as a poor, small and rudimentary imitation of the traditional Myce- naean tholoi. The modest offerings recovered from the interior point more to the second explanation. Different preferences, or an adherence to traditional forms may have played a role. In contrast, variation in offerings can be observed. However, some caution is needed, as rich offerings do not necessarily imply wealth or high status held in life. It is therefore important to examine if mortuary wealth correlates with other aspects of mortuary behaviour, or facets of personal identities such asage or gender. Richer graves in Halos do not cluster in one place; furnished and unfurnished graves are found in both cemeteries. While the burials in the circular construction were very modest, cists contained a more diverse range of offerings. Some differentiation between age groups can be observed;

Part II • Chapter 2 • Diet and Social Stucture in Halos 65

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 65 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Table 2.3: δ13C and δ15N values of herbivores from the Halos cemeteries

Sample Number Lab no Species Coll. (%) δ13C (‰) C% δ15N (‰) N% C/N HaVo/w-apoth9 57633 Herbivore 3.2 –18.6 42.6 4.1 15.6 3.2 HaVo/w-apoth12 57634 Sheep/goat 3.0 –19.6 42.7 3.7 15.5 3.2 HaVo/w-apoth13 57635 Herbivore 1.5 –19.5 42.7 8.0 15.7 3.2 HaVo/e-apoth9 57636 Sheep/goat 4.0 –19.9 42.8 3.5 15.6 3.2 HaVo/e-apoth11 57637 Cattle 0.7 –17.5 7.7 6.0 2.9 3.1 HaVo/e-apoth15 57638 Sheep/goat 7.3 –20.1 42.6 2.6 15.5 3.2 HaVo/e-apoth16 57644 Equine 1.9 –19.5 39.2 4.4 14.4 3.2 HK/B7-c11 animal 57226 Sheep/goat 0 – – – – – HK/B7-c15 animal 57230 Cattle 3.8 –18.8 40.9 8.3 14.9 3.2 Mean value –19.4 4.9 SD 0.5 2.3 MIN –20.1 2.6 MAX –18.6 8.3

weapons are only found with adults, and feeding bottles are only found in graves of infants. In general, subadults receive a more diverse range of offerings. However, once more overlaps exist, and the differentiation from adults is not absolute. Differentiation between the two sexes is also attested: weapons are found with males, while females are not accompanied by ceramic offerings. On the other hand, the same types of ornaments were used for both males and females. Either way, we need to be cautious: the large number of indeterminate individuals and the double burials prevent us from reaching firm conclusions on gender differentiation. To conclude, the systematic examination of all aspects of burial practices in the cemeteries of Halos revealed subtle variations rather than rigid divisions. Age differentiation was certainly a factor, expressed by the placing of infants among the houses and the richer and more diverse assortment accompanying subadults. The deposition of weapons and pottery point to a certain gender differentiation, but the state of the evidence does not allow us to reach firm conclusions on this point. Finally, the burial record in Protogeometric Halos does not show pronounced wealth or status differences. Some variation in the quantity or diversity of offerings exists, but these do not correlate with grave type nor with grave elaboration. The contextual analysis allows us not only to design our sampling strategy, but also to formulate clearer questions. Do we observe significant variation in the diet of different age groups and sex categories? Do the people buried in richer graves show a different diet? Does dietary variation show the same picture as the mortuary record, that is a society based on age divisions and perhaps some gender differentiation, and only limited (or perhaps just emerging) status differences?

2.3.3. Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis The results of the isotope ratio measurements are shown in Tables 2.1 & 2.4 (Kephalosi) and Tables 2.2 & 2.5 (Voulokaliva). The human values from subadults (0–3 years old) of Kephalosi range for δ13C: –19.4‰ to –17.2‰ with a mean value (±1σ) of –18.7‰±0.7‰ and for δ15N: 8.8‰ to 11.7‰ with a mean value of 10.1‰±1.0‰. The isotope ratio of values for adults in Voulokaliva range for δ13C: –20.0‰ to –17.0‰ with a mean value of –19.1‰±0.9‰. For δ15N these values are: 6.8‰ to 9.4‰ with a mean value of 8.3‰±0,6‰. The human values from subadults (0–3 years old) of Voulokaliva range for δ13C: –19.9‰ to –19.2‰ with a mean value of –19.5‰±0.4‰ and for δ15N: 7.1‰ to 8.5‰ with a mean value of 7.9‰±0.7‰. The animal values from both sites (Table 2.3) range δ13C: –20.1‰ to –18.6‰ with a mean value of –19.4‰±0.5‰ and δ15N: 2.6‰ to 8.3‰ with mean value 4.9‰±2.3‰ (Table 2.3).

66 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 66 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 13 The δ C values of the animals and most humans indicated a diet based on C3 plant resources like vegetables, fruits, and cereals such as wheat and barley (Figure 2.4). Furthermore, the human δ15N values as they are enriched compared to the local fauna, indicate terrestrial animal protein intake, while 13 aquatic effect did not occur. A few humans showed enriched δ C values, which suggests that C4 plants were possibly present in their diet. The human δ15N values suggest that animal protein (dairy products or meat) constituted a significant share of the human diet. The humans are ca. 3‰ higher than the herbivores, which corresponds to a clear trophic level (Kohn et al. 1999). There are two animals, one cattle and an unspecified herbivore, with δ15N values in the human range (Figure 2.4). A possible explanation is that they could perhaps be young nursing animals (Mays et al. 2002).

The C3 and C4 plants have distinct values for the carbon isotope. The average values are –26.7‰

and –12.6‰ for C3 and C4, respectively (Vogel 1980). Papathanasiou and Richards in their recent article (2015) collected human and animal isotopic data from various Greek sites from the Mesolithic to the Byzantine period in order to examine the diet throughout the periods. They noticed that almost all sites

cluster below –19‰, indicating dietary protein from C3 terrestrial resources. Some human individuals exhibited δ13C values higher than this cut-off point, while the δ15N values were low. It has been suggest-

ed by the authors that this is an indication of C4 additions. Based on that study for Greek assemblages as well as the study by Pearson et al. (2007), where they suggested a cut-off point to be –18‰, in this paper, individuals with δ13C values from –19‰ to –18‰ will be considered to have minor additions of 13 C4 products while individuals with more positive than –18‰ δ C values will be considered as regular

users of C4 resources. However, it has to be stressed that these individuals did not consume exclusively

C4 protein, but they used C4 products to supplement their diet, which mainly consisted of C3 plant and animal protein. Six adults from Voulokaliva exhibit more positive than –19‰ δ13C values. For four individuals there

was less C4 contribution in their diet, but for another two C4 consumption, as indicated by the range:

–17.5‰ to –17.0‰, was considerable. Seven subadults also show C4 resources, five ranging from –18.7‰ to –18.1‰ and two more from –18.0‰ to –17.2‰ (Figure 2.5a). It is important to mention that these two individuals were younger than 2 years, still nursing, and therefore refiecting their mothers’ diet. Breastfeeding plays a significant role in infants’ diet, and is detected by the higher trophic level that the consumer occupies compared to the food (breast-milk: mother’s tissue) (Mays et al. 2002). Breastfeeding is confirmed in Halos by the one higher trophic level that infants lie on above the adult females of the same group (Figure 2.5a) which is statistically significant (t-test, t=3.592, with a p-value b 0.00147). The age at which supplementary food was introduced is, however, difficult to establish. All individuals between new-born and 2-years-old (11 out of 22 subadults) exhibit δ15N values between 8.5‰ and 11.7‰ (Figure 2.5b). The group of 3-year-old children (n=3) have varying δ15N values. Two of them have low δ15N values, 7‰-8‰ (HaVo/e-c37/ind2, HaVo/e-c70), which indicates that they had been weaned, while the δ15N value of the third child is comparable to that of infants who still depend entirely on breastfeeding (HK/B7-c10: 10‰). It can be suggested that weaning was taking place around a child’s third year, but this was not followed in all cases. The 4-year-old children (n=4) show relatively high δ15N values, higher than the 3-year-old ones, while, according to the argument presented above, they should Figure 2.4: δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen from the Halos have already been weaned. This suggests cemeteries for adult humans and animals (single column).

Part II • Chapter 2 • Diet and Social Stucture in Halos 67

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 67 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Figure 2.5: δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen from the Halos cemeteries a: Comparing female adults from Voulokaliva and infants (0-3 years old) from Voulokaliva and Kephalosi b: comparing subadults ranging from 0 to 4 years old (see text) c: comparing males and females (sex differentiation).

b c

either that a few 4-year-old children were still being breastfed, or that they consumed animal protein, for example animal milk without addition of plant protein. However, our sample is not large enough to explore this question further.

2.4. Discussion

This article focuses on dietary variation among the population of Protogeometric Halos and its correla-

tion with the social differentiation. The diet consisted mainly of C3 terrestrial resources including plant and animal protein, as the carbon and nitrogen isotopic values indicated. However, our study also re-

veals a considerable contribution of C4 resources (Figure 2.4). Isotopic studies on assemblages from sites in the Greek mainland from the prehistoric (Iezzi 2009; Papathanasiou 2003; Papathanasiou et al. 2009) to the Ottoman period (Garvie-Lok 2001; Bourbou

and Richards 2007; Bourbou and Garvie-Lok 2015) have shown that the diet largely relied on C3 terrestrial plant and/or animal protein. However, Greek diet exhibits subtle variation and changes throughout

Antiquity, with higher or lower animal protein and C4 intake.

More specifically, C4 has been detected isotopically as human food very rarely in the Neolithic period (6800–3000 BCE) (Papathanasiou 2003) and the Bronze Age (Ingvarsson-Sundström et al. 2009;

Schepartz et al. 2009; Schepartz et al. 2008). Studies interpreted the C4 signal as coincidental – that is they attributed it to the consumption of wild grasses by animals (Petroutsa and Manolis 2010; Petroutsa

2007), while more regular use of C4 resources begun by the end of Late Bronze and mostly during the Iron Age (Triantaphyllou 2001). The limitations of the technique should be kept in mind, since isotopes cannot distinguish between different plant species. It is therefore important to integrate isotopic with archaeobotanical data, which help us distinguish different plant species. Recent archaeobotanical studies have indicated millet as the

source of edible C4 plants in Greece (Valamoti 2013; Valamoti 2004) and have strengthened the isotopic

68 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 68 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. evidence of widespread exploration of millet during the end of Bronze Age and the beginning of Early Iron Age (Jones et al. 1986; Valamoti 2013; Valamoti 2010). Only few isotopic studies have been undertaken on EIA assemblages. These include Agios Dimitrios in central Greece (Panagiotopoulou 2010; Papathanasiou et al. 2013) and the sites Treis Elies (Pantermali 1988; Poulaki-Pantermali 1989; Triantaphyllou 2001), Karitsa, Kladeri (Triantaphyllou 2015; Vokotopoulou 1985), and Makrigialos (Bessios 1996; Triantaphyllou 2001) in northern Greece. No materials from EIA sites in southern Greece have been analysed so far.

These different studies showed that, C4 was more systematically explored during the EIA, although the evidence becomes uncertain as we go further to the south. The site of Agios Dimitrios has mainly

C3 human signal while the signal from the northern EIA sites definitely indicates the use of millet. In

the case of Halos C4 resources appear to have been consumed systematically though only by a few individuals.

Most animal samples at Halos cluster at the plot area of C3 terrestrial diet (Figure 2.4) but only one

cattle and one herbivore have traces of C4 diet. C4 consumption by the humans cannot be explained as incidental because a) a strong signal should be a result of regular consumption, which is not supported by the animal values, and b) this should hold for the entire population if we assume that the animals grazed in the same general area. Isotope analyses may shed light on social differentiation, for instance, gender relations. Isotope analyses of the human remains from Pylos, a Mycenaean palatial town, pointed to status and gender differences as males clustered higher in δ15N than females which indicates a higher animal protein intake (Schepartz et al. 2008). The isotope analyses of the Halos material indicated some differences between the sexes (Figure 2.5c). Females exhibit slightly lower δ15N values than males. However, no rigid differentiation can be observed because, a) not all males had high animal protein diet, and b) not all individuals with higher δ15N are males, or rather some are indeterminate individuals. The difference between males and females is not statistically significant at the 95% level (t-test t-test: 0.076, with a p-value b 0.47062). We also observe variation at the δ13C values (t-test: 1.691, with a p-value b 0.06088), which is also not statistically significant at the same level of confidence. However, the two most positive δ13C values,

suggesting additional C4 consumption belong to females. This may be attributed to personal preference, or to a different geographical origin. A similar argument has been made about the use of millet; it was introduced by women who came from more distant communities (Valamoti, 2013). However, the contextual analysis did not detect differences in mortuary practices between these females and the rest of the population. We can therefore conclude that a subtle gender variation can be observed, but no pronounced differentiation. Studies have shown that diet is associated with the social divisions in past societies. For instance, the isotope ratios of the elite population buried in the Grave Circles (ca. 17th-16th c. BC) at Mycenae, Argolid, consumed more marine resources than the non-elite individuals from the Mycenaean chamber tombs (ca. 1600–1200 BCE) (Richards and Hedges 2008). Comparisons of subadults’ δ15N values of same age groups reveal differences between the two cemeteries in Halos (Figure 2.5b). The subadults with the lower values (4-9 y: 8.1±0.6 [n=3], 3 y: 7.6±0.7 [n=2], 0–2 y: 8.5 [n=1]) are buried at Voulokaliva (Table 2.4) while the values of the ones buried in Kephalosi are approximately 2‰ higher (Table 2.5) (4-9 y: 9.1±1 [n=6], 3 y: 10±1 [n=1], 0-2 y: 10.1±1 [n=9]). The only adult at Kephalosi exhibits also 2‰ higher δ15N than the adults buried in Vou- lokaliva (Tables 2.4 & 2.5). The sample size of Voulokaliva is very small to reasonably support the use of statistical methods between the two sites. The higher δ15N values, in conjunction with the δ13C values, in Kephalosi could be attributed to a higher animal protein intake, by the children or the mothers of the nursing subadults. The δ15N of the females from Voulokaliva do not indicate high animal protein consumption; the difference in mean δ15N values between females of Voulokaliva (n=5) and nursing subadults of Kephalosi (n=10) is approximately 2‰ while the difference between the highest δ15N values of a nurshing child from Kephalosi and a female from Voulokaliva reaches 3.2‰. Furthermore, the differences in mean values between same subadult age groups indicate that the individuals from Kephalosi (elevated δ15N) possibly consumed more animal protein than the individuals from Voulokaliva. This difference between the two cemeteries is reinforced by the differential use of millet between the

Part II • Chapter 2 • Diet and Social Stucture in Halos 69

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 69 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. two sites. The δ13C values of the nursing subadults from Kephalosi (δ13C: –18.7±0.7, n=5) are depleted compared to females from Voulokaliva (δ13C: –17.8±0.9, n=3); this should be reversed, due to δ13C enrichment of consumer against the dietary source (Fuller et al. 2006). A possible explanation for the observed differentiation in δ15N and δ13C between individuals from the two cemeteries is that some adults of the population (mothers/families of the infants from Kephalosi) were buried either at another cemetery or at the unexcavated part of the cemetery of Voulokaliva. How- ever, status should not be excluded as a possible reason for differentiation between the two cemeteries of Halos, although the contextual analysis did not indicate status differences in the mortuary record. The contextual analysis of the cemeteries of Halos did not reveal differences in bone isotopic values

between the people buried in different tomb types. All types are within the C3 range with indication

for some C4 infiuence (Figure 2.6a) including the circular construction, which required more labour than the simple cists and pits. In the contextual analysis we observed status differences on the basis of the offerings. Here, we would like to examine whether diet correlates with the variation observed in offerings. We propose to divide the graves into wealthy, poor and empty ones (Figure 2.6b). A grave with one offering per individual is considered here to be poor whereas one with more offerings per individual is considered rich. 13 All groups show a range in δ C values from exclusive C3 diet to an apparent mixture of C3 – C4 products (Figure 2.6b). We therefore observe considerable variation in δ13C but no clear distinctions. Individuals

from empty graves show a wider range of plant protein in their diet, with values lying in the C4 area (n=3), than the individuals from the other two groups.

Table 2.4. Minimum, maximum and mean values of δ13C and δ15N for age groups of the Kephalosi cemetery.

Min δ13C Max δ13C Mean δ13C Min δ15N Max δ15N Mean δ15N Kephalosi n SD δ13C SD δ15N (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) Adults 1 – –19.1 – – – 9.7 – Subadults 4y-9y 6 –19.6 –18.3 –19.2 0.5 7.8 10.3 9.1 1.0 Subadulst 3y 1 – – –19.1 – – – 10.0 – Subadults 0-2y 9 –19.4 –17.2 –18.6 0.7 8.8 11.7 10.1 1.0 Subadults ≥ 0y 3 –19.3 –18.6 –19.0 0.4 9.2 10.0 9.6 0.4 Animal 1 – – –18.8 – – – 8.3 –

Table 2.5. Minimum, maximum and mean values of δ13C and δ15N for age groups of the Voulokaliva cemetery.

Min δ13C Max δ13C Mean δ13C Min δ15N Max δ15N Mean Voulokaliva n SD δ13C SD δ15N (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) δ15N (‰) Adults 17 –20.0 –17.0 –19.1 0.9 6.8 9.4 8.3 0.6 Males 7 –20.0 –18.5 –19.3 0.6 6.8 9.1 8.3 0.7 Females 5 –19.6 –17.0 –18.5 1.1 7.3 8.6 8.2 0.6 Indeterminate 5 –19.7 –19.3 –19.5 0.2 7.5 9.4 8.5 0.7 11y-18y 3 –20.0 –18.0 –19.2 1.0 6.9 9.2 8.1 1.1 4y-9y 2 –18.5 –18.3 –18.4 0.1 9.0 9.4 9.2 0.3 3y 2 –19.9 –19.2 –19.6 0.5 7.1 8.1 7.6 0.7 0-2y 1 – – –19.4 – – – 8.5 – Animals 6 –20.08 –18.63 –19.45 0.54 2.59 8.29 4.94 2.26

Archaeobotanical investigations indicated that C4 might have been used as human food either sporadically or regularly during periods of food shortage (Valamoti 2013). In addition, isotopic studies, so

70 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 70 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. far, have not associated millet consumption with individuals of higher status (Papathanasiou 2015).

It seems that C4 consumption in Halos was observed mainly among those buried in poor and empty

graves, while richer individuals were mainly relying on animal C3 protein. On the other hand, two indi-

viduals from wealthier graves also presented C4 traces. This suggests once more that no rigid divisions

can be observed, but also that there is no clear evidence, which would allow to consider C4 to be the ‘food for the poor’. We also examined diet in relation to the value of the offerings. Indeed individuals buried with weapons and gold ornaments produced higher nitrogen values indicating that a diet relying on animal protein might have been associated with higher status. On the other hand, however, also individuals buried in empty graves are found in the group showing higher nitrogen values. To conclude: Our analyses, based on the integration of contextual analysis of mortuary data with stable isotope analysis of bone collagen, indicate a possible correlation between social differentiation patterns and diet.

2.5. Conclusions

The main goal of this paper was to reconstruct the social differentiation during the EIA in Thessaly, Greece by integrating the contextual analysis of mortuary practices with dietary reconstruction by stable isotope (δ13C and δ15N) analysis. We designed the sampling strategy for the isotope analysis based on the results and questions generated by the contextual analysis of the mortuary data, and we compared the two sets of data in order to get a more holistic picture of differentiation between age, sex and status groups. The contextual analysis of the two Early Iron Age cemeteries of Halos indicated a society organized mainly around age and gender divisions, while social status may have just been emerging in this period. We observed significant variation in the choice of burial locations and grave types, in the types and value of offerings as well as in the treatment of the deceased. However, we seem to be dealing with subtle variation rather than rigid divisions between social groups. The questions that emerged mainly concern the role of diet in the formation of these divisions and its correlation to the social aspect. Gender differentiation is perhaps indicat-

ed by the strong signal of C4 consumption by a few females. A few individuals with weapons and wealthier offerings exhibited higher animal protein intake, while the difference in δ13C and δ15N between the individuals from

the two cemeteries indicates that C4 and animal protein were not accessible or preferred by the entire population. We see the first steps of the development of social divisions. The integration of the two methods has helped us to understand dietary variations 13 15 among the inhabitants of EIA Halos, and en- Figure 2.6. δ C and δ N values of bone collagen from the Halos cemeteries. a: grave types b: wealth status. abled us to reach important conclusions on a

Part II • Chapter 2 • Diet and Social Stucture in Halos 71

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 71 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. hitherto little investigated crucial period of Greek prehistory. However, the integrated approach adopted in this study has a wide relevance beyond Greek archaeology, as it allows us to control archaeological and isotopic data against each other, and to provide more nuanced interpretations of both.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their gratitude first to the Institute of Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP) for their significant contribution to this project. The support they provided was of major importance for the completion of this work. Furthermore, we would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and the Ephorate of Antiquities of Magnesia, the Archaeological Museum of Almiros, the Athanasakeion Archaeological Museum of Volos and their personnel for providing the facilities for the study of the assemblages. Last but not least we would like to thank the staff of the laboratory of the Center for Isotope Research at the University of Groningen for the help they provided during the analysis of the samples.

72 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 72 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Chapter 3 • Diet and social divisions in protohistoric Greece

Diet and social divisions in protohistoric Greece: integrating analyses of stable isotopes and mortuary practices1

Eleni Panagiotopouloua,2, Johannes van der Plichtb,c, Anastasia Papathanasioud, Sofia Voutsakia, Stiliani Katakoutae, Argyro Doulgeri-Intzesiloglouf, Polixeni Arachovitif

aGroningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands bCentre for Isotope Research, University of Groningen, The Netherlands cFaculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, The Netherlands dEphorate of Palaeoanthropology and Speleology, Greece eEphorate of Antiquities of Larisa, Greece fEphorate of Antiquities of Magnesia, Greece

Abstract

In this paper we adopt a multi-disciplinary approach in order to investigate the relation between diet, mortuary treatment, and social divisions in Early Iron Age (1100-900 BC) Greece, by integrating stable isotope ratios (13C, 15N) of human skeletal remains for dietary reconstruction with bio-archaeological observations. Analysis of two cemeteries in central Greece (Pharsala and Chloe) revealed variation in

mortuary practices and emerging social divisions. The stable isotope analysis indicated animal and C3 plant protein as the main dietary resource. Our analysis also shows that diet was not influenced by strict social norms.

Keywords δ13C and δ15N isotope analysis; Paleodietary reconstruction; Early Iron Age Greece; Contextual analysis of mortuary data

3.1. Introduction

The Early Iron Age (EIA, 11th-7th century BC) in Greece is the transitional period following the end of the Mycenaean civilization. The first half of this period is the so-called Protogeometric period (11th-9th century BC) during which the mainland communities had to recover from the collapse of the Mycenaean palatial system, a centralized economic system of a stratified society.3 Social and economic structures were both severely damaged in the 12th century BC, resulting in various changes in technology, material culture and mortuary practices across the entire Aegean in the ensuing periods. These changes

1. This is published in Journal of Greek Archaeology (JKA), 2018, vol. 3 (in press). 2. Corresponding author. 3. Wright 2010.

Part II • Chapter 3 • Diet and Social Divisions in Protohistoric Greece 73

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 73 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. also affected the region of Thessaly, located at the northern margin of the Mycenaean world.4 Mortuary practices have been used as proxies for social reconstruction.5 In this paper we focus on the Early Iron Age cemeteries, which are an excellent source of information. The study of funerary data from Protogeometric Thessaly has revealed a marked diversity in mortuary practices; traditional Mycenaean practices had either survived or been imitated while new practices had also been introduced.6 There is significant variety in the types of graves, body treatment and grave goods.7 Tholoi are present alongside simpler grave types such as pits and cists as well as tumuli. Furthermore, inhumations and cremations co-existed, while various types of grave goods of clay, bronze and iron were included. Here we need to stress that the Protogeometric Figure 3.1: (created by Remco Bronkhorst) tholoi retained the basic characteristics of a My- Map of Thessaly and Greece: the black frame cenaean construction –dromos, entrance, tholos– indicates the enlarged area, and the numbers 1) Athens, 2) Pharsala Site 1, but were much smaller in size and less wealthy 3) Pharsala Site 2, and 4) Chloe than the Myceanaean ones. They were essentially subterranean vaulted stone-built tombs. Protogeo- metric tholoi cannot therefore be considered on their own as the embodiment of high social status like the Mycenaean tholoi. We can only regard them as composite constructions compared to simple pits and cists and need to examine for other aspects that also point to a higher social status. The two cemeteries at Pharsala and Chloe (Figure 3.1) date to the Protogeometric period and are roughly contemporary. They both provide ideal case-studies in terms of location and diversity of the mortuary practices observed in them. Both sites are situated in the Thessalian plain but in different sub-regions. Their comparative analysis therefore provides the opportunity to explore differences and similarities between the sites focusing on variable interregional contacts and patterns of land exploitation. Furthermore, at Pharsala traditional mortuary customs exist alongside newly adopted practices and forms, while in Chloe the traditional mortuary forms are adhered to almost exclusively. This paper investigates the relation between diet –reconstructed by means of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of skeletal remains– and the social structure of a community –reconstructed on the basis of a contextual analysis of mortuary practices. Our first goal is to correlate social divisions along age, sex, and possibly status, with differences in diet. Indeed, a main tenet of our approach is that diet is dependent on access to and control over resources, and is therefore inextricably connected with social divisions. Our second goal is to emphasize the need for close contextual observations on the mortuary data prior to, and as a basis for sampling for isotope analyses. The contextual analysis forms the backbone of the analysis of both mortuary and dietary variability.

4. Papadimitriou 2008; Eder 2009; Feuer 2011. 5. Mee and Cavanagh 1984; Voutsaki 1998. 6. Dickinson 2006. 7. Snodgrass 1964; Snodgrass 1971: 140-197; Lemos 2002; Dickinson 2006; Georganas 2009; Lagia et al. 2010.

74 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 74 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 3.2. Materials and Methods

3.2.1. Materials i. The cemeteries of Pharsala Rescue excavations carried out from 2004 to 2008 at the western end of the modern city of Pharsala uncovered two burial grounds, ascribed the names Site 1 and Site 2, dating to 1050-900 BC (Figures 3.1 & 3.2).8 Site 1 was the expansion to the north of the earlier Late Bronze Age cemetery. It included 35 graves distributed in an open area (in the following referred to as “Site 1-cemetery”) and a tumulus, a mound of soil and stones covering burials, with eight graves (in the following referred to as “Site 1-tumulus”). Site 2, constructed 6 km north-east of Site 1 along the ancient road leading to other important settlements of the period, such as Larisa, consisted of only two tombs.9

ii. The cemetery of Chloe The cemetery of Chloe, dating to 1000 BC-875 BC, is located in eastern Thessaly.10 Eight tholoi were constructed on a plain near the modern village of Chloe (Figures 3.1 & 3.3).11 This cemetery is one of the burial grounds of Pherai, a site occupied continuously from the Late Neolithic (4500-3200/3000 BC) to the Roman period (31 BC-324 AD).12The present study includes the two best documented of the eight tholoi, EII and ZI.

iii. The human osteological assemblage The preservation state of the human skeletal assemblage was good although sometimes the sex and age estimation of the individuals was difficult. These difficulties emerged from the partial fragmentation of the material and the commingled state of the multiple burials; one may encounter such difficulties when studying multiple burials and reused tombs. Nevertheless, in general terms, the material was in good condition and could be used for the purposes of this study.

3.2.2. Methods i. Osteological analysis The osteological assemblage was analysed in order to reconstruct the basic demographic parameters, i.e. to estimate age, sex and the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI), as the basis for the contextual analysis. We followed the standard procedures for complete and commingled material discussed in Buikstra and Ubelaker.13 The sex of the individuals was estimated only for adults with mature characteristics.

ii. Contextual analysis Contextual analysis is widely used in the study of mortuary practices in archaeology in order to establish normative practices but also to study variation and detect the underlying patterns.14 The main aspects of the burial practices studied here are: a) the spatial organisation of the cemetery, b) the different grave types that have been used, c) the different modes of treatment of the body, and finally, d) the different grave goods that have been placed in a grave. According to the contextual method,

8. Katakouta 2012; Tziafalias and Batziou-Efstathiou 2010. 9. Katakouta 2012. 10. Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1996; Arachoviti 2000. 11. Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1996; Arachoviti 2000. 12. Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1994; Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou and Arachoviti 2006; Georganas 2008. 13. Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994. 14. Hodder 1985; Voutsaki 1998; Parker-Pearson 1999.

Part II • Chapter 3 • Diet and Social Divisions in Protohistoric Greece 75

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 75 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. all these different aspects are examined in terms of their statistical occurrence, but are also correlated with each other and with other aspects, primarily age, sex, and social status –as much as this can be reconstructed on the basis of tomb elaboration and grave goods.

iii. Sampling design A main principle of our research is that isotope analysis for dietary reconstruction has to be based on a careful sampling procedure, which takes into account a) the patterns and correlations detected by means of the contextual analysis described above, b) the research questions arising from our contextual observations, and c) the preservation and sample quality of the osteological material. Our study does not include cremations, as cremated bones do not contain collagen suitable for isotope analysis.

iv. Isotope analysis The stable isotope ratios of the skeletal material from Pharsala and Chloe were measured for the bone collagen fraction. The analysis was conducted at the Centre for Isotope Research of the University of Groningen. The collagen was extracted using an improved version of the methodology by Longin.15 We took the following steps: a) samples were mechanically cleaned, cut to appropriate size and weight, b) samples were put in weak acid (1% HCl) for bone demineralization, c) humic acids werewashed awayby alkalic solution (1% NaOH), and d) samples were put in slightly acidic demineralized water and in an oven (90oC) so that the organic part, i.e. the collagen fraction of the bone, was solubilized. A pure collagen solution was collected after filtration (50μm). Finally, the solution was dried resulting in solid collagen. 13 15 The collagen was then combusted and purified into gas (CO2 and N2 for C and N analysis, respectively) using an Elemental Analyser (EA), coupled to an Isotope Ratio Mass Spectometer (IRMS). We used two instruments, a Carlo Erba/Optima and an Isocube/Isoprime EA/IRMS combination, providing the isotope ratios 13R=13C/12C and 15R=15N/14N as well as the C and N yields of the collagen. The isotope ratios are expressed in permil deviations from a reference material, reported as delta values: δ=[Rsample/Rreference]-1(x1000‰). The analytical precision is 0.1‰ and 0.2‰ for δ13C and δ15N, respectively. The reference materials are the internationally recommended compounds VPDB (belemnite carbonate) for δ13C and ambient air for δ15N.16 The bone collagen quality parameters are assessed using the carbon content (30-40%), nitrogen content (11-16%) and the atomic C/N ratio (2.9-3.6).17 When the results are deviating from these numbers, the bone is considered (partially) degraded which may cause deviating isotope ratios and produce misleading conclusions on the diet of prehistoric populations.18

3.3. Results and Discussion

3.3.1. Demographic profile The Minimum Number of Individuals in the cemeteries of Pharsala is estimated at 54 (MNI=54). Sub- adults are underrepresented (n=8) ranging from neonate (n=1) to 16 years old (n=1), while the 46 adults range from 20 to 50 years old. The adults include 11 males or probable males, 11 females or probable females, and a large number of indeterminate individuals (n=24). In more detail, Site 1-cemetery included the majority of the population: six young subadults (0-10 years old) and 30 adults (20-50+ years old) –five males or probable males, seven females or probable females and 18 indeterminate individuals. Site 1-tumulus included two adolescents (11-16+ years old)

15. Longin 1971. 16. DeNiro 1987; Mook 2006. 17. DeNiro 1985; Ambrose 1990; van Klinken 1999. 18. Bocherens and Drucker 2007.

76 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 76 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. and 10 adults (20-45 years old) –three males or probable males, two females or probable females, and five individuals of indeterminate sex. At Site 2, the two tholoi contained only adults (n=6). Tholos 1 had one indeterminate individual and tholos 2 contained three males or probable males and two females or probable females. The MNI in the two tholoi of Chloe was estimated at 25. The demographic profile of tholos EII is different from tholos ZI. Tholos EII includes only adults (n=10) but further estimation of the age was not possible with the exception of one individual of approximately 20-30 years old; four males or probable males, one probable female and five indeterminate individuals were found. Tholos ZI contains 15 individuals, including both adults and subadults. Nine subadults range from 5 to 16+ years old and six adults from 18 to 30+. The Figure 3.2: Excavation plan of the cemeteries of adults’ group comprises two males or probable Pharsala (after Katakouta 2012) males, two females or probable females and two indeterminate individuals. In summary, adults predominate in both cemeteries. The two sexes do not show significant differences but the large number of indeterminate individuals prevents us from reaching certain conclusions.

3.3.2. Contextual analysis of the mortuary data The contextual analysis of the mortuary data is divided into two parts. In the first part, we analyse the mortuary data from the cemeteries of Pharsala and Chloe by site and then combine them with the data of the osteological analysis. In the second part, we compare the cemeteries of Pharsala with the cemetery of Chloe and reach conclusions on social structure and social divisions. With regard to the analysis of wealth we based our analysis on the grave goods found in each grave.19 However, we have followed a slightly different approach for each site for reasons explained below. In Pharsala, where a detailed list of the grave goods ascribed to each individual is available, but where no significant differences in the type and material of the objects can be noted, we divide the graves on the basis of differences in the number of grave goods. We have classified the graves in three categories: wealthy (three or more grave goods ascribed to each individual), poor (two or less grave goods ascribed to each individual), and empty (no grave goods were found in the grave with the individual). In Chloe, on the other hand, it is not possible to attribute grave goods to specific individuals because of the commingled state of the skeletal assemblage. Taking into account the number of grave goods, the quality and diversity of the objects and the value of the raw material of the objects found in the tholoi of Chloe we consider the tombs wealthy –not the individuals buried in them. Therefore, we based our comparisons between the sites of Pharsala and Chloe on their overall wealth and the differences both in quality and quantity of the grave goods; the two tholoi of Chloe are considered wealthier than the graves of Pharsala because they included a greater number of grave goods as well as greater range of materials. The analysis of the site of Pharsala showed that the burial practices are significantly diverse. Site 1-cemetery showed most diversity in terms of tomb types and body treatment. The dominant grave type was the cist (n=29), a rectangular pit having the sides and top covered with limestone slabs; the type was used in Thessaly in the Mycenaean period, but became more common in the Protogeometric

19. Voutsaki 1995.

Part II • Chapter 3 • Diet and Social Divisions in Protohistoric Greece 77

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 77 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. period.20 However, one tholos and two burial enclosures (which are probably poor imitations of a tholos tomb) were also found, indicating that simpler and more complex, or traditional and new types were used alongside each other. While most graves contained inhumations, body treatment is also characterized by diversity as five vases with cremations were also found in a small area between the cist graves. Site 1-tumulus was less diverse: It covered a pit, five cists and two tholoi all containing inhumations only. Site 2 in Pharsala appears to be the most homogeneous as it consisted exclusively of two tholoi with inhumations.21 Hence the main practice of body disposal was inhumation; cremation was present only in Site 1-cemetery. Subadults in Pharsala were found only in Site 1; the youngest group (0-10 years old) was buried exclusively in cist graves. The two subadults in the tumulus were older (11-16+ years old) while in Site 2 no subadults were found. We can therefore suggest that age differentiation can be attested in the cemeteries of Pharsala as young subadults were excluded from certain burial forms. Considering the high infant mortality attested in pre-industrial societies (30-50%)22, infants and babies are underrepresented in both cemeteries. In the Mycenaean period young subadults –especially the age group under 4 years– were receiving differential burial treatment; they were generally excluded from tholoi and other burial forms but occasionally they were included, especially in northern regions of the Mycenaean world -albeit still underrepresented.23 The differential treatment of subadults in Protogeometric cemeteries could suggest a continuity of Mycenaean traditions into that period. Differences based on sex are not attested neither between the burial grounds nor between the different tomb types. There are almost equal numbers of males and females in Site 1 and Site 2 and in the tomb types. However, as explained earlier, some caution is necessary because of the high number of indeterminate individuals. The grave goods in Pharsala covered a range of types and materials –pottery, iron and bronze ornaments, and iron tools and weapons.24 Exceptional objects such as gold or imports were not found. The number of grave goods attested in each grave did not vary significantly between the different burial grounds nor did it correlate with specific tomb type. This implies that wealth divisions (which may be seen as an indication of social status) were neither marked nor rigid. In Pharsala grave goods accompanying subadults were different than those found in adult burials. Subadults (neonates to 16+) were offered mostly bronze ornaments and/or pottery. Adults, on the other hand, were accompanied by a more varied and rich assemblage also including iron ornaments, tools and weapons. We therefore do observe age differentiation in grave goods. The examination of grave goods against the sex of individuals did not show differences between males and females in the number of offerings. However, differences are observed when we examine the type and material of the objects. Females in single burials did not receive pottery, iron ornaments, tools or weapons, which are only found in male burials, but were offered only bronze ornaments. However, it is important to be very cautious when reaching conclusions on gender differentiation in Pharsala for three major reasons: a) there is a large number of indeterminate individuals, b) the secondary depositions found in complex tombs (tholoi and enclosures) were sometimes commingled, and c) in graves with double or multiple burials, the grave goods cannot always be attributed to specific individuals. The cemetery of Chloe is different from the cemetery of Pharsala. It comprised mainly tholos tombs, similar to those of Pharsala, and they contained multiple inhumations. The grave goods included pottery, iron weapons and tools, gold and bronze ornaments, and beads of various materials such as gold, glass and faience.25 The osteological analysis showed that one tholos (ZI) contained more subadults (5-18 years old, n=9) than adults (n=6) while in the other tholos (EII) only adults were buried. This indicates that age differentiation occurred also in Chloe as subadults under the age of 5 years old were excluded; as mentioned earlier, this is a Mycenaean practice, although in the later periods of the

20. Dickinson 2006. 21. Katakouta 2012. 22. Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1977; Masset 1973. 23. Lewartowski 2000; Papathanasiou et al. 2012. 24. Katakouta 2012. 25. Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1994; 1996; Arachoviti 2000; Adrimi-Sismani and Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 2010.

78 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 78 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Figure 3.3: Excavation plans of the cemetery of Chloe (Photographic Archives of the Ephorate of Antiquities of Magnesia – Guide of the Tholos Tombs of Pherai: Necropoleis of the Geometric Period at Chloe)

Mycenaean period subadults were receiving extra-muros burial.26 Sex differentiation, on the other hand cannot be studied, because of the number of the indeterminate individuals and the commingled nature of osteological material. The comparison of the two sites based on the contextual analysis indicates that burial practices in Pharsala appear very diverse while the cemetery of Chloe appears relatively homogeneous showing only subtle differences. In Pharsala we see simple and complex tombs, inhumations and cremations, and new and traditional tomb types, while Chloe consisted mainly of ‘traditional’ tholoi with inhumations. The variation observed in spatial organisation and grave types might indicate emerging social differentiation. The separate burial location of Site 2 in Pharsala and the cemetery of Chloe, both exclusively with tholoi, but also the tomb types of tumulus, burial enclosure and tholoi could be associated with social divisions. However, we can assign higher status and reach firm conclusions on social divisions only if we incorporate other aspects of burial practices, such as the wealth placed in the graves. Although the site of Pharsala appears more diverse than Chloe in terms of burial practices, the grave goods assemblage of Chloe is richer than that of Pharsala with higher quality and greater range of raw materials and greater diversity of types of objects. The study of wealth in relation to tomb elaboration or burial location shows that there is a general correlation between these aspects. However, while there is some differentiation between the burial grounds, there is also considerable overlap between them –for instance, tholoi and comparable types of grave goods are found in all cemeteries, both sexes and most age groups are found (though in varying proportions), and the predominant treatment is inhumation. The mortuary record therefore shows subtle variation rather than rigid differentiation. While mortuary practices in the Mycenaean period present a much more stratified and hierarchical picture27, in the Protogeometric period, the mortuary record shows only a small degree of emerging differentiation along age and perhaps sex and status divisions. The contextual analysis of the mortuary practices has offered us some insight into the social structure of the Pharsala and Chloe communities, but also to formulate new and informed questions arising from the patterns we identified. We want to complement the analysis of the archaeological data, and explore

26. Lewartowski 2000. 27. Wright 2008.

Part II • Chapter 3 • Diet and Social Divisions in Protohistoric Greece 79

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 79 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. dietary differentiation between social groups based on sex and grave wealth. Therefore the questions we address here are: • Was there variation in diet between social groups? • Does dietary variation correlate with mortuary variation?

3.3.3 Sampling The sampling strategy of the analysis has been designed on the basis of the patterns observed during the contextual analysis of the archaeological data. However, certain biases in the data should be noted again: a) the poor preservation of the osteological material has prevented us from sexing all individuals; as a result, the sex of 26 individuals from both sites could not be estimated; b) the commingled state of the multiple burials found in some of the tombs did not permit the attribution of grave goods to all individuals; c) the skeletal remains chosen for isotope analysis were mainly either rib or long bone fragment, but cranium samples were also collected in some cases from Chloe because, due to the commingled state, these skeletal material could only be correlated to age and sex of the individuals.

Figure 3.4: δ13C and δ15N isotope values from Pharsala, M: Male, F: Female, I: Indeterminate individuals, YA: Young adult, MA: Middle adult, Adol.: Adolescent

Weight Sample Name Lab number Sex Age δ13C (‰) C% δ15N (‰) N% C/N (mg) F/Ep-th1 57243 I 20-40y 7.33 -19.1 36.23 9.4 13.19 3.20 F/Ep-th2/ind1 57244 M? 20-25y 0.74 -19.2 41.11 10.4 15.41 3.11 F/Ep-th2/ind2 57245 M 40-55y 4.49 -19.5 42.63 8.6 15.33 3.25 F/Ep-th2/secA/ 57246 M? 24-30y 6.14 -19.1 38.06 9.2 13.85 3.21 ind1 F/Ep-th2/secA/ 57247 F? >40y 5.59 -19.3 49.57 9.4 18.02 3.21 ind2 F/Ep-th2/secB 57248 F? 27-44y 6.47 -19.2 31.49 8.9 11.48 3.20 F/Per-th1/ind1 57249 I 20-35y No collagen F/Per-th1/ind2 57250 I >40y 1.45 -23.1 2.15 7.7 2.24 1.12 F/Per-th1/ind3 57251 M? 30-40y No collagen F/Per-th2/indA 57252 I YA No collagen F/Per-th2/indB 57253 I 25-35y No collagen F/Per-pit3 57254 I YA 6.13 -19.4 43.23 9.7 15.48 3.26 F/Per-c4 57255 M? 20-25y No collagen F/Per-c5 57256 M? YA 0.82 -19.6 31.62 10.7 12.64 2.92 F/Per-c7 57257 F? 30-45y 6.07 -19.3 42.12 9.7 15.23 3.23 F/Per-c8 57258 F? 35-45y 7.58 -19.5 45.57 8.8 16.70 3.18 F/Od-c1 57259 F? YA 0.87 -19.2 44.38 9.1 16.91 3.06 F/Od-c2 57260 I 20-30y No collagen F/Od-c3 57261 I Adult No collagen F/Od-c4 57262 - 5-10y No collagen F/Od-c5 57263 I Adult No collagen F/Od-c8 57264 - 0 0.09 -18.8 31.66 -4.4 17.68 2.09 F/Od-c9 57265 F? 40-50y 1.87 -19.9 24.09 10.4 8.52 3.30 F/Od-c13 57266 I MA No collagen F/Od-c16 57267 I Adult No collagen

80 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 80 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. F/Od-be18/ind1 57268 F? 35-40y 4.13 -19.5 25.74 9.1 9.30 3.23 F/Od-be18/ind2 57269 I 20-25y 1 -19.6 45.41 10.0 16.54 3.20 F/Od-th20/#3 57270 I 35-50y No collagen F/Od-c21 57271 F? Adult 1.01 -25.2 1.56 -2.3 2.12 0.86 F/Od-c22 57272 - 3-6y No collagen F/Od-c23 57273 M? >50 No collagen F/Od-c24a 57274 F? Adult No collagen F/Od-c24b 57275 M? MA No collagen F/Od-c25 57276 I 30-50y 0.06 -19.2 129.59 9.4 53.38 2.83 F/Od-c26 57277 I YA 1.19 -24.8 0.86 - 1.82 - F/Od-c27 57278 - 7y No collagen F/Od-be28/2a 57279 M Adult 5.57 -18.8 42.22 6.5 15.45 3.19 F/Od-be28/ind1 57280 M? Adult 5.59 -19.4 42.27 9.3 15.59 3.16 F/Od-be28/ 57281 F? 25-35y 5.73 -18.7 42.43 8.4 15.63 3.17 south F/Od-be28/ 57282 I 20-30y 5.75 -19.5 42.86 9.4 15.67 3.19 north F/Od-c31 57284 I MA No collagen F/Od-c32 57285 I Adult No collagen F/Od-c34 57286 M? 35-50y No collagen F/Od-be28/ 57283 - - 5.88 -19.9 42.21 7.0 15.36 3.21 horse

Figure 3.5: δ13C and δ15N isotope values from Chloe, M: Male, F: Female, I: Indeterminate individuals, YA: Young adult, MA: Middle adult, Adol.: Adolescent

Weight Sample Name Lab number Sex Age δ13C (‰) C% δ15N (‰) N% C/N (mg) C/E-th2/o1 57287 I Adult No collagen C/E-th2/cr2 57288 I 20-30y No collagen C/E-th2/cr3 57289 I I No collagen C/E-th2/o4 57290 M? Adult No collagen C/E-th2/cr5 57291 F? Adult No collagen C/E-th2/cr6 57292 I Adult No collagen C/E-th2/cr7 57293 M? Adult 0.46 -19.3 49.39 10.4 18.01 3.20 C/Z-th1/cr1 57295 F? 20-25y 5.98 -19.3 41.60 9.3 15.54 3.12 C/Z-th1/cr2 57296 I Adult No collagen C/Z-th1/cr3 57297 I 18-20y 5.83 -19.4 41.67 9.1 15.63 3.11 C/Z-th1/cr4 57298 M 20+ No collagen C/Z-th1/cr5 57299 F 30+ 1.43 -19.2 41.33 9.9 15.35 3.14 C/Z-th1/cr8 57300 - 16-20y No collagen C/Z-th1/cr10 57301 M? Adult 0.22 -19.0 42.86 9.7 17.34 2.88 C/Z-th1/sec/ 57302 - Adol. 5.53 -19.3 41.61 9.1 15.60 3.11 north C/E-th2/P1 57294 - - No collagen animal Chloe Th1/Z/ 57303 - - No collagen animal

Part II • Chapter 3 • Diet and Social Divisions in Protohistoric Greece 81

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 81 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Our first concern was to examine the cemeteries in order to select a sufficient number of samples from the different burial grounds, tomb types, modes of treatment, wealth classes, age groups and sex categories. Samples from different burial locations are represented by 27 samples from Site 1-cemetery, ten samples from Site 1-tumulus, six samples from Site 2 in Pharsala and 16 samples from Chloe. Furthermore, samples from different tomb types have been collected; samples from one pit (n=1), cists (n=25), burial enclosures (n=6), and tholoi (n=12) have been collected from Pharsala, the cist and tholos types being better represented than the other two types. More samples were collected from the tholoi of Chloe –seven samples from tholos EII and nine samples from tholos ZI. This sampling strategy allows us to make comparisons between the adults of Pharsala and Chloe, and between the adults of the same tomb type –the tholos. At Pharsala the number of males (n=11) and females (n=10) sampled enables us to study sex differentiation. At Chloe comparisons between males (n=4) and females (n=3) can be made but the number of indeterminate individuals (n=6) is too large to allow credible conclusions (Figure 3.4). Samples from subadults have not been taken because the sample size was too small and no safe conclusions could be reached. Finally, the different social groups from Pharsala based on the grave wealth are represented by a) ten samples of both sexes from empty graves, b) 13 samples from poor graves, and c) 17 samples from wealthy graves (Figure 3.5). All samples obtained from Chloe are considered wealthy.

3.4. Isotope analysis

Collagen extraction was conducted on 43 human and one animal bone samples from Pharsala. Based on the collagen quality criteria, 18 human out of 43 and one animal samples were accepted for the paleodietary study. Twenty samples yielded no collagen and five had C/N ratio, carbon content (%) and/or nitrogen content (%) or which falls outside the acceptable range (Figure 3.4). Only 45 % of the human skeletal assemblage is well preserved. Environmental conditions – water from the rivers flooding the graves and ploughing of the surface soils – may have contributed to the relatively poor preservation of the bone assemblage and resulted in the relatively small number of acceptable samples. Fifteen human (13 adults / 2 adolescents) and two animal bone samples were analysed from Chloe. The application of quality criteria showed that a small number of samples (only five individuals) could be accepted for dietary reconstruction; approximately 33 % of the samples were well preserved; the rest yielded either no collagen or collagen with non-acceptable quality parameters (Figure 3.5). There is only one animal sample from Pharsala available for study (Figures 3.4 and 3.5). The poorly preserved animal bones from Chloe do not allow comparisons between animals and humans. Therefore, we incorporate animal values from other contemporary sites of Thessaly, the sites of Kynos and Halos.28 The results from the isotope analysis as well as the mean values of each population are shown in Figures 3.4-3.7. The isotopic data from relevant sites, Kynos and Halos, are shown for comparison in Fig- ure 3.8. The isotope analysis showed that the diet at both sites, Pharsala and Chloe, comprised largely

C3 terrestrial plant protein with elevated levels of animal protein intake (Figure 3.9). The inhabitants of Pharsala and Chloe exhibit enriched δ15N values by 3‰ against their food because of the fractionation that occurs while ascending the food-chain.29 Apparently animal protein –dairy products and/or meat– was a significant part of the diet at Pharsala and Chloe. The use of leguminous resources must have been negligible. Legumes exhibit low δ15N values because these plants use atmospheric nitrogen (with 15 30 δ Nair=0‰) for the N2-fixing nutritional processes. If legumes had a significant share in the diet, then the δ15N values of the humans would have clustered lower in the scale.

28. Papathanasiou et al. 2013; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016. 29. DeNiro and Epstein 1981. 30. He et al. 2009

82 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 82 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. The isotope analysis showed that despite the diversity and differences between the cemeteries of Pharsala and Chloe indicated by the contextual analysis, diet appears to be rather homogeneous. The majority of the samples from both sites range from δ13C –19‰ to –20‰, and from δ15N 8.5‰ to

11‰. The standard deviation in Pharsala varies; for carbon it is very narrow showing that C3 is the main food resource for this group. For nitrogen, on the other hand, the standard deviation is large indicating that there is varied animal protein intake. However, in general there is high proportion of animal protein as no individual exhibits δ15N values low enough to infer exclusive use of plant protein. The standard deviation in the values of Chloe is very narrow indicating that the individuals included in the analysis had a very similar diet.

Figure 3.6: δ13C and δ15N mean, minimum, and maximum isotope values from Pharsala

Mean δ13C Min δ13C Max δ13C Mean δ15N SD δ15N Min δ15N Max δ15N Pharsala SD δ13C (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) Adults -19.3 0.3 -19.9 -18.7 9.3 0.9 6.5 10.7 Males -19.3 0.3 -19.6 -18.8 9.1 1.5 6.5 10.7 Females -19.3 0.4 -19.9 -18.7 9.2 0.6 8.4 10.4

Figure 3.7: δ13C and δ15N mean, minimum, and maximum isotope values from Chloe

Mean δ13C Min δ13C Max δ13C Mean δ15N SD δ15N Min δ15N Max δ15N Chloe SD δ13C (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) Adults -19.3 0.2 -19.4 -19.0 9.7 0.5 9.1 10.4 Males -19.2 0.2 -19.3 -19.0 10.1 0.5 9.7 10.4 Females -19.3 0.1 -19.3 -19.2 9.6 0.5 9.3 9.9

Figure 3.8: δ13C and δ15N animal isotope values from Kynos and Halos

Site Species δ13 C (‰ VPDB) δ15N (‰ AIR) Kynos Turtle shell -22.6 5.3 Kynos Sheep/goat -20.7 6.2 Kynos Pig -21.0 7.4 Kynos Cattle -19.4 7.7 Kynos Sheep/goat -18.4 5.5 Kynos Sheep -19.1 4.6 Kynos Pig -21.2 4.8 Kynos Sheep -18.2 5.9 Kynos Sheep -18.8 6. 5 Kynos Cattle -19.2 6.3 Halos Herbivore -18.6 4.1 Halos Sheep/goat -19.6 3.7 Halos Herbivore -19.5 8.0 Halos Sheep/goat -19.9 3.5 Halos Cattle -17.5 6.0 Halos Sheep/goat -20.1 2.6 Halos Equine -19.5 4.4 Halos Cattle -18.8 8.3

Let us now examine dietary variation in the group discussed above. In the plots presenting the diet between burial locations (Figure 3.10) and between different grave types (Figure 3.11) we see that the majority of samples from both sites cluster in a very limited area; there is much overlap with high ani-

Part II • Chapter 3 • Diet and Social Divisions in Protohistoric Greece 83

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 83 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. mal protein. Diet is homogeneous, and there is no significant variation either between burial locations or between grave types, indicating that the members of the communities exhibited similar diversity within the same range of nitrogen values. Differences between males and females are shown in figure 3.12. Males from Pharsa- la exhibit a greater range of animal protein intake than females from the same site; females do not exhibit extreme values of very high or very low animal protein intake but lie in-between the end-members of male values. Figure 3.9: Isotope values δ13C and δ15N of human adults In Chloe the samples exhibit high δ15N values and animals from Pharsala and Chloe, animal isotope (>9‰) and no substantial differentiation is values from Halos, and mean isotope values observed between males and females. They of the populations from the sites Treis Elies, Karitsa, Kladeri, coincide more with the higher than the lower Makrigialos, and Agios Dimitrios values of Pharsala. The values of indeterminate individuals are not significantly different. They are all within the sample range of each site, and therefore indicate only minimal differentiation and strengthen the conclusion that both sexes had even access to all foodstuffs. In Figure 3.13 we examine diet between different levels of wealth. There is some variation between wealthy, poor, and empty graves but no significant clustering is observed. The four samples with the higher nitrogen values –more than 10‰–, are those with the larg- est consumption of animal protein. However, these individuals do not show similar mor- Figure 3.10: Isotope values δ13C and δ15N of human tuary practices; they were buried in Pharsa- adults from clusters of Pharsala and Chloe la and Chloe, in cists and in tholoi, received both rich and poor grave goods, and included both males and females. In other words, this observation suggests that diet was not connected to the social status of the individuals and that diet was not yet associated with neither social nor sex divisions. It is time to place these two sites in the wider context of the Early Iron Age in Greece and the Aege- an. If we compare the sites of Pharsala and Chloe to other contemporary sites in Thessaly and beyond, we see the following pattern (Figure 3.9): Sites, such as Agios Dimitrios in Central Greece31, Halos in Thessaly32, and Treis Elies, Kladeri, Karitsa, and Makrigialos in northern Greece33 yielded low nitrogen values indicating low animal protein intake (Figure 3.14). The archaeological analysis of these sites showed that the cemeteries included mainly pits, cists, and tumuli. Constructions requiring certain engineering skills, like tholoi, were absent from all these sites; only two chamber tombs were found in the cemetery of Makrigialos along with pits and cists. In addition, these sites were also less wealthy when compared to sites with tholoi, which incorporated more animal protein to their diet. Such practice has been attested in the Mycenaean period; in Pylos individuals buried in tholoi found to have consumed

31. Papathanasiou et al. 2013; Panagiotopoulou and Papathanasiou 2015. 32. Malakasioti 2009; Malakasioti and Tsiouka 2011; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016. 33. Pantermali 1988; Triantaphyllou 2015.

84 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 84 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. more animal protein compared to individuals buried in chamber tombs.34 Could a similar practice have survived in the Protogeometric period –that is wealthier communities with tholoi using more meat or dairy products than other communities with more modest burial practices? Further analysis of the sites of Pharsala and Chloe reveals an interesting contrast. Looking more closely at the sites, we see that some individuals from poorer graves had higher animal protein consumption than those from wealthier graves. This contrasts with the observation in the previous paragraph, where Figure 3.11: Isotope values δ13C and δ15N of human adults the diet of individuals from sites, where the from different grave types from Pharsala and Chloe overall wealth is lower, relied on less animal protein. Therefore, it is possible that the overall wealth of a population correlates with the diet of the population, while dietary differences within a community do not correlate with wealth divisions between individuals; here individuals from poorer graves seem to have consumed more animal protein, an observation that runs counter to the usual assumption that animal protein was consumed mainly by people of higher social status. It could be suggested that these individuals from less wealthy graves engaged with animal husbandry and reared animals themselves, and as a result their diet relied more on animal (meat Figure 3.12: Isotope values δ13C and δ15N of males and or dairy) and less on plant protein. females Such inference could support Snodgrass’ well-known theory that during the Protogeo- metric period people’s economy relied more on pastoralism than on arable farming.35 Pas- toralism and meat consumption have been suggested explanations for the changes seen in archaeological record between Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Most analyses are based on the interpretation of artistic depic- tions on vases and figurines36, house plans37, and use of hand-made pottery and iron38. These have been interpreted as evidence not only for animal husbandry but also of nomadic pastoralism as Snodgrass had already argued in 197139. Figure 3.13: Isotope values δ13C and δ15N of human adults Further discussions on the type of economy representing wealth groups

34. Schepartz et al. 2010; Papathanasiou et al. 2012. 35. Snodgrass 1971. 36. Langdon 1993, 43-4. 37. Sakellariou 1980, 118. 38. Snodgrass 2006, 134-5. 39. Snodgrass 1971, 379.

Part II • Chapter 3 • Diet and Social Divisions in Protohistoric Greece 85

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 85 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. of Early Iron Age communities, their management of available resources, and pastoralism –if this indicates significant meat consumption– concluded that pure pastoralism could not be a sustainable economy40 in later pre- and proto-historic Greece. The Thessalian environment was suitable for mixed farming41 and discussions have mainly revolved around mixed economy of crop and animal husbandry.42 Archaeozoological analyses have also attempted to investigate the use of animals, meat consumption, and whether there is a dietary shift through time. The analysis, so far, has not indicated nomadic character of the economy nor significant differences between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age; when there are some differences in they are mostly on regional basis.43 Direct analyses –through the isotope analysis of human collagen– for animal protein consumption have not been extensively conducted regarding Early Iron Age. Although this study showed that consumption of meat and dairy products occurred in relatively high proportions, in other sites from northern Greece and southern Thessaly animal protein consumption was lower than in Pharsala and Chloe. Therefore, in order to reach more definite conclusions further systematic studies of animal and plant remains from Early Iron Age sites would need to be undertaken. In figure 9 we also see two individuals that cluster separately from the majority of the individuals. These two individuals were buried in Pharsala and exhibit slightly less negative carbon values (F/Od-be28/2a: –18.8‰, F/Od-be28/south: –18.7‰) than the rest of the group. Their diet largely re-

lied on C3 terrestrial resources as was the case for the rest of the community, but they consumed less

animal protein and more C4 resources, most likely millet, which is the edible C4 plant in Greece. The

cut-off point to identify use of C4 resources has been set at –19‰ following the study of large number of samples from various sites in Greece;44 carbon values less negative than –19‰ point to the presence

of C4 resources. If we compare these samples to the rest of the group from Pharsala, which exhibit only

C3 signal, we can deduce that millet was used sporadically.

Figure 3.14: δ13C and δ15N mean, minimum, and maximum isotope values from Agios Dimitrios, Treis Elies, Kladeri, Karitsa, and Makrigialos

Mean δ13C SD δ13C Min δ13C Max δ13C Mean δ15N SD δ15N Min δ15N Max δ15N Site (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) (‰) Agios Dimitrios -19.8 0.4 -20.3 -19.0 8.3 0.9 6.3 9.2 Treis Elies -16.9 1.6 -18.8 -15.1 8.3 0.7 7.5 9.5 Kladeri -17.1 0.7 -18.0 -16.2 9.3 0.8 8.4 10.1 Karitsa -16.7 0.4 -17.0 -16.4 9.6 0.8 9.0 10.1 Makrigialos -18.84 0.50 -19.48 -17.55 7.10 0.63 5.98 8.22

The two individuals, a male and a female, were buried in the same burial enclosure and both received poor grave goods; they may therefore have had some kin relation. However, more individuals were

buried in this burial enclosure and they did not have C4 resources in their diet but had more animal protein. It is not easy to answer why only these two individuals used millet. If we examine the occurrence

of C4 in other Protogeometric sites, we see that there is significant C4 signal in all the sites where low animal protein consumption was attested, except in Agios Dimitrios, where low animal intake is present

but no C4 signal is attested. Therefore, we seem to have a correlation between C4 plants and low animal

protein. Even in Pharsala, the two individuals with C4 signal had the lowest animal protein. Could this be incidental or does low animal intake indicate low economic status and search for other resources? The small sample size does not let us deduce further conclusions on this correlation. Furthermore, iso-

40. Halstead 1990, 69-70. 41. Halstead 1989, 71. 42. Halstead 1989; Halstead 1990, 72; Douzougli & Papadopoulos 2011, 9-14. 43. Halstead 1987; Dibble 2017. 44. Papathanasiou and Richards 2015.

86 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 86 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. topic studies have shown that the sites with more systematic C4 signal are located mostly in northern Greece.45 Therefore, communities or individuals with possible low economic status might have explored millet and used it as a nutritional complement. On the other hand, millet could have been obtained via contacts with northern regions or it could have been brought by individuals of non-local origin as Valamoti suggested.46 The paper of Panagiotopoulou et al. explores the possibility of the presence of individuals of non-local origin in the under study cemeteries.47 Tooth enamel was sampled from individual F/Od-be28/south among other individuals of the same population (individual F/Od-be28/2a has not been sampled because teeth associated with this individual were not found). Strontium isotope analysis showed that individual F/Od-be28/south was of non-local origin because 87Sr/86Sr ratios were out of the local environmental range. This could be a positive first direct evidence for the suggestion proposed by Hastorf 48 and Valamoti49 that women could have contributed to the expansion of millet. However, two issues

prevent us from reaching a definite conclusion: a) C4 signal of this female(?) is weak; and b) at this point we cannot discuss the origin of this individual but we can only identify her(?) as non-local.

3.5. Conclusions

In this paper we investigated Early Iron Age cemeteries at Pharsala and Chloe in Thessaly, central Greece. We studied dietary variation in relation to social divisions within and between communities, as well as between gender categories and wealth /status groups. We have shown that an integration of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis with osteological data and the contextual analysis of mortuary practices allows us a better understanding of the social structure of Early Iron Age societies in Greece. The contextual analysis suggested that Protogeometric communities were characterized by differentiation between age groups, subtle variation between the sexes, and possibly some emerging divisions between wealth and status groups. We do not see the social stratification of the Mycenaean period.

The stable isotope analysis indicated C3 plant and animal protein as the main dietary resource of both

populations with additions of C4 protein. The dietary variations observed in these populations as well as the relation between diet and social divisions were examined through the integration of stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses for dietary reconstruction with the contextual analysis of mortuary practices. No clear correlation between diet and social divisions appears, as there are no strict divisions between social groups in these communities during the Protogeometric period. The variation in animal protein intake observed between individuals within a community could not be explained by sex or status differentiation but rather personal preference or perhaps occupation. The two individuals (a male and a

female) that showed additions of C4 protein in their diet could have been characterized as a low status

group due to the poor tomb and we could correlate this with the occurrence of C4. However, other individuals buried in the same poor tomb did not consume millet and the female(?) has been identified as a non-local. Therefore, correlation of millet with low status cannot be established but further investigation of the correlation of millet with non-locals is needed. Finally, we placed the populations of Pharsala and Chloe in the context of Early Iron Age through

the comparison with contemporary sites. We observed a correlation between C4 protein consumption and low animal protein consumption, in Pharsala, which was also attested in other sites. However, this cannot yet be safely explained. We also showed that the populations of Pharsala and Chloe, whose burial practices exhibited great degree of diversity or elaboration accordingly, incorporated more animal protein in their diet while those whose burial practices were modest followed a diet poorer in animal

45. Triantaphyllou 2001. 46. Valamoti 2013. 47. Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018. 48. Hastorf 1998. 49. Valamoti 2013, 56.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 87 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. protein. Our results showed that there is no direct correlation between diet and social divisions within a population but the economic state of a community could have affected the overall dietary level and thus differences between different communities could have occurred but not in individual level.

Acknowledgements

The authors of this paper would like to thank the Institute of Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP). Without their major contribution and support this project would not have been realized. We would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments, the Ephorate of Antiquities of Larisa, the Ephorate of Antiquities of Magnesia, and the Athanasakeion Archaeological Museum of Volos and their personnel for facilitating the completion of the study and sampling of the material by providing their facilities. In addition we would like to thank the staff of the laboratory of the Center for Isotope Research for the help they provided during the analysis of the samples. Last but not least we would like to thank Ms. Anna Lagia for providing access to the assemblage from Chloe.

88 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 88 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Chapter 4 • Fish consumption in Early Iron Age Greece?

Fish consumption in Early Iron Age Greece? Sulfur stable isotope analysis of human populations1

Eleni Panagiotopouloua and Olaf Nehlichb

aGroningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands bDepartment of Anthropology, University of British Columbia, Canada

Abstract

In this paper we investigate the presence of aquatic resources in the diet of communities in Early Iron Age Thessaly, Greece (11th-9th c. BC). The osteological material examined comes from the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Halos, from the cemetery of Chloe and from the cemeteries of Pharsala. These sites are situated near freshwater sources or the Aegean Sea. We employed stable sulfur isotope ratios of human and animal bone collagen in order to examine whether foods from water environments formed a component of human diet. Our analysis showed that marine resources made no contribution to their diet, while terrestrial plant and animal protein constituted the major component of their dietary input. The analysis also indicated one individual who had possibly been consuming food from non-local sources prior to her death.

Keywords: Sulfur isotope analysis, bone collagen, fish consumption, Early Iron Age Greece

4.1. Introduction

The Greek peninsula is a region with lacustrine and riverine environments, a very long coastal line and many islands, with abundant aquatic sources readily accessible. Therefore, fish consumption in Antiq- uity has been a major issue of discussion in Greek archaeology. Archaeozoological analyses of domestic assemblages provide evidence of the presence of shellfish and fish, while fishing equipment has been found in many Greek sites dating already from the Mesolithic period. Marine remains found in excavations are usually interpreted as human food residues, though they may have also been used for other purposes, such as the preparation of dye and the manufacture of tools, ornaments and musical instruments (Álvarez-Fernandez 2010; Gleba et al. 2017; Kremer 2017; Theodoropoulou 2011a). Archaeozoological studies have identified molluscs, sea bream, sea bass, grey mullet, and tuna among the fish remains found in excavations. However, most stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses carried out on human osteological assemblages in Greece, have shown that aquatic resources were not of significant importance in human diet; while in many cases they were not present at all. There is only one study employing stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of fish bone collagen from the Aegean Sea (Vika and Theodoropoulou 2012). The authors used theoretical mixing models in order to

1. Submitted, Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 89 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. assess dietary patterns (terrestrial/marine/freshwater resources). They showed that the aquatic signals could not be fully detected and were often interpreted as terrestrial, though the archaeological evidence suggests otherwise. The aim of this paper is to investigate the significance of aquatic resources in the diet and the exploitation of aquatic environments (whether that was a river, a lake, or the sea) by Early Iron Age (EIA, 11th-9th c. BC) populations in Greece. The method employed is stable sulfur isotope analysis of human and terrestrial animal bone collagen. This complements carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of human bone collagen, which have already been conducted, and elucidates whether interpretation has been skewed by the overlap of isotope results of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial proteins (Panagiotopou- lou et al. 2016; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press). Individuals from four sites in central Greece have been examined – the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Halos, the cemeteries of Pharsala, and the cemetery of Chloe. These sites were chosen because they were located near aquatic environments.

4.1.1. Archaeological, archaeozoological, and isotopic evidence of fish consumption in Greece The earliest evidence of exploitation of water environments in the Aegean comes only from excavations and archaeozoological studies and dates back to the Mesolithic period (11th millennium BC). These sites are: Cave Franchthi in the Argolid (Farrand 2003), Cave Cyclops on Gioura (Moundrea-Agrafioti 2003), and the open-settlement Maoulas on the island of Kythnos (Sampson et al. 2002). They have yielded numerous fish bones or seashells as well as fishing equipment e.g. fishhooks. The main species caught, based on the results of these archaeozoological analyses, were: a) coastal medium-size fish; b) fish from euryhaline environments such as mullet; and c) migrating fish of the Scombridae family such as tuna (Mylona 2013; Theodoropoulou 2013). However, direct evidence of fish consumption from isotope analysis is not available. In the Neolithic period agricultural activities (7th millennium BC) caused a gradual decrease in the use of marine resources with growing reliance on terrestrial dietary resources (Theodoropoulou 2011a). It seems that fish and molluscs did not constitute significant components of the diet (Mylona 2014, 2013; Theodoropoulou 2013). The integration of archaeozoological study of Neolithic sites in Greece with stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of the period indicated that marine resources were of minor importance, complementing terrestrial diet (Papathanasiou et al. 2013). In the Bronze Age (1700-1100 BC) the same practice continued. Marine resources –mostly shellfish, small coastal and medium-size fish and tuna– were complementing a primarily terrestrial diet even though fishing techniques became more efficient (Mylona 2013; Theodoropoulou 2012). It has been suggested that fishing was practiced more infrequently than in the Neolithic (Mylona 2013; Theodoro- poulou, 2014). Therefore, it must have been a marginal activity (Theodoropoulou 2012; 2013). Evidence of fish consumption from the Early Iron Age is very fragmented. The few archaeozoological studies undertaken so far have shown that fish bones –when they were found– constitute only a minor proportion of archaeological assemblages; shellfish remains are better represented as they were possibly collected to supplement the diet because they are ‘…rich in vitamins and metals, or simply a “spicing-up” of their everyday diet…’ (Theodoropoulou 2007, 436). A few marine remains have been found in Sub-Bronze / Early Iron Age contexts while in some sites fish bones were absolutely absent (Theodoropoulou 2007; 2008; 2011b; 2012). However, stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of Early Iron Age assemblages has not indicated any aquatic dietary resources (Panagiotopoulou and Pap- athanasiou 2015; Triantaphyllou 2015). It is possible that extensive fishing was not taking place during the Early Iron Age or the excavated assemblages are biased due to poor preservation of the material (Theodoropoulou 2012; Tiverios et al. 2013). In general, studies so far have shown that when agriculture was introduced in the Neolithic period, fish consumption became supplementary. To date, the only studies employing stable sulfur isotope analysis from Greek remains are: a) the analysis of assemblages from the Bronze Age sites at Armenoi (human samples) and Chamalevri (animal samples) in Crete for diet reconstruction (Richards et al. 2001) and b) the analysis of assemblages from

90 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 90 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. the Classical site of Thebes (5th c. BC), for the reconstruction of diet and study of provenance (Vika, 2009). Both studies have shown that coastal sites, while having terrestrial diet based on δ13C and δ15N analysis, exhibit elevated δ34S values closer to marine values (≈+20‰) due to proximity to the sea (sea spray effect).

4.1.2. Sulfur isotope ratios in mammalian collagen Sulfur isotope analysis was introduced in archaeology by Leach et al. (1996) when they analysed osteological material from an archaeological context in the 1990s. Later, Richards et al. (2001) tested the method on human assemblages from different sites in Europe addressing questions on migration, modern pollutants, and paleodiet. Since then, more studies have been carried out and that further developed the potential of this method (Craig et al. 2006; Nehlich et al. 2010; 2011; 2012; Privat et al. 2007; Richards et al. 2003). Sulfur is an essential element for life and is biologically bound mainly in two amino acids, namely methionine and cysteine; in mammalian collagen only methionine is present. Sulfur enters the human trophic chain through the consumption of plants and animals. The main sulfur source for plants is the soil, where through the weathering of geological formations sulfates are absorbed by the roots of the

plants. Secondary uptake occurs from the atmosphere either as dry deposition of SO2 gas or as wet deposition of precipitation and sea-spray (Richards et al. 2003). The amount of sulfur in amino acids is up to 3 times higher in fish collagen than in mammalian collagen. Due to a lower mineral density in fish bones the sulfur amino acids allow a higher interconnec- tivity between the collagen molecules, which results in stronger sustainability and lighter bones (Easton 1955: 57; Nehlich 2015). Fish have undergone significant changes, due to greater evolutionary age of fish compared to humans, and adaptation to the sea environment, which made it necessary to be more efficient with the bone structure (Easton 1957). Sulfur-containing amino acids originate directly from dietary proteins; therefore we can use them to trace the diet (Easton 1955: 57; Nehlich 2015). Taphonomic process during the burial period can alter the structural integrity of the collagen molecule and can results in gain or loss of sulfur in the fibres. The alterations can be microbial, chemical sub- stitutions or degradation. In order to assess the progress of taphonomic alterations the analytical results need to be evaluated (Nehlich & Richards 2009: 60). A significant development has been the establish- ment of quality control criteria in order to inspect the preservation state of the collagen and to exclude contaminated or degraded samples that could mislead the data interpretation. The mammalian bone collagen quality parameters for sulfur analysis that we used are sulfur content –0.28±0.07% (Nehlich & Richards 2009: 68)– and atomic C/S and N/S ratios –600±300, 200±100 respectively. Samples with values below or above the acceptable range are considered altered, poorly preserved and not indicative for the in vivo structure (Nehlich and Richards 2009; Privat et al. 2007). The δ34S values of non-contaminated samples can range from –20‰ to +20‰. Values higher than +14‰ can be considered to indicate that there was significant contribution from marine resources in the diet. However, there have been cases reported that exhibit δ34S marine values while the diet was terrestrial. In such cases δ34S close to seawater occurred due to sea-spray effect (sea water sulfates spray over coastal regions) that has influenced coastal plants and human values (Privat et al. 2007: 1178). Values from non-marine environments (that is either terrestrial or other aquatic sources e.g. lakes and rivers) vary and are depen- dant on the soil and the available sulfates (Hoefs 2006: 71-72, 109-110, 119). It has been reported that terrestrial organisms mainly exhibit δ34S values within the range from -5‰ to +10‰ (Krouse 1980).

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 91 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 4.2. Materials and methods

4.2.1. Materials For this study both animal and human samples were analysed from four cemeteries in Thessaly, central Greece, dating to the Early Iron Age (Figure 4.1). These sites are the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Halos, the cemeteries of Pharsala, and the cemetery of Chloe. Seven herbivores were sampled –one cattle, three goats/sheep, one horse, and two unspecified herbivores. The horse was excavated in Pharsala, while the other samples in Halos (five in Voulokaliva and one in Kephalosi) (Table 4.1). Bones from omnivore or carnivore animals have not been found. Animal samples from the site of Chloe were not available. The human samples are both adults and subadults. Seventeen humans were sampled from the site of Voulokaliva (16 adults and one subadult 3 years old), 5 humans from the site of Kaphalosi (1 adult and 4 subadults 3-9 years old), 12 humans from the site of Pharsa- Figure 4.1: Map of Greece and Thessaly indicating the la (all adults), and 3 from Chloe (2 adults and cemeteries of Halos, Pharsala and Chloe. one adolescent). i. Voulokaliva The site of Voulokaliva is located in eastern Thessaly on the coast of Pagasetic Gulf (Figure 4.1). It is a large cemetery of cists and one circular construction, used continuously from the later phases of the Late Bronze Age period (Late Helladic IIIB and LH IIIC phases, ca. 1300-1100 BC) through to the Early Iron Age (Submycenaean, ca. 1100-1050 BC and Protogeometric, ca. 1050-900 BC periods) (Malakasioti, 2009; Reinders, 2003). This pa- Figure 4.2: δ34S human and animal values from the per focuses on the thirty-eight Submycenaean cemeteries of Halos (Voulokaliva and Kephalosi) in Thesally, and Protogeometric graves (Malakasioti and Greece, against δ13C. The light grey box indicates the δ34S Tsiouka 2011; Tsiouka 2008). values (2σ) of the terrestrial local range of the area of Halos. ii. Kephalosi Kephalosi is another cemetery of Halos, located 2-3 km to the south of Voulokaliva (Figure 4.1). Mostly infants and children under the age of 11 were buried here in cists, and only one adult was found (Malakasioti 2009; Nikolaou and Papathanasiou 2012).

iii. Pharsala Pharsala is located in western Thessaly Figure 4.3: δ34S human and animal values from the cemeteries and lies between two major rivers –Enipeas of Pharsala in Thesally, Greece, against δ13C values. and Apidanos (Figure 4.1). Two cemeter-

92 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 92 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. ies dating to 1050-900 BC were exposed (Katakouta 2012; Tziafalias and Batziou-Ef- stathiou, 2012). Site 1 consisted of 35 graves and a tumulus of various types: cists, cremation urns, burial enclosures and tholoi –subterranean vaulted circular constructions. Six kilometres to the north two more tholoi were found dating to the same period (Katakouta 2012).

34 iv. Chloe Figure 4.4: δ S human values from the cemetery of Chloe in Thesally, Greece, against δ13C values. The site of Chloe is located in eastern Thessaly situated near Lake Voiviis (or Karla) (Figure 4.1). Rescue excavations brought to light 8 tholoi (1000 BC-875 BC) (Arachoviti 2000; Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1996). In this paper we only focus on two of the best- documented tholoi, EII and ZI.

4.2.2. Methods The extraction of the human bone col- Figure 4.5: δ34S human and animal values from the cemeteries lagen was conducted at the Centre for Iso- of Halos (Voulokaliva and Kephalosi) Thesally, Greece, against tope Research of the University of Gronin- δ15N. The light grey box indicates the δ34S value (2σ) terrestrial gen, using an improved version of the Longin local range of the area of Halos. method (Longin 1971). The samples were mechanically cleaned, cut to appropriate size and weight, and put in weak acid (1% HCl) for bone demineralization. Humic acids were removed by alkalic solution (1% NaOH). The clean samples were then put in slightly acidic demineralized water and placed in an oven so that the organic part, i.e. the collagen fraction of the bone, was solubilized. The pure collagen solution was collected after filtration (50μm). Finally the solution was dried resulting in solid collagen. The collagen samples were transported to the laboratory of Archaeology, Department of Anthro- pology of the University of British Columbia for the sulfur isotope analysis. The samples were dissolved in demineralised water and underwent ultrafiltration for extra purification of the collagen (after Rich- ards & Hedges 1999). After the samples were freeze-dried, pure collagen was collected in the form of

lyophilized fibre. For isotope analyses approximately 5mg of collagen were weighed with V2O5 into tin capsules. The tin capsules were combusted in an Elementar MicroCube coupled to an Isoprime 100 Mass spectrometer. Carbon, nitrogen and sulphur measurements were simultaneously undertaken with a standard duplicatory of ±0.2‰, ±0.2‰ and ±0.5‰. NIST bovine liver 1577c and casein protein were used as control standards and scaled against international standards such as NIST40 and IAEA S1, S2, S3. All samples were run in duplicates if possible.

4.3. Results and Discussion

The values of all animal and human samples can be found in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. Regional differences may occur in sulfur isotopes, especially in areas with complex geology (Privat et al. 2007). Therefore, in order to establish the local isotope range we should plot the mean value of the terrestrial animals

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 93 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. with the ±2SD as a statistical local range. All animal samples demonstrate values within the appropriate range of quality criteria. The mean δ34S value of the animals from Voulo- kaliva and Kephalosi is 5.8±2.1‰. This standard deviation (SD: 2.1‰) reflects a homoge- nous sulfur isotope data set of the geology of Thessaly, however the actual range expands to 10‰ which suggests some more diverse geological sources. The lower and higher extreme values of the range come from the Figure 4.6: δ34S human and animal values from the cemeteries animal samples of Voulokaliva –2.6‰ to of Pharsala in Thesally, Greece, against δ15N values. 8.2‰. The value from Kephalosi is 5.1‰ (cattle), around the mean value of the region. The only animal value from Pharsala is 5.2‰ (horse). The samples with sulfur isotope values outside the ±2SD range all occur in Vou- lokaliva and might suggest imported animals from farther away, rather than reflecting the local geological range of sulfur isotopes. The human δ34S values demonstrate values within the appropriate range of quality criteria except for two –samples HK/B7-c10 and F/Od-be28/ind1. These two samples yielded a high C:S ratio, while the N:S ratio of sam- 34 Figure 4.7: δ S human values from the cemetery ple HK/B7-c10 is lower than the acceptable of Chloe in Thesally, Greece, against δ15N values. range. The source of this discrepancy in the values must have been the loss of S content during burial. Therefore, these two samples are excluded from the study. The human δ34S values from the site of Voulokaliva range from -1.6‰ to 8.6‰ with mean δ34S: 4.7‰±2.7‰. The individual with the lower value exhibits a difference of 3.4‰ from the next value and the entire group, which clusters above 0.0‰; this difference is significant and this individual should be considered as an outlier. If this individual is excluded, the mean value will be δ34S: 5.1‰±2.3‰ with a range from 1.8‰ to 8.6‰. The site of Kephalosi has a mean sulfur isotope value of 4.7‰±0.3‰ with a very narrow range from 4.4‰ to 5.0‰. These values come from one adult and four subadults between the ages 5-9 years, who probably followed a diet similar to adults. All five individuals followed a diet very close to the value of the dietary resource (cattle δ34S: 5.1‰), which indicates similar proportions of protein in their diet. On the contrary, the individuals from Voulokaliva exhibit variation in sulfur values with SD: 2.3‰. This difference suggests that in the two cemeteries, there are individuals following a diet with great variation in sulfur intake, which could be either a sign of high dietary diversity or recent immigrants from different regions with differing sulfur isotope values. The human values from Pharsala range from 1.2‰ to 5.9‰ with mean δ34S: 3.5‰±1.5‰; the value of the horse from Pharsala is close to the human values δ34S: 5.2‰. The human values from Chloe range from 2.1‰ to 5.7‰ with mean δ34S: 3.6‰±1.8‰. There are no animal samples from Chloe to establish the local range but we can say that the individuals from Chloe do not exhibit differences in δ34S values from the other three sites. As previously mentioned, recent studies have shown that coastal populations with marine input in their diet should exhibit δ34S values within a range from +14‰ to +20‰ (Privat et al. 2007; Richards et al. 2001). All human samples in this paper fall below δ34S=+14‰. Furthermore, the terrestrial faunal range (2σ) in the plot δ34S against δ13C, delimited by the dashed lines on the plot of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi, suggests that the diet of the human populations was purely terrestrial (Figures 4.2, 4.3 & 4.4). They possibly consumed terrestrial protein with aquatic resources from the sea not having any con-

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 94 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. tribution to the diet. The stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of the sites strongly agree with the results in this paper, also indicating a terrestrial diet (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press). There is an interesting observation in the cemeteries of Halos. The δ34S values of the individuals (humans and animals) from Voulokaliva and Kephalosi, both coastal sites, have not been influenced by the sea-spray like in the case studies of Crete and Thebes where the individuals exhibited marine values while having terrestrial diet (Richards et al. 2001; Vika 2009). Two environmental factors should be considered here: a) in the area the winds blowing are weak (Petihakis et al. 2005: 502) and a mountain stands between the coast and part of the area of Halos (the residential area has not been found). Therefore, there is a possibility that sea spray could not have been competent to influence the human δ34S values; b) another factor is the possible lower salinity of the Pagasetic Gulf compared to the Medi- terranean Sea due to the input of freshwater from the area of Almyros (the modern town near the site of Halos) (Petihakis et al. 2005, 501). Therefore the lower salinity and the mixing of marine water with freshwater may result in lower δ34S values (Fry and Chumchal, 2011). The large variation at Voulokaliva suggests either a highly mobile population, a variable geological underground, which is reflected in the dietary resources or animal herding abroad in a greater home range, even on a seasonal basis during a year, which is similarly reflected in the animals’ tissue. Freshwater resources instead of marine could also be suggested. In Figures 4.5, 4.6 & 4.7 we plot δ34S against δ15N values for the sites of Halos, Pharsala and Chloe. The animals of Halos fall within the range δ34S 2‰-8‰ and the majority of the humans fall within the range δ34S 1‰-8‰. It has been demonstrated that the δ34S values of the consumers should be depleted by approximately 1‰ than their diet (Nehlich 2015). On the basis of these values, the individuals from Halos consumed probably local terrestrial resources.

Table 4.1: δ13C, δ15N, and δ34S animal values and collagen quality control criteria from the sites of Pharsala, Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Thessaly, Greece

15 13 34 Sample name Species mg δ NAIR N amt% δ CVPDB% C amt% δ SVCDT% S amt% C:N C:S N:S HaVo/w-apoth9 Herbivore 3.98 4.4 16.1 -18.8 43.1 2.6 0.19 3.13 600 192 HaVo/w-apoth12 Sheep/Goat 4.08 4.3 15.3 -20.1 42.5 7.8 0.19 3.25 587 181 HaVo/w-apoth13 Herbivore 3.69 8.7 14.9 -20.2 42.8 7.5 0.20 3.35 579 173 HaVo/e-apoth9 Sheep/Goat 3.63 4.0 15.5 -20.2 57.2 8.2 0.20 4.30 778 181 HaVo/e-apoth15 Sheep/Goat 3.96 2.4 16.0 -20.1 42.8 4.0 0.20 3.12 571 183 HK/B7-c15 animal Cattle 3.63 8.3 15.6 -18.9 41.3 5.1 0.27 3.08 414 135 F/Od-be28/horse Horse 3.76 6.9 15.5 -19.8 42.6 5.2 0.27 3.20 426 133

Marine diet does not seem to have occurred in Pharsala and Chloe, with terrestrial resources seeming more likely to have been consumed. However, aquatic resources from rivers or lakes cannot definitely be excluded from the sites of Pharsala and Chloe. The locations of the sites also suggest the possibility of the use of the rivers in Pharsala or the lake in Chloe for fishing. However, there is no adequate evidence (analysis of freshwater fish) to support freshwater diet or indicate otherwise. In order to distinguish between freshwater and terrestrial diet we need the isotopic values of all the bioavailable sources (Nehlich et al. 2010: 1132). Earlier in this paper an outlier was identified from the site of Voulokaliva, which we ought to examine further. The outlier is depleted in δ34S by 3.4‰ from the lowest sample of the group of individuals we examined here. This individual (a female) was buried in the cemetery of Voulokaliva and 13 15 has δ C: 17.5‰ and δ N: 8.6‰, which have been interpreted as terrestrial C3 diet, with low animal

protein and relatively high C4 additional resources (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016). Therefore, this individual could be considered as non-local. The strontium analysis has shown that this individual has

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 95 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. local strontium values, which are influenced, by the seawater (0.7091) (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018). Strontium isotope analysis was conducted on the enamel of the individual indicating the locality of her childhood. Therefore, this individual could be a non-local coming though from a coastal area exhibiting similar strontium isotope values to the area she moved. Therefore, if the δ34S value indicates a non-local individual then she could have immigrated recently to the area of Voulokaliva. If, on the other hand the strontium isotope ratio indicates a local female then the δ34S values should reflect an unusual diet or a recent return to her birthplace prior to her death (maybe post-mortem).

Table 4.2: δ13C, δ15N, δ34S human values and collagen quality control criteria from the sites of Pharsala, Chloe, Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Thessaly, Greece

15 13 34 Sample name Age mg δ NAIR N amt% δ CVPDB% C amt% δ SVCDT% S amt% C:N C:S N:S

Halos - Voulokaliva HaVo/e-c5 20-25y 3.66 10.2 15.0 -19.4 42.4 1.8 0.27 3.29 426 130 HaVo/e-cc8/ind1 Adult 3.84 9.2 13.0 -21.0 38.8 7.5 0.22 3.48 464 134 HaVo/e-c12/ind1 Adult 3.87 9. 5 14.9 -20.4 42.6 8.6 0.23 3.33 502 151 HaVo/e-c12/ind2 Adult 4.00 10.2 13.2 -21.2 41.8 7.3 0.24 3.69 468 127 HaVo/e-c46 Adult 3.60 7.5 14.9 -19.8 42.3 5.6 0.22 3.32 507 153 HaVo/e-p66 25-40y 3.85 8.8 14.9 -20.1 42.6 7.9 0.22 3.34 526 158 HaVo/e-c70 3y 4.06 7.8 14.9 -19.7 42.7 2.9 0.21 3.35 543 162 HaVo/e-c72 25-45y 3.80 9.5 15.4 -19.0 42.9 4.4 0.22 3.24 518 160 30-50y HaVo/w-c7/ind1 3.59 9.1 14.1 -20.1 39.5 3.9 0.23 3.26 458 141 (45?) HaVo/w-c7/ind2 35-40y 4.32 8.0 14.4 -20.6 41.7 6.5 0.21 3.39 535 158 Old HaVo/w-c11/ind1 3.99 8.4 14.6 -20.5 42.6 6.7 0.20 3.40 561 165 adult? HaVo/w-c11/ind2 20-35y 3.57 9.4 15.1 -19.9 42.3 6.8 0.19 3.26 583 179 HaVo/w-c21 30-40y 4.00 9.2 15.7 -17.8 42.9 -1.6 0.21 3.19 548 172 Young HaVo/w-p38/ind1 3.64 9.9 14.8 -19.4 42.6 2.9 0.20 3.35 560 167 adult

HaVo/w-p38/ind2- 35-39y 3.81 9.2 14.5 -17.4 40.6 2.1 0.21 3.26 510 157 sec HaVo/w-c46 16-18y 3.90 9.6 15.4 -18.7 42.9 1.9 0.20 3.26 580 178 HaVo/w-c52/ind1 35-45 3.83 8.8 15.1 -20.3 42.7 5.3 0.20 3.30 574 174 Halos – Kephalosi HK/B7-c10 3y 3.64 10.1 16.0 -19.2 134.0 4.0 0.38 9.75 949 97 HK/B7-c15 7-8y 3.89 10.0 16.0 -19.3 42.0 4.6 0.31 3.05 356 117 Young HK/B7-c16 3.44 10.3 12.4 -21. 8 40.5 4.7 0.23 3.82 467 122 adult HK/B7-c18 8-9y 3.73 9.1 15.3 -19. 7 41.5 5.0 0.22 3.16 515 163 HK/B7-c24 5-6y 3.70 9.1 15.4 -19.6 41.3 4.4 0.24 3.14 457 146 Pharsala F/Ep-th1 20-40 y 4.00 9.4 15.8 -19.2 41.6 3.8 0.26 3.07 433 141

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 96 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. F/Ep-th2/ind1 20-25y 3.55 5.0 14.3 -20.2 39.7 5.9 0.21 3.24 515 159 24-30y, F/Ep-th2/secA/ind1 young 3.83 9.5 15.4 -19.0 40.6 3.8 0.23 3.09 480 156 adult >40, old F/Ep-th2/secA/ind2 3.96 9.7 14.0 -20.5 41.3 3.5 0.21 3.45 531 154 adult F/Ep-th2/secB 27-44y 3.68 9.1 15.4 -19.5 42.0 1.2 0.20 3.18 547 172 Young F/Per-pit3 3.82 10.3 13.6 -20.2 38.9 2.9 0.22 3.35 473 141 adult F/Per-c7 30-45y 4.07 10.1 13.9 -20.2 39.8 2.3 0.22 3.33 491 148 F/Per-c8 35-45y 3.53 9.2 15.8 -19.2 41.5 2.0 0.21 3.07 527 172 Young F/Od-c1 3.68 7.0 14.8 -19.3 41.5 2.7 0.19 3.27 593 182 adult F/Od-be28/ind1 Adult 4.01 9.7 15.6 -19.5 127.8 1.2 0.21 9.57 1649 172 F/Od-be28/south 25-35y 3.74 8.8 15.1 -19.2 41.7 4.7 0.22 3.23 515 159 F/Od-be28/north 20-30y 3.68 9.8 16.0 -19.5 43.3 5.9 0.30 3.16 386 122 Chloe C/Z-th1/cr1 20-25Y 3.96 9.7 15.6 -19.4 42.3 3.0 0.20 3.16 578 183 C/Z-th1/cr3 18-20y 3.91 10.2 14.9 -20.1 42.2 2.1 0.20 3.31 573 173 Adoles- C/Z-th1/sec/north 3.86 10.1 15.1 -19.7 42.1 5.7 0.18 3.26 617 190 cent

4.4. Conclusions

In this paper we examined whether consumption of aquatic resources occurred in Greece in three communities dating to the Early Iron Age using stable sulfur isotope analysis. The data, to date, diverge because archaeozoological analyses indicate ichthyofaunal remains in excavations but the carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis has not detected consumption of resources from marine and/or freshwater environments. Because of the formation of the Greek peninsula, exploitation of aquatic resources should be considered a significant dietary practice. Therefore, stable sulfur isotope analysis is of great importance. Against our expectations, the isotope data of human and animal individuals suggest that these individuals possibly consumed primarily terrestrial plant and animal protein. At the diet of the population from the area of Halos (the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi) marine resources were not detected, despite the fact that it is a coastal site situated by the Aegean Sea. On the other hand, the site of Pharsala is situated inland between rivers that could have been exploited for dietary purposes. The site of Chloe could have also exploited the lake Voiviis. Both populations show non-marine δ34S values. However, due to the lack of a substantial number of animal samples (both terrestrial and aquatic) to define the bioavailable sulfur in each area, we cannot exclude the possibility of freshwater resources. Furthermore, the analysis also indicated the presence of an outlier in the Voulokaliva group, which can be considered either as a non-local female whose origin possibly should be searched in another coastal area or as a local female with a recent change in diet or a recent return to her birthplace.

Part II • Chapter 4 • Fish consumption in Early Iron Age Greece? 97

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 97 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 98 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Chapter 5 • Detecting mobility in Early Iron Age

Detecting mobility in Early Iron Age Thessaly by strontium isotope analysis1

Eleni Panagiotopouloua, Janet Montgomeryb, Geoff Nowellc, Joanne Peterkinc, Argiro Doulgeri-Intzesil- ogloud, Polixeni Arachovitid, Stiliani Katakoutae and Fotini Tsioukaf

aGroningen Institute of Archaeology, University of Groningen, The Netherlands bDepartment of Archaeology, Durham University, Uk cDepartment of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Uk dEphorate of Antiquities of Magnesia, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Volos, Greece eEphorate of Antiquities of Larisa, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Larisa, Greece fEphorate of Antiquities of Karditsa, Hellenic Ministry of Culture, Karditsa, Greece

Abstract

This article presents evidence of population movements in Thessaly, Greece, during the Early Iron Age (Protogeometric period, eleventh-ninth centuries BC). The method we employed to detect non-local individuals is strontium isotope analysis (87Sr/86Sr) of tooth enamel integrated with the contextual analysis of mortuary practices and osteological analysis of the skeletal assemblage. During the Protogeometric period, social and cultural transformations occurred while society was recovering from the disintegration of the Mycenaean civilization (twelfth century BC). The analysis of the cemeteries of Voulokaliva, Chloe, and Pharsala, located in southern Thessaly, showed that non-local individuals integrated in the communities we focused on and contributed to the observed diversity in burial practices and to the developments in the formation of a social organization.

Keywords: Early Iron Age, Greece, strontium isotope analysis, population mobility, Thessaly

1. European Journal of Archaeology 2018*, Panagiotopoulou et al. –Detecting Mobility in Early Iron Age Thessaly by Stron- tium Isotope Analysis, © European Association of Archaeologists 2018, doi:10.1017/eaa.2017.88, Manuscript received 19 March 2017, revised 5 November 2017, accepted 13 December 2017.

* European Journal of Archaeology 2018, page 1 of 22. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecom- mons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 99 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 5.1. Introduction

This article consists of an investigation of population movements in Thessaly during the post-Mycenae- an period (Early Iron Age, tenth-ninth centuries BC), using strontium isotope analysis of human tooth enamel. Previous research on this period has primarily focused on the analysis of ancient historical sources and archaeological data (Desborough 1964; Snodgrass 2000; Lemos 2002; Dickinson 2006; Morris 2007). In more recent years, various analytical methods have been employed to investigate diet, chronology, and metal and ceramic production in Early Iron Age Greece (Papathanasiou 2013; Toffolo et al. 2013; Rückl 2014; Orfanou 2015; Panagiotopoulou & Papathanasiou 2015; Triantaphyllou 2015). While strontium isotope analysis has been previously conducted on Greek assemblages (Richards 2008; Nafplioti 2011), this is the first time this method has been employed to investigate anthropological remains from the Early Iron Age in Greece. The region of Thessaly was chosen because it is traditionally considered as forming the northern border of the Mycenaean world and, thus, was affected in the same way as the rest of the mainland by the disintegration of the Mycenaean civilization (thirteenth-twelfth centuries BC). The collapse of the palatial system resulted in a deep crisis; it prompted the breakdown of a stratified society, a decline in social institutions, and a social regression (Dickinson 2006). In the subsequent Submycenaean (eleventh century BC) and Protogeometric (tenth and ninth centuries BC) periods, changes occurred in social organization, in trade and interaction, in production and technology, in material culture, and in burial practices (Lemos 2002). In the Protogeometric period, the first signs of important social developments become visible (Mor- ris, 2007). The distribution of pottery and metalwork indicates that these regions had contacts and interacted either inside or outside Thessaly (Rückl 2014; Lis et al. 2015). New cemeteries were established, but pre-existing Mycenaean ones were also still in use. Mycenaean funerary practices, such as multiple burials in tholoi, were still present alongside single burials in cists, a practice that spread very extensively in the Early Iron Age and is considered to have largely replaced the traditional burial forms (Dickinson 2006). Many theories have been put forward to explain the changes and the mosaic in the burial record of the post-Mycenaean period. The notion, based on an interpretation of the work of ancient writers, of a large-scale migration of hostile groups from northern areas of Greece and the Balkans was posited to explain the sudden and widespread change (Desborough 1972). This idea lost ground as new evidence suggested that it was a deterioration of living conditions that led to a gradual transformation of the social organization of Early Iron Age communities (Whitley 1991; Morris 2007). Another hypothesis attributes the changes to a shift from sedentary agriculture to pastoralism (Snodgrass 2006); studies into the health status of Early Iron Age populations, which was considered to have improved compared to the Late Bronze Age, suggested they consumed larger amounts of meat (Morris 2007). However, the lack of sufficient archaeozoogical studies in this period makes it problematic to follow this line of enquiry further. More recently, population movement models have once again come to the fore as an explanation. These models propose that small-scale movements of groups or individuals within and without the old palatial territories explain the cultural and social changes observed (Snodgrass 2000; Lemos 2002; Coldstream 2003; Morris 2007; Georganas 2009). Several major questions currently dominate the scholarly discussions of Early Iron Age Greece: Can we detect whether population movements were associated with changes in the mortuary record? If so, were they at the level of a population or did they involve individuals or small groups (such as families) moving from one place to another? Many approaches have been devised to detect movements of groups, such as cultural, technological, and linguistic diffusion, but arguments against such interpretations have been put forward due to am- biguities or biases in the archaeological data or lack of substantial evidence (Hall 1997). Here, we aim to examine the movements of people in the Early Iron Age by integrating strontium isotope analysis of human tooth enamel with the contextual analysis of mortuary data. Our study focuses on the mortuary evidence from three sites in Thessaly, which occupy significant lo-

100 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 100 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. cations and exhibit substantial variation in funerary practices: the cemetery of Chloe, the cemetery of Voulokaliva in Halos, and the cemeteries of Pharsa- la (Figure 5.1).

5.2. Archaeological context

The cemetery of Chloe is one of the burial grounds of Pherae, a town occupied continuously from the Late Neolithic (4500-3200/3000 BC) to the Roman period (first century BC to fourth centu- Figure 5.1: Location map showing Greece and ry AD) (Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1994; Doulgeri- Thessaly. Intzesiloglou & Arachoviti 2006; Georganas 2008). The cemetery is located in eastern Thessaly, on a plain north-west of the Pagasetic Gulf (Doulgeri-Intzesiloglou 1994, 1996; Arachoviti 2000; Doulgeri- Intzesiloglou & Arachoviti 2006; Georganas 2008) (Figure 5.1). Eight tholoi were discovered, all of the same type; which follows that of the Mycenaean predecessors, but are smaller (Arachoviti 2000) and located close to each other. This study focuses on two of the eight tholoi (EII, ZI). These two tholoi contained multiple inhumations of males, females, and subadults older than five years (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press). The cemetery of Voulokaliva is one of the three cemeteries of Halos in south-eastern Thessaly (Figure 5.1), with a period of use from the later Bronze Age (c. 1300-1100BC) to Hellenistic times (c. 300-265 BC) (Reinders 2003; Malakasioti 2006). Voulokaliva is located on the western coast of the Pagasetic Gulf near important maritime routes and along land routes that connected it with the southern and northern Greek mainland (Stissi et al. 2004). The individuals were buried mainly in simple pits and cists, but a circular construction, probably an imitation of a tholos tomb, was also found. Adjacent to the clusters of burials in the cemetery, scattered graves have been found throughout the area, but, because the cemetery was a rescue excavation, its full extent and perimeter is not (yet) known. The graves included single and double inhumations of males, females, and subadults of all ages (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016). Pharsala is located in southern Thessaly, near routes to western Thessaly and Epirus through Mount Pindos. Two burial grounds have been excavated (Tziafalias & Batziou-Efstathiou 2010; Katakouta 2012): one (Site 1) is a northwards extension of the Mycenaean cemetery, while the other (Site 2) is a rather distant burial ground (Figure 5.1). Site 1 had single or multiple inhumations of males and females, single inhumations of subadults of all ages, and a few cremations. The tomb types are pits, cists, burial enclosures, tholoi, and a tumulus. Site 2, located approximately 6 km to the north-east of the first cemetery, consists of two tholoi covering only adults (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press). Details of the osteological analysis of the human remains used in this article are available in Panagiotopoulou et al. (2016) and Panagiotopoulou et al. (2018, in press).

5.3. Variation in burial practices

The contextual analysis of burial practices defines the context in which the burial forms developed, in our case the different tomb types, tomb distribution patterns, burial treatment, age, and sex of the individuals. The analysis has indicated funerary patterns and variations, which can be attributed to social differentiation (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press) but also to the presence of non-local individuals. Here, we focus on aspects where population movements may have caused such differentiation. These aspects are: a) the spatial organization in different burial locations used by the same

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 101 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. community; b) the co-existence of clustered and non-clustered graves in the same cemetery; and c) the different grave types, such as simple graves with single burials against complex tomb constructions with multiple burials. The cemetery of Chloe included mainly tholos tombs with multiple burials, although a few cist graves were also present. The contemporaneous site of Voulokaliva in Halos mainly comprised single burials in simple cists. Pharsala, on the other hand, is the cemetery showing the greatest diversity. The variety of different tomb types, treatment, and burial locations was attributed to the same community. Furthermore, the practice of excluding young subadults Figure 5.2: Geological map of Chloe (Velestino and Volos sheets) showing the location of the environmental samples. (under four years old) from receiving for- Base map by the Institute for Geology and Subsurface mal burial in the Early Iron Age, a practice Research of Greece, 1978, scale 1:50000. considered to be Mycenaean, was only attested in a few cases, such as at the tholoi of Chloe (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016; Pa- nagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press). Chloe appears to be a cemetery where traditional burial practices continued to be performed, whereas Voulokaliva and Pharsala incorporated more innovative practices. The community of Voulokaliva adopted only simple forms, while the cemetery of Pharsala developed in a more complex manner, with innovation and tradition present alongside each other in a more evident way. The questions initially formulated can now be turned into more targeted and specific questions:

Could differences in burial locations/ clusters indicate groups or individuals of different origin(s)? Could innovative practices have been introduced by individuals who had moved to these communities from other regions, or did the need for social change drive the local population towards this choice?

These questions were addressed through the application of strontium isotope analysis to investigate whether, and in what proportion, non-local individuals were present at each site.

5.4. The environmental context of Greece and Thessaly

Greece lies at the southern edge of the Balkan Peninsula. It has a varied terrain, with a long coastline and mountains alternating with plains. The mountains can be very high with rounded summits, and erosion makes relics of the old landscape visible. The lowlands are coastal plains or inland basins that were depressed and uplifted again (Darby 1944; Danalatos 1992; Higgins & Higgins 1996). Thessaly lies in the eastern part of the central Greek mainland (Figure 5.1). The Thessalian bedrock is mainly composed of limestones, dolomites, schists, and flysch of Triassic age (252.17-208.8 million years ago). During the Oligocene (36.6-23.7 million years ago) and Miocene (23.7-5.3 million years ago), Thessaly was a shallow sea and, later, in the early Pliocene (5.3-1.6 million years ago), an extensive lake. Tectonic activity in the Pleistocene created grabens, which accumulated lacustrine deposits. Thessaly’s depression is surrounded by mountain ranges: the mountain chain of Olympos-Ossa-Pelion is in the north and east and is a Neogene horst composed of Pelagonian ophiolites, gneiss, schist, and metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks. Pelion, the southern end of the range and the nearest to the site of Chloe, is mainly composed of schist, but marble is also present on the northern side

102 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 102 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. of the mountain. The Pindos range is in the west of Thessaly. The Pindos zone has been a deep ocean basin with limestone accumulations, which was later filled with flysch sediments. Finally, Mount Othrys, which is the nearest to the cemetery of Voulokaliva, demarcates the southern borders of Thessaly. It consists of limestone, Neogene sediments, and marble (Danalatos 1992; Higgins & Higgins 1996).

5.5. Materials and method

5.5.1. Enamel and environmental samples For the purpose of this study, we collected human tooth enamel and environmental samples. We sampled non-diagnostic of pathologies human teeth, preferably loose and not attached to the mandible or maxilla but evidently associated with specific individuals. The number of samples from each site is as follows: ten from Chloe, thirteen from Voulokaliva, and thirteen from Pharsala (Table 5.1). Environmen- tal sampling covered the geological formations that could have contributed to the strontium intake by humans and animals, as shown in Table 5.2.

Table 5.1: Sr isotope ratios of human enamel samples and dentine from the sites of Chloe, Voulokaliva, and Pharsala. Samples were analysed during two analytical sessions. The reproducibility of the NBS987 standard in the two sessions is given below. The superscript number by the 87Sr/86Sr ratio relates the sample to the relevant analytical session. 1. Average 87Sr/86Sr for NBS987: 0.710278 ± 23 (32ppm, 2SD n=10) 2. Average 87Sr/86Sr for NBS987: 0.710264 ± 17 (24ppm, 2SD n=11)

Site Sample number 87Sr/86Sr norm 2SE Sr concentration (ppm) (1/Sr)*103 Chloe C/E-th2/cr2 0.70912 0.000021 93 11 Chloe C/E-th2/cr3 0.70942 0.000020 113 9 Chloe C/E-th2/o4 0.70892 0.000018 92 11 Chloe C/E-th2/cr6 0.70912 0.000017 120 8 Chloe C/E-th2/cr7 0.70912 0.000013 104 10 Chloe C/Z-th1/cr1 0.70912 0.000017 133 8 Chloe C/Z-th1/cr3 0.70912 0.000019 107 9 Chloe C/Z-th1/cr4 0.70912 0.000021 87 12 Chloe C/Z-th1/cr8 0.70922 0.000018 121 8 Chloe C/Z-th1/cr10 0.70892 0.000020 79 13 Voulokaliva HaVo/e-c5 0.70911 0.000018 95 11 Voulokaliva HaVo/e-cc8/ind1 0.70871 0.000018 92 11 Voulokaliva HaVo/e-c12/ind1 0.70901 0.000019 72 14 Voulokaliva HaVo/e-p65 0.70901 0.000016 55 18 Voulokaliva HaVo/e-p66 0.70911 0.000015 81 12 Voulokaliva HaVo/e-c72 0.70891 0.000018 61 16 Voulokaliva HaVo/w-c7/ind1 0.70791 0.000016 132 8 Voulokaliva HaVo/w-c7/ind2 0.70851 0.000022 106 9 Voulokaliva HaVo/w-c11/ind1 0.70891 0.000019 56 18 Voulokaliva HaVo/w-c11/ind2 0.70921 0.000014 72 14 Voulokaliva HaVo/w-c13 0.70922 0.000020 75 13 Voulokaliva HaVo/w-c21 0.70912 0.000016 129 8

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 103 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Table 5.1 (cont.)

Site Sample number 87Sr/86Sr norm 2SE Sr concentration (ppm) (1/Sr)*103 Voulokaliva HaVo/w-p31 0.70892 0.000026 44 23 Pharsala F/Ep-th1 0.70911 0.000018 77 13 Pharsala F/Ep-th2/ind2 0.70911 0.000020 86 12 Pharsala F/Ep-th2/ind1 0.70911 0.000015 108 9 Pharsala F/Ep-th2/secA/ind1 0.70911 0.000016 78 13 Pharsala F/Ep-th2/secB 0.70911 0.000016 76 13 Pharsala F/Od- be18/ind1 0.70881 0.000018 83 12 Pharsala F/Od-th20 0.70881 0.000016 83 12 Pharsala F/Od-be28/south 0.70941 0.000015 153 7 Pharsala F/Od-c25 0.70921 0.000010 165 6 Pharsala F/Per-th1/ind3 0.70871 0.000020 69 15 Pharsala F/Per-c4 0.70871 0.000018 71 14 Pharsala F/Per-c5 0.70871 0.000022 94 11 Pharsala F/Per-c8 0.70801 0.000018 187 5 Double F/Od-be18/ind1 0.70882 0.000019 71 14 Double HaVo/w-c7/ind1 0.70902 0.000014 135 7 Dentine F/Od-be18/ind1 0.70822 0.000016 112 9 Dentine HaVo/w-c21 0.70832 0.000018 91 11 Dentine C/E-th2/cr2 0.71002 0.000018 268 4

The environmental samples (snail shells and water samples) were obtained from the wider area surrounding the cemeteries. We attempted to cover areas of possible land exploitation for plant farming and animal breeding as well as water sources. This sampling provided information on the range of bioavailable strontium that characterizes the soil and water end-members of the cemetery regions or regions of comparable geology. At Chloe the sampling circle around the cemetery was approximately 5 km in diameter. Sampling stopped at physical boundaries –i.e. where the same geological formation was extended for long distances and where access to areas was hindered by boundaries such as mountains (Figure 5.2). The area of Halos was sampled within a diameter of approximately 10 km. Again, a mountain, the sea, and extended geological formations were the boundaries to further sampling (Figure 5.3). Pharsala was encircled by a diameter of approximately 9 km, using parameters similar to those chosen for the previous sites (Figure 5.4). Several ways of establishing the local baseline have been developed since the first use of strontium isotope analysis in archaeology. Statistical analyses of human isotope ratios and analysis of soils, plants, waters, and modern animals with limited foraging distance, such as rodents and snail shells, have all been used to better define the local strontium baseline (Price et al. 1994, 2002; Wright 2005; Hartman & Richards 2014). Here, we have used snail shells and water samples because both are suitable for Thes- saly, based on the region’s environmental characteristics. Snail shells represent the different geological formations in the areas around the cemeteries. Snails are suitable proxies for this study for two reasons: a) their limited foraging range reflects the averaged local plants consumed by the snail and the local strontium isotope ratio; and b) Thessaly is a low-rainfall region receiving approximately 400-800 mm annual rainfall and thus the strontium incorporated into the snail shell is not diluted (Evans et al. 2009).

104 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 104 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 5.5.2. Strontium isotope analysis

Strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel was employed to address the research questions presented above regarding the Early Iron Age communities. Strontium is an element that is incorporated into the human body, primarily the skeleton, through diet and is strongly related to the geological and geographical environment where the food was produced. Strontium in the biosphere derives from the underlying bedrock and its isotope ratios depend on the lithological composition and the age of the rock. Weathering and erosion of the rocks and subterranean water movements transfer the strontium to the soil, and into the human food chain via the consumption of plants by animals and humans (Stallo et al. 2010). Strontium is incorporated into both bone and teeth, but the most suitable tissue has proved to be tooth enamel for two major reasons. First, tooth enamel is dense, inert, non-porous, and resistant to post-mortem contamination (Price et al. 2002). Second, teeth are formed during childhood, and tooth enamel, an acellular and avascular tissue, does not remodel subsequently and, thus, is regarded as an archive of childhood exposure. Therefore, by studying strontium isotopes in tooth enamel we gain information on the geological environment from which individuals obtained their food during childhood. If an individual relocated in later life to a different geological terrain, the strontium isotope ratio of their burial place and that of their tooth enamel should be distinguishable (Montgomery 2010).

5.6. Laboratory procedure

Samples for Sr isotope analysis were prepared and analysed at the Arthur Holmes Isotope Geology Laboratory, Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University. Enamel samples were removed from each tooth using dental burs and saws, cleaned of all surfaces and adhering dentine and sealed in micro- tubes. In order to characterize the environment at each of the three sites, samples of c. 50 mg from the shells of land snails and water samples of 30 ml were collected from streams and seawater. The pre-cleaned enamel chips (0.01g-0.1g) were weighed into clean Teflon beakers and dissolved

in 1 ml Teflon distilled (TD) 16M HNO3, dried down, and re-dissolved in 0.5 ml TD 3M HNO3. Sr was extracted from the sample matrix as a fraction eluted from an Eichrom Sr-Spec exchange resin column.

The Sr fraction, eluted from the column in 0.4 mls MQ H2O, was acidified with TD 16M HNO3 to

make a three per cent HNO3 solution ready for isotope analysis by Multi-Collector ICP-MS (MC-ICP-MS) using a ThermoFisher Neptune. Prior to analysis, the Sr fraction was tested to determine the Sr concentration and to ensure the major isotope of Sr (88Sr) did not exceed the maximum voltage (50 V) for the detector amplifiers. Any samples that exceeded this limit were diluted to yield an 88Sr signal of –25 V. A Sr isotope measurement comprised a static multi-collection routine of 1 block of 50 cycles with an integration time of 4 seconds per cycle; total analysis time: 3.5 minutes. Instrumental mass bias was corrected for by using an 88Sr/86Sr ratio of 8.375209 (the reciprocal of the accepted 86Sr/88Sr ratio of 0.1194) and an exponential law. Corrections were also applied for Kr interferences on 84Sr and 86Sr and the Rb interference on 87Sr. The average 83Kr intensity throughout the analytical session was –0.08 mV, which is insignificant considering the Sr beam size (88Sr between 13 and 29 V). The average 85Rb was slightly greater at 0.8 mV, but, given the Sr beam size, the correction on the 87Sr/86Sr was very small (<0.00001) and is accurate. Samples were analysed during three analytical sessions. The average 87Sr/86Sr and reproducibility for the international strontium isotope reference material NBS 987 analysed during each analytical session are reported in the Table captions. All sample data in Tables 5.1 and 5.2 are reported relative to an accepted 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.71024 for NBS987.

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– –

Senonian/ richtian/ richtian/ Pelagonian Zone Unit Lower Tectonic –Middle Senonian/ Maest Paleocene Pelagonian Zone Unit Lower Tectonic –Middle Maest Paleocene Pontian – Pliocene – Lower Pleistocene Quartenary Quartenary Period Quaternary/ Holocene Quaternary/ Holocene - - - Sr for NBS987 standard Sr for NBS987 during analytical session 86 : Middle Triassic/Upper Jurassic, : Middle Triassic/Upper Sr/

Near the formation In the Velestino area in the lower parts of the flysch. Olistoliths and olistostromes of various in the lower parts of flysch. Olistoliths and olistostromes area In the Velestino with limestones, dolomites, serpentinites, pyroxenites, present, lithological compositions are The flysch cherts and others of a total thickness up to 150m approximately. diabasic rocks, limestones. locally overlies unconformably by the underlying uppercretaceous the fg: Flysch consisting of fine-to medium – grained sandstones and in places, towards muscovite, – grained sandstones, with main minerals quartz, feldspar, upper parts, of coasre of pelites in places. sericite and calcite with intercalations laminated, conglomerates and sandy conglomerates. clays, clayey sandy material, of low cohesion, with dispersed formations: red Fluvioterrestrial and angular pebbles or coarses- grained elements, of various lithological composi rounded – conglomerates. tion and breccio Coastal Quartenary undivided, Diluvium and Alluvion. Clays, sands, gravels, talus (scree). conglomerates. Continental deposits. The site is coastal. Quartenary undivided, Diluvium and Alluvion. Clays, sands, gravels, talus. Coastal conglomer ates. Continental deposits. Geological formations fluvio – lacustrine material of silt, clay and very – grey to brown Alluvial deposits light-grey (Karla) lake basin, deposits on plains, open towards few coarser material deposited in Voiviis deposits, torrential sand and pebbles, torrential the sea and small interior basins of clay, terraces material and eluvial mantle material. fluvio – lacustrine material of silt, clay and very few to brown-grey Alluvial deposits light-grey the (Karla) lake basin, deposits on plains, open towards coarser material deposited in Voiviis terrac deposits, torrential sand and pebbles, torrential sea and small interior basins of clay, es material and eluvial mantle material. evolution of the neopaleozoic – lower middle upwards Marbles which constitute the regular horizon consisting of calcite schists, cipolins and formations with a locally intercalated Triassic Small bauxite occurrences. muscovite schists with metabasite intercalations. ol: olistholiths of diabasic – dioritic rocks shell shell shell shell shell shell Snail Snail Snail Snail Snail Snail type water Sample 2SD 0.000012 0.000017 0.000017 0.000015 0.000013 0.000018 0.000015 Sr 0.7103 0.7095 0.7078 0.7080 0.7088 0.7086 0.7089 name HL01s HL04s CH11s CH12s CH03s CH09s Sample CH05w Halos Halos Chloe Chloe Voulokaliva Voulokaliva Environmental samples Site Chloe Chloe Chloe Table 5.2: Sr isotope values of environmental samples from the sites of Chloe, Voulokaliva, and Pharsala. Average and Pharsala. Average Voulokaliva, environmental samples the sites Chloe, values of from of 5.2: Sr isotope Table for environmental samples: 0.710278±23 (32ppm, 2SD n=10). The geological periods and formations where the samples have been collected are also presented.

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Cretaceous Pleistocene Upper Neogene/Pliocene Neogene/Pliocene same Holocene Holocene Holocene Holocene Pelagonian Zone: Upper & Middle Cretaceous/ (?) Jurassic-Triassic Holocene Holocene Upper Quartenary - -

: Quartenary undivided, Diluvium and Alluvion. Clays, sands, . Second is: Metamorphosed thin- bedded or compact lime Fossils scarce Neogen undivided. Mostly Pliocene. Marls, clays, gravels, sandstons, conglomerates, deposits with lignites. Fossils marly limestones. Neogene freshwater Adjacent to the formation gravels, talus. Coastal conglomerates. Continental deposits. metamorphosed formation of Flysch [Shales, sandstones, conglomerates Partly or entirely limestones] Phyllites, sandstones, layers of black crystalline limestone. and intercalated Fossils scarce Between two formations age, with phyllites and brecias stone of Upper Cretaceous On the coastline same Alluvium Alluvium Alluvium Alluvium limestone. Maybe under that cortege ophiolite. Adjacent to Holocene Ks: micro-brecciated Cônes de dejections torrentiels Alluvium Alluvium Lacustrine and fluvial deposits. missing, ostracodes in abundance Fossils are Quartenary undivided, Diluvium and Alluvion. Clays, sands, gravels, talus. Coastal conglomer ates. Continental deposits. metamorphosed formation of Flysch [Shales, sandstones, conglomerates Partly or entirely limestones] Phyllites, sandstones, layers of black crystalline limestone. and intercalated sea shell shell shell shell shell Snail Snail Snail Snail Snail water water water water water water water water 0.000013 0.000016 0.000018 0.000014 0.000017 0.000021 0.000016 0.000014 0.000015 0.000015 0.000017 0.000018 0.000016 0.7079 0.7089 0.7092 0.7084 0.7082 0.7082 0.7085 0.7078 0.7088 0.7085 0.7090 0.7086 0.7088 FS03s FS04s FS11s HL14s HL18s FS03w FS04w FS07w FS11w FS15w HL15w HL18w HL05w Halos Halos Halos Halos Halos Voulokaliva Voulokaliva Voulokaliva Voulokaliva Pharsala Pharsala Pharsala Pharsala Pharsala Pharsala Pharsala Pharsala Voulokaliva Voulokaliva Voulokaliva

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 107 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 5.7. Strontium isotope results

The local 87Sr/86Sr ranges have been estimated by the end-members of the environmental samples from each site. Therefore, Chloe’s range is 0.7086-0.7103 (n=5), Voulokaliva’s is 0.7078-0.7092 (n=7), and Pharsala’s is 0.7078-0.7090 (n=8). The human enamel 87Sr/86Sr values at Chloe range from 0.7089 to 0.7094 (n=10), at Voulokaliva from 0.7079 to 0.7092 (n=13), and at Pharsala from 0.7080 to 0.7094 (n=13). The data discussed here are presented in Tables 5.1 and 5.2. The letter beside the number of each environmental sample indicates the type of sample that has been used (‘s’ for snail shell and ‘w’ for water sample). The environmental samples represent different geological formations that could potentially have influenced the strontium isotope values of the food and water ingested by the individuals of the populations under study. In order to examine whether two or more geological end-members could have contributed to the strontium isotope values of these populations, we have also plotted human 87Sr/86Sr values against human strontium concentration (1/Sr ppm *103) (Montgomery et al. 2007). Some environmental samples have yielded different 87Sr/86Sr values although they were collected from the same geological formations. This is the case where a snail shell and a water sample were collected. The reason for this difference is most probably the source of the spring water, which might have been located in a different geological formation, and thus the 87Sr/86Sr value of the water reflects the average 87Sr/86Sr values of the geological formations the water had passed through.

5.7.1. Chloe Figure 5.3: Geological map of Halos (Almyros sheet) showing The human 87Sr/86Sr values from Chloe in- the location of the environmental samples. dicate that the entire assemblage appears Base map by the Institute for Geology and Subsurface to be local: the human values fall within Research of Greece, 1962, scale 1:50000. the range of the environmental samples (Figure 5.5). As the strontium isotope ratios, with an isotopic range between the environmental samples CH3s, CH9s, and CH12s, span the rain/seawater value of 0.7092, which is an estimate of atmospheric deposition, the individuals’ strontium appears to derive from more than two sources, that is two or more geological end-members and rainwater contribution to plants (Figure 5.5). These individuals appear to have obtained food from areas represented by the snail shell samples CH3s, CH9s, and CH12s (Table 5.2). The same is indicated by the plot of 87Sr/86Sr against strontium concentration (1/Sr ppm *103), where no linear rela- Figure 5.4: Geological map of Pharsala showing the location tion- ship of the entire assemblage is ob- οf the environmental samples. Base map by the Institute for served (Figure 5.6). The human values fall Geology and Subsurface Research of Greece, 1969, scale 1:50000. within the range from 0.7095 (CH12s) to

108 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 108 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 0.7088/0.7086 (CH03s/CH05w) (Tables 5.1 and 5.2, Figures 5.5 and 5.6). The geological formation that sample CH11s (0.7103) represents seems to make no contribution to the human strontium isotope values; the negligible difference between the dentine and the second highest snail (CH12s) suggests that the higher local end-member is best represented by the snail shell CH12s rather than the snail shell CH11s. The very small spread of the data suggests that either limestone was the main geological formation or that the ground water had flowed over limestone. Indeed, the sample CH09s represents a region mainly composed by limestone and Figure 5.5: 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the human enamel and the water CH05w was collected from an environmental samples (local 87Sr/86Sr ratios as indicated by the area close to limestone (Table 5.2, Figure environmental end-members: dashed black line) from Chloe, 5.3); thus, the water sample yields stron- Voulokaliva, and Pharsala. The black thick line indicates the tium isotope values that represent those 87Sr/86Sr seawater value. The black arrow shows the enamel and of limestone bedrock. the dentine of the same sample. The error for Sr isotopes at 2sd is within the symbol. Geographically, we see that these environmental end-members demarcate an area that could have been used, for example, for farming (Figure 5.3).

5.7.2. Voulokaliva The human 87Sr/86Sr values from the coastal site of Voulokaliva appear to be dominated by an upper marine end-member (via either the sea or rainfall) as the majority cluster below, but close to, 0.7092 (Figure 5.5). There are also a few samples (4 out of 13) yielding lower strontium isotope values, three of which separate out from the aforementioned group but are still within the local environmental range. In the plot on Figure 5.7, where strontium isotope data with Sr concentration recorded in human teeth are combined, we can see two groups of samples (Group I and Group II). Group I must have used a region restricted between the sea value (0.7092) Figure 5.6: 87Sr/86Sr ratios of human enamel and environmental and limestone (0.7089). Both these end- samples from Chloe plotted against the Sr concentration members represent samples collected of the samples. The black thick line indicates the seawater in the same location (seawater and snail 87Sr/86Sr value. The local 87Sr/86Sr ratios are indicated by the shell). Group II belongs to an area between environmental end-members: dashed black line. The black arrow limestone (0.7089) and sedimentary rocks shows the enamel and the dentine of the same sample. The (0.7078) (Table 5.2, Figure 5.4). Although codes beside the environmental samples are the sample names this location is only 3 km from the coast, in Table 5.2. The error for Sr isotopes at 2sd is within the symbol.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 109 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. the contribution from the sea seems to be limited, possibly because a low mountain stands between the two areas. The individuals from Voulokaliva all appear to be local, but with differences in food origin. All the environmental samples are sourced locally; the water samples came from springs on the mountain of Sourpi, located to the west of the area of Halos. The majority is mainly influenced by the coastal environment, but also by limestone. The three samples that do not fit in this restricted area on the plot probably derive from people settled in the region of Halos on sedimentary formations or who obtained their food from a region whose Figure 5.7: 87Sr/86Sr ratios of human enamel and environmental 87 86 samples from Voulokaliva plotted against the Sr concentration Sr/ Sr values are not influenced by the of the samples. The black thick line indicates the seawater sea. 87Sr/86Sr value. The local 87Sr/86Sr ratios are indicated by the environmental end-members: dashed black line. The black arrow shows the enamel and the dentine of the same sample. The letters M, F, and I indicate the sex 5.7.3. Pharsala of the individuals from which these samples were taken The human 87Sr/86Sr values from Pharsala (M: Male, F: Female, I: Indeterminate sex). The codes beside the environmental samples are the sample clearly indicate two distinct groups (Figure 87 86 names in Table 5.2. The error for Sr isotopes at 2sd 5.5). One group (A), with lower Sr/ Sr is within the symbol. values, lies within the local environmental range, while a second group (B), with higher 87Sr/86Sr values, lies outside this local range. Three more human samples are outliers. Group C, a female and an indeterminate individual yielding the highest values, lies above seawater and higher than the environmental range. Another individual (D), a female, is within the environmental range but significantly different from any of the other individuals from Pharsala. The plot that presents 87Sr/86Sr isotope values against strontium concentration (1/Sr ppm *103) strengthens the case for outliers at Pharsala (Figure 5.8). Group A, identified as local, between the two end- members FS15w (0.7090, lacustrine de- Figure 5.8: 87Sr/86Sr ratios of human enamel and environmental posits) and FS04w/FS11s (0.7082/0.7088, samples from Pharsala plotted against the Sr concentration of the samples. The black thick line indicates the seawater alluvium deposits), appears to have used 87Sr/86Sr value. The local 87Sr/86Sr ratios are indicated the valley and the water of the river by the environmental end-members: dashed black line. Enipeas to produce their food. The river The black arrow shows the enamel and the dentine Apidanos (FS03s,w) probably did not influ- of the same sample. The letters F, and I indicate the sex ence the isotopic range of human group of the individuals from which these samples were taken A, which exhibits a significant difference (F: Female, I: Indeterminate sex). The codes beside (Table 5.2, Figure 5.4). In contrast, the in- the environmental samples are the sample names in Table 5.2. dividuals of group B, who were also buried The error for Sr isotopes at 2sd is within the symbol. in the same area, seem to have consumed

110 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 110 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. in their youth food grown in an area with a geological substrate that is not present in this geological framework and, therefore, not represented by any environmental sample (be it water or snail shell) taken for this study. Individual D can be considered local because an environmental sample provides a very low 87Sr/86Sr value (FS07w=0.7078). This water sample has been collected from an area that is close to ophiolite (volcanic rock) with low 87Sr/86Sr values. This spring water represents the isotope values of the food and water ingested by this individual from such a geological formation. Furthermore, the dentine, which is prone to post-mortem uptake of soil strontium during burial and, thus, provides an indication of the local environment (Montgomery et al. 2007), has very low 87Sr/86Sr values and is very close to the enamel 87Sr/86Sr value of individual D, indicating that this individual is local. However, because snail shells from this ophiolite formation have not been analysed, we cannot discuss the origin of the strontium of this individual in more detail. Human groups B and C are considered non-local. Group B exhibits values similar to seawater and could indicate a group of coastal origin, like Voulokaliva. On the other hand, the humans from Chloe, which is not close to the sea, also exhibit values comparable to seawater values (Figure 5.5). The mixing of two or more geological sources coupled with atmospheric deposition in the form of rainwater may produce an average value that is close to, but has no connection with, seawater. Given this equifinality of the data and sources, it is not possible to identify a place of origin for the individuals in these groups, nor to associate them definitely with Vouloklaiva or Chloe. Lastly, the outliers of group C originate from a region with high Sr biosphere values, which are not supported by the local bedrock of Pharsala or any other site included in this study.

5.8. Population movements in the Early Iron Age

Chloe’s environmental and human results as well as the archaeological data support each other well. The narrow spread of human strontium isotope values around the mean environmental value suggests that the group represented by these data had potentially explored most of the surrounding food and water sources over a distance of some 5 km, as mentioned in the sampling paragraph above. This group also shared funerary customs following the traditional Mycenaean way, which suggests that perhaps they shared the same cultural background and social status as well, in other words that they were continuing local practices. The majority of the humans from Voulokaliva lie mostly around the seawater value, as expected in a coastal population (Bentley 2006). In contrast, the three individuals with lower values indicate a reduced marine contribution and values that are dominated by either ophiolites or lime-stones. The two lowest values (12-HaVo/ w-c7/ind2 and 13-HaVo/w-c7/ind1) belong to two individuals (a male and a female) who were buried together in a cist of the Submycenaean period. A third individual (11-HaVo/e-cc8/ind1) was buried in a circular construction of the Early Protogeometric period. Based on the pottery sequence, the individuals with the lowest values are represented in the earliest burials. This could indicate either a change in land exploitation from the Submycenaean period to the Protogeometric or a move from sedimentary rocks to a location closer to the coast (HL18). Since the Early Iron Age is a period still inad- equately studied, we cannot (yet) decide in favour of one or the other alternative. The two groups (A and B) detected by strontium isotope analysis at Pharsala are also identifiable in the archaeological evidence. While the individuals of group A were buried in Site 1, the individuals of group B were buried in the distant tholoi of Site 2. However, only the burial location suggests a difference between these isotopically distinct groups. Other aspects of burial practices, such as tomb types and treatment, are similar in both burial groups, suggesting that, although group B consisted of non-locals, they came from a culturally comparable region. The lower strontium isotope value (D), supported by a sole water sample, could indicate residence or use of foods produced in this area because no other geological formation in the valley yielded such a low value. Alternatively, this could be a non-local individual that coincidentally exhibited local values.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 111 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. This individual is a female, buried under a tumulus in the cemetery among local individuals, and is not differentiated from group A. The same occurs for the two high outliers (group C). They were both buried in Site 1 among locals; one was a female in a burial enclosure and the other an indeterminate individual in a cist. These three individuals may provide evidence for the practice of exogamy (because of their non-local provenance), but nevertheless were apparently integrated within the local community.

5.9. Conclusions

The observations and conclusions of the strontium isotope analysis indicate that the three sites in Thes- saly show clear human isotopic groups, although there are overlaps of 87Sr/86Sr environmental values between the sites. Chloe appears to provide evidence of indigenous burials. In contrast, while Voulo- kaliva appears to consist largely of local individuals, the archaeological and isotopic evidence suggests that three individuals from the Submycenaean and Early Protogeometric period were obtaining foods from the wider area of Halos or came from elsewhere within that area. In Pharsala, on the other hand, non-local individuals have been detected, possibly originating from a region that is geologically and isotopically, but not necessarily culturally, distinguishable. These individuals were buried among locals as well as in separate locations. The method we have employed to answer the questions set out at the beginning of this article has identified individuals of non-local origin and movement either within the same region or even over longer distances during the Early Iron Age. However, the place of origin of these people is not easily distinguishable, and it is very difficult to reach definite conclusions, especially in a region with such a diverse geological history and bedrock but a limited range of biosphere strontium isotopes. What is surprising, perhaps, is that, even in this geological setting, clear isotopic groupings of humans are detectable. This suggests that the groups at Voulokaliva and Pharsala followed formalized and geographically constrained food production and procurement strategies. Exhaustive studies of the geological formations of likely areas, along with a more systematic archaeological investigation of possible regions of origin, are clearly necessary. Our integrated analysis revealed another interesting practice. A group of non-locals in Pharsala was buried in a traditional Mycenaean manner and not in an innovative way, as might be expected. In Chloe, on the other hand, traditional Mycenaean burial rites were practised by locals. Therefore, the newcomers could have come from a region not necessarily very far from, or outside, Thessaly, and possibly culturally similar. However, we cannot definitely exclude the possibility that these individuals were claiming status and kin relations through the adoption of traditional funerary practices. In addition, the presence of newcomers does not necessarily indicate change in the local tradition. It appears that cultural assimilation must have occurred to some extent. Three potentially non-local individuals in Pharsala were buried in graves alongside locals, indicating perhaps that they or their descendants had adopted local funerary and cultural practices. As to the individuals buried with innovative practices, they are consistent with local origins, but the equifinality inherent in strontium isotope data means that origins elsewhere in a region characterized by the same isotope ratios cannot be definitively ruled out. The diversity observed among the local populations indicates that social variation and differentiation could have played a significant role here. This aspect has been extensively discussed by Panagiotopoulou et al. (2016) and Panagiotopoulou et al. (2018, in press). The present article provides the first evidence of burial diversity associated with the presence of individuals of different geographical provenance. Large-scale population movements have not been detected; and mobility among these populations was likely to have been rather smaller-scale, reflecting the movement of individuals or families. The presence of both local and non-local individuals in the same community is evident in the great diversity of Early Iron Age burial practices. The non-locals, however, did not necessarily bring about a change from traditional to new practices. Rather, they indicate that small-scale movement took place in the Early Iron Age for various purposes, such as exogamy or, perhaps, the relocation of entire families, potentially within a common cultural environment.

112 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 112 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank INSTAP (Institute of Aegean Prehistory) for funding the analysis presented here. Furthermore, we thank the Stichting Philologisch Studiefonds Utrecht for funding a research trip to Greece to collect the archaeological data and the environmental samples. Last, but not least, we acknowledge the cooperation of the people from the local offices of the Greek Archaeological Ser- vice and the permits granted to access and sample the material for this project.

L’analyse des isotopes du strontium au service de la recherche sur la mobilité en Thessalie à l’âge du Fer Dans cet article nous examinons les données concernant les mouvements de population en Thes- salie en Grèce au début de l’âge du Fer (époque protogéométrique, XIe–IXe siècles av. J.-C.). La méth- ode choisie pour déceler la présence d’individus allochtones est l’analyse des isotopes du strontium (87Sr/86Sr) préservé dan l’email dentaire combinée ici avec une analyse contextuelle des pratiques funéraires et l’analyse ostéologique des restes humains. L’époque protogéométrique vit une série de transformations sociales et culturelles alors que la société se remettait de la désintégration de la civil- isation mycénienne (XIIe siècle av. J.-C.). L’étude des nécropoles de Voulokaliva, Chloe et Pharsala en Thessalie méridionale démontre que des individus étrangers intégrés aux communautés étudiées ont contribué à la diversité des pratiques funéraires et ont ainsi participé à l’évolution de l’organisation sociale. Translation by Madeleine Hummler Mots-clés: âge du Fer ancien, analyses des isotopes du strontium, mouvements de population, Thessalie

Die Erkennung der Bevölkerungsmobilität in Thessalien in der frühen Eisenzeit durch die Analyse der Strontium Isotopen

In diesem Artikel werden die Angaben über Bevölkerungsbewegungen in Thessalien in Griechen- land in der früheisenzeitlichen protogeometrischen Periode (11. bis 9. Jh. v. Chr.) untersucht. Die Methode, die wir gewählt haben, um nicht-einheimische Individuen zu erkennen, ist die Analyse von 87Sr/86Sr Strontium Isotopen im Zahnschmelz. Diese Untersuchung wird hier mit einer kontextuellen Auswertung der Bestattungssitten und einer Analyse der menschlichen Skelettreste verbunden. In protogeometrischer Zeit haben mehrere soziale und kulturelle Veränderungen stattgefunden, als die Gesellschaft sich vom Zerfall der mykenischen Zivilisation (12. Jh. v. Chr.) erholte. Die Auswertung der Gräberfelder von Voulokaliva, Chloe und Pharsala im Süden von Thessalien hat gezeigt, dass die nicht-einheimischen Individuen in diesen Gemeinschaften zur Vielfalt der Bestattungssitten und zur Entwicklung der sozia- len Organisation der Gesellschaft beigetragen haben. Translation by Made- leine Hummler Stichworte: frühe Eisenzeit, Griechenland, Analyse der Strontium Isotopen, Bevölkerungsbewegungen, Thessalien

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 113 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 114 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. PART III

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 115 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 116 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Chapter 6 • Discussion & Conclusions

6.1 Discussion

The aim of this thesis is to shed light on the Early Iron Age and to reconstruct social structure in this period. The main object of study are the burial practices in Thessaly for two main reasons: a) the abundance of mortuary evidence derived from rescue excavations in the area and b) the diversity of mortuary practices which has not been studied systematically as yet. In this thesis it is proposed that the combination of a detailed contextual analysis of the burial customs with stable isotope analysis of human bone collagen can help us understand the diversity in mortuary practices and understand changing social relations. More precisely, the concluding discussion in this chapter brings together the observations made on the basis of the contextual analysis of the burial practices (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6 CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF MORTUARY PRACTICES OF HALOS, CHLOE, AND PHARSALA) with the results of the stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope analysis of bone collagen and strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel (PART II, CHAPTERS 2-5). The conclusions from the four papers presented previously are discussed within the chronological framework of the Early Iron Age and the archaeological context as has been analysed thus far by various studies focusing on Early Iron Age Greek assemblages. The discussion will start by addressing, once more, the questions which arose from the contextual analyses (PART II, CHAPTER 1, 1.6) and which were explored in the individual papers (PART II, CHAPTERS 2-5). The central question of this thesis is: How can we interpret the diversity observed in the burial practices of EIA Thessaly? The investigation explored two main themes: a) social variation and differentiation and b) change and continuity in burial practices. Regarding the first theme, variation in mortuary practices has been investigated by means of the contextual analysis and differentiation has been reconstructed between age, sex, status and kin groups. As diet is seen in this study as playing an important role in social life and reproducing social differentiation, dietary variation has been explored and the following questions were addressed in PART II, CHAPTERS 2-3: Does dietary variation correlate with variation in mortuary practices? Do wealth and tomb elaboration correlate with differences in diet? Do we see gender differentiation in diet? Regarding the second theme, change and continuity in burial practices, the analysis has explored the possibility that change in mortuary practices and the ensuing diversity are the result of the presence of non-local individuals who had arrived from different regions. Conversely, the analysis has also explored the question whether continuity from Mycenaean mortuary practices in this transitional period should be seen as evidence of the continuity of the local population, or of the arrival of descendants of the Mycenaean period. In other words, the analyses have explored whether the presence of individuals of non-local origin influenced the organisation of the cemeteries, or the choice of tomb types and treatment, and by extension the relations between social groups. The following questions have been examined: Are there non-local individuals buried in the cemeteries of Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala? If so, can differentiation in the burial practices be attributed to the presence of non-local individuals? The analytical methods I employed allowed me to investigate these questions. As discussed in PART II, stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope analysis of bone collagen were employed to reconstruct the diet (CHAPTER 2-4), while strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel (CHAPTER 5) was employed to examine the origin of the individuals found in the cemeteries.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 117 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 6.1.1 Social Variation and Differentiation The discussion of social variation and differentiation will begin by reviewing the main results regarding diet produced by the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope analyses undertaken in this thesis. These results will be discussed within the historical and social framework in order to understand to what extent diet –and dietary variation– had changed from the previous Mycenaean period. The incorpora- tion of the results of archaeobotanical and archaeozoological studies will clarify the plant and animal resources that might have been used by the Early Iron Age populations. The analyses have revealed that

the diet of the communities of Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala relied predominantly on C3 terrestrial plant

and animal protein, while in a few cases C4 signal was detected (Figure 7.5.1). Carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis does not indicate marine food consumption (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter 3).

Archaeobotanical investigation has shown that the main C3 plant species during the Early Iron Age were both legumes and non-leguminous plants, such as pulses, wheat, barley, vegetables, and fruits

(Margaritis 2007; Margaritis 2013). C4 plant resources were rare because Greek flora is dominated by

C3 plants. However, there were a few C4 plants, mostly weeds, but among them only millet is edible by humans. Archaeozoological studies have shown that animal protein was primarily derived from the genera ovis (domesticated sheep), capra (domesticated goat), bos (domesticated cattle), and sus (domesticated pig) (Trantalidou 1990). Hare and bird remains have also been found, but these have been collected in funerary environments and we therefore cannot necessarily deduce that they were being consumed by humans (Aktypi 2014). Ichtyofaunal species have been collected from excavations –mostly molluscs and fish from coastal and shallow waters (Papadopoulos 2005; Theodoropoulou 2011b). Since molluscs and fish from shallow waters belong to the lower levels of the aquatic food-chain the carbon and nitrogen isotope values could have overlapped with the terrestrial isotopic signal (Richards 2015), this could partially explain the terrestrial signal of the stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis for the Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala populations. The stable sulfur isotope analysis confirmed that marine resources were not a substantial component of the diet of these populations despite the fact that all these sites were situated near aquatic sources (the sea, a lake or a river) (Panagiotopoulou & Nehlich in submitted: chapter 4). However, further analysis is needed in order to investigate whether their diet incorporated freshwater resources. Interestingly, humans and animals from the coastal sites of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi do not exhibit values influenced by the sea-spray. This is in contrast to other studies, in which the sulfur delta values indicated marine influence although the individuals had consumed terrestrial food resources. In these cases, the sulfur isotope values of these individuals had been affected by the sea spray effect i.e., in Crete and in Thebes (Richards et al. 2001; Vika 2009; Vika 2015). The isotopic evidence from Greek sites, from the Neolithic period to the Late Bronze Age, indicates

that the local diet relied mainly on C3 terrestrial plant and/or animal protein. Non-leguminous C3 plants (cereals, fruits, and vegetables) seem to have been part of the daily menu. Pulses (leguminous plants) also had a significant share. Animal protein coming either from dairy products or meat was consumed often; however, the quantity of animal protein in human diet varied between sites and periods. Marine and freshwater resources, on the other hand, seem to have been of less importance, even in littoral places. The consumption of aquatic resources is less well understood because of the absence of sulfur analysis on Greek assemblages. In cases where marine signal was present, it fluctuated throughout time and varied between sites (Richards & Hedges 1999; Triantaphyllou 2001; Papathanasiou 2003; Papatha- nasiou 2015; Theodoropoulou 2007; Papathanasiou et al. 2009; Iezzi 2015; Lagia et al. 2007; Richards & Vika 2008; Petroutsa et al. 2009; Petroutsa & Manolis 2010). This overview of diet in prehistoric Greece suggests that the diet reconstructed for the EIA sites studied in this thesis does not differ significantly from that of other prehistoric sites, though the volume of certain resources seems to fluctuate. Millet seems to have been consumed more by some populations during the Early Iron Age, while the consumption of animal protein varies between sites as well as between individuals. I will not discuss aquatic resources because the stable sulfur isotope analysis showed negative evidence as all individuals fall below δ34S=14‰ (Figure 7.5.2), which suggests that no marine input was present (Richards et al. 2001; Privat et al. 2007).

118 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 118 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. The occurrence of a C4 signal in Greek diet, in an area where the environment is dominated by

C3 flora, is an important issue which has been discussed in different studies (Papathanasiou 2003; Ingvarsson-Sundström et al. 2009; Schepartz et al. 2009; Schepartz et al. 2011). An important issue is whether or not millet was deliberately consumed by humans. Indeed, it has been suggested by

most scholars, that C4 intake may have entered the human trophic chain through animals as animal fodder (Petroutsa 2007; Petroutsa & Manolis 2010; Valamoti 2004; Valamoti 2013). However, recent archaeobotanical studies showed that during the end of Bronze Age and the beginning of Early Iron Age the exploitation of millet increased (Jones et al. 1986; Valamoti 2010; Valamoti 2013); this conclusion is also supported by isotope analysis (Triantaphyllou 2001). The signal from northern Early Iron Age sites, i.e., Kladeri, Treis Elies, Karitsa, and Makrigialos (Map 7.1.3) (Besios 1996; Triantaphyllou 2001; Vokotopoulou 1985; Triantaphyllou 2015; Pantermali 1988; Poulaki-Pantermali 1989) indicates definite, albeit sporadic use of millet. Farther to the south the signal changes; e.g., the site of Agios Dimitrios,

Kainourgiou in Phthiotis (Map 7.1.3) gave only C3 human signal (Papathanasiou et al. 2013; Panagiotopoulou & Papathanasiou 2015; Triantaphyllou 2001; Triantaphyllou 2015).

In Halos, C4 resources appear to have been consumed by only a few individuals (Panagiotopoulou et

al. 2016: Chapter 2). If this C4 signal reflects the diet of the animals that have been consumed by the humans, then a random group would have exhibited such values. On the contrary, only a few females

were attested to have consumed C4 resources. Furthermore, animals should also be more positive in

carbon delta values if C4 resources were part of their diet. In Pharsala and Chloe the signal becomes uncertain. At Pharsala, very few individuals exhibit values between –19‰ and –18‰, a signal which

cannot support a strong case of C4 intake, but produces an indication which requires further investiga-

tion. In Chloe all individuals followed an exclusively terrestrial C3 diet (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter 3). Regarding animal protein, there is evident variation in consumption between individuals within the same community. Variation is also evident in the end-members / range of the nitrogen values between the sites. Individuals from Voulokaliva exhibit lower nitrogen values (δ15N (‰): 6.8-9.4) compared to the individuals from Pharsala and Chloe. Between the two last sites, Pharsala exhibited a wider range: δ15N (‰): 6.5-10.7 while the individuals from Chloe clustered in a small area with a small range of nitrogen values: δ15N (‰): 9.1-10.4.

To conclude, it seems that the main dietary resource is the C3 terrestrial plant and animal protein. The use of animal protein showed variation between individuals, as well as sites and periods. There is no discernible pattern in the use of millet through time and no evidence for a wider use or diffusion of this plant species. The same can be said for the use of marine resources; certain marine resources, however, may not be traceable with carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis. Sulfur isotope analysis is needed for further investigation of aquatic resources. Stable carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope analysis is a useful tool to detect variation in diet –i.e., differences between individuals and communities- as well as change through time. The observed variation in the diet of the Early Iron Age communities in Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala has been discussed in chapters 2-4 (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter 3; Panagiotopoulou & Nehlich submitted: Chapter 4) and has been correlated with the results of the contextual analysis. In chapters 2 (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016) and 3 (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press), the importance of conducting a contextual analysis prior to the sampling for isotope analysis of human bone collagen was emphasised. It was argued that a sampling strategy designed on the basis of the results of the contextual analysis will allow the formulation of more accurate questions and will provide a more nuanced interpretation of the isotope results. The contextual analysis indicated that the most salient pattern observed in these three burial grounds is age differentiation, which is manifested mainly in the exclusion of the majority of young children and infants from formal cemeteries and from certain tomb types intended mostly for adults. Gender differentiation seems to have been of lesser importance as far as burial practices (choice of tomb type or body treatment) are concerned, though some differentiation was observed in the choice of grave goods. However, the presence of many indeterminate skeletons allows only tentative observations on this question. Status differentiation, however, is a more complex issue. On the basis of observations on tomb types and quantity and quality of grave goods, it has been suggested that differences were

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 119 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. emerging, though these were still fluid and subtle. The analysis also indicated that despite the wider use of single burials, kinship remained an important aspect in burial practices – and this may have been true for the living societies as well. However, kinship was not examined further in this thesis, as this was not possible with the methods employed in this research. On the basis of these results, an attempt has been made in this thesis to correlate dietary variation with social differentiation. Previous studies of Greek prehistoric sites have shown that diet may have been associated with social divisions, such as gender and status relations. At Mycenae in the Argolid (Map 7.1.3) (Late Bronze Age, ca. 1600-1200 BC), stable isotope analysis revealed differences in diet between the elite buried in the Grave Circles (ca. 17th-16th c. BC) and the non-elite individuals buried in chamber tombs (LH I-III, ca. 1600-1200 BC). The first group consumed marine protein, while the second group relied mostly on terrestrial dietary protein (Richards & Hedges 2008). At the site of Armenoi in Crete (Map 7.1.3) (Late Minoan III, 1390-1190 BC) gender differentiation was attested in diet; it has been namely demonstrated that males consumed more animal protein than females (Richards & Hedges 2008). Finally, both status and gender differentiation have been detected in the population at Pylos in Messenia (Map 7.1.3), which was an important palatial town during the Late Bronze Age. When comparing individuals from tholos and chamber tombs, the first group consumed more animal protein than the second (Schepartz et al. 2011). Differentiation also emerged when males from chamber tombs were compared to females from the same tomb type; males incorporated more animal protein into their diet. These studies have demonstrated showed that indeed diet was part and parcel of social differentiation. Patterns in dietary variation have emerged from the study of the Early Iron Age sites of Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala, although the differences observed were much less pronounced than in the Mycenaean period. The majority of the samples from all sites range in δ13C values from –19‰ to –20‰, and in δ15N values from 8.5‰ to 11‰. However, a comparison between the isotope values of males and females at Halos has indicated some subtle differences (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2). Females exhibit slightly lower δ15N values than males, but a few individuals with higher δ15N are of indeterminate sex, while a few males also had low animal protein. At Pharsala, there are also slight differences between the diet of males and females; the female δ15N values are not as extreme as those of males, indicating a narrower range of animal intake. In contrast, at Chloe all δ15N values are relatively high (>9‰), similar to the high values from Pharsala, while no substantial gender differentiation can be observed. It becomes clear that gender differentiation in diet –just as in the mortuary practices, as the contextual analysis has shown– is subtle. The contextual analysis indicated differences between individuals on the basis of the grave goods. Stable isotope analysis allows us to examine if differences in wealth correlate with differences in diet –in which case this could point to (real or aspired) status differences among the buried population. In Halos there was some differentiation in relation to the quality of grave goods; three individuals with weapons and one individual with a gold ornament exhibited higher δ15N values indicating at first sight that higher animal protein consumption can be associated with higher status. Individuals from empty graves also exhibited the similar levels of animal protein, however, which implies that there is no strong correlation between the two variables (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2). At Pharsala and Chloe there is no significant clustering of isotope values. Against what we expected, at Pharsala higher animal protein was consumed by individuals buried in graves with poor grave goods, while individuals with richer graves consumed less animal protein (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter 3). I have suggested that individuals engaged in animal husbandry could have been the ones with higher animal protein; but the absence of supporting evidence makes this suggestion at best tentative. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis also provides information on breastfeeding and weaning age. This issue has been discussed in chapter 2 (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016). Breastfeeding practices could only be studied for the sites of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi. The few samples collected from Pharsa- la did not yield collagen; infants and young children were not sampled in Chloe because this age group was not represented. The analysis of subadults indicated that breastfeeding was indeed practised and weaning occurred approximately at the age of two to three years old, similar to the age that has been indicated by other studies referring to both the EIA as well as other periods (Papathanasiou et al. 2013; Panagiotopoulou & Papathanasiou 2015) (Figure 7.5.5 & 7.5.6). The comparison of subadults from the cemeteries of

120 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 120 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Voulokaliva and Kephalosi showed differences in δ15N values between the same age groups in the two Halos cemeteries. This difference, which has been discussed in detail in Chapter 2 cannot be easily interpreted (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2). These differences are probably caused by the mothers’ diet and are transferred through breast-milk to the infant. Status differentiation may have been a cause, but this possibility cannot be examined further. The mothers of the infants from Kephalosi, have not been found yet as the cemetery of Kephalosi consisted exclusively of subadults (there is only one adult identified among the subadults’ group). Furthermore, the third contemporary cemetery of Halos (the one in Agrielia) is not yet studied and we still do not know the composition of the population buried there. Therefore, we cannot discuss further or make inferences about the observed difference in the δ15N values between the infants of the two cemeteries at Halos. Regarding animal protein consumption, the proportions in each community are different. The inhabitants of Halos exhibited low levels of animal protein intake indicating that their diet relied more on terrestrial plant resources and less on animal products (Figure 7.5.3). In contrast, the diet at both

Pharsala and Chloe comprised largely C3 terrestrial plant protein with elevated levels of animal protein intake (Figure 7.5.4). The individuals from these sites exhibit enriched δ15N values by 3‰ against their food because of the fractionation that occurs while ascending the food-chain (DeNiro & Epstein 1976). Therefore animal protein –either dairy products or meat– was a significant part of the diet at both Pharsala and Chloe. Comparing the diet of Halos, Pharsala, and Chloe to other Early Iron Age communities showed that animal protein intake among the populations included in this thesis is higher than at other contemporary sites. The sites of Agios Dimitrios in central Greece (Papathanasiou et al. 2013; Panagiotopoulou & Papathanasiou 2015), Treis Elies, Kladeri, Karitsa, and Makrigialos in northern Greece (Pantermali 1988; Triantaphyllou 2015; Besios 1996; Triantaphyllou 2001) yielded low δ15N values. Animal protein levels resemble more the levels from Halos than those from Chloe and Pharsala. The tomb types used in these cemeteries were mainly simple pits and cists, while more complex constructions such as tholoi were absent; only two chamber tombs were found in the cemetery of Makrigialos alongside the usual pits and cists. In sites with elaborate and energy-consuming tombs containing also rich grave goods, animal protein intake was high, i.e., in the cemeteries of Chloe (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter 3).

The occurrence of C4 food resources in other Protogeometric sites is relatively high where animal

protein consumption is low; only in Agios Dimitrios is animal intake low and a C4 signal not visible (Papathanasiou et al. 2013; Panagiotopoulou & Papathanasiou 2015). Therefore, this might be the first

indication of correlation between C4 plants and low animal protein, which needs further investigation including a sufficient number of samples. If low animal protein intake suggests low economic status (and this is by no means certain), then this correlation could indicate the exploitation of other resources.

Variation due to differential use of C4 resources is attested only in the sites of Voulokaliva and Pharsa- la (Figure 6.6) (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2; Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018, in press: Chapter

3). While the main dietary protein is C3, C4 consumption is attested mainly among those buried in poor and empty graves. Archaeobotanical investigations in other sites indicated that millet might have been used as human food either sporadically, or more regularly during periods of food shortage (Valamoti 2013). In addition, isotopic studies have not associated thus far millet consumption with individuals of higher status (Papathanasiou 2015). Plant diversification has been proposed as a strategy to minimize risk in agriculture. According to this suggestion, farmers switch from winter- or spring-sown plants, such as cereals, to summer-sown plants

with short germination times, such as millet (Marston 2017: 123, 133-134). However, the limited C4 isotopic signal does not provide much support to this theory. This possibility has to remain open for the time being because of the scarcity of botanical studies for the Greek Early Iron Age.

In this study two individuals from wealthier graves also presented C4 traces (Panagiotopoulou et al.

2016: Chapter 2). This suggests that rigid divisions cannot be maintained, nor can we associate C4 with social position. However, the least negative δ13C values are observed in females, which could indicate different geographical origin. It has been argued that millet in the Bronze Age could have spread by women who were moving for marital reasons (Valamoti 2013). Therefore, communities or individuals could have obtained it via contacts with northern regions, either by trade or via population movements.

At Pharsala, one possible female (F/Od-be28/south) showed a weak C4 signal (Panagiotopoulou et al.,

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 121 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 2018, in press: Chapter 3). This individual was also sampled for strontium isotope analysis. The analysis showed that she was a non-local individual (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018: Chapter 5). At Voulokaliva

another female (HaVo/w-c21) showed strong C4 signal and she was also sampled for strontium isotope analysis (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2016: Chapter 2). In the second case the analysis showed that the female was local (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018: Chapter 5). As can be seen, neither of the possibilities discussed above regarding the way millet spread can be excluded nor ascertained. Our analyses, based on the integration of contextual analysis of mortuary data with stable isotope analysis of bone collagen, showed sometimes (but not always) a certain correlation between social differentiation and dietary variation. But neither diet nor mortuary practices were governed by strict rules and rigid divisions; both aspects of social life were characterised by subtle variation among individuals and groups.

6.1.2 Change and Continuity

The contextual analysis of the burial practices showed that during the EIA in Thessaly both new and traditional practices occurred alongside each other. Cremations and inhumations as well as single burials in simple cist graves and multiple burials in tholos tombs were used in parallel during that period. Cremations first appeared sporadically in the beginning of EIA, i.e., in the Protogeometric period but their use increased later. Single inhumations in cists in organised cemeteries spread fairly suddenly and became the dominant practice, but of course this type was already known from Mycenaean times (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.3.1 THE END OF LATE BRONZE AGE, WITH RELEVANT BIBLIOGRAPHY). Tholos tombs, a Mycenaean type, were probably used continuously since the Mycenaean times –though EIA tholoi are smaller and of simpler construction than most Mycenaean ones. The transformation of the burial practices was interpreted during most of the 20th century as the result of the arrival of non-local populations (see PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.3 THE LATE BRONZE AGE AND THE EARLY IRON AGE). In particular, the theory of the Dorian migration or invasion was very influential and persistent, and it was only questioned and refuted in the last decades (Whitley 1991; Morris 2007). However, migration and population movements came to the fore again recently, though this time mostly focusing on small-scale movements, mainly of small groups, individuals, and families ( for relevant references see Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018). For instance, a recent study (Lis et al. 2015) has argued (on the basis of observations on cooking pots manufacture) that potters moved from Aegina to central Greece due to the difficult living conditions after the disintegration of the Mycenaean civilization. In this thesis the possibility of population movements is investigated in order to explain the diversity and transformation of burial practices. Strontium isotope analysis of tooth enamel was conducted in order to investigate the origin of the individuals buried in the cemeteries of Voulokaliva, Pharsala, and Chloe. The results are extensively discussed in chapter 5 (Panagiotopoulou et al. 2018). The analysis showed three different patterns occurring in the Early Iron Age communities: a) communities consisting exclusively of locals, b) communities with two groups of locals possibly indicating movement or change of residence within the same locality, and c) communities consisting of local individuals with (possibly integrated) non-locals which may have come from different regions. The site of Chloe is a good example of community consisting of local individuals (Figure 7.5.7). All samples yielded values incorporating most of the strontium sources of the region. Furthermore, all samples cluster within a narrow range of values strengthening the inference that they were consuming foods from the surrounding area, and should therefore be considered of local origin. However, in the other two sites, Voulokaliva and Pharsala, some individuals of non-local origin were detected. In Voulokaliva the strontium values of the majority of the population were influenced by sea-spray from the coast resulting in values equal or similar to the sea value. However, the strontium values of three individuals show distance from the rest of the population (Figure 7.5.7) –on the basis of the pottery sequence these are the earliest burials; two date to the Submycenaean period while the third dates to the Early Protogeometric. Two possibilities have been proposed to explain the distance of these individuals: a) A change in land exploitation from the Submycenaean to the Protogeometric period may account

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 122 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. for this difference;1 b) A change in residence from a region dominated by sedimentary rocks may also explain this isotopic distance. We need to keep in mind though that the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur isotope ratios of these individuals do not indicate marine influence. Could this also indicate the change in land exploitation? There is no archaeological evidence to point to such movements nor to any changes in residence of this population. The EIA settlement of the population from Voulokaliva has not been located and, therefore, land exploitation is even more difficult to discuss. The non-locals from Voulo- kaliva are within the local range. This is an extended range, however, covering a wide area, which was sampled for the purpose of this analysis. Apparently not the entire region was influenced by sea-spray. Non-local individuals have also been found at Pharsala (Figure 7.5.7). Two distinct groups and three more individuals have been identified suggesting different localities. One of these two groups consisted of local individuals. The second group, together with the other three individuals, exhibited non-local strontium delta values, indicating that they had arrived from a different geological biosphere. The non-local group was buried in the more distant cluster of tholoi, while the three non-local individuals were buried in the tombs together with locals. The case at Pharsala is different than at Voulokaliva; there, a few individuals exhibited strontium delta values within the local range but different than the rest of the population. This may indicate either change of residence or change of land exploitation. The two burial groups share the same tomb types and treatment, suggesting that the non-locals buried in the separate cluster of tholoi must have come from a region with a comparable cultural tradition, and that movements were small-scale. In addition, the three other non-local individuals may provide evidence for the practice of exogamy. They were buried among the local population, sometimes in multiple burials; two were identified as possible females while the third was of indeterminate sex.

6.2. Conclusions

The central aim of my PhD research was to reconstruct the social structure of the Early Iron Age communities in Thessaly, Greece and to move beyond traditional methodologies. The main object of study was the burial practices, and especially their marked diversity. The study has included the Early Iron Age cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi in Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala, four sites in Thessaly on the central Greek mainland. The methods employed were carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and strontium isotope analyses, integrated with the contextual analysis of the burial practices. The sampling strategy and specific research questions were designed on the basis of the contextual analysis; at the same time, the interpretation of the isotope results was based on, and facilitated by the conclusions of the contextual analysis. The contextual analysis of the mortuary practices of Halos (which has two cemeteries, Voulokaliva and Kephalosi), Chloe, and Pharsala (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6 CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS OF THE MORTUARY PRACTICES OF VOULOKALIVA AND KEPHALOSI IN HALOS, CHLOE, AND PHARSALA) indicated subtle differences and variation in the mortuary record of these four Thessalian Protogeometric cemeteries. Variation is observed in burial locations, grave types, the range and value of grave goods as well as in the treatment of the deceased. Indeed this diversity has been noted before for the Early Iron Age in general as well as specifically for Thessaly –see the general textbooks by Snodgrass (1971) and Lemos (2002). Further- more, age differentiation seems to be consistently present in all cemeteries, while status seems more marked than gender divisions. Kin relations and personal preference have also been discussed to explain the observed diversity (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.7 MAIN PATTERNS OF THE SITES). A diverse picture of burial practices and social patterns appeared in almost each cemetery but there was also variation between cemeteries, although some regional characteristics can also be observed. Two issues need to be discussed here. The first issue regards kinship and personal preferences (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.7 MAIN PATTERNS OF THE SITES) which cannot be examined with the methods employed in this thesis, thus no further discussion is offered, though this is an interesting avenue of further study.

1. The food consumed by these individuals was grown in a different geological locality and therefore provided a different strontium isotopic signal. There is, however, no solid archaeological evidence to confirm this suggestion.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 123 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. The second issue is based on the assumption that diet and eating practices in general may reproduce and strengthen existing differentiation (PART I, CHAPTER 1, 1.6.ii ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING THE CONTEX- TUAL ANALYSIS OF MORTUARY PRACTICES). The central question of this thesis is: How should we explain the diversity of burial practices? This question has been investigated by exploring two related themes: a) variation in mortuary practices and diet and social differentiation and b) change and continuity in mortuary practices. The first theme –variation and differentiation– has been studied on the basis of the dietary variation in relation to observed indicators of social divisions within and between communities, as well as between age groups, gender categories and status groups. Variation in diet has been correlated with the different mortuary practices allowing us to reach more nuanced interpretations of social relations and social change. Therefore, in order to investigate diversity, more specific questions have been formulated. These are the following: Does the dietary variation correlate with the variation in mortuary practices? Do we see gender differentiation in diet? Do wealth and tomb elaboration correlate with different dietary choices? I should first briefly provide the results of the analysis regarding the diet, as reconstructed by the

CNS isotope analysis. The diet mainly consisted of C3 plant and animal protein in various proportions

with a few cases of C4 additions. The food economy of Protogeometric Greece relied both on animal and plant farming. Against our expectations, the isotope data of human and animal individuals from the four different sites suggested that these individuals consumed only terrestrial plant and animal protein, despite the fact that they were situated in coastal, lacustrine and riverine environments; although aquatic environments were accessible, consumption of aquatic resources has not been attested. Our conclusions support the suggestion by Theodoropoulou (2011a) that geographical proximity to resources (either to marine or freshwater environments) does not necessarily imply that these resources were exploited. The integrated study of variation in mortuary practices and in diet revealed that sites with more diverse or more elaborate burial practices seem to have followed a diet based more on animal protein. In contrast, communities that adopted single burials in simple cists and pits, followed a poorer diet in animal protein but richer in plant protein. This observation is also supported by the analysis of other

contemporary sites. The latter communities showed a few cases with higher levels of C4 consumption. If we consider the sites that adopted the new burial forms as poorer than the other because their levels of wealth were lower, then perhaps there is an association of millet with individuals living in poorer communities, which should be further investigated in the future.

At the individual level within each community, C4 resources seem to be associated with females, indicating possible gender differentiation in the use of millet. A strong case can be made for Halos,

as in Voulokaliva C4 signal was attested in females, whereas at Kephalosi the most positive signal was attested in infants which were being breastfed. As regards access to animal protein, the comparison between individuals showed that it does not seem to be connected with rigid social divisions; only a few individuals with weapons and wealthier offerings, found exclusively in Voulokaliva, presented higher animal protein intake while in Pharsala more animal protein was also consumed by individuals with poorer grave goods. The existence of differences between the two sexes have not been discussed by other scholars (Snodgrass 1971; Lemos & Mitchell 1997). In Voulokaliva, however, the evidence may allow us to observe such differentiation: For instance, the osteological analysis indicated that the sword Naue II belonged to a man. On the other hand, the adolescent burial adorned with a gold hair spiral cannot be sexed and therefore we do not know whether we are dealing with a young (unmarried?) woman –as argued for rich burials of young females by Langdon (2008) and Papadopoulos (2010). Interestingly, the isotope values of both these individuals showed higher levels of animal protein in their diet. If this is an indication of higher status, as this has already been proposed for other

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 124 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. (Mycenaean) sites (Schepartz et al. 2011), then the suggestion that individuals with weapons en- joyed higher status is strengthened (Lemos 2002; Whitley 2002; Georganas 2005; Crielaard 2011; Papadopoulos 2014). Some caution is needed, however, as we are dealing with a single case. More research is necessary in order to explore this hypothesis further. The integrated analysis of mortuary practices and diet, and the observed variation within and between the populations buried in the cemeteries of Halos, Chloe, and Pharsala, suggest that these Thessalian Early Iron Age communities are characterized by emerging status differentiation. However, status divisions seem to be less pronounced and the communities seem less prosperous when compared to other contemporary sites, like Lefkandi (Thomas & Conant 1999: 85-114; Lemos 2002: 218- 219; Lemos 2006; Crielaard 2006), Athens (Papadopoulos & Smithson 2017), and Crete (Catling 1996; Cavanagh 1996), where the social organisation and grave goods may suggest more pronounced ranking. The cemetery of Chloe may be an instance of clearer differentiation, but we can only explore the status of the people buried there once an itemised list of grave goods is published and a complete analysis of all the tombs is carried out. The emerging social differentiation that is proposed for the Thessalian sites studied here accords in general terms with Crielaard’s (1998) suggestion of emergent elites in EIA Greece though these three Thessalian communities were probably not as differentiated nor as well-connected as Lefkandi, Knossos, and Tiryns described by Crielaard. The second theme –change and continuity– has been examined in two different ways: First, burial customs were compared with earlier practices in order to establish to what extent the EIA communities adhered to traditional mortuary and cultural practices. Second, by trying to establish the presence of non-local individuals in the cemeteries studied by means of isotope analyses. The analysis on the mortuary practices of these possible newcomers has also allowed us to understand whether they have been integrated in the local community. Here, new questions have been formulated as following: Are there non-local individuals buried in the cemeteries of Voulokaliva, Chloe, and Pharsala? How can the parallel use of traditional and new practices be explained? Can we detect personal preferences in mortuary practices? The strontium isotope analysis detected non-local individuals in the cemeteries of Halos (Voulokaliva) and Pharsala, while the individuals from the tholoi of Chloe are considered all locals. The local population buried in the cemetery of Chloe seems to have practiced traditional burial rites creating links with the Mycenaean past. As Georganas (2008) argues, the transition from the Late Bronze Age in the Early Iron Age was smooth and gradual. However, the change from traditional to new practices was not necessarily instigated by non-local individuals. Diversity in burial practices during the Early Iron Age had been induced by both local and non-local individuals. Most of the local individuals at Pharsala preferred to adopt the new practices, possibly as part of the process of social change, as Middleton has also argued (2010: 288-289, 370). The same can be said about Halos where the population, even the individuals from the earlier burials, adopted the single burial in cists.2 In contrast, a group of non-locals at Pharsala was found buried in the traditional way, though away from the formal cemetery of the community. At the same time, a few more non-locals were buried among locals sharing the same funerary practices, whether traditional or innovative. This adherence to tradition suggests a common cultural environment in which the movements took place at a small-scale during the Early Iron Age, which can be attributed to different reasons, such as perhaps exogamy or relocation of entire families. Small-scale population movements have also been suggested by Rückl (2014) and Lis et al. (2015) (on the basis of ceramic data) as well as earlier by Morris (1991: 25-34; 2007) (on the basis of settlement and habitation patterns). It is time to return to my initial question again: How should we explain the diversity of burial practices? During the Protogeometric period there was no abrupt break from the previous era and a certain degree of continuity can be observed, as has been stressed by other scholars (Crielaard 2006; Crielaard

2. A similar explanation has been proposed for the later period in Halos when the tumuli were erected in this area (Geor- ganas 2002).

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 125 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. 2011; Georganas 2009). Many changes took place of course, but in this period in Thessaly we see that certain social divisions re-emerge: We can observe age differentiation, and less pronounced gender differentiation; status was to a certain extent expressed in burials, though no rigid differences can be observed, while kinship possibly remained important. In this thesis it has been emphasised that diversity in the burial practices was not necessarily induced by foreigners introducing their own burial forms. Changes in social relations, economic conditions, and population mobility, as well as possible regional reaction to, and an incipient recovery from, the collapse of Myceneaen system, need to be considered in any investigation of the Early Iron Age communities. Population mobility took place in a small-scale either at an individual level or at the level of an entire group e.g., families connected with kin ties. Large-scale movements of groups of distant origins have definitely not been attested in Protogeometric Thessaly. It is important to establish this on the basis of scientific methods, because newcomers cannot be detected by using only the traditional archaeological methodologies. The absence of strict funerary norms may have allowed, or facilitated, personal choice and may have ensured the integration of newcomers into the host communities, at least as far as the funerary practices are concerned. Indeed, the analyses carried out in this study indicate that newcomers cannot, with the information at our disposal, be clearly distinguished from the indigenous inhabitants. The integrated approach adopted in this study has a wide relevance beyond Greek archaeology, as it allows us to integrate archaeological and isotopic data, to control them against each other, and to provide more nuanced interpretations of both. I hope, therefore, that the integrated approach adopted in this study, especially the use of a contextual analysis which informed the sampling strategy, and of multi-isotope analyses, provides a new understanding of dietary and social variation in EIA Thessaly and can assist in reconstructing changing social relations in this important phase of Greek protohistory.

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01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 126 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Chapter 7 • Appendices Map of Greece and neighbouring regions Map 7.1.1: 7.1 Appendix 1: Maps

Part III • Chapter 7 • Maps 127

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 127 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Map 7.1.2: Map of Greece with the regions mentioned in the text

128 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 128 25/07/2018 9:34 π.μ. Map 7.1.3: 1. Halos 13. Ag. Theodoroi 25. Armenoi 2. Chloe 14. Pherai 26. Ag. Dimitrios 3. Pharsala 15. Pteleon 27. Makrigialos 4. Kallithea 16. Lestiani 28. Treis Elies 5. Homolion 17. Kastri Agias 29. Karitsa 6. Gonnoi 18. Chyretiai 30. Nea Ionia (Magnesia) 7. Kapakli (Iolkos) 19. Gla 31. Volos (Magnesia) 8. Milies 20. Orchomenos 32. Pyrasos (Magnesia) 9. Argalasti 21. Messorachi 33. Perati (Attica) 10. Chasambali 22. Krannon 34. Exalophos (Trikala) 11. Argyropouli 23. Acropolis Athens 35. Kallithiro (Karditsa) 12. Marmariani 24. Pylos

Part III • Chapter 7 • Maps 129

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 129 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. Map 7.1.4: Map of Thessaly and the sites of Halos, Pharsala, and Chloe

130 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 130 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. 7.2 Appendix 2: Excavation Plans

Excavation plan 7.2.1: The site of Halos: cemeteries of Voulokaliva, Kephalosi, and Agrielia

Excavation plan 7.2.2: The site of Voulokaliva (after Tsiouka, 2008)

Part III • Chapter 7 • Excavation Plans 131

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 131 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. Excavation plan 7.2.3: The site of Chloe (after Arachoviti 2000)

Excavation plan 7.2.4: Locations of the excavations at Pharsala (after Katakouta 2012)

132 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 132 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. 7.3 Appendix 3: Charts

Figure 7.3.1: Grave orientation in the cemetery of Figure 7.3.2: Chart with the grave types Voulokaliva of Voulokaliva

Figure 7.3.3: Chart with the burial treatment Figure 7.3.4: Number of inhumations in grave types of Voulokaliva in the cemetery of Voulokaliva

Figure 7.3.5: Body position in the graves of the ceme- Figure 7.3.6: Materials used for the grave goods from tery of Voulokaliva. Sec. dep.: secondary deposition; the cemetery of Voulokaliva. The category Unknown: the position could not be identiﬁ ed due to “Other“ includes stone objects, shells, poor preservation o the osseous material; No position: ﬂ int and bone objects osteological material from jar burials

Part III • Chapter 7 • Charts 133

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 133 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. Figure 7.3.7: Types of grave goods from the cemetery Figure 7.3.8: Demographic proﬁ le of Voulokaliva of Voulokaliva. The category “Tools/weapons” includes Indeterminate: individuals of indeterminate sex due arrowheads, knives, daggers, sword, nails and armor to the missing of essential bone parts; Subadults: attachment. The category “Other” includes shells, individuals under the age of 18y but their exact age metal shaft, spindle whorl, lamina, ﬂ int fragment, could not be estimated ceramic buttons

Figure 7.3.9: Orientation of the graves of Figure 7.3.10: Chart with the grave types the cemetery of Kephalosi of Kephalosi

Figure 7.3.11: Chart with the burial treatment Figure 7.3.12: Burial position of the bodies of Kephalosi in the cemetery of Kephalosi

134 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 134 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. Figure 7.3.13: The materials used Figure 7.3.14: Types of grave goods from the for the grave goods in the cemetery cemetery of Kephalsoi. of Kephalosi. The category “Tools/weapons” includes a knife. The category “Other“ includes bone, shell The category “Other” includes shells, non-diagnostic object

Figure 7.3.15: Demographic proﬁ le Figure 7.3.16: Chart with the grave types of Kephalosi of Chloe

Figure 7.3.17: Chart with the burial treatment Figure 7.3.18: Body position of the individuals buried in of Chloe the cemetery of Chloe

Part III • Chapter 7 • Charts 135

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 135 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. Figure 7.3.19: Demographic proﬁ le Figure 7.3.20: Orientation of the graves of Chloe from the cemetery of Pharsala. The category “No orientation” is created by the cremations found in jars

Figure 7.3.21: Chart with the grave types Figure 7.3.22: Chart with the burial treatment of Pharsala of Pharsala

Figure 7.3.23: Burial treatment and grave types in the Figure 7.3.24: Grave types and materials used cemetery of Pharsala. JC: Jars with cremations; BE: for the grave goods from the cemetery Burial enclosures of Pharsala

136 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 136 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. Figure 7.3.25: Grave types and grave goods Figure 7.3.26: Demographic proﬁ le from the cemetery of Pharsala. of Pharsala The category “Other” includes beads and spindle whorl

Figure 7.3.27: Wealth diff erentiation in the cemetery of Figure 7.3.28: Wealth diff erentiation in the cemetery of Voulokaliva Kephalosi

Figure 7.3.29: Wealth diff erentiation in the cemetery Figure 7.3.30: Wealth diff erentiation in the cemetery of Chloe of Pharsala

Part III • Chapter 7 • Charts 137

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 137 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. - - 1 2 2 1 MNI A A A A A A A Inf Ch Ch Age 9 m Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 20-25y 30-35? Subadult Subadult I I I - - F M F? No M? Sex

N/S N/S E/W E/W E-W Grave NE/SW orientation

- - E S E

N N W Body (head) orientation

? ? ? Ind. 2 the left the left Position Extended to the left to the left position than Contracted to Contracted to Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Ind. 1 in opposite Rich Rich Poor Poor Empty Empty Wealth 1

Ind. 2 Iron knife Iron individuals. Bronze ring Bronze Grave goods 2 iron fibulae 2 iron Iron finger ring Iron Small oinochoe Small oinochoe Bronze finger ring Bronze 2 iron arrowheads 2 iron Bronze arched buckle arched Bronze Bronze finger ring found at Bronze Objects found between the 2 the upper at arms of Conical cup base / conical foot) PG PG LM LPG LM/EPG EPG / MPG Chronology CC Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist type Grave Exc. East East East East East East sector 5 8 12 14 21 29 Gr. Gr. (C) No Archaeological and osteological data of the cemetery of Voulokaliva Halos Archaeological and osteological data of the cemetery Voulokaliva 1. LM: Late Mycenaean; SubM: SubMycenaean; PG: Protogeometric; EPG: Early Protogeometric; MPG: Middle Protogeometric; LPG: Late Protogeometric; SubPGI: Sub-Protogeometric SubPGI: Sub-Protogeometric LPG: Late Protogeometric; MPG: Middle Protogeometric; EPG: Early Protogeometric; 1. LM: Late Mycenaean; SubM: SubMycenaean; PG: Protogeometric; HaVo/e-c12/ind1 no sample Sample number HaVo/e-c5 HaVo/e-cc8/ind1 HaVo/e-cc8/ind2 HaVo/e-c12/ind2 no sample HaVo/e-c29 7.4 Appendix 4: Tables 7.4.1: Table I; JB: Jar burial; CC: Circular Construction; A: Adult; OA: Old Adult; YA: Young Adult; M: Male; F: Female; I: Indeterminate; Adol: Adolescent; Ch: Child; Inf: Infant Young Construction; A: Adult; OA: Old YA: I; JB: Jar burial; CC: Circular

138 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 138 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I A A A A Inf Inf Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Adol I 4y 1y 3y M? 11y 18m 25-40 35-45y 25-45y 3y±12m Subadult Subadult - I - F? No No No No No No M? M? 18- 20y - N/S N/S E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W NW/SE - - - E E E E E

N W SE SE - ? ? ? right south the grave to the left to the left to the right to the right to the right Cranium at the northern side of Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Contracted to the Contracted to the Rich Rich Rich Rich Rich Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Empty Empty

Shell Empty 2 cups 2 cups 4 shells Amphora 1 iron ring 1 iron 1 oinochoe 1 iron shaft 1 iron Ceramic cup 1 stone bead 2 iron fibulae 2 iron Bronze lamina Bronze Flint fragment Cup with foot Bronze bracelet Bronze bracelet Bronze Bronze hair spiral Bronze hair spiral Bronze Iron knife/dagger Iron 1 bronze bracelet 1 bronze 1 trefoil oinochoe 1 trefoil 1 bronze pendant 1 bronze Bronze finger ring Bronze 2 bronze bracelets 2 bronze Iron sword 'Naue II' sword Iron Stone spindle whorl 2 ceramic small oinochoe 1 ceramic small oinochoe 1 bronze armor attachment 1 bronze Ceramic discoid spindle whorl PG PG PG PG PG PG LPG EPG MPG MPG PG/SubPGI LPG / SubPGI

JB Pit Pit Pit Tile Tile Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist grave East East East East East East East East East East East East - 37 45 46 65 66 68 69 70 72 (C) (A) (A) (A) rior war 36 (B) 40 (B) 59 (B)

HaVo/e-p40 HaVo/e-c36 HaVo/e-c37/ind1 HaVo/e-c37/ind2 HaVo/e-t45 no sample HaVo/e-c46 HaVo/e-c59 HaVo/e-p65 HaVo/e-p66 no sample no sample HaVo/e-c70 HaVo/e-c72

Part III • Chapter 7 • Tables 139

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 139 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. - - 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 MNI

A A A A A A Inf Ch Ch Ch Ch Adol Adol Age

4y OA? 18m M>30 11y (?) 35-40y 20-35y 30-40y 30-50y 16-18y ? Subadult Sub adult Subadults I I - - - - F F

- M M M? Sex

N/S N/S N/S E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W Grave NE/SW orientation

- E E ? E S E E E E

N W 2:NE Body 1: NE (head) orientation

? ? right right right the left the left Position Sec. dep. Extended Extended to the left 1:extended to the right to the right to the right Contracted to Contracted to Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Semi-contracted Contracted to the 2:semi-contracted Contracted to the Contracted to the Rich Rich Rich Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Empty Empty Wealth

Empty Empty Iron ring Iron Iron fibula Iron Bronze ring Bronze Iron dagger Iron of the grave Grave goods 2 iron fibulae 2 iron Spherical pyxis Small amphora Small oinochoe Small oinochoe Hand-made jug Bronze bracelet Bronze Trefoil oinochoe Trefoil 2 Small oinochoae Bronze cylindrical bead Bronze 1 bronze fibula found outside 1 bronze PG PG PG PG LPG EPG EPG MPG MPG SubM Chronology LPG / SubPGI Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist type Grave Exc. East East West West West West West West West West West sector 13 15 16 17 21 24 81 82 Gr. Gr. (D) (D) (D) No 7 (E) 11 (E) 12 (E) HaVo/w-c13 HaVo/w-c11/ind1 HaVo/w-c12/ind1 HaVo/w-c12/ind2 no sample no sample HaVo/w-c17 HaVo/w-c21 no sample Sample number HaVo/e-c81 no sample HaVo/w-c7/ind1 HaVo/w-c7/ind2 HaVo/w-c11/ind2 table 7.4.1 (cont.)

140 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 140 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. - 1 2 2 1 1 1 3 1 I I I

A A A A A Inf Ch Adol

I I I

YA YA 10y Infant 35-45 35-39y 30-40y 16-18y (20-22?) I F F I I I

- M M - - N/S N/S E/W E/W E/W E/W E/W - - - - E E E E E

N W

- - ? right right north the left the left Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Extended Extended the pelvis? Contracted to Contracted to Extended with feet bended to Semi-contracted, lower part to the Contracted to the Rich Rich Rich Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Empty Empty Empty

Cup Shell Empty Empty Hydria Amphora Iron knife Iron Iron fibula Iron 2 iron pins 2 iron 4 iron nails 4 iron Bronze ring Bronze ring Bronze 1 bone ring Ceramic cup 2 iron fibulae 2 iron 2 bronze pins 2 bronze Cup with foot Iron finger ring Iron Bronze bracelet Bronze 3 bronze fibulae 3 bronze 1 gold hair spiral 4 iron finger rings 4 iron Bronze finger ring Bronze 2 ceramic buttons 1 bronze finger ring 1 bronze 2 bronze finger rings 2 bronze Pottery sherds (oinochoe?) Pottery sherds PG PG PG PG LPG LPG MPG LPG/SubPG SubM / EPG JB JB Pit Pit Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist (built) West West West West West West West West West 26 31 35 38 52 46 (E) 49 (E) 50 (E) 54 (E) HaVo/w-c46 no sample no sample no sample HaVo/w-p31 no sample HaVo/w-p38/ind1 HaVo/w-p38/ind2- sec no sample no sample HaVo/w-c52/ind1 HaVo/w-c52/ind2

Part III • Chapter 7 • Tables 141

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 141 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 - MNI ? Inf Inf Inf Inf Ch goat Fetus Fetus Sheep/ Age - 2y 3y <0 <0 9m ≤ 6-9m 1-1,5y Animal

? N-S W-E Grave NW-SE NW-SE orientation W/NW-E/SE W/NW-E/SE cattle Species equine herbivore herbivore sheep/goat sheep/goat sheep/goat - - ? E ? ? ? SE S/SE Body (head) orientation PG PG PG PG PG PG PG Chronology - ? ? ? ? Position Sec. dep. Extended Semi-contracted Semi-contracted oulokaliva Pit Pit Pit Pit pit pit pit - Grave type ? Rich Rich Rich Poor Poor Empty Empty Wealth Animal Samples

East East East East West West West ? - Excavation sector Empty Empty Iron ring Iron Stone bead Ceramic jug Ceramic cup Grave goods Bone pendant Trefoil oinochoe Trefoil oinochoe Trefoil Ceramic oinochoe 9 9 11 15 16 12 13 Apothete no PG PG PG PG PG PG PG Chronology Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist type Grave Voulokaliva HaVo/w-apoth9 HaVo/e-apoth11 HaVo/e-apoth15 HaVo/e-apoth16 HaVo/e-apoth9 HaVo/w-apoth12 HaVo/w-apoth13 Sample number Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Ex. sector 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 Gr. Gr. No Archaeologocal and archaeozoological data of the apothetes from cemetery V Archaeological and osteological data of the cemetery Kephalosi

able 7.4.3: Sample number HK/B7-c3 HK/B7-c6 HK/B7-c7 sk.1 sk.2 HK/B7-c8 HK/B7-c9 HK/B7-c10 HK/B7-c11 HK/B7-c11 animal Table 7.4.2: Table T

142 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 142 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A Inf Inf Inf Inf Inf Inf Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Ch Child Fetus Cattle 2y 0 0 0 7 4y 4y 6y 1y <0 YA ≤ 7-8y 8-9y 5-6y 3-6m Animal ? ? ? N-S W-E W-E W-E W-E W-E NW-SE NW-SE NW-SE NW-SE NW-SE NE-SW ? E E E ? ? ? - N ? ? W SE SE SE SE ? ? ? ? ? ? - ? pelvis Extended Extended Extended Contracted Contracted bended on the Extended, Arms Semi-contracted Semi-contracted ? ? ? Rich Rich Rich Rich Rich Poor Poor Empty Empty Empty Empty Empty

? ? ?

Shell Shell Empty Empty Empty Empty Empty Iron ring Iron Iron knife Iron 3 oinochoe Ceramic cup Pottery sherds Pottery sherds 1 ceramic vase Bronze earrings Bronze Bronze bracelet Bronze bracelet Bronze Trefoil oinochoe Trefoil Ceramic skyphos Ceramic thelastro 2 trefoil oinochoe 2 trefoil Bronze arched buckle arched Bronze non-diagnostic objects Small round and ellipsoid Small round Iron fibula with bronze decor. fibula with bronze Iron PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG ?

Pit Pit Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 Β7 B6 B6 B6 B6 B1 12 14 15 16 18 19 20 22 23 24 43 46 49 54 52 HK/B7-c12 HK/B7-c14 HK/B7-c15 HK/B7-c15 animal HK/B7-c16 HK/B7-c18 HK/B7-c19 HK/B7-c20 HK/B7-c22 HK/B7-c23 HK/B7-c24 HK/B6-c43 HK/B6-c46 HK/B6-c49 HK/B6-c54 HK/B1-c-52

Part III • Chapter 7 • Tables 143

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 143 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ.

10 15 MNI

A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Ch Ch Adol Adol Adol Age I

5y 7y 20+ 30+ Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 20-30y 20-25y 18-20y 16-20y 10-15y Adolesc. I I I I I I I F

- - - - M F? F? M? M? M? M? M? Sex I (F?) - ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

tation Grave orien - ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Body orien tation (head)

Position Extended few in situ few in situ (extended) (extended) Most of them Most of them commingled but commingled but Rich Rich Wealth

jewellery jewellery materials Beads from Beads from Grave goods Iron weapons Iron weapons Iron Gold and iron Gold and iron Gold and iron Ceramic vases Ceramic vases various materials Beads from various Beads from PG PG Chronology type Grave Tholos Tholos E Z Exc. sector I II Gr. No Gr. Archaeologocal and osteological data of Chloe Sample number C/E-th2/o1 C/E-th2/cr2 no sample C/E-th2/cr3 no sample C/E-th2/o4 C/E-th2/cr5 no sample C/E-th2/cr6 C/E-th2/cr7 C/Z-th1/cr1 C/Z-th1/cr2 C/Z-th1/cr3 C/Z-th1/cr4 C/Z-th1/cr5 no sample C/Z-th1/cr8 C/Z-th1/cr9 C/Z-th1/cr10 C/Z-th1/sec/north no sample C/Z-th1/animal Table 7.4.4: Table

144 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 144 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. ? ? ? ? ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 MNI - ? ? - - A A A A A A A A A A Ch Ch Age - ? ? 0 - - YA YA MA Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 5-10y 20-30y 40-50y I I I I I I - - - ? ? F? F? F? F? no no Sex - - - - - N-S N-S E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W tation Grave orien - - - - - E E ? E E E E E ? N W W W Body orien tation (head) ? ? Extended Extended Cremation Cremation Cremation Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted 2 Cremations Body Position broken bones) broken the lower part of Extended (half of tibiae are a pile of tibiae are Contracted ? ? ? Rich Rich Rich Rich Poor Poor Poor Empty Empty Empty Empty Empty Empty Empty Wealth -

? ?

- - Empty Empty Empty Looted 2 4 iron rings 4 iron 1 iron knife 1 iron Arrowheads Grave goods 2 iron fibulae 2 iron 2 bronze rings 2 bronze rings 3 bronze 1 ceramic vase 2 ceramic vases 2 ceramic vases 2 fibula fragments 3 bronze hair spirals 3 bronze 6 but I have no other info. mations sharing the number These are two vases with cre These are

PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG Chronology JB JC JC Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist 2 JC Gr. type Gr. 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Gr. Gr. No 6/6a Archaeologicl and osteological data of Pharsala 2. BE: Burial enclosure; JC: Jar with cremation; ?: no data; YA: young adult; MA: Middle adult; OA: Old adult; A: Adult; I: Indeterminate; Adol: Adolescent; Ch: Child; PG: Protogeometric young adult; MA: Middle OA: Old A: Adult; I: Indeterminate; Adol: Adolescent; Ch: Child; PG: Protogeometric ?: no data; YA: JC: Jar with cremation; 2. BE: Burial enclosure; Sample number F/Od-c1 F/Od-c2 F/Od-c3 F/Od-c4 F/Od-c5 no sample no sample F/Od-c8 F/Od-c9 no sample no sample no sample F/Od-c13 no sample no sample F/Od-c16 no sample Table 7.4.5: Table grave type Type: No: grave number; Gr. west; E: east; M: male; F: female; MNI: Minimum Number of Individuals; S: south; N: north; Gr. period; W:

Part III • Chapter 7 • Tables 145

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 145 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 6 MNI ? ? A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Ch Ch Ch Age I ? 7y YA YA MA >50 2-3y 3-6y Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult Adult 35-40y 20-25y 35-50y 30-50y 25-35y 20-30y I I I I I I I I I ? M F? F? F? F? F? no no no M? M? M? Sex - N-S N-S E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W tation Grave orien ------E ? E ? E S S E

W/SW Body orien tation (head) ? ? Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Extended Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Sec. dep. Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Commingled Body Position the grave. Western the grave. Western eastern half part of part scattered bones part scattered Rich Rich Rich Rich Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Empty Empty Empty Wealth

- - - - - beads Empty Empty Empty fibulae 2 vases 2 vases 1 fibula 21 vases 1 iron ring 1 iron 2 iron rings 2 iron 2 iron rings 2 iron 1 iron knife 1 iron 1 iron fibula 1 iron Grave goods 2 bronze rings 2 bronze 1 ceramic vase 1 bronze fibula 1 bronze trefoil oinochoe trefoil 1 iron arrowhead 1 iron 1 bronze bracelet 1 bronze 2 bronze hair spiral 2 bronze 1 bronze hair spiral 1 bronze 1 bronze hair spiral 1 bronze 1 iron fibula fragment 1 iron PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG Chronology BE BE cist cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Tholos Double Double Gr. type Gr. 18 19 20 21 22 23 25 26 27 28 Gr. Gr. No 24a 24b Sample number F/Od-be18/ind1 no sample F/Od-be18/ind2 no sample F/Od-th20 no sample F/Od-c21 F/Od-dc24a F/Od-c22 F/Od-c23 F/Od-dc24b F/Od-c25 F/Od-c26 F/Od-c27 F/Od-be28/2a F/Od-be28/ind1 F/Od-be28/south F/Od-be28/north no sample no sample no sample table 7.4.5 (cont.)

146 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 146 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. ? ? ? 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 1 ? ? ? ? ? A A A A A A A A A A A A A Ch Ch Adol Adol horse - I I ? ? ? 7y YA YA YA MA 11y >40 sub Adult adult? Animal 35-50y 20-35y 30-40y 25-35y 16-22y 20-25y 30-45y 35-45y young / I I I I I I I I I I ? ? ?

F? F? no no no M? M? M? M?

N-S E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W E-W NE-SW SE-NW NE-SW - - ? E ? E ? E E E E E - N N N W W W W W W W - ? ? ? ? ? Sec. dep. Extended Extended Extended Extended Extended Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Contracted Scattered bones Scattered - ? ? ? Rich Rich Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Empty Empty Empty Empty

? ? - sk.3 1 vase 1 vase 1 vase Empty Empty Empty Empty 2 vases 2 vases 1 fibula Earrings Iron knife Iron Bronze ring Bronze Iron dagger Iron 1 finger ring Bronze fibula Bronze 2 iron fibulae 2 iron 1 ceramic vase 1 bronze fibula 1 bronze 1 spindle whorl 2 bronze fibulae 2 bronze 1 bronze finger ring 1 bronze 2 bronze hair spirals 2 bronze *Between sk.A-sk.C: 1 bronze finger ring * 1 bronze Iron dagger fragments Iron Bronze buckle fragment Bronze Other objects in the tholos: Between sk.1-sk.2 and sk.2- PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG PG BE Pit Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Cist Tholos Tholos 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 F/Od-be28/horse no sample no sample F/Od-c31 F/Od-c32 no sample F/Od-c32 no sample F/Per-th1/ind1 F/Per-th1/ind2 F/Per-th1/ind3 no sample no sample F/Per-th2/ind1 F/Per-th2/ind2 no sample no sample F/Per-pit3 F/Per-c4 F/Per-c5 no sample F/Per-c7 F/Per-c8

Part III • Chapter 7 • Tables 147

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 147 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. 1 5 MNI A A A A A A Age >40 20-25y 40-55y 24-30y 27-44y 20 - 40y I M F? F? M? M? Sex - E-W E-W tation Grave orien - - - - ? E E Body orien tation (head) ? Extended Extended Sec. dep. B Sec. dep. Α Sec. dep. Α Body Position ? Rich Rich Rich Rich Poor Wealth

? 3 vases Iron knife Iron Bronze ring Bronze Grave goods 2 iron fibulae 2 iron 1 iron arrowhead 1 iron Iron fibulae fragment Iron PG PG Chronology Tholos Tholos Gr. type Gr. 1 2 Gr. Gr. No Sample number F/Ep-th1 F/Ep-th2/ind1 F/Ep-th2/ind2 F/Ep-th2/secA/ ind1 F/Ep-th2/secA/ ind2 F/Ep-th2/secB table 7.4.5 (cont.)

148 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 148 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. 7.5 Appendix 5: Isotopic Plots

Figure 7.5.1: δ13C and δ15N values of human and animal Figure 7.5.2: δ13C and δ34S values of bone collagen from bone collagen from the cemeteries of Voulokaliva, the cemeteries of Voulokaliva, Kephalosi, Chloe and Kephalosi, Chloe and Pharsala (single column) Pharsala of humans and animals (2SD)

Figure 7.5.3: δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen from Figure 7.5.4: δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen from the cemeteries of Voulokaliva of adult humans and the cemeteries of Chloe and Pharsala of adult humans animals (single column) and animals (single column)

Figure 7.5.5: δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen Figure 7.5.6: δ13C and δ15N values of bone collagen from from the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Kephalosi of the cemeteries of Voulokaliva and Pharsala females and subadults (breastfeeding and weaning (C4 evidence) practices)

Part III • Chapter 7 • Isotopic Plots 149

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 149 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. Figure 7.5.7: 87Sr/86Sr ratios of the human enamel and the environmental samples (local 87Sr/86Sr ratios are indicated by the environmental end-members: dashed black line) from Chloe, Voulokaliva, and Pharsala. The black thick line indicates the 87Sr/86Sr seawater value. The black arrow shows the enamel and the dentine of the same sample. The codes beside the environmental samples are the sample names, which correspond to the sample names of Table 7.4.2. The error for Sr isotopes at 2sd is within the symbol.

150 Reconstructing Diet, Tracing Mobility • Eleni Panagiotopoulou

01_PANAGIOTOPOULOU.indd 150 25/07/2018 9:35 π.μ. References

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