Journal of Environmental Protection and Ecology 10, No 1, 244–265 (2009)

Environmental management

Water resources management in region () and their impact on the regional development

S. Sofios, S. Polyzos* Engineering School, Department of Planning and Regional Development, University of Thessaly, Pedion Areos, 383 34 , Greece E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract. Thessaly is a rural region and consequently, the economic development is affiliated with the primary sector of economy. The employment in this sector is related to the size of rural areas, while the agricultural products serve as raw materials to the secondary sector. Water resources constitute a basic factor that influences the quantity of rural production and consequently, the exploitation and their rational management play a decisive role to the economic development of region. The demand for irrigation water, which especially during the summer months is great, shows significant regional variations in water availability. The most important issue is that water resources are not sufficient, while a significant part of water volume leads, mainly during the winter months, unexploited to the sea. In order to overcome the water shortage, several hydraulic public works are implemented. The major hydraulic work is the diversion of the Acheloos river to Thessaly. In this paper the economic situation of the Thessaly region, the demand and the supply of water resources as well as the prospec- tive being developed after the construction of the afore-mentioned hydraulic work are analysed. Keywords: water resources management, regional development, water policy, Thessaly. aims and background The fertile plain of the Thessaly water region covers an area of 13 377 km2 that occupies the central section of mainland Greece. It is surrounded by high moun- tain ranges with altitudes of more than 2000 m (, Olympus, Pelion, Othrys, Ossa and Agrapha), encircling a low plain. The Pinios river, descending from the western slopes of Pindos, separates Thessaly in two, passes through the valley of and meets the sea. Thessaly borders Macedonia to the north, Sterea Ellada to the south, to the west, and its eastern shoreline lies on the . It has the highest percentage of flat land inG reece, and the mean elevation of the area is 285 m.

* For correspondence.

244 Fig. 1. The Thessaly region Source: http://www.water-technology.net/projects/acheloos/acheloos1.html

Among the mountains, flows the Pinios river which drains into theA egean, after passing through the Tempi mountains. The drainage basin of the Pinios river is 9500 km2 and the main tributaries are the rivers Titarisios, Enipeas, Kalentzis, Litheos, etc. The total length of the Pinios river is 206 km and the mean annual flow is 81 3m /s. However, during the summer the river is unable to supply sufficient clean water in view both of the reduced flow and the pollution by agrochemical, municipal and industrial effluents1. The Thessaly region also consists of two more water basins: the drainage basin of the lake Karla (1050 km2), rising at the eastern side of the region, and the lake Plastira at the western side. The lake Plastira is a part of the watershed area of the Acheloos river which belongs to the water region of West Sterea Ellada. The climate in the area is Mediterranean continental. Winters are cold and summers are hot, with a large temperature difference between the two seasons. The average annual temperature is 16-17oC. The average annual rain height is 700 mm, ranging from 400-600 mm at the central plains to 600-1000 mm on the eastern part, and to over 1200 mm on the mountains. Rain frequency is 100-130 days per year. The total precipitation is 10 426 hm3/yr and the mean annual relative humidity is 67-72%. Snowfall is very frequent on the mountains. Impermeable geological structures cover 39.4% of the total area; karstic aquifers cover 16.2% and permeable structures, which occur mainly on the plain, cover 44.4%. The total water availability is about 3094 hm3, which consists of 2558 hm3 surface water and 506 hm3 groundwater. The groundwater, which can be found in the karstic and alluvial aquifers of the region and the entire plain of mainly neogenic sediments, is replenished by the Pinios river and its tributaries, and from direct rainfall infiltration.

245 The lake Plastira, with storage capacity of 400 hm3, is regulated for hydropower production. The installed hydropower capacity is 141 MW, and the power plant produces 250 GWh/year. Industrial activities are limited in the cities of Volos and , and they involve mainly food processing, textile works and iron and steel production. Thessaly has a dense network of motorways and a seaport in Volos that serves the entire area. Concerning the difficulties for the implementation of 2000/60/EC Directive in Greece, various institutions and administrative authorities with different roles, competences, responsibilities and interests are involved. This is often the major factor of inefficient management of water resources.I n addition, the 2000/60/EC Directive could set up major changes to rural sector, which consumes the vast majority of water resources, because the principle of full cost of water pricing could impact the farmers’ income2. In fact, a single authority does not regulate water supply in the region. The larger cities have their own water and wastewater services providers, but there is a number of independent local services, mostly affected through the municipalities, and thus, the pricing of water is a subject of political pressures. Public education for water conservation is limited, and cost recovery is on average poor with the exception of the larger cities. Monitoring results show that surface water in Thessaly is generally in a good condition. The nitrite concentrations in a small number of sampling points exceed the limit values for drinking water, due to the agricultural activities in parts of the drainage basin. In some sampling points, pesticide elevated levels are shown. Although urban waste loads in the water are significant, urban wastewater treat- ment plants in the major cities of Thessaly safeguard the good quality of water. The treatment plants constructed in all the major cities of the area are efficient and 45% of the population of the area (80% of the urban population) were connected to the public sewer network by 1998. In the Thessaly region, the demand for water resources is exceptionally in- creased, particularly during the summer period. Moreover, most economic activi- ties in the region under review are based on the existence sufficient in quality and quantity of water especially for irrigation purposes. The structure of production is based on cultivation of irrigated and non-irrigated areas (about 40% of agricultural areas is irrigated). The percentage mentioned above increases every year. The water demand for industrial and urban usage constitutes only a small percentage, about 5-6% of the total requirements3,4. Water supply is achieved using surface and underground water. In particular, the available and practically exploitable surface water potential includes the basins of the Pinios river, Karla lake and artificial reservoirs of the Plastira and Smokovo dams. These basins are supplemented with smaller artificial reservoirs. The recover- able annual quantity of water from surface sources amounts in roughly 340 × 106 m3, while the irrigated agricultural areas amounts in 800 000 m2. This area has always

246 suffered an inadequacy in satisfying the increasing needs for irrigation purposes in agricultural areas (about 3 500 000 m2) given the shortage in water supply. The overexploitation of underground water resources, with continuous excavation of redundant drillings, legal and illegal ones, created new, more complex and hard to solve problems with economic and environmental dimension. Indeed, between 1980 and 1995, about 23 000 drillings were excavated, while an unknown number of illegal drillings is not included3-5. The water horizon of the Thessalian plain is supplied through the infiltration of the surface water in the cones of rivers or torrents, in the areas where these descend in the plain. The natural supply of underground water can not substitute the water consumption from the drillings. Consequently, a continuous fall of underground water horizon is presented, in the greatest part of Thessaly3. In this paper, the general situation that prevails given the demand, the supply and the prospects in water resources in the Thessaly region are studied. Indeed the following section presents an analysis concerning the economic and the social situation as well as the importance of water resources to the regional economic development in order to be able to estimate the value of the significance of water resources to the region under preview. In the next sections, data about the needs of region in waters resources, the supply of water resources and the prospective being created after the implementation of the planned hydraulic work are given. The final section of the paper presents the general conclusions and proposals regarding the future of the region in frames of efficient management of allocated water resources.

Structure of the economy of the Thessaly Region The Thessaly region is in the geographic centre of Greece. It has a total area of 14 470 m2 (10.6% of Greece), and population residents (7.1% of Greece). It has been noted a 1.5% increase in the population since 1991 and remains the third largest region in the country population-wise, even though its growth rate is less than the national average for the period 1991-2001 (2.7% versus 6.7%). The mountainous part of Thessaly with absolute altitude over the 200 m has an extent of 9950 km2 (66.5% of the region) while the flat part occupies an area of 4520 km2 (33.5% of the region). It borders on the north with the districts of West and Central Macedonia, on the south with the region of Sterea Hellas, on the west with the Ipirou region and on the east with the Aegean sea. About 36% of the land are flat, 17.1% are semi-mountainous while the remaining 44.9% are mountainous. The terrain in Thessaly is such that high mountains surround the plain, which is the biggest in the country. These mountains are Olympus, the south side of the Pindos mountain range, , Pelion and Othris6.

247 As far as the economic level is concerned, Thessaly belongs to the 57 less developed regions of the EU. Moreover, it is characterised by structural delay and a divergence of prosperity level concerning the average of the European Union (EU). The economy presents traits similar to those of countries of European South while in certain cases a common route that is characterised by the difficulties of adaptation in productive and technological structures of the most developed depart- ment of the EU (Refs 7-9). In Fig. 2, where the development per capita of GNP of Thessaly is depicted, we observe that in 1996 the GDP was equal with the 42.3% means of European term (EU – 15) and with 88.21% of Greece. In the year 2003 the GDP per capita of Greece was equal to the 51.4% of average EU, (EU – 15) and equaled to 90.23% of Greece10. Consequently there is a slight improvement for the time period 1996-2003 (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Changes in the GDP per capita (in PPS) for the time period 1995-2003 (EE15=100)

Unemployment, according to the recent available data in Thessaly for the year 2005, is about 9.4% as a percentage of the economically active population. This percentage is smaller than that of Greece (9.8 %), but higher than that of the EU – 27 (8.07 %) or EU – 15 (7.17 %) for the same period (Fig. 3). Indeed, Thessaly in the year 2005 possessed the fourth better place in national level, according to the rate of unemployment. Despite the reduction of industrial employment in the 90’s, the rate of unemployment in Thessaly was decreased in the time period 2001- 2005 about 3.5%, while the corresponding reduction of country was 1.0%, and in EU – 27 the afore-mentioned reduction was 0.5%, respectively10. Despite the slight reduction in the rate of unemployment lack of important structural changes in the primary sector of economy is observed, a fact that ampli- fies the traditional structures and continues occupying a significant percentage of region’s workforce. Primary sector in Thessaly occupies 38% of workforce and has the third worse position between less developed regions of the EU not only regarding the dependence of employment from the agriculture, but also from the traits of productive models that refer to previous phases of development.

248 Fig. 3. Unemployment rate for the time period 2001-2005

In Table 1 the structure of GDP of Thessaly and Greece for each sector for the time period 1981-1994, according to the last available data, is presented. Table 1 shows that the structural characteristics of the Thessaly region differ from the average of Greece and the EU. Indeed, for the time period 1981-1994 the percentage increase of GDP of Thessaly (16.8%) was significantly smaller than that of Greece (22.7%), due to the reduction of product of manufacture (-12.4%). Moreover, the participation of the primary sector so much in 1981 which in 1994 (30.1 and 28.8%) is double than that of Greece at the same time period (14.2 and 12.4%) and over ten times of the per- centage concerning the EU (2.6%) for the year 1992. The participation of the tertiary sector to GDP of Thessaly despite a 45.1% increase in the year 1994 is considerably smaller than that of Greece (59.5%). Finally, the secondary sector for the time period 1981-1994 presents a reduction not only in relative but in absolute sizes, with result the participation of this sector in the GDP in the year 1994 (24.8%) to be limited not only in the formation of the GDP of Greece, but also in the GDP of the Euro- pean Union. This percentage for Greece is 28.1%. What must also be underlined is that the weight of the secondary sector at the beginning of the studied period is greater in Thessaly (33.0%) than that of the total country (31.9%).

Table 1. Structure of GDP in Thessaly, in Greece per production sector (in constant prices of the year 1970) Sectors Thessaly Greece 1981 1994 1981 1994 Primary 8086 (30.10%) 9438 (30.08%) 59516 (14.20%) 63749 (12.40%) Secondary 8879 (33.00%) 7776 (24.8%) 133441 (31.9%) 144470 (28.10%) Tertiary 9920 (36.90%) 14158 (45.10%) 225314 (53.90%) 305254 (59.50%) Sources: EUROSTAT (1995), Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works, 1998, NSSG, 2004.

249 The high dependence of secondary sector to the raw material being produced by the primary sector leads to the conclusion that the participation of primary sec- tor in the configuration ofGD P and the employment of region will continue in the future. This view is amplified through the existence of the greater in size plain of the country as well as by the adaptation of the producers to the innovations of the technology and market. Consequently, the rational management of water of region constitutes an important factor to the economic development, due to the depend- ence of high agricultural output with the irrigation of agricultural areas. Given the importance of the primary sector to the economic development of region, a new policy for this particular sector and the environment should be planned, in order to become able to confront the increasing problems of natural ecosystems (water mainly, but also terrestrial) that caused from the excessive use of pesticides and fertilisers (eutrophication, pollution, reduction of fauna, etc.), as well as the need for optimisation of water resources management. Some structural changes and a modernisation of the primary sector create new potentials as far as the development of the secondary sector is concerned mainly due to the manufacture of produced rural products. Similar are the conclusions that result from Fig. 4 (Ref. 8), where the distribu- tion of employment for the three sectors of economy is presented. According to Fig. 3, 38% of employment in the Thessaly derive from the primary sector. This percentage is by far higher than that of Greece (19%), less developed EU regions (10%) and the EU (5%) and classifies Thessaly between the European regions with the most significant dependence by the primary sector. However, we have to men- tion that the data for employment in Greece have always a relative value, because of the problem of multi-employment, particularly in the countryside. Thessaly, due to the natural advantages provided by the plain will always maintain a specialisa- tion in the agriculture. Nevertheless, the significant concentration of workforce in the primary sector refers to productive models that imply structural delay and are

A griculture 70 Industries Services 60

50

40

30

20

10

0 Thessaly Greece Less developed European Union European regions

Fig. 4. Sectoral distribution of the employment for the year 1997 (%)

250 connected to the previous phases of development. In case that the reformation of agriculture (probably under the pressure of new Common Agricultural Policy – CAP) is combined with a decrease of workforce, a serious problem of planning structural policies will be created. The brief analysis preceded leads to the following conclusions: (a) The Thessaly region presents a developmental delay, not only concerning the average of the EU, but concerning the average of less developed regions of the EU, despite the satisfactory development of the last decade. The small, with regard to the national and the EU average, increase in the unemployment that presented the previous decade does not constitute reliable indicator for the evaluation of economic route of Thessaly. This fact is due to the protection that is provided to the primary sector, which continues to maintain traditional structures and occupies a disproportionately high percentage of workforce of the region under review, in respect to the corresponding percentage of other Greek regions and less developed EU regions. (b) The productive structure of economy and its historical development constitute an important indicator of evaluation of the level and the prospects of development, of structural weaknesses and delays as well as possibilities of ad- aptation and competition in an internationalised economic environment. Indeed, the productive structure of economy of Thessaly does not encourage its economic development due to the following factors: (i) significant participation of primary sector to the GDP, for which the natural advantage of the Thessalian plain and from the continuation of CAP accounts, (ii) reduction of produced product of the secondary sector and specifically manufacture, and (iii) limited participation of the tertiary sector in the configuration of GDP. (c) Despite encouraging tendencies regarding the indicators of employment, unemployment and convergence to the medium GDP of the EU, it is expected that for a significant time period, Thessaly as well as the other Greek regions, will be in a continuous process of structural changes in all sectors of production. Their subsequent pressures and opportunities will be connected to the intensity of competition and the need for technological and organisational modernisation of enterprises, re-designing of processes and relations of inputs – outputs, review of strategies, alliances or collaborations and redefinition of the geographic limits of markets. These structural changes will lead to a successful contribution to the formation of a perpetual sustainable productive structure, if they are supported by a suitable mechanism of convenient diagnosis of tendencies in the labour market, training and lifetime education of workforce. (d) The next decade provided that structural changes mainly in the primary sector will take place, the economic structure of the region will approach more to that of Greece, the rates of change per sector will tend to assimilate. Furthermore, the development of Thessaly is expected to converge even more to the average

251 of country. Because of its geographic place, the economy of the Thessaly region is found in interdependence with the total Greek economy. Consequently the progress in the economy of Thessaly is intensely affected by the progress in the whole country.

Demand for water in the region of Thessaly It is obvious that natural resources, qualitative or quantitative, promote economic development and create preconditions for employment and prosperity. Neverthe- less, in the case of certain regions, the existence of natural resources does not suffice to counterbalance their disadvantages and to create a substantial competi- tive advantage that would lead to a relatively satisfactory level of development. Besides, it may also be the case that a region with such resources is unable to adequately exploit them or that their exploitation is transferred to other regions by various means11. The water potential in the region under review constitutes one of the most important elements of development, because Thessaly is mainly an agricultural region. Therefore, the lack of sufficient water resources constitutes a factor that averts development. Observing the development in the rural sector in the Thessaly region throughout the time, we realise that in the agricultural sector become a radical reformation and a turn to more water demand cultivations. As a result lack of water resources has led, as it was mentioned above, to the overexploitation of underground water and to increase expenses as far as the water use is concerned. Thessaly is probably the most prominent example of today’s water resources problem in Greece. The fact that it contains the most extensive plain of the country, which is being intensely cultivated, has led not only to a remarkable water demand increase, disturbing thus the hydrological balance, but also to a wide spread of polluting practices which degrade the quality of water resources. The traditional, centralised, segmental, and water supply – rather than water demand-based pre- dominant water management policy, was responsible for over-exploitation and rapid depletion of water resources. In addition, the extreme meteorological and hydrological conditions during the past few years, responsible for an unusually extended dry period in the region, have played an important role in deteriorating the disturbed water balance and accelerating the degradation of water resources12. The higher percentage of water resources used in the Thessaly region is des- ignated for the irrigation of agricultural areas (cotton, cereals, horticultural, etc.). Indeed 60% of the total irrigated areas are cotton, a very hydrophilic cultivation. Water demand is not perpetually constant but varies depending on type and extents of cultivations. Therefore, a reformation of cultivations and the adoption of less hydrophilic plants may decrease the demand for waters resources4,13,14. The reformation of cultivations and the turn to less hydrophilic cultivations is another issue for the region under review in the following years. In a recent study,

252 scenarios of reformation of cultivations of the Thessaly region were examined. The alteration of the 50% of cotton in wheat as well as change of the 60% of the culti- vated area of cotton to Miscanthus sinensis (energy cultivation for which subsidy is given) with simultaneous fall of the 10% of cultivation areas were examined. It is pointed out that in the afore-mentioned two cases a reduction at 40-0% of irriga- tion water was calculated, proportionally with the scenarios of rainfall (humid-dry year). This reduction is particularly administratively important because it happens in the basins with the higher water deficit mainly at the summer months15. In order to determinate the demand for irrigation water, it is possible to use direct and indirect or empiric methods. The direct methods are more precise con- cerning indirect and give usually smaller quantities of required water volume (in the bibliography are reported quantities up to 100%). The direct methods require precise measurements, knowledge of hydrodynamic characteristics of the ground and soil science studies, which of course have not been realised for the Thessaly region. In addition, another issue that influences the calculation of the deficit between supply and demand is the degree of exploitation of irrigation networks4,13,14. In the following paragraphs the demand for water resources in the region under review will be analysed by using data that have been calculated in special studies that have been worked out on behalf of the responsible public institutions. In Tables 2, 3 and 4 the irrigated areas, the estimate of current demand as well as the estimation of current and future demand for irrigation by public works for the water district Thessaly are presented.

Table 2. Irrigated areas in Thessaly Water quantity for each source (106 m3) Irrigated Prefecture surface private total water areas (m2) public drills total drills water drills resources Larissa 1108000 48.24 63.62 170.45 234.07 282.31 788000 115.47 43.46 99.53 142.89 258.36 270000 16.16 44.08 42.51 86.59 102.75 178000 4.68 – 68.57 68.57 73.25 Fthiotida 80000 – – 32.00 32.00 32.00 Water district 2424000 185.00 151.00 413.00 564.00 749.00 Region 2344000 185.00 151.00 381.00 532.00 717.00 Source: Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works, 1998.

253 Table 3. Estimation of current demand for irrigation according to potential for irrigation areas for the water district of Thessaly Prefecture Total irrigated Prefecture’s Irrigated area Total water Water demand area (m2) participa- in water dis- demand in water dis- tion to water trict (m2) (106 m3/year) trict district (%) (hm3/year) Larissa 972852 100 972852 632.7 632.7 Magnesia 184585 95 175356 111.4 105.8 Trikala 410456 100 410456 289.7 289.7 Karditsa 756939 100 756939 510.1 510.1 233488 1 2334 144.5 1.4 22735 5 1137 14.6 0.7 Fthiotida 523042 8 41843 353.3 28.3 Total 2360917 1568.7 Source: NSSG, 1995.

According to Table 2, we realise that the water demand for irrigated areas (2 424 000 m2) of the water district of Thessaly are supplied at about 25% by surface water (185 × 106 m3). The majority of farmers use drillings for irrigation purposes and as a result the fall of water horizon and also, likely in coastal regions, the creation of salinity phenomena occur. These drillings are mainly private which provide the region under review with 381 × 106 m3 of water. However, we have to mention that there are also numerous of illegal drillings. Moreover, 151 × 106 m3 of water are provided to the farmers by public drillings of the Water Supply and Irrigation Program for Thessaly. Globally, for the irrigation of agricultural areas in the water periphery of Thessaly are provided 749 × 106 m3 of water14. Furthermore, according to the data provided by NSSG that are presented in Table 3, we realise that the irrigated areas of the Water District of Thessaly reaches 2 360 917 m2, presenting a divergence of about 63 083 m2 with the data given by the Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works (Table 2). Moreover, for the irrigation of the areas mentioned above, 1 568.7 × 106 m3/year of water are required. The prefectures of Larissa and Karditsa, according to Table 3, present the higher demand of irrigation water. Due to lack of water resources in the region under review, observed intraregional conflicts are a quite frequent phenomenon, mainly among the farmers of Larissa and Karditsa prefectures. Additionally, conflicts for the management of allocated water quantities are also observed between the regions of Thessaly and Western Greece16,17. As it was re- ported in the previous section, the majority of Thessaly’s workforce is occupied in agricultural activities. The production of rural products covers the food needs of the Greek population while it contributes significantly in the Greek economy. Consequently, the increase of available quantities of water for irrigation purposes

254 via the planning works is a necessary activity for economic development in Greece as an economy. Table 4 shows that the irrigated areas by non-collective networks are going to be increased from 769 500 to 1 410 500 m2 when the works that are included in the long-term scenario are realised. Furthermore, the increase of annual con- sumption by non-collective networks from 505 × 106 to 926 × 106 m3 is expected, because in existing water quantities the water resources of long-term scenario are also accounted. When the planned public works will be realised the demand in the water district of Thessaly will be decreased from 1045 × 106 m3/year to 624 × 106 m3/year. The description of works included not only in the medium-term but also in the long-term scenario is presented in the following paragraphs.

Table 4. Estimation of current and future water demand for irrigation by public works4 Irrigated area Irrigated Consump- Consump- Water Total distri- Total distri- by collective area by non tion of tion of non demand bution* bution* for networks (m2) collective collective collective (106m3/ (106m3/ July networks networks networks year) year) (106m3) (m2) (106m3/ (106m3/ year) year) Current situa- 769 500 1 591 417 505 1,045 1 550 329*** tion Additional by 471 000 -471 000** 309 -309 0 0 mid-term scenario Total 1 240 500 1 120 417 815 736 1 550 329*** Additional by 170 000 -170 000** 112 -112 0 0 long-term scenario Overall total 1 410 500 950 417 926 624 1 550 329*** Source: Hellenic Ministry of Development (2003). *Collective and non collective irrigation networks; **the assumption of reduction of private works for a percentage is not valid but full substitution of private by public networks is considered; ***are equal because of (**).

Demand for other uses The water demand in the primary sector is greater in size compared to the water demand in the secondary sector of the economy. The industrial activity of the region under review is found to be scattered in the prefectures, while there are three industrial regions (IRs) in Volos, Larissa and Karditsa. The IR of Larissa is supplied with water through three drillings and the total water demand is estimated to 150 m3/day, or 0.054 × 106 m3/year while the water demand of the other two IRs is lower4. Though, as it is presented in Table 1, the activity of the secondary sector in the Thessaly region for the time period 1981-1994 is decreased, the existence

255 of sufficient water quantities for industrial purposes is necessary in order this fact not to account for further contract of industrial activities. Cattle-breeding is particularly developed in Thessaly, contributing significantly to the primary sector of economy. The demand of water for cattle-breeding activi- ties is about 11.8 hm3/year (Table 5). As far as Table 5 is concerned, we realise that the prefectures of Larissa and Trikala present the higher demand of water for cattle-breeding activities, while in the prefectures Karditsa and Magnesia the demand is lower. The prefectures of Fthiotida, Grevena and Pieria participate with small percentage to the water district of Thessaly while this fact may account for the minimal demand of water for cattle-breeding activities.

Table 5. Water demand for cattle-breeding for the water district of Thessaly (106 m3/year) Prefecture Water demand Prefecture Water demand (106 m3/year) (106 m3/year) Larissa 5.5 Pieria 0.1 Magnesia 1.7 Grevena 0.1 Trikala 2.4 Fthiotida 0.3 Karditsa 1.7 Total 11.8 Source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2003.

The demand for water supply of settlements in Thessaly, a geographic region where the population is estimated about 750 445 residents (census 2001), 50% of whom live at urban areas, is particularly increased. The areas with the highest water supply requirements are the municipalities of Larissa and Volos. The coastal zone is a favourite destination for many tourists during the summer, increasing water supply requirements during the summer period. In Table 6 is given the esti- mate of water demand according to the data provided by NSSG for the permanent population of prefectures and the corresponding overnight stays of tourists (about 3 250 000) (Ref. 4), for the water district of Thessaly. Table 6 depicts the current water demand, which for the water district is 53.73 × 106 m3 per year and 22.63× 106 m3 for the period May-September. The most popu- lated areas, which present the higher water demand, are prefectures Larissa and Volos. Table 6 shows that an increase of water demand for irrigation of cultures according to the medium-term and the long-term scenario is expected4. The sce- narios mentioned above estimate the stabilisation of demand for water supply as well as for cattle-breeding purposes. In Table 7, the total future demand of water for consuming uses for the water district of Thessaly is presented.

256 Table 6. Estimation for water demand of settlements for water district of Thessaly (106 m3) Prefecture Annual demand Demand for the period May-September Larissa 19.84 8.34 Magnesia 13.45 5.67 Trikala 9.84 4.14 Karditsa 8.75 3.67 Pieria 0.39 0.19 Grevena 0.37 0.16 Fthiotida 1.10 0.47 Total 53.73 22.63 Source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2003.

Table 7. Total future water demand for consuming uses (106 m3) Irrigation by land NSSG Irrigation by works Annual July Annual July Mid-term scenario Irrigation 1550* 329 1550 329* Water supply 54 5 54 5 Cattle-breeding 12 1 12 1 Total 1616 335 1616 335 Long-term scenario Irrigation 1693 359 1550 329* Water supply 54 5 54 5 Cattle-breeding 12 1 12 1 Total 1759 365 1616 335 Source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2003. *Equal with the estimations through irrigated areas because the irrigated land according to NSSG is less than the total irrigated land.

The annual receipt of irrigation water according to the current cultivation types with defective irrigation of 2 590 766 m2 of irrigated areas of Thessaly estimated to 750 × 106 m3 (200 × 106 m3 of surface water and 550 × 106 m3 of underground water). Indeed 26% (200 × 106 m3) emanate from the lake Plastira, Pinios river, reservoirs, etc. and 74% (550 ×10 6 m3) emanate from approximately 30 000 drill- ings from which 1/3 are public and 2/3 are private18.

Water resources availability in Thessaly The water district of Thessaly occupies an area of 13 377 km2 (Hellenic Ministry of Development 2003). The major basins are the Pinios river (9500 km2) and its branches (Litheos, Enipeas, Sofaditis, Titarissios, etc.), the closed basin of Karla, as well as other smaller streams. These rivers discharge to the Aegean sea. The afore-mentioned water district accepts each year 9766 × 106 m3 of water from pre- cipitation (Centre of Planning and Economic Research, 1989). The water district

257 of Thessaly is not identified with the administrative Thessaly region, because it includes 98% of Larissa prefecture, 85% of Magnesia prefecture, 82% of Karditsa prefecture, 79% of Trikala prefecture, 17% of Fthiotida prefecture, 7% of Pieria prefecture, and 7% of Grevena prefecture4. In Tables 8 and 9 are presented the estimation of underground water potential, the hydrologic balance in annual base as well as the balance of basins for the water district Thessaly. Table 8 shows that the annual underground water potential of water district of Thessaly is 589.0 × 106 m3. The basins of western plain (384.6 × 106 m3) contribute about 65% to the annual water potential, while 21% (121.4 × 106 m3) is the contribution of eastern plain of Thessaly. Of course, smaller, but equally important, is the contribution of remainder basins of the water district of Thessaly.

Table 8. Estimation of underground water potential Basins Annual water potential (106 m3) Total western plain 384.6 Total eastern plain 121.4 Karla 5.0 70.0 Western Mount Pilio 6.0 Eastern Mount Pilio 2.0 Total for water district 589.0 Source: Hellenic Ministry of Development, 2003.

Table 9. Water balance of water district of Thessaly (106 m3) Wet year Average year Dry year Supply Demand Balance Supply Demand Balance Supply Demand Balance 1816.77 2045.4 -228.63 1008.45 1984.27 -975.78 462.53 1958.99 -1496.44 Source: Mylopoulos, 2005, data processing.

The annual water potential is estimated by the Hellenic Ministry of Develop- ment at about 4600 ×106 m3, while the corresponding estimation of the Hellenic Ministry of Agricultural Development and Foods is 3843 × 106 m3. According to the Hellenic Ministry of Development, 3250 × 106 m3 is surface water and 1350 × 106 m3 – underground water (550 × 106 m3 in karstic form). On the other hand, according to the Hellenic Ministry of Agricultural Development and Foods, the surface water is about 3253 × 106 m3 and the underground water is 590 × 106 m3 (Ref. 19). As far as Table 9 is concerned, the water balance of water district of Thessaly is negative, therefore, the issue of new water quantities that will supply efficiently the socio-economic activities of residents of the region under review is extremely significant. Consequently, the planning of appropriate hydraulic works, as they

258 are reported in the next unit is intended, which will contribute to the water supply of Thessaly.

The hydraulic public works in Thessaly In the Thessaly region there is a great number of hydraulic works that are con- structed, or studied. These works are expected to alter the situation regarding the water balance of the region. The essential change is the work of diversion of river Acheloos to the Thessalian plain, a work that has been proposed for decades, and its construction began since 1996. This work causes an abundance of negative reactions and protests by the residents of the Sterea Hellas region as well as by environmental organisations16,17. However, in the case that this work will not be completed soon, the Thessalian plain and in general the region of Western Thes- saly will face water deficit4,13,14. The diversion of the Acheloos river requires the construction of dam and reservoir at Mesohora village at Trikala prefecture. A part of the village will be flood after the fulfilment of the reservoir. The useful space of the created reservoir is about 228 × 106 m3. From the Mesohora reservoir starts the tunnel of presenta- tion Mesohora-Glistra, which diverts the water quantities that will be used for the production of energy in hydroelectric power station (HPS) of Glistra. Downstream of HPS Glistra the dam of Sykia and the corresponding HPS will be constructed. From the Sykia reservoir that will be created, a tunnel will start (19 km length) for the diversion of the Acheloos river to Thessaly. It is estimated that 600 × 106 m3/year of water will go to the Thessalian plain. At the end of tunnel, the HPS Pefkofitou will use the mentioned above water quantity and the same water potential. By the HPS Pefkofitou the water will be led to the small reservoir of Mavrommatiou, and to the small HPS Mavrommatiou which will exploit the water that goes to irrigation canals13,20. Moreover, in this work the dam at the Portaikos stream is included, where a reservoir with beneficial capacity 47× 106 m3 will be created. The regular scenario of the diversion forecasts that the average annual input in the Pyli reservoir is ex- pected to be at about 142 × 106 m3 in periods of usual fluctuation of hydrologic sizes. On the other hand, according to the disfavour scenario in periods of drought, the medium annual input is expected to oscillate at 99 × 106 m3. Regardless of hydro- logic scenario from the Pyli reservoir the quantity of water, which is able to receipt annually, is up to 19 × 106 m3 (Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works 1995). The project’s original funding comprised an anticipated 450 million € from European Union CSF and Rural Development sources, with contributions from other sources including the national budget21. Indeed, the alternative solutions that occasionally for the resolution of water problem of the Thessaly region have been proposed and related to the work of diversion of the Acheloos river are four. Each solution aims at different planning

259 and causes different repercussions to the natural and anthropogenic environment, but also different degree of achievement. These solutions are the following13: (a) Null solution. With this term is meant the situation, which would be formed in Thessaly, if no work will be constructed and the water demand will increase. In this case the negative repercussions in Thessaly from part of economy, urban and regional development, natural resources (underground water) and environmental quality, due to lack of water, would be expected. (b) Non diversion of the river Acheloos and supply of water by local re- sources. With this solution it is considered that water from the Acheloos river is not diverted but the development of Thessaly is achieved with the construction of a number of reservoirs at the mountainous perimeter of the Thessalian plain. In this case potentially positive repercussions in the production of energy by the potential development of hydroelectric works along of Acheloos are expected and simultaneously negative repercussions in the mountain chain of Northern Pindos from the construction of these works. There are no negative repercussions for the Aitoloakarnania prefecture. The construction of reservoirs in the mountainous Thessaly will cause relevant local repercussions but also repercussions to the delta of the Pinios river due to the reduction of sediment transport. The water demand of Thessaly will be partially supplied, with impact to economic, urban and regional development as well as to the quality of the environment. (c) Diversion of 1100 × 106 m3 annually from the Acheloos river. This solution demands, concerning the proposed solution, the additional construction of the Pyli and reservoirs and a number of irrigation works in order to transport and distribute the water to the Thessalian plain. This solution implies positive repercus- sions from the energy exploitation of transported water while local negative reper- cussions in the mountain chain of Northern Pindos and in the municipalities of Pyli and Mouzaki caused by the construction of dams (landscape, land use, ecosystems). However, sufficient water quantities for a larger part of Thessaly are expected with high positive impacts to the sectors of economy, urban and regional development, natural resources (replacement of underground water), quality of surface water and maintenance of ecosystems. On the other hand, because of the diversion of the afore-mentioned water quantity from the Acheloos river very careful management of water resources for the simultaneous satisfaction of energy, irrigation, water supply and ecological demands of Aitoloakarnania will be required. (d) The proposed solution. With the proposed solution of diversion of 600 × 106 m3/year by the Acheloos river positive repercussions and local negative re- percussions in the mountain chain of Northern Pindos, are expected. In addition, the negative repercussions in Thessaly because of the construction of the Pyli and Mouzaki reservoirs will not exist. According to this solution, there are efficient water quantities to supply the irrigation needs for 2.4 × 106 m2, the needs of wa- ter supply, ecological needs and those for the stabilisation of underground water

260 reserves. Under these conditions of water sufficiency in the Thessaly region the following positive results are expected; positive impact in the sectors of economy, urban and regional development, natural resources, quality of surface waters and maintenance of ecosystems. In the Aitoloakarnania prefecture, the suitable manage- ment of water resources via the existing works will not cause practically negative repercussions. Therefore, this choice is the optimal solution for the achievement of sustainable regional development and efficient management of water resources. The comparative advantage of this solution is that it ensures through the lower economic cost the eligible development of Thessaly, without affecting the devel- opment of other regions, constitutes the lower possible intervention to the natural environment and ensures the sustainable development of Greece.

Table 10. Development of water potential of Thessaly associated with the planning works (106 m3) Scenario Water potential Exploitable Receipt of July water potential (40 %) Current situation Pinios basin 2557.8 133.7 53.5 Tavropos basin 76 76 30,4 Underground water of western plain 384.6 384.6 153.8 Underground water of eastern plain 121.4 121.4 48.6 Total 3139.8 715.7 286.3 Mid-term scenario Additional input by Acheloos diversion 600 600 240 Basin upstream of Smokovo dam 382 114 45.6 Water reserve of Karla reservoir 38 107 42.8 Total 3777.8 1536.7 612.5 Long-term scenario Receipt by Palioderli dam 427.6 43 172 Receipt by Kria Vrisi dam 952.7 190 76 Receipt by Theopetra dam 127.8 15 6 Receipt by Neochori dam 170.7 19 7.6 Receipt by Kalouda dam 466.5 30 12 Receipt by Palaiomonastiro dam 209.8 15 6 Total 2355.1 1848.7 765.9 Source: Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works, 1998.

Apart from the diversion of the Acheloos river there are also other hydrau- lic works that are implemented or is possible to be constructed in the region of Thessaly. The development of water potential is associated with these works and depending on the different scenarios is presented in Table 10 (Ref. 14). Accord- ing to the data given in Table 10, it is obvious that with the completion of works, which are planned according to the medium-term scenario, a significant increase of

261 un-exploitable water potential from 715.7 × 106 m3 to 1536.7 × 106 m3 is expected. Moreover, with the completion of works, which are programmed according to the long-term scenario, the exploitable water potential will be increased considerably to 1848.7 × 106 m3. This fact will involve positive repercussions to the Thessaly region because the main economic activities of the region under review are depended on water resources, which at the summer period are characterised as insufficient. The construction of planning works, the water resources for July they will increase significantly by 37.08% (from 286.3× 106 m3 to 765.9 × 106 m3). Consequently, the construction of planning works aiming at the existence of efficient water quantities is considered as imposed.

Conclusions The natural environment of the Thessaly region, the territorial and social resources is possible to constitute the base for economic development as long as are combined with efficient and low-cost quantities of water resources. The ability of irrigation of rural areas combined with rational planning of production and technical and economic support of farmers is possible to lead to an increase in productivity and the possibility to correspond on the international competition on the market of rural products. According to the data presented in this paper, the demand for water resources in Thessaly is characterised by increasing rates in the forthcoming years, due to the increasing demand of the citizens that live and work in the region under review. Even if less water-demand rural cultivations are adopted, the existing supply is not sufficient for the current or future demand. Therefore, it is urgent to adopt solu- tions that will satisfy the water needs not only in the present, but also for future generations, accordingly with the objectives of sustainable development. The available data according to the responsible authorities show that the maximum level of underground water is decreasing. In Fig. 5, which was created according to provided data, is presented the time evolution of the maximum level of some drillings of the Thessalian plain for a time period of 25 years. Figure 4 depicts a stability of the afore-mentioned level with regular replacement for the time period 1980-2005. For the year 1985 and for the forthcoming years the fall is particularly intense, while it is stabilised or recover after the year 2000. In order to explain this phenomenon we have to mention that in the time period 2000-2005 the rainfalls in the region are significantly high. The overexploitation of underground water, as it is expressed with the con- tinuous fall of hydrostatic level presented in Fig. 5, concerns practically the total of drillings in the region under review and it leads progressively to the reduction of exploitable flow. Furthermore, it encourages in the area of Eastern Thessaly the infiltration of sea water and the nitrate pollution because of the high concentra-

262 tions of nitrates and ammoniac that derive by the excessive use of fertilisers and other aggravating for the environment activities and the reduction of underground water potential22.

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 -10

-20

-30

-40

-50

-60

Gyrtoni Chalki Platykampos Kypseli Niki Kastro

Fig. 5. Maximum level of drilling for the time period 1980-2005

It is obvious that in order to stabilise the water horizon, the reduction of recoverable water quantities is necessary, which is estimated at about 10-50% depending on the area. In the central parts of the two sub-basins the levels were degraded dramatically, while in all the areas, except that of Trikala and Kalam- paka, water quantities were pumped and continue be pumped annually much more, than those that allow the renewal of the potential feedback. Indeed, the water quantities that were pumped for the time period 1974-1994 are estimated at about 1 × 109 m3, of which 800 ×106 m3 (80% of deficit) were pumped in the decade 1984-1994 (Ref. 23). Consequently, the effective management of water reserves is of great impor- tance not only for the region of Thessaly, but for the majority of Mediterranean countries24. We argue that the implementation of efficient management in water resources to the rural sector, which is the greater consumer of water resources, can be achieved provided that the following proposals will be realised: (a) Reformation of cultivations, depending on the regularity and the efficiency of irrigations, seeking the reduction of precocious cultivations and showing prefer- ence in less water-demand cultivations. (b) An increase in cattle-breeding cultivations in order to counterbalance the demand for cattle-breeding products is proposed. (c) Rational use of water resources, using in the activities that present the higher output. Consequently, the exploitation of land resources according to the available water resources is imposed. For this reason it is necessary the classifica- tion of rural areas, depending on their susceptibility of irrigation and to allocate the water resources depending on the efficiency of soil.

263 (d) Water pricing according to its complete value as it is mentioned in the new Frame Directive for Water 2000/60 (pricing of all uses). (e) Incorporation of modern technology to the management of water resources. Thus, the investigation of the possibility of the replacement of surface irrigation networks is necessary, with underground networks and the replacement of current irrigation methods where possible with in-drops irrigation and the reduction of losses in existing networks.

References 1. M. BONAZOUNTAS, D. PANAGOULIA, N. PASSAS, K. SYRIOS, A. GRAMMATIKO- GIANNIS: Water Balance Estimation via SESOIL: Pinios River Basin, Greece. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ., 64, 111 (2005). 2. S. SOFIOS, G. ARABATZIS, E. BALTAS: Policy for Management of Water Resources. The Environmentalist (in press). 3. K. GOUMAS: The Water Resources Management in Thessaly and the Law 1730/87. In: Proc. of the National Congress on the Land Reclamation Work and Water Resources Management, Larisa, 1996 (in Greek). 4. Hellenic Ministry of Development: Project of Program of Water Resources Management. , 2003 (in Greek). 5. L. LAZARIDES, G. KALAOUZIS, D. KOUTSOGIANNIS, P. MARINOS: Basics Technical and Economic Sizes about the Water Resources Management in Thessaly. In: Proc. of the Inter- national Congress on the Water Management, Larisa, 1996 (in Greek). 6. Thessaly Region: Features of Thessaly. available at http://www.thessalia-region.com/en_contents. asp?id=120 (2007). 7. EUROSTAT: Statistical Yearbook. 2000. 8. EUROPEAN UNION: Sixth Periodic Report on the Social and Economic Situation and Devel- opment of Regions in the EU. 1999. 9. NSSG: Statistical Yearbook of Greece. Athens, 2004 (in Greek). 10. EUROSTAT: Regional Unemployment Rate – Total (%). Available at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa. eu (2006). 11. S. POLYZOS, G. ARABATZIS: Spatial Distribution of Natural Resources and Their Contribution to Regional Development: The Case of Greece. J. of Environmental Protection and Ecology, 10, (2009) (in press). 12. E. G. KOLOKYTHA, N. A. MYLOPOULOS: Evaluating Demand Management Aspects of Urban Water Policy. The City of Volos Case, Greece. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution. Focus, 4, 263 (2004). 13. Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works: Acheloos River Diversion: Study of Environmental Repercussions. Athens, 1995 (in Greek). 14. Hellenic Ministry for the Environment, Planning and Public Works: Acheloos River Diversion and Thessaly Plain Development. Athens, 1998 (in Greek). 15. N. MYLOPOULOS: Organisation and Follow up Using Data Base of the Measurements of Surface and Ground Water and the Evaluation of Land Reclamation Works of Thessaly. The Perspectives in the Fourth Common Support Framework. Available at http://www.thesalia.gr (2005) (in Greek). 16. S. POLYZOS, S. SOFIOS: Water Resources, Interregional Conflicts and RegionalD evelopment: The Case of Acheloos River. In: Proc. of 9th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology, Island, Greece, 2005a.

264 17. S. POLYZOS, S. SOFIOS: Interregional Conflicts for the Water Resources. In: Proc. of IWA International Conference on Water Economics, Statistics, and Finance, , Greece, Book 1, 2005b, 463-470. 18. Regional Development Plan of Thessaly Region, 2001 (in Greek). 19. Centre of Planning and Economic Research: Reports for the Plan 1988-1992. Water Resources, Athens, 1989 (in Greek). 20. M. MODINOS: Deverting Acheloos, New Ecology. Athens, 1989 (in Greek). 21. http://www.water-technology.net 22. I. MARIOLAKOS: Water Resources Management in the Framework of Sustainable Develop- ment. Desalination, 213, 147 (2007). 23. K. GOUMAS: Irrigations in Thessaly Plain. Impacts to Surface and Underground Water. Greek Hydrotechnic Union. In: Proc. of the Meeting ‘Water Resources and Agriculture’, , 2006, 39-53 (in Greek). 24. K. S. CHARTZOULAKIS, A. N. PARANYCHIANAKIS, A. N. ANGELAKIS: Water Resources Management in the Island of Crete, Greece, with Emphasis on the Agricultural Use. Water Policy, 3, 193 (2001). 25. NSSG: Distribution of Greek Area according to Basic Land Uses. Athens, 1995 (in Greek). 26. EUROSTAT: Statistical Yearbook. 1995. Received 21 April 2008 Revised 18 June 2008

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