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Ground (subsurface) Shumskii, P. A.; National Research Council of Canada. Division of Building Research

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NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA

TECHNICAL TRANSLATION 1130

PRINCIPLES OF GEOCRYOLOGY

(PERMAFROST STUDIES)

PART 1, GENERAL GEOCRYOLOGY

CHAPTER IX, GROUND (SUBSURFACE) ICE. P. 274 - 327

BY

P. A. SHUMSKII

FROM ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE U. S. S. R. V. A. OBRUCHEV INSTITUTE OF PERMAFROST STUDIES MOSCOW 1959

TRANSLATED BY

C. DE LEUCHTENBERG

THIS IS THE ONE HUNDRED AND NINETEENTH OF THE SERrES OF TRANSLATIONS PREPARED FOR THE DIVISiON OF BUILDING RESEARCH

OTTAWA

1964 PREFACE • This translation is the fourth arranged by the Permafrost SUbcommittee of the Associate ｃｯｲｲｾｩｴｴ･･ on Soil and Mechanics • of the National Research Council of the Russian permafrost publi• cation "Principles of Geocryologyll. The first translation in this group was of Chapter VI entitled IIHeat and Moisture Transfer in Freezing and Thawing Soils ll by G.A. Martynov (TT-I065). The second vias Chapter IV II General Mechanisms of the Formation and Development of Permafrost" by P.F. Shvetsov (TT-1117) and the third was Chapter VII IIGeographical Distribution of Seasonally Frozen Ground and Permafrost" by LYa. Baranov (TT-1121). This translation of Chapter IX by P.A. Shumskii reviews the highlights in the history of ground ice investigations which were initiated in the eighteenth century. The main body of the text consists of a discussion of each of the types of ground ice encoun• tered in permafrost rq;ions. These include segregated ice, injected ice, ice veins, multiple ice veins, cave ice, thermokarst cave ice, karst cave ice, and buried ice. The modes of origin, characteris• tics, properties and geographical distribution of each of these types of ice are discussed in detail. The Division is grateful to the Geological Survey of Canada for arranging the translation of this chapter in response to the request of the Permafrost ｓｵ｢｣ｯｮｾｩｴｴ･･Ｎ

Ottawa R.F. Legget J1.me 1961+ Director NATIONAL nESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA

Technical Translation 1130

.. Title: Ground (subsurfacc) ice • (Poazcl:mye l' dy)

Author: P.A. Shumskil

Reference: Principles of :::;eocryolo::?;y (permafrost studies), Part I, General ge oc r-yoLcgy, Chapter IX. Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. HoscOi'! 1959. ｰＮＲＷ［ｾＭ［ＱＲＷ (Osnovy geokr1oloGii (merzlotovedeniya), ChastI pervaya, ObshchayCl c;eokrioloe;iya, Glava IX. Akademiya Nauk SSSR. Moskva 1959. s.274-327)

Translator: C. de Leuchtenberc;, Translation Bureau, Department of the Secretary of State GROUND (Slf.JSlffiFACE) ICE

Introduction

Ice, in the broad sense of the \'1orc1*, refers to all solid phases of

(H2 0 )** ; nine phases are known today, one amorphous and eiGht crystalline

.. (Shumskii, 1991-2 ; 19552)' The wor-d ice, howeve r-, usually refers to only one, common ice or ice I, inasmuch as this crystalline modification of ice can • exist under thermodynamic conditions characteristic of the terrestrial cryo• sphere***. Ice does not form isomorphic mixtures vlith other substances and therefore all natural ice phases belong by their chemical composition to one mineral type. Fr-eshwa t er-, saline wat e r and brine ice types, containing salts as mechanical admixtures, are varieties of that mineral. All ice located in the earth's crust, irrespective of its origin or form of occurrence, is called ground ice (Vernadskii, 1934,; Kim, Pavlov, 1911-3; Grave, 1951). O\'Jing to its physico-chemical properties, ice is the lightest, the coldest and because of that the most surficial of all the minerals forming the earth's crust. The main masses of ice are concentrated on the earth's surface where, as well as in the atmosphere and hydrosphere, they represent the most \'Jidespread solid substance. In the lithosphere, ice occurs only in the uppermost horizons and in a significantly lesser quantity. According to the approximate data available to us the total ｶｯｬｬｬｩｾ･ of ground ice amounts to 3 0.5 million lcm , or to about 2% of the total volume of ice on the globe. Nevertheless in parts of the lithosphere ice is the main component. There are

* In the narrOH sense the term ice refers to solid ice (icc I), free of interconnecting air pores, in contrast to such porous substances as snow, , ri1l1e, etc. ** The concentration of heavy isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen, H2 (deuterium), H3 (tritiwn), 0'7 and 0'8 is insignificant in nature and exerts no per• ceptible influence on the physico-chemical and ice. *** Other artificially obtained modifications of ice cannot exist as bodies of macroscopic dimensions under the combinations of temperature and pressure existing in the earth's crust and on its surface. This however does not exclude the possibility of their existence as thin films on the surface of solid bodies. It is probable that the internal part of the films of bound water, vrhf.ch plays a great part in soils, is a modification of ice exist• ing under high pressure (Vernadskii, ＱＹＳＮＧｾ 1; Parkhomenko, 1956). At least the binding energy (deterl:1ined by the heat of wetting) and the physical properties of adsorbed or hycroscopic water are in agreement with the heat of cr¥stallization and the properties of the "hot " ice VIII (Shumskii, 1955 2 )• vast regions at high latitudes in the northern hemisphere where the upper part of the soil stratum 10 - 30 m in thickness, consists of 50 - 80% (by volwne) of ice. However, when the reserves of ice in the earth's crust are compared with those in the world's ocean* and in the atmosphere, it comes out that the first are several times larger despite their much smaller spatial concentra- • tion. Thus the part of the terrestrial cryosphere represented by the litho• sphere, i.e. the cryolithozone, occupies by its ice quantity a second place • with respect to the ice that is being accumulated on the surface of the con• tinents, although that zone has a much smaller surface than the latter. The significance of ice in nature and for human economic activity is stipulated not only by its widespread occurrence but also by its position amid the series of minerals. Ice is the solid phase of a substance which takes an exclusive part in the chemical and biochemical processes, and which in its liquid phase is the indispensable condition for organic life. Yet in the thermal succession of mineral formation, ice belongs to the last and coldest stage, which is separated from all other ones by the stage of formation of organic substances. With this, as well as with the specific physical proper• ties of ice, is connected its specific role in the biosphere, where it dis• turbs by its appearance in any significant quantity the normal course of organic, chemical as well as all other geological and geographical processes. All features of nature and economic utilization of a region with a continuously frozen subsoil are, in the end, stipulated by the phase-changes of water in the earth's crust - the appearance, existence and disappearance of the ground ice. By cementing SOil, which is friable in its thawed state, ice radically changes its mechanical properties. The thermal properties and water perme• ability of soil containing icc are likewise significantly changed. The forma• tion of certain types of ground ice causes -heaving of the ground, and the melting of that ice causes flow of the ground, its subsidence and destruc• tive thermokarst processes. Because of this, the presence, formation and disappearance of ground ice types determine the main features of relief of a region with frozen ground, its hydrogeological regime, conditions for building houses, etc. and all human economic activity. Inasmuch as all ground ice types are accumulations of one and the same mineral - ice I, the majority of their most important physical properties are generally uniform, and at constant temperature they vary comparatively little with difference in structure and content of admixtures. However, the

* Shelf-ice of the Antarctic is excluded as it is a continental type of for• mation. -5-

properties and behaviour of the entire mass of frozen ground depends essen• tially on the form and quantity of the ice contained in it, and the conditions and mode of its (the ice) occurrence. The latter are indissolubly connected with the origin of the ground ice. Therefore, the central question of the entire and long history of ground ice investigations was the problem of its " origin, forms and conditions of its occurrence.

Highlights in the History of Ground Ice Investigations " Early period. Emergence of the theory of vein ice formation and observa• tions on the burial of surface ice. Russian and Soviet sciences have the priority and leading role in the study of ground ice. The first information on ground ice was gathered in Siberia by P. Lassinius during the Great Northern Expedition in 1753 (Baer, 1842) and H.P. Laptev in 1739 (1851). Already investigations in the 18th century had shown that ground ice is widespread in northern and eastern Siberia (Pallas, 1773-1778; Georgi, 1775; Sauer, 1802). Ground ice attracted general attention at the beginning of the 19th century because of a discovery in the Lena delta of a mammoth corpse amid "ice floes" and the discovery on the west coast of Alaska of a "mountain of pure ice" which likewise contained mammoth bones (Adams, 1807; Kotsebu, Chamisso, 1821• 1823) . The problem of the origin of large masses of ground ice was solved at the very time of its birth by A.E. Figurin, who had correctly described the condi• tions for the occurrence of the chief type of ground ice and had indicated its forrmtion in the frost fissures from "the ancient time" to these days (Figurin,

1823 1 , 18232)' K.M. Baer pointed out in the first general, theoretical work on ground ice, that it is formed by the burial of naleds - taryns, river and and beneath overburden, by the freezing of water that penetrates beneath the turf floating on it, or water that fills fissures in soils. K.M. Baer conceived the idea on the vein origin of ice right at the site of the mammoth discovery in the Lena delta and on the coast of Alaska. He attributed great significance to the frost-generated formation of fissures and postUlated that there was a gradual wedging of soil by veins of ice arising in it (Baer, 1842, 1866) . I.A. Lopatin described the various types of ground ice on the lower Yenisei, Sakhalin and in Transbaika1ia; he was the first to observe the burial of firn at the foot of slopes, of bottom ice in rivers, and ice floes on marine beaches. He recorded and gave the correct explanation of ice veins that are being formed amid the "tundraic layers" in the frost-generated clefts (Lopatin, 1876, 1897). -6-

At the end of the 19th century, A.A. Bunge had described the vein ice of the Lena delta and Bol'shoi Lyakhovskii Island, and had carried out observa• tions on the contemporary processes of vein ice formation in the frost• generated fissures. He had established the genetic relation of the polygonal ndcrorelief with the formation of vein ice and the occurrence of ice vein II grids on vast spaces of tundra (Bunge, 1884, 1885, 1887, 1903). History of the firn-c;lacial hypothesis of ground ice formation. While A. Bunge was conducting his investigation there was a sudden change in opinion on the nature of large masses of ground ice that arrested for a long time the development of the theory on the vein formation of ice in Russia, and deter• mined the fundamental trend of scientific thought in that problem up to the present time. That trend had been prepared by the triumph of the continental glaciation theory over the drift ｨｾｔｯｴｨ･ｳｩｳ and by the widespread occurrence of ground ice in the Siberian lowlands, and it had been natural to connect this with the events of the glacial period. The firn-glacial ｨｾｯｴｨ･ｳｩｳ on the origin of ground ice had been offered for the first time by E. V. Toll, viho used as his argument the vast extent of fossil ice on Bol'shoi Lyakhovskii Island, the granular and vesicular struc• ture of ice and discoveries of moraine beneath the ice in Anabar Bay. However, distinctions between fossil ice and glacial ice had forced E. Toll to assume the existence of a special ｴｾ･ of glaciation for northern Siberia siHlilar "to the continental ice or to the very thick firn field" whLch remained under• developed due to the fall of temperature and was converted into a "dead fossil " under the cover of "earthy and lacustrine formations" (Toll, 1887, 1892, 1894, 1895, 1897). Also of great influence was the work of I.P. Tolmachev, who, haVing studied under the microscope the texture (size, shape and orientation of crystals) and composition (quantity of mineral and gaseous admixtures) of ice specimens, taken from the site of the mammoth discovery on the Berezovka River, had come to the conclusion that deposits of ground ice are accumulations of snow in river valleys covered by mud (Tolmachev, 1903). Having personally investigated the coast of the Arctic Ocean, LP. Tolmachev, was convinced of the \videspread occurrence of vein ground ice (Tolmachev, 1907; Tolmachoff, 1929); but this conclusion did not get wLde pUblicity and in the question of the ice texture and its genetic significance Tolmachev ren:aincd an authority because of his first work asserting the snow ｨｾｯｴｨ･ｳｩｳ of ice ｦｯｲｮｾｴｩｯｮＮ Instead of going to the bo t t om of the matter further investigations of large r:;round ice masses consisted ma LnLy in accurnuLa t Lng data on their spread, and the discussions of principles revolved mainly around the problem of the anow or Glacier origin of r:;round ice, or on the type and number of glaciations on the plains of northern Siberia. -'(-

K.A. Vollosovich was developing opinions on the existence of two horizons of ground ice on the New Siberian Islands and coastal Low Lands between the Lena and ｋｯｬｾｮ｡ Rivers, and, accordingly, on two glaciations in that region, which were mandt'e s t.ed by the development of continuous firn fields whLch formed true glaciers wher-e the topography was favourable (Vollosovich, 19091, • 19092, 1915; Wollosowitsch, 1909). A. A. Grigor'ev, who connected the ground ice of central Yakutia with the thermokarst relief forms, added to the hypothesis of Tolmachev-Vollosovich by supplementing it with the lake hypothesis of A. J. Haddren (Haddren, 1905), and proposed to call the asswned glaciation in the form "or stationary accumul a• tions of firn snow in company with lakes frozen to the bottomll as glaciation of the eastern Siberian or embryonic type. In A.A. Grigor'ev's opinion, central Yakutia was glaciated three or four times (Grigor'ev, 1926, 1927, 19302, 1932). Later the hypothesis on the snow-glacial origin of the large ground ice masses in its various forms was shared by V.A. Obruchev (1930, 1931), H.M. J Ermolaev (1932 11 1932 21 1933), N.I. Sumgin (1937,194°2,194°3, 19 +04 , 1947), 1W), ｖＮｾＱＮ A. I. Gusev (1938 1 , 19 Ponornarev (19!.tO, 1951 1 , 1951 2 , 1952), I.P. 1+6 Gerasirnov and K.K. Markov (1939), v. N. Saks (1936, 1945 1, 191+5 2 , 1946 1 , 19 2, 191+8, 1951) and others. The difference be twe en fossil ice and snow ice as well as general climatological considerotions gave rise to a series of hypotheses on the peculiar characteristics and time of development of glaciation in Siberia. In addition to the above-mentioned hypotheses the following ones should be kept in mind: V.V. Lamansky is on glaciation at high latitudes due to the modera• tion of climate (Lamansky, 1914), K.K. Markov on the metachronism (reverse development in time) of glaciation in Siberia and Europe (Markov, 1938; Gerasimov, Harkov, 19)9), D.M. Kolosov on the discordant development of glaci• ation of plains and mountains of the U.S. S .R. ' s northeast (Kolosov, ＱＹＩＭｾＷＩＬ V.A. Zubakov (1951) on the four types of lithe passive surficial glaciationll of Siberia and Alaska, B.N. Gorodkovand I.P. Gerasimov on the possibility of ll extending the conclusions relative to the character lI of the postglacial land• scape in the region of fossil ice development to periglacial regions of the old continental glaciation (Gorodkov, 1948; Gerasimov, 1952), and N.A.

Naginskii on the development in western Siberia at first of an lI embr yoni c " glaciation that was later overlapped by moving ice descending from the mountains (Nacinskii, 1953). All this created a great confusion in the problems of ancient glaciation and the history of the Quaternary Period in regions of development of laree ground ice masses. ------

-8-

DcvclQ1?lJlcnt of the theory of vein-ice formation. During the period of domination of the sn01'l-ice hypothesis nobody denied other possibilities of gr-ound ice f'or-ma t Lon . Only the possibility of explaining in that vJay the formation of large ground ice masses Has denied. The vein origin of the major mass of ground ice in Alaska and Siberia \-JaS advocated after A.A. Bunge, only by K. Leffing":ell, who observed the contemporary formation of ice veins and described in more detail than his predecessors the rnechan:i..sm of their formatlon and gr-adua l growth (Leffingi';ell, 1915, 1919). Since investigators of the Quaternary Period became acquainted with the

processes of formation of II ice wedge s II, fossil pseudomorphs from ice veins were discovered during the last three decades almost ･ｶ･ｲｊｾｬｨ･ｲ･ along the edge of the Quaternary ice sheets in Europe and North America and they were inter• preted as evidence of the past distribution of frozen ground. Vein ice was described by 3.G. Par-khomenlco (1929), P.K. Khmyznikov (1934), P.P. Shvetsov L (1938), A.I. Gusev (1938 1 ), A.N. Tolstov (19 n ) and P.N. Kapterev (Bykov and Kapterev, 191W). Objections to the vein origin of the large masses of ground ice, repeat• edly raised by the supporters of the snow-ice hypothesis, boiled down nlainly to the impossibility of imagining how the veins of ice could penetrate to a significant depth and "wher-e all that huge mass of earth that should have been ll forced out by the ice is gone (Ermolaev, 1932 1 ), The answer to that question is that the great vertical extent and the depth of penetration of ice veins are ･ａｾｬ｡ｩｮ･､ by the syngenetic growth of the latter simultaneously with the accumulation of sediments surrounding them; the basis for this conclusion vias prepared by G. Steche (1933), w. Soergel (1936, 1942) and definitively formu• 1i9) lated by G. GalhJitz (19 and A.I. Popov (1952, 19531 , 1953:;». G. Ga11witz and B.N. Dostovalov analyzed the relation between the accumulation of sedi• ments and the form and structure of ice veins formed in them (Galhlitz, ＱＹＱｾＹ［ Dostova10v, 1952). .. The vein origin of ground ice in central Yakutia has been ascertained by P.A. ｓｨｾｾｳｫｩｩ (1950, 1952) with the aid of petrographic analysis, and the e1ectrometric works of R.I. Korkina have exposed the occurrence of ice in the form of a grid of vertical veins (Korkina, 1952). Subsequent studies at the V.A. Obruchev L'1stitute of Permafrost Studies, U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, have proved the vein nature of the main mass of eround ice of the Yana• Indigirka coastal lowland, Bol'shoi Lyakhovskii Island, Lena delta, the mouth of the Anadyr River, the north coast of Chwchotskii Peninsula, the Aldan River

area and elsewhere, (Vtyurin, 1951 1 , 19512 ; Grigor'ev, 1952); Efimov, Shumskii, 1952; Shumskii, Vtyurin, Katasanov, 1953 and others). Some supporters of the snow-ace hypothesis, acquainted \'lith facts gathered in recent times, have -9-

adnut t.co the vein origin of icc in the ｩｮｶ｣ｮｴｬ｛ｾＨＩｴ･ｃｬ rC[:;lons (Solov'ev, 1951). I!wL'stiC:.::ltion of ice fOl'li;Qtion dur:L12.C;. the frcczinc; of' moint soil. The problem of icc f'o.ri.ia t Lon in the freezinG of the soil in intimntely connected with the p r-ob Lc:» of moLs t.ur-e lili;::ration in it and the na t ur-e of forces whLch a 1101': the icc to be seGreGated in the sround as bodies wnose d.irneno Lone exceed • the cavatics oriGinal1y existine; in the gr-ound , and this is evidently the result of expanding the soil skeleton. Early investigators attached ｾｉｾｯｲｴ｡ｮ｣｣ only to water infiltration from the surface to the frozen layer (Beechey, 1831; Baer, 181(2). Later there wer-e developed in many versions t wo more fundamental theories of via t e r- migration in freezinG grow1d, namely: the theory of migration under pressure, due in par• ticular to the increase of volume during the freeZing in closed systems, and the theory of dra'l'ling the capillary or film water to the f'r-e czLng plane. The main role in deveLoptrig the first-naraed theory belonc;s to: S.A. Pod'yakonov (1903), V.N. Sukachev (1911), K. Ni1ciforov (1912), R.I. Abolin (1913), D.A. 1(0 Dranitsyn (191h) and E.I. Swngin (1929, 1931, 1940" 19 2 , ＱＹｾＰＳＩＧ The second theory vas developed by V. I. Shtu1ceneberg (1885, 189if), A.F. Lebedev (1930), G.Y. Bouyoucos (1923)*, S. Taber (1929, 1930), G. Be skow (1935) and recently by many other investiGators. As it was stated repeatedly in the literature, the movement, of wat er' vapour does not have any essential signifi• cance for the formation of ice due already to the gas impermeability of strata whLch sec;ree;ate ice in the course of freezing. Hater misratine; uncleI' pressure freezes in the voids created by it at the boundary of the wat.e r--fmper-meab Le , frozen layer. En contrast to this the mechanism of ice segrer.;ation in every other type of mic;ration requires an ad•

ditional explanation. T\'IO such explanations are known . According to the first of thew, ice in freeZing, thinly disperse stratn is secregated on frac• tures which arise due to the reduction of volwne on coagulation of the col• loids. Hater is squeezed out into the fractures, and the crystals of ice grow• ing there assist the squeeZing of water by exerting pressure upon the fracture '\'1 a Ll s . Such an explanation was given by LA. Lopatin (1873), P. I. Holmquist (1898), G. Hesselman (1907), R.I. Abolin - for peat (1913), G. Given (1915), A.E. Fedosov (1935) and others. The second explanation attributes the main importance to the pressure of grOi'linc; in the direction of the gr-owt.h (independent of the V01W,lC expansion of wate r- freezing in a closed space). The gr-owarig crystals push apart the soil surroundine; them. This

* G.Y. Bouyoucos. Movement of soil ｾｾｩｳｴｵｲ･ from small capillaries to the large capillaries of the soil upon freezine;. J. Ac;r. Res. Ｒｌｾ (5), 1923. I'Jnshington. -10- assumption stated by B. H8cboIil (1910, 191)+) has been experimentally proved by S. Taber (1916, 1917, 1918" 19182), and the explanation of the physical nature "of the force of crystallization" resulting from surface tension has been given by C.W. Correns (1926). Hummocks of "pr-easur-c-eweLlang'' Hi th ice cores were recorded for the first time by G. Radde in 1958 (Radde, 1958). S.G. Parkhornenko (1929) called them ice laccoliths, and NoI. Tolstikhin (1932) - hydrolaccoliths. At the present time such humnrocks with ice or icy cores are known in almost all permafrost regions. There is a hypothesis that perennial hUlTllllocks due to heaving occur simultaneously with the beginning of deep freezing of the litho• sphere (Leffingwell, 1919, or later Porsild, 1938; Baranov, 19 L+O, Sachs, 1940). Their confinement to the narrow geographical or climatic zone, or to the region of recent subsidences has been pointed out by V.N. Andreev (1936), V.N. Sachs (19452), V.N. Ponomarev (1951), A.I. Popov (1953 2), and G.V. Gorbatskii (1952). V.G. Zol'nikov offered an hypothesis, concurrent with K. ｌ･ｦｦｩｮｾｬ･ｬＱＧｳ opinions, on the pressure swe LlLng during the formation of the perennial cryolithozone (permafrost zone), but ascribing this mode of formation not to the icy cores of the swelling ｨｵｮｾｯ｣ｫｳ but to the main mass of ground ice in central Yakutia (1949, 1950). The processes of formation of ice-inclusions at the expense of water which has infiltrated and been drawn to the zone of crystallization, as well as the type of structure of frozen ground which arose in that way, have been described by I.A. Lopatin (1873), P. HoLmquds t (1898), P. Kokkonen (1926), S.

Taber (1929, 1930" 19302 ), Eo Jung (1932), V.I. Moroshkin (1933), G. Beskow (1935), S. Erikssen (1941), A.M. Pchelintsev (1948,), A.I. Popov (1953,), F.G. Bakulin (1958), and others. Attempts were 1ike\'lise made to ascribe a similar origin to the large masses of ground ice. The infiltration hypothesis of G. Holmsen (1912) and the closely related hypotheses of S.P. Kachurin (1946, 1950, 1952), M.I. Sumgin, S.P. Kachurin et a1. (19LW) and A.A. Grigor'ev (19Lt6), as well as the segregation hypotheses of G. Beskow (1935), S. Taber (1943) and P.S. Vadil0 (1951), belong here. Hypotheses on the origin of ground water and ice by condensation were offered by A.F. Lebedev (1913, 1930) and F. Nansen (1915); finally P.I. Koloskov combined these hypotheses v11th the segregation hypothesis by assuming that the migration of moisture from below proceeds in the vapour state, that the water vapour is being condensed and afterwards upon the freezing of water -11-

there begins the segregation and growth of ice layers in the frozen ground (1946, ＱＹＱｾＷＩＪＮ

C1nssification of Ground Ice

The variety of opinions on the nature of ground ice is explained to a • great extent by the superficial approach to its study by some investigators, carried out, as a rule, by imperfect methods incidental to other wor-ks . Poorly substantiated extrapolations, \'lhich aim to ascribe a universal significance to a particular phenomenon are typical of many investigators, who became acquainted in one way or another with a limited range of processes of ice formation. To counterbalance these groundless generalizations, there appeared in the literature widespread emphasis on the great variety of condi• tions for the formation and type of ground ice, which to some extent resulted in many classifications, usually of a speculative character. Although correct in principle, this approach in practice began to negate the validity of the generalizations, and this led to uncertainty in determining the nature of ground ice in any specific case. Many classifications of ground ice exist at the present time; they include factual material of varying completeness, are constructed according to diverse principles, and generalize variously justified opinions on the nature of ground ice (Baer, 1842; Toll, 1895; Abolin, 1913; Leffingwell, 1919; A.A. Grigor'ev, 1930,; Satow, 1930; Vernadskii, ＱＹＳｌｾＱ［ Tolstikhin, 1936, 1941;

Sumgin, 191W; Solov lev, 1947; Suslov, 1950; N.F. Grigor I ev, 1952; Solov lev, 1952; Grave, 1951; Zubakov, 1951; Shumskii, 1950). Ground ice occurrences are divided most frequently into groups of atmo• genic and hydrogenic, syngenetic and epigenetic, contemporaneous and fossil, but all these subdivisions are inadequate for classification. The atmogenic and hydrogenic, or more precisely sublimation and congela• tion modes of ｦｯｲｲｲｾｴｩｯｮ (by means of crystallization of vapour and water, respectively) do not typify the whole complex of processes and conditions of formation of a given type of ice. Some of the most widely-spread types of ground ice are of mixed origin, their composition includes both sublimated and congelated mat.er-LaL, uh Lch have been metamorphosed to varying degrees. To set off the synGenetic ice, which formed at the same time as the ground which surrounds and covers it, against the epigenetic ice, which formed within the ground after the latter was formed, is also of no conclusive

* A more detailed review of the history of investigation of ground ice is given by Shumakf.I, 19533' -12-

significance. There are variations in ground ice fonned in sedimentary soil during their simultaneous accumulation and freezing. He shall call these variations syngenetic ice, side by side with buried surface ice. From this point of view a number of varieties of ground ice can be syngenetic and epi• genetic, depending on whether they formed in the stratum of soil or whLLe the • soil was being deposited. The dating of ice by dividing it into the ｣ｯｮｴ･ｮｾｯｲ｡ｮ･ｯｵｳ and ancient, fossil, as well as by the lTIOre precise geological and absolute chronolgy, is of great interest, but does not pertain to the genetic classification of ice. The influence "of the time factor" to which some investigators ascribed great significance, is adequately studied today. It can be asserted that the processes of ice recrystallization, occurring without external influences, i.e. having as their source the free energy of crystal aggregates, do not lead to the changes which are so essential in order to speak of the diverse types of ice in relation to its age. Any of the existing ground ice types could and can arise in certain regions both in the distant past and at the present time, and consequently ice can be represented by fossil and contemporary forms. Of essential significance for the systematization of ground ice is its relation to the other ｣ｯｮｾｯｮ･ｮｴｳ of the frozen ground mass or the relative role of ice in the composition of that mass. From this point of view the three following types of ground ice can be distinguished. 1. Ice as an independent, monomineral substance occurring in other mineral matter as more or less large bodies, their formation being the result of a specific geological process that has brought about their composition, struc• ture and mode of occurrence. 2. Ice which is a soil-forming mineral, being part of polymineral soil, occurs usually as the cement of frozen soil between grains of other minerals. Small lens-like formations, veins and nests of ice belong to this type too; all of them can be regarded as a composite part of a polymineral frozen SOil, and cause the latter to acquire a certain structure. 3. Ice which is not a soil-forming mineral. Loose accumulations of sublimated ice crystals in subsurface voids, fractures and caves, representing the subsurface homologue of rime. Despite the great significance of the above morphological division it cannot serve as a basis for a genetic classification, because in a number of cases the distinctions between ice of the first and second type are only qualitative in character, and are not accompanied by variations in the mode of formation. Amid the processes of ground ice formation we should distinguish three fundamental c;roups to \'lhich the three types of ice correspond: -1)-

(1) the f'r-eczLnrtIJ of moist soil creates constituted ice; (2) the filling of cavities in frozen soil by ice causes the formation of cave-vein ice; (3) the burial of surface ice produces buried ice (Fig. 57). The ice ｣･ｴｾｮｴ of frozen strata, segregated, injected and vein ice belong • to the constituted ice. The ice cement is I'oruned during the freezing of moist disperse ground at the expense of wat er- freezing in pores betwe en particles of the solid skeleton ,'J1thout disturbing the mutual distribution of these parti• cles. If the freezing of a primary sedimentary soil is combined with crystal• lizational differentiation "lith attraction of water- and formation of ice whd.ch pushes the soil skeleton apart, segregation ice is formed. If the freezing is accompanied by the squeezing of water or obstruction of ground wate r flow, by migration under a head, by penetration and freeZing of water in the voids created by it, then injection (intrusive) ice will be f'ormed . Finally, if fissured 'vJater-bearing soil freezes - which applies mainly to rather compact in situ soil - then vein ice will be formed in those fissures. Cave-vein ice is differentiated 'vlith respect to conditions of occurrence, ｣ｯｮｾｯｳｩｴｩｯｮ and structure, depending first of all on the origin of voids in the surrounding soil. The group of vein-ice types filling the fissures can be separated from the group of cave-ice types, filling hollows created by the removal of a portion of the soil material. Strictly speaking, the vein ice of the group examined differs from the constituted vein ice in that its formation is associated with the influx of at least a portion of the material into the fissures of frozen soil from outSide, or else fronl the earth's surface. If a fracture appears periodically at the same place and the formation of ice is repeated there, then recurring vein ice \'Jill be formed. ｾＱＰ basic ｧｲｯｾｰｳ can be distinguished within the cave-ice type - thermo• karst-cave and karst-cave ice. Thermokarst cave ice originates in hollows produced by melting of other types of ground ice, especially of recurring vein ice. Karst-cave ice is formed mainly outside the permafrost region associated "lith the so-called "cave-T'r-ost " and is represented mainly by deep rime and sinter ice inconwletely filling out a hollow. Finally, llithin the buried ice type, one can distinGuish the group of chiefly congelated ice, formed by the freezine; of water-, and the group of sedimentary-metamorphic ice - the product of metamorphosed snow, To the first group belong the autochthonous (buried at the place of formation) ice or hydrocffusions (surface naleds), frozen llater reservoir and bottom ice, as weLl. as allochthonous (sub ject to transport) river, lake and sea ice, and to the second group - snow infiltration ice 01' firn ice (immobile accumulations of snow converted into ice) and the dinamometamorphic ice of glaciers. -14-

In this way the genetic classification of ground ice as known at present is shown in Fig. 57. The mutual transitions between the various genetic types of ice are indicated by the horizontal two-way arrows in the upper part of the diagram (between ice types 1 to 5), and the lower part of the diagram shows how these ice types belong to the nlorphological types listed above. • Injection ice (3) and the vein ice proper (4) in the majority of cases, and cave ice (6,7) are always epigenetic, buried ice (8-11) is only syngenetic, and ice cement (1), segregated (2) and recurrent vein ice can be epigenetic as well as syngenetic in the above indicated sense of that word. Any of the enumerated types of ice can be contemporary or fossil of varying age. A review is given below of the basic types of ground ice distinguished in the present classification. The detail examination of each type has been determined by the degree to which it was studied and by the relative part that it plays in the freezing of the earth's crust and affects the economic activity of a country. However, this review does not cover the most wide• spread and important type of ground ice - the ice cement of frozen ground (No.1 on the scheme), inasmuch as information pertaining to it is given in Chapter VI. Segregated Ice

Segregated ice is the product of differentiation through crystallization during freezing of moist disperse soil, this freezing being acconwanied by the attraction of water to the sections where ice is formed. After ice cement it is the second most important and common type of ground ice and its presence is characteristic of frozen ground possessing a high ice content. The distribu• tion of segregated ice practically coincides with the distribution of silty, clayey and phytogenic frozen strata. Ice of this type is important mainly because its formation causes significant swelling of the ground and frequent disruption of plant roots, and its melting causes large ground settlements. Since the mechanism of ice formation has been examine previously (Chapter V), only the forms of occurrence of segregated ice, its composition, texture and structure are described here. Forms of occurrence. Segregated ice can be formed in freezing ground and on its surface. In the last case it is represented by ice blooms, arising from the freezing of ground water pulled up to the surface; these blooms have been repeatedly described since 1821 and are known by us under the names of "ice stalks", "rod-fibrous ice", "soil-", "ice grass", "ice druses", etc. (Dobrowolski, 1923; Bonstedt, 1921; Chirvinskii, 1936; Gladtsin, 1936; Barnov, 1949; Zamorskii, 1949). -15-

Bodies of segregated ice are genetically regarded as constituted inclu• sions (streaks); they commonLy have the form of lenses, or lens-like layers, but those which stopped gr-owfng at the initial stage of their development have the form of irregular inclusions. Lens-like inclusions can be oriented in diverse ways. Often the ground is pierced by a network of variously oriented • ice inclusions, with all possible intermediate stages - from a completely disordered orientation, to a more or less rectangular grid or the prevalence of the horizontal direction with slanting cross-pieces. However, in the majority of cases the horizontal orientation is prevalent, or a general orien• tation parallel to the freezing plane. Sometimes only vertical or inclined inclusions are encountered. The dimensions, shape and arrangement of ice inclusions determine the character of the cryogenic structure of the frozen ground containing them. (The description of structures and their formation in relation to the peculiar conditions of freezing of the ground is presented in Chapter V. ) Composition and texture. In the majority of cases segregated ice does not contain admixtures, is very clean and transparent, and its unit weight is very near the specific weight of the clean ice. However, all transitions from pure ice to frozen ground with ice cement are encountered; they are the pro• duct of the freezing of individual particles and more or less large xenoliths of the surrounding ground into the ice inclusions during crystallization. In the case of large xenoliths, it is difficult to establish the boundary between the ice inclusions and ground with reticulate structuce, l,e. ground pierced by a network of ice inclusions, which from its outer appearance resembles a breccia with an ice cement. F.G. BalDllin has investigated segregated ice in the VorlDlta region, containing colloidal particles, much thinner than the main mass of particles of the surrounding soil as impurities. In his opinion the colloidal particles were brought in by migrating water. This explanation is apparently admissible for that part of the ice which is formed during the filling of fractures in the freezing soil and is essentially a formation transitional to vein ice. Small amounts of gases are included in segregation ice and the thinner the ice, the less gas. Small lenses of ice occasionally contain small spheri• cal inclusions of air. In larger ice strata fine cylindrical, thread-like inclusions occur, which are normal to the plane of the ice stratum, indicating the direction of crystallization. Commonly they appear at a certain distance from the upper contact and form where the crystallization began; their number increases somewhat in the central part of the incluions, but below it remains constant. Some ice inclusions are likewise pierced by a multitude of vertical, -16- cylindrical inclusions of air and distinguished because of that by their white colour. It must be noted that the vertical elongation of gaseous inclusions in the surface layer of rocks 4 - 5 m thick can appear as the result of secondary processes not associated with segregation occurring during ground freezing*. Structure. The structure of segregated ice varies as does its formation, and it is apparently regularly associated with the character of structure of the frozen ground mass. Hypidiomorphic granular texture with orientation of the main crystal axes usually normal to the plant of inclusions are most frequently encountered (Fig. 58). At the same time the crystals have a plate• like form in the thinner inclusions, and columnar in the thicker ones. Allotrionlorphic granular structure with approximately isometric disorderly oriented crystals of varying orientation is much rarer. The formation of ice inclusions as the majority of other processes of crystallization conles about in two stages: (1) the stage of protocrystalliza• tion - the initiation and growth of plate-like ice crystals up to their amalgamation into one ice body, and (2) the stage of orthotropic crystalliza• tion - the mutually constrained growth of amalgamated crystals normal to the plane of inclusions (Shunlskii, 1955). The fewer the individual centres of crystallization, the larger the individual crystals in thin inclusions and the more pronounced is their plate-like form. In ground with reticular structure, which is excessively wetted before freezing, there are often found large monocrystalline inclusions, whereas in rock with bedded structure there occur inclusions with a coarse grained texture (crystals 2 - 5 cm and more in size), as well as with fine-grained texture (crystals less than 1 D1nl in size). At the same time apparently, the greater the role of fracturing and initiation of crystals in the fractures (Chapter V), the more disorderly the crystallographic orientation; the independent initiation in pores with selection under the influence of variations in resistance to the loosening of the ground in various directions, leads to the regUlation of orientation. If as the result of orthotropic crystallization an 1nclusion reaches a thickness greatly exceeding the diameter of crystals in the plane of that inclusion, then the crystals acquire a columnar form, and in the fine-grained varieties even an acicular form. In the case of the disorderly, initial

* The secondary character of vertical elongation of gaseous inclusions in ground ice of various origin and occurrence in the near surface ground layer is definitely established by comparing the types of structure of ice of similar type and age contained in a frozen ground mass that was exposed on an ancient erosion surface at different depths in neiGhbouring areas. The physical nature of this phenomenon is obscure; it can be assumed that it is due to the existence of great temperature gradients in the surface layer. -17-

orientation there proceeds in the course of orthotropic crystallization a geometrical selection, the result of which is a prismatic granular texture with parallel orientation of the main axes of the surviving crystals normal to the plane of that inclusion (Shumskii, 1955). In the case where the crystal• lographic orientation is orderly right from the beginning, the appearance of • the prismatic granular texture at the stage of orthotropic crystallization is not connected to the geornetric selection of crystals. The largest observed dimensions of segregated ice crystals were 20 x 9

CDI (Vtyurin, 1951 1 ), Most often crystals in the plane of an inclusion are from 5 to 10 mm in size.

Injected Ice

Injected ice is the product of the freeZing of water which has been intruded under pressure along the impermeable frozen layers of the ground. Its formation, as distinct from that of segregated ice, is due to the migra• tion under pressure and the freeZing of free ground water, and the separation of the surrounding rock is accomplished by the pressure of water and not by the growing ice crystals. This last peculiarity, with which is connected the occurrence of concordant injections, distinguishes this type of ice from vein• ice types, which are discordant injections*. Injection ice is widely distributed; it is characteristic of the major portion of the region haVing continuously frozen ground and in some sections haVing seasonally frozen ground. In the majority of cases it occurs in much larger masses than segregated ice. Nevertheless, with respect to quantity and its significance in the glaciation of the earth's crust it occupies a much more modest position than cement ice and segregated ice. This is explained by the fact that injected ice is found only sporadically, under certain condi• tions, in the layer of seasonal freezing and thawing or near the upper bound• ary of the pernlafrost, and they are often associated with more or less pronounced positive fornls of relief, produced by differential heaving, and therefore they are geologically short-lived. They have been studied very , little up to the present.

* The assignment of injection ice inclusions to the group of constituted ice types may seem contradictory; however, it is justified by the fact that they are also formed from ground ｾｉ｡ｴ･ｲ and not from moisture introduced into the earth's crust from outside. For the given limited section the ice is of the injection type, but in a broader sense, it should be regarded as the product of differentiation of a substance during the freeZing of the earth's crust and thus assigned to the constitution ice type. -18-

The mechanism of formation of injections. Injected ice is a Lways formed due to the nligration of free ground water under pressure or slurry, but the causes of the development of pressure and the role of the freezing of the ground in that case can be different. In these cases the freezing only dis• turbs the previously existing hydrogeological regime, by reducing the active • cross-section of the ground water, or by creating on its way a barrier of ｷ｡ｴ･ｲＭｩｮｾ･ｲｭ･｡｢ｬ･ frozen ground. In these cases the role of freezing is passive and the source of pressure is the hydraulic head of a ground-water flow. In other cases a closed system can arise during freezing, i.e. a certain volwne of moistened ground confined on all sides by an impermeable shell, in whf.ch the free space of the pores is inadequate for compensating the increase in vo Lume of water which is being converted into ice. Under these conditions the head of water or slurry is created directly by the freezing itself. The pressure, which can be developed during the freezing of water in a closed volwne, for example, reaches 2045 atm at -22°C, and, because of the hysteresis of conversion into ice III, it apparantly reaches 2500 atm (Talmnan, 1922). Therefore it is in fact limited only by the stiff resistance with sufficiently sharp lowering of the temperature. The pressure migration during freeZing is mainly typical for water• saturated, coarsely disperse soil in which the formation of cement ice in the pores is accompanied by a volwne increase of up to 9.07%, and caused squeezing of the surplus of free water which arises fronl the front of crystallization towards the side of the least resistance to its movement. If the freezing layer is underlain by a water-resistant layer or frozen ground, clay, bed rock, etc., then the frozen covering is often detached through lateral migration and separated from the underlying water-resistant layer by water lenses or sheets, which later likewise freeze. The sarne result can be obtained in the absence of a water-impermeable layer at the bottom of the frozen strata when there is a flux of water from below. In supersaturated, fine-grained soil a more or less liquid slurry, rather than water, migTates under pressure and creates injections in sections with the least solidly frozen covering. The freezing of this slurry leads to the formation of soil with high ice content or of ice impregnated with mineral admixtures below which there is soil of normal water content. The shape of the injection depends on the ratio between the strength of the frozen covering and the strength of its adhesion on the sides and bottom, as well as on the quantity of inflowing water. A flat intrusive sheet will be formed with high bending strength of the frozen covering and weak cohesion with the underlying r-ock, In the opposite case the covering is more sharply bent and a hwnmock with a plane-convex core arises, resembling a laccolith in -19-

shape. Thus, intrusive sheets, steeply upward bulginc; lenses - laccoliths, or various transitional shapes, sometimes with bulges of the most varied dimensions can arise. \'lith a large inflow of water, compared to the area of heaving, the resistance of the cover is broken, the apical part of the cover• ing is dissected with "endogenous" fractures, and wat er- of slurry pour out to • the surface - a laccolith becomes a "hydrovolcanoll which produces a naled (icing) or "mud volcano". If compressed gases are accumulated inside the hum• mocks, then a rupture of the covering may be followed by an eruption of water spouts or liqUid mud, several metres high, and sometimes by explosions scat• tering fragments of the covering. Fractures can be rapidly closed by the freezing of water which fills them, but under continuous wat.er- pressure they may be reopened and eruptions repeat• ed. This process will be stopped, if the water pressure weakens or if the strength of the covering is increased by freezing. In this case an injection can be guided to another place where the covering happens to be more yielding. As a result, groups of hummocks will arise. Such is the general ｳ｣ｨ･ｮｾ of the processes of differential swelling (heaving) and the formation of injection ice. Under different cryohydrological conditions these processes do not follow the same course and different results emerge. Types of ice injections. Injected ice inclusions can arise in the layer of seasonal freeZing and thawing, or at the bottom of a freeZing or permanent• ly frozen mass of small thickness. In the first case they are represented by seasonal short-lived formations, and sometimes pereletoks, whereas in the second case they are perennial formations, although not long-lived as compared with other types of ground ice. Seasonal, as well as perennial ice injections are being formed by the freeZing of closed systems or under the action of the hydraulic head of a ground water flow. Closed systems arise during freeZing of a seasonally thawing layer above frozen ground, and within the frozen ground - upon freeZing of taliks under lakes which do not extend to the bottom of the frozen ground. Thus it is possible to separate the following types of ice injections and differential heaving associated vlith them according to the condition of formation: 1. Seasonal (a) at the outlets of ascending springs in the zone of seasonally frozen soils, (b) on freeZing of closed systems in the seasonally thaWing layer, (c) on f'r-o ezLng of supr-aper-maf'r-os t "later; 2. Perennial (a) at the outlets of GubpenJafrost water, -20-

(b) on the freezing of closed taliles under lakes. Injections at the outlets of ascending springs in the zone of seasonally frozen soils. Seasonal ice injections of this type do not have much signifi• cance, but offer a certain theoretical interest. They are known in several districts of Kazakhstan: from Yuzhnye Mugodzhary in the west to the left .. banks of the upper Irtysh River in the east, and to the Golodnaya Steppe in the south (Gokoev, 1939). The ascending water percolates through a 5 - 10 m thiclc clay layer and forms a slurry near the surface. In \'linter the frozen layer heaves under pressure from below and creates dome-like hummocks up to 1 metre in height and 1 metre in diameter. Beneath their surface (in July • August 0.5 m), ice lenses, lasting sometimes until the next winter, occur at shallow depth. Injections of the seasonally thaWing layer. Ice injections in the seasonally thawing layer in the permafrost region are conmloner, of much greater dimension and significance and they belong to the second and third types. During the whole history of investigation of injection ice, there have been numerous opinions on the relative role of the pressure (of water) in the heav• ing process caused by the freezing of closed systems and descending currents in the seasonally thaWing layer. UndOUbtedly both types of injection do exist. Apparently the processes of formation of both of them are interconnected by gradual transitions, that make a precise demaraction rath difficult in many cases. At the same time the numerous, concrete descriptions, accumulated to the present time, indicate the prevalence and larger scale of the phenomena of heaving associated "lith the freezing of suprapermafrost water. Seasonal frost ｨｗｔｨｾｯ｣ｫｳ with ice cores occur mainly in areas of dissected topography, at the bottom of slopes, in valleys of small rivers and in ravines with the run-off of temporary creeks, and they arise from the freeZing of the ground beneath river beds and other ground water occurrences in the seasonally freezing layer. These hun®ocks reach 2 - 3 m in height. In mountainous regions with coarse-grained soils, where uat.er- moves easily out of the season• ally freezing layer into rivers, subsurface injections are not as well developed, and take second place to river naleds (icings). Ice hummocks of

surface naleds or hydroeffusions are replicas of "earthy ll frost hummocks of the seasonally freeZing layer, the difference being that their coverings con• sist of ice. On the other hand, in the plains where there are no distinctly expressed f'Lows of aupr-apermat'r-os t "later, differential heaving is poorly developed and in the majority of cases it brings about the formation of only small, intrusive sheets of ice, which alternate with inclusions of segregated ice and are hardly discernible from the latter. -21-

The coverinG of icc intrusions in the active layer docs not protect them from thmling and rapid destruction. As a rule, during the first sumrne r- the central portion of the hunuaocks collapse and a small thermokarst lake is formed in their place, after uh.Lch the thawing of the remaining peripheral part of the ice inclusion is accelerated. Sometimes, however-, it may last for • one or two mor-e war-m seasons (Fig. 59). Perennial injections. These injections at the outlets of sUbpernmfrost water are confined to the fringe area of the permafrost region where the perennially frozen ground is thin in areas of complex tectonic structure, where conditions exist for the ascent of ground water. The covering of this type of injection may attain a great thickness (up to 15 m) (Baranov, 1940) and sometimes it consists not only of frozen Quaternary deposits but also of layers of consolidated rock. The height of the hwnmocks at the outlet of ascending springs reaches 10 - 12 m, sometimes even 15 - 17 m (Loparev, Tolstilchin, 1939). Of greatest significance are perennial ice injections which form during the freezing of taliks under lakes. They are very \V'1despread, of large size and relatively long duration. The hununocks of this type are known in the literature under the Yakut name of "bulgunnyakh"*. Their height varies mostly from 2 - 3 to 20 - 25 m, and in northern regions sometimes exceeds 40 m. On the north coast of Alaska, one such hummock of heaving ground reached a height of 70 m (230 ft) (Leffingwell, 1919). ｉｾｲｧ･ pingos on the alluvial plains greatly exceed the highest points of the surrounding country over a vast expanse. Pingos attain a dialneter of several tens of metres, less often 200 • 250 m, and the taliks supplying them reach a diameter of several kilometres. The covering of pingos is 2 - 8 m in thiclcnessj the base of their usually lies 5 - 10 m below the adjacent land surface. Pingos gr-ow in lake basins vrhLch often freeze through in the middle of lakes which become shallow, and rise gradually over a long period of time, at a rate varying from barely viGible to more than 0.5 rrVyear (Solov'ev, 1952). Their internal structure has not been studied very mUCh. Data from borings show that the core does not always consist solely of a continuous ice TIlass. Cores of some pingos consist of soil having very high ice content which are pierced by a multitude of thin ice lenses or by a series of thicker ice sheets. These facts led to the opinion that the suction of water to the cold source rather than pressure heaving plays the main or even the only role in the for• mation of pingoa, and therefore the pingo ice is not injection but segregated

* The corresponding terra in North America is the Eskimo term "pingo". -22-

(Taber, 1943; Vadilo, 1951; Solov'ev, 1952; Popov, 1953 1 ), It should be noted that heaving humJ:locks at the outlets of sUbpermafrost likewise have cores not of ice but of soil with high ice content. The proces• ses of moisture suction and of the segregated ice formation must certainly play a great part in the build up of' perennial hummocks of both types. However, it is impossible to explain the appearance of thick ice lenses in this way. Large plane-convex ice masses, and less often, irregular ones and series of ice sheets, much thicker than segregated inclusions, are an overly charac• teristic feature of' steep as well as of flat perennial hummocks of heaving, and it is completely alien to the bodies of frozen ground containing ice of segregated origin. Flat pingos sometimes are similarly composed of thick, continuous ice lenses. The origin of hunwocks with a series of ice layers in the core is easy to explain by recurrent injection and high freezing rate, whereas the structure and texture of the ice in the excavated and comparatively well-studied pingos do not admit the possibility of the segregated origin, but indicate the intrusion of large amounts of water masses which froze very slowly. The intrusion under pressure of slurry and then water on channels made by the water during formation of the slurry, is possible in some cases even in clays (Gokoev, 1939). However, in reality almost all water movement in taliks, to the freeZing of whLch the formation of pingos is connected, occurs in sands and gravels. Injected ice inclusions occur most often at the contact of the clay loam to sandy loanl deposits with the underlying sands and partly within the clay loam or sand. The very fact that the ice cores of pingos occur in sands excludes the possibility of their segregated origin. P.A. Solov'ev has established the pattern of distribution of pingos for central Yakutia, by the fact that they occur and attain larger dimensions in areas where sand occurs at shallow depth (Solov'ev, 1952). It can be asserted that the connection of ice injections with sands and gravels has a general significance. This follows not only from the mechanism of pressure migration but also from genetic association with the alluvial deposits of taliks under lakes, the freezing of which leads to the formation of pingos. The overwheInung majority of lakes existing above the permafrost are either old or of thermokarst origin. In both cases the underlying taliks are confined mainly to the alluvial stratum, because the large masses of ground ice, the t.haw.Ing of which is the cause of thermokarst hollows, are formed chiefly in fluvial plains (see page 31). However , sands and more coarse• grained strata are the commonest materials in the lower part of a normal pro• file of alluvial strata - the river-bed horizon, cOn1n1only covered by a thinner clay loam or sandy loam horizon of flood-plain origin. In the majority of cases, the cores of pingos occur at their contact or in the lower part of the -23-

fine-grained flood-plain alluvium, and the pressure migration of water in the taliks between frozen layers is similarly confined to the underlying horizon of the river-bed alluvium. Composition of heaving hummocks. The plane-convex cores of these hwnmocks are composed of continuous ice lenses, sometimes of layers parallel to the • roof - xenoliths of the surrounding frozen ground (Fig. 60), or of more or less thick ice sheets alternating ｾｬｩｴｨ frozen ground. According to data of explora• • tion boring, there are also cores composed of strata with high ice content pierced by s,..arms of small layers and lenses of segregated ice; however, hum• mocks opened up by natural erosion or by exploration always contained, as far as is known, comparatively large ice inclusions. Sometimes an ice lens, con• tinuous in its central part, is split on the periphery into a number of layers which thin out and become wedge shaped. Ice veins, piercing the covering and upper part of the core, are often found in the apical part of the core. Growing hummocks are underlain by thawed water-bearing strata or water lenses and this water is usually under pressure. In seasonal hwmnocks large chambers with ice vaults remain after the outflow of water, at the edges of which "narrow black burrows" - mouth of a ne twor'k of "rater-carrying channels • are visible (Nikiforov, 1912). In the apical parts of such hummocks, air hol• lows are found with an ice vault up to 3.0 m in height (Shvetsov, Sedov, 1941). ｾｨ･ｮ they are tapped by boring, the compressed air often escapes from the bore• holes with a noise, and when a water lens or a water-bearing horizon is tapped, fountains may emerge from such boreholes. After the base of a hummock becomes frozen to a sufficient depth, the influx of water and the swelling cease, because the covering at the given place offers increased resistance. The basic difference in the formation of hWMlocks with ice cores and with ice-containing cores is, apparently, stipulated by the ratio between the rate of penetration of "later and its rate of freezing. If the former exceeds the latter then a wat.er- lens is found under the frozen layer 'i'lhich gives pure ice on freezing. ｾｨ･ｮ the ratio of rates of these processes changes with time, then the freeZing of the water- lens is followed by the freeZing of the water• • bearing strata at its base, followed by the intrusion of water and so forth; the result of this is an alternation of injected ice inclusion and ice-bearing strata. The same '1ill happen also because of the periodic ruptures of the frozen covering followed by the outflow of water on the surface, the closing of fractures and the freeZing of the underlying strata until a new intrusion of water. vlhen the rate of water Lnf'Low has been sufficiently reduced relative to the rate of freeZing, only ice-bearing strata with small inclusions of segre• gated ice will be formed, and the differential heaving will be caused only by ice segregation whLch is being fostered to any dee;ree by water migration under pressure. Thus, e;radual transitions f'r-om injected to segregated ice are pos• sible. Nevertheless, the predominance of injected ice inclusions, whdch greatly exceed the segregated inclusions in size, is characteristic generally of heaVing hummocks on closed taliks, on spring outlets and the seasonally t.hawed layer. ｃｯｭｰｯｳｩｴｩｯｮｾ texture and structure. Dljected ice is very pure and trans- • parent as a rule because of the almost complete absence of impurities. Xeno• genic solid impurities occur in it only at the base of inclusions in the form of tongues rising straight up into the ice, or at times bent, and streaks of small mineral particles, apparently lifted by the movement of water. Some• times roots, stems and branches of plants \'1i th clwnps of soil are found at the contacts piercing the ice mass deeply. As an exception it is possible to observe within the pure, transparent ice, individual pebbles and boulders, the upper parts of which are frozen into the ice; sUbsequent heaVing has lifted them from the underlying pebble-boulder layer. Air inclusions of various dimensions and shapes occur in the injected ice inclusions; these air inclusions produce an indistinct stratification, paral• lel to the covering, various vertical, oblique and irregular concentrations, etc. In the large injections it is possible to find groups and clusters of large vertically stretched and bent bubbles of irregular shapes. Branched systems, horizontally flattened bubbles, spherical, cylindrical, string-like bubbles, etc., also occur. The cylindrical and string-like bubbles belong to the oriented gr-owth type of inclusions wh.Lch arise in the process of ortho• tropic crystallization and indicate its direction. In the ice laccoliths they are sometimes radially oriented, uh Lch is explained by some investigators by the change of the initially vertical position throuBh the distortion of the layers during heaving (Baranov, ＱＹｌｾＰＩＮ Evidently the primary radial distribu• tion of them is also possible. The apical parts of the ice laccolith some- • times contain numerous large air inclusions due to the concentration there of gases expelled during the crystallization of water. An extreme case of such concentration is the creation of vast air hollows. The pressure in the cores of the hummocks , and consequently in their gas inclusions, can be very high. On the other hand, explosions and catastrophic eruptions of wat.er and compressed air may apparently lead in some cases to the creation of a vacuum inside the hummocks because of rapid freezing of the supercooled vrat e r- in the fractures of the covering. This freezing f'Lxes the reduced pressure after an explosion. Thus, the measured pressure in the air bubbles, confined to the apical part of a flat ice laccolith near the city of Yakutsk, uas equal to o. ｌｾＴ and 0.50 atm (Shuraslcii, 1950). ＭＲｾＩＭ

The texture of injected icc :Ls Iittle studied. Indications available in the literature, which are based on cursory, visual observations (Baranov, 1940; Sharp, 1942; and others), speak of a vertical prismatic granular texture. The f'cvr crystallo-optical invcstic;ations show that a Ll.ot r-Lomor-phLc c;ranular texture with very larc;e grain sizes, from 1 - 2 to 16 em in diameter, and with • a chaotic orientation of crystals Ls characteristic of in,jected ice. In some cases a tendency to linear-vertical and banded horizontal orientation, was p observed without changing the general character of the texture (Fig. 61). These facts, as well as the peculiarities of the structure, indicate a slow freeZing, in the majority of cases, of the large volumes of water in the absence of orthotropic crystallization, so characteristic of segregated ice. In the apical part of the core of the hwnmocks a reduction in thickness and a wedgf.ng out of ice layers were observed, caused by plastic deformation through stretching and rupture on swelling (Shvetsov, Sedov, 1940; Solov'ev, 1952). Optical anomalies do not exist in the ice of flat laccoliths. The geographical distribution and aGe of injected ice depends on the features of formation of the various types described above. Seasonal ice injections occur in seasonally frozen soils; they are Widespread and attain comparatively large sizes in the southern part of the permafrost region where seasonal thawing penetrates to considerable depth; they are less developed to the north and almost ｣ｯｮｾｬ･ｴ･ｬｹ disappear at hieh latitudes, where seasonal thawing affects only a thin surface layer. Against the background of the indicated climatic zonality the decree of development of seasonal injected ice depends also on azonal r;eomorphological and hydrogeological factors. Ice injections of the seasonally t.haw.Lng layer are most widespread in regions \'li th dissected topography, less so in mountainous regions with coarse-grained soils and less so in the plains. In the majority of cases, the duration of their existence is limited to less than one year, sometimes 2 - 3 years. Only the small, bedded ice intrusions in areas of accumulated flood plain and drift sediments can become syngenetic frozen masses and be preserved for a long time, geologically speaking, amid the smaller segregated ice inclusions. Perennial injections at the outlet of subperrnaf'r-os t wat er-, as mentioned above, occur only in the peripheral zone of the permafrost region Ｌｾｨ･ｲ･ the perennially frozen ground is thin, and in areas with a ｣ｯｲＮｾｬ･ｸ tectonic structure. At the present time they are known only in the Transbaikal region (Tolstikhin, 1932; Lopa r-ev, Tolstilchin, 1939; Baranov, ＱＹｬｾＰＩＮ The follO\'Jing three conditions are required for perennial injections to grow in intrapermafrost taliks: (1) the ex Lst cnce of a f.mfficiently thick mass of permafrost, -26-

(2) partial (but not complete) thawing and (3) freezing of taliks. The first and third conditions require the presence of a rather old and extensive frost penetration, and exclude the possibility of the occurrence of this type of injection at the peripheral zone of the permafrost region. Under severe climatic conditions closed taliks appear under lakes and freeze when those lakes become shallow or dry up. However, lakes on previously formed thick permafrost (consisting of fine-grained soil before freezing), as a rUle, are of either Oxbow or thermokarst origin. They are mostly confined, in both cases, to areas of alluvial sediments, the only difference being, that the drying up of Oxbow lakes and the formation of pingos connected with it occur at the flood plain stage, or the low terrace stage, whereas thermokarst hollows can originate also on the ancient high terraces. Thermokarst hollows of smaller size with subsurface taliks and associated injections can apparently appear also in areas consisting of marine, lacustrine and fluvio-glacial sedi• ments; but no factual data on this is lU10wn as yet. Warming contributes to a mass development of thermokarst processes but on a smaller scale, at least under present conditions; they proceed continuously because of the destruction of the fossil ice covering by erosion and other processes. Thermokarst pro• cesses are closely restricted spatially by nothing else than the distribution of large masses of ground ice, even in the far north, where the summer thaw reaches the ice causing it to melt. In this way the second of the above conditions - the possibility of forming closed taliks - restricts the distribution of injection ice, of the type being considered, chiefly to alluvial areas, i.e. river valleys and alluvial plains, which, as it is known, are also the areas of syngenetic freezing and highest ice content in the frozen ground. However, if the segre• gated ice and the major part of the recurrent vein icc in these districts were syngenetic, then the perennial injection ice belongs to the group of epige• netic ice. Consequently, the cycle of thermokarst processes in the permafrost region, which is regularily achieved by the freeZing of thermokarst hollows and the formation of injected ice, represents the replacement of syngenetic ground ice by epigenetic, which is accompanied by a substantial and general reduction of the ice content (of the ground) and a corresponding Lower-Ing of the average ground surface level. The formation of pingos may diminish during a period of cooler climate (because of the reduction of thermokarst processes), but in general it con• tinues without interruption during the existence of the frozen ground. Nevertheless, most injected ice apparently has a young geological age - not -27- more than a few thousands of years. This is explained by their occurrence near the upper boundary of the permafrost and is connected with the more or less prominent, positive topographic forms. The frozen covering of frost mounds, often dissected by endogenous fractures, is destroyed fairly rapidly by erosion and denudation, and afterwards the ice cores thaw in a comparative• ly short time. Therefore the pingos are widely developed on flood plains, young terraces and in thermokarst basins, but they never occur on the surface of ancient terraces, i.e. where they have been destroyed long ago. The geographical distribution of injected ice is shown on Fig. 62.

Vein Ice

Vein ice is represented by ice injections filling fissures in rocks. There are gradual transitions between vein ice, cement ice, segregated ice, injected ice, recurrent ice and cave ice. But in the majority of cases the difference between these types of ground ice is definite enough. In contrast to segregated and injected ice, vein ice fills fissures, which formed earlier and independently of the ice formation in them. Vein ice, like cenlent ice, cements the products of broken and weathered rock, and fills the secondary voids thus disturbing the initial monolithic nature of the rock. Fractures filled with vein ice occur only once and do not recur at the same place. Finally, fissures filled with vein ice, in contrast to cave ice, are formed by displacement of soil particles without the removal of material, and usually the ice fills the fissures completely. Besides the presence of fissures in soil, two more conditions are reqUired for the formation of vein ice: the presence of water for filling the fissures* and a negative temperature for freezing it. Depending on the suc• cession of these conditions in time, vein ice \'li11 belong to two different types. Vein ice formed during the freezing of fissured water-bearing soil must be related to the group of constituted ice, because ground water is the material for its formation. In other cases, water enters the fractures of frozen ground and freezes there. This occurs during the ｦｯｲｲｲｾｴｩｯｮ of new fractures in a frozen ground mass, which communicate with the ground surface (or \'Jith water.:.bearing rocks beneath the permafrost - a case that can be neglected for the time being). In this case, water in the fissures penetrates from the surface and the ice formed there is not of the constituted type. In this way, depending on the mode of formation, vein ice can belong to two

* Sublimated ice crystals cannot be converted into vein ice without the partic• ipation of wat.er-, because they are not SUbjected to the mechanical influence of the immobile surrounding soil. -28- different groups of ground ice and represent a connecting link between these groups (see Fig. 57). Only constituted vein ice has a practical significance because it is almost the only ｴｾｲｰ･ of ground ice in consolidated rock and occurs everywhere in their freezing zone. The presence of vein ice has an influence on the surrounding formation only when it consists of the products of broken and weathered rock, the latter being a transitional formation be tween bedrock and the eluviwn. Vein ice plays a greater role in changing the filtration proper• ties of soil: by blocl

Recurrent Vein Ice

Recurrent vein ice is a special variety of vein ice, i.e. a product of recurrent ice formation in fissures, periodically appearing in one and the same place. The periodical appearance is distinctive of frost fissures, which in bedr-ock is the agent of weathering and in sedimentary formations is the cause of thick, recurrent ice veins under certain conditions. This type of ice is very widespread in the frozen overburden and builds up the largest masses of ground ice known in the literature as "fossil" or "stone" ice*. By

* These tenns are unfit for a genetic classification because they do not indi• cate the mode of ice formation. There are both fossil (ancient, which formed under conditions that do not exist any more) and recent recurrent vein ice. The name "stone ice" (Ste1neis in German) was introduced by E.B. Toll to avoid confusion between the concepts of "Bodeneis" (ground ice) and IIEisboden" (icy soil, i.e. frozen soil) and to emphasize that this type of ice is soil (Toll, 18952). With respect to the latter property, however, it is impossible to exclude a number of other types of ground and surface ice. -29-

the size and distribution of their large deposits recurrent vein ice occupies an exclusive place among the types of ground ice and it is an important pre• requisite for the development of t.her-mokar-s t processes which shape the topog• raphy and threaten erected buildings. This type of ground ice \'las the cause of the appearance "of the problem of fossil ice", discussed for mer-e than 100 years. Now, thanks to the many• sided investigation of the Per-ma f'r-o s t Institute aided by precise methods, • recurrent vein ice is studied more adequately than any other type of ground ice. At the present state of knowLedge it is easy to recognize visually this ice type, to find out the conditions of its occurrence and to direct explora• tion work. No r-eover-, the recurrent vein ice can serve as a safe auxiliary means of determining the genesis of the entire mass of ground surrounding it for the purpose of paeleographical analysis. There are, however, still many unexplained details concerning the rncchanism and conditions of their formation. The mechanism of ice vein formation. The upper horizons of perennially frozen ground undergo a change in volume every year under the influence of seasonal ｴ･ｮｾ･ｲ｡ｴｵｲ･ fluctuations: they contract on cooling and expand on heating. On cooling from the surface, tension stresses appear in the solid ground mass and the latter is broken into a series of blocks. The frost fissures breakine up the ground mass are spaced at the distances from each other at which the tension stresses attain a value equal to the breaking strength of the material (Chapter V). The frost fissures appear near the soil surface from the end of October to January, penetrate deeper and deeper and expand more and more as the cold temperature wave penetrates into the ground, and subsequently close during the spring-summer warming of the ground. The width of the fissures at the top usually does not exceed 1 - 3 em. Frost fissures dissect the ground by polygonal jointing; in homogeneous and uniformly frozen ground this jointing is rectangular in plan, and in heterogeneous ground it is irregular, but most often tetragonal. With an increase in the vertical temperature gradient the polygons wh Lch are formed may be dissected by further fissures, which divide these polygons in half each time. The higher the order of a given generation of fissures and polygons, the less probable their appearance, because greater temperature gradients are required. Therefore, the generation of fissures and polygons of higher orders are not formed every year but only in particularly favourable years (Dostovalov, 1952). In the case of a chanee of the coefficients of thermal expansion and shear modUlUS, or in the case of an uneven change of the vertical temperature gradients, a reorganization of the network of fissures occurs which leads to a change of shape and dirnensions of the polygons. This may happen when new -30- layers of sediment are deposited on the surface or when the plant cover is changed, or the surface is flooded, etc. Frost fissures are filled with rime and at the time of snow melt, melt water penetrates these fissures and freezes there under the influence of the 10\'1 temperature of the surroundine frozen ground. In every fissure a thin, vertical sheet of ice appeal's - an elementary annual vein, wh Lch wedgee the frozen ground. If such a vein is ｜ｾｩｴｨｩｮ the limits of the seasonally thawed layer, then it melts in summe r-: but if its lower part penetrates deeper into the perennially frozen ground, then it may be preserved there. To get this, it is necessary that the frozen ground be capable of being condensed or squeezed upwar-ds at the next warnung and thermal expansion of the ground, which is opposed by the formed ice wedges. (In the opposite case the ice will be squeezed out or melted under the pressure, and a vein cannot be preserved.) \','hen the elementary ice veins are preserved, the fissuring is then periodically renewed approximately at the same places, because at a low tem• perature the breaking strength of the ice is less than that of the frozen ground. Because of this the ice veins gradually grow wider fronl intrusion of the new layers into the central part of the vein and the pushing apart of the earlier layers. At the contacts of the veins the surrounding ground is com• pacted, crumpled and squeezed upwards, forming small ridges on both sides of the frost fissures (Fig. 63). The epigenetic ice veins originate in this way. \fuen an accumulation of new sediments on the surface occurs simultaneously with the formation of ice veins - gr-owth of peat bogs in swampy depressions, deposition of alluvium on flood plains, deposition of detritus at the foot of slopes, etc. - then the permafrost table is gradually raised, following the general level of the ground surface, and with it the top of growing ice veins is likewise raised. Such syngenetic ice veins grow laterally and vertically (upwards), piercing the accumulating masses of frozen ground. Conditions for ｴｾｬ･ formation of ice veins. From the previous discussion it follows that three conditions are required for the formation of ice veins in the surface layer of the frozen ground: (1) the appearance of frost fissures which penetrate the frozen ground below the depth of the seasonally thawed layerj (2) the filling of fissures with ice; (3) the existence of sufficiently plastic ground or ground capable of being compacted. In turn, the deep frost fissuring requires a rather large ｴ･ｮｾ･ｲ｡ｴｵｲ･ fluctuation in the ground surface layer. The condition of sufficient plasticity is met by the thinly disperse min• eral and organogenic soil - peat, clays, with and without organic admixtures, -31- clay loams and sandy loams, as well as non-monolithic soils with high ice con• tent and even coarsely fragmented soils. The very same properties - high de• gree of dispersion and especially the high ice content of the ground - create the possibility for deep frost fissuring: the first property - because of de• hydration and coagulation of the colloidal particles during freezing, which result in a considerable soil shrinkage, and the second - due to the very great thermal expansion of ice which, on the average, exceeds by 10 times the thermal expansion of other soil constituents. In that way recurrent ice veins are developed where moist and mainly finely disperse soil occur near the surface. A dense polygonal network of large ice veins occurs in clays, clay loams and peats. In sandy Loam these veins are much smaller and are set \-Jider apart. Ice veins are seldom encountered in pure sand, rock debris or gravels, and only when the surrounding ground has a ht gh ice content. Even in finely disperse soil the ､･ｶ･ｬｯｰｮｾｮｴ of ice veins is possible only when their ice content is very high. Therefore, ice veins grown in strata of diverse origin - ｳｷ｡ｲｲｾｹＬ alluvial, detrital, lacustrine, marine and fluvioglacial, but only as long as the latter occur in areas SUfficiently moistened from the surface - on river flood plains, swampy lowlands, depres• sions, ravines, deltas and flat alluvial fans. Moreover, surface flooding should not be so great as to cause deep t.hawf.ng of the frozen ground and the development of t.hez-mokar-e t processes, wh Lch destroy the vein ice at the very moment of their origin. In connection \tlith this, the growth of ice veins often begins not at the coast line of water bodies but at a certain distance from it in the belt of opt Lmum mo Let.en.Lng, The growth of ice veins is most widespread in river flood plains. The most favourable conditions for their de ve Lopment exist in hLgh flood plains, haVing an even surface and continuous plant cover, in many cases a mossy cover. On the young scgments of the low flood plains the surface layer of ground dries up more at the beginning of the fall freeze-up because of the slope of the surface and the absence of plant cover. m subaerial sediments, in deposits of intermittent streams and very shallow water bodies, all of them deposited over frozen groID1d and ground which froze during the first winter after deposition, large syngenetic ice veins may arise and pierce these deposits from the bottom to the top. On the contrary rather deep wat.er sediments (marine, lacustrine, fluvial) are accumulated in the unfrozen state and freeze only after the water body becomes shallow or dries up. Thereforc, in ground of this oriGin only comparatively small epi• genetic ice veins can develop in the uppermost layer, 2 - 8 III in thickness. After draining the surface and the seasonally thawing layer of ground, the development of ice veins is stopped, because the frost fiSSures do not -32- penetrate deeply enough. Therefore ice veins never develop on dissected and well-drained old relief - plateaus, terraces above flood plains, consolidated slopes, etc. It is possible to encounter here only fossil recurrent vein ice, whLch arose in the flood-plain stage of terrace development or at the stage of detrital accumulation on a slope, but the present growth of ice veins is con• fined to swampy ravines and sinkholes. The composition and structure of the ice. Recurrent vein ice differs from all other ice types by the abundance of inclusions which is stipulated by the very mode of its formation - the filling of frost fissures by deep• seated rime and water. In addition to the autogenic (segregated from the ice on freezing) salts and gases contained in all ice, recurrent vein ice contains also xenogenic inclusions to which belong: (1) water-transported mineral particles and minute organic rernnants and (2) air which was in the pores between the sublimated crystals. The quantity of solid mineral and organic inclusions may attain 3 - 5% of the total weight and 1.0 - 1.7% of the total ice volume, and the volume of gas-filled hollows may attain 4 - 6% of the total volume, and 2 - 4% of the volume of those hollows are filled with xeno• genic gases*. These xenogenic inclusions create a specific aspect of recur• rent vein ice, which is easily distinguishable from ice of differing origin. Moreover, these veins may enclose xenoliths of the surrounding strata, similar in composition to the solid water-transported inclusions. As a rule, the recurrent vein ice is weak Iy mineralized and corresponds to surface runoff in its salt conwosition. Differences in ice mineralization in various regions are stipUlated by corresponding differences in the composi• tion of the surrounding soil. Due to the abundance of organic, more or less decayed remains, water from melting ice usually has an unpleasant taste and smell. For the ｳ｡ｾ･ reason the composition of gases enclosed in the ice differs substantially from that of atmospheric air and likeWise from that of gas mixtures saturating the water: 94 - 98% (by volume) consist of nitrogen, argon and other inert gases; oxygen amounts to only 0.5 - 5.0% and biochemical gases are present in small quantities: carbon dioxide, hydrogen, ammonia and methane. The anomalously small quantity of oxygen is due to the oxidation of organic remnants contained in the ice. The composition and quantity of xenogenic inclusions in the ice depends on the water- regime of the ground surface at the time of their formation. The less spring-time wat.er on the surface and the lower its temperature, the more gases will be contained in the ice. The more water and the more it is

* The abundance of air inclusions \1aS previously considered as proof for the firn origin of "stone" ice. -33- contaminated, the ereater \'Jill be the quantity of solid impurities in the ice. River flood water carries the largest quantity of mineral admixturBs, and snow melt water on areas not submerged by river floods is relatively rich in plant remains. The composition of the ice changes "lith a change of the surface water regime. Fluctuations of conditions in various years is reflected by differ• ences in the composition of adjacent e Lement.ar-y, annual veins or vertical layers of ice and by the appearance of a vertically banded structure. Ice which is greatly contaminated by mineral inclusions has a dark grey or brown colour and a clear vertical layering (Fig. 64). This layering is made up of thin (from a fraction of a millimetre to 1 - 2 mm), more or less uninterrupted layers of mineral particles, which are distributed on the median axial planes of the annual elementary veins because of the expulsion of inclu• sions by ice crystals which grow during the freezing of water on the walls of the frost fissures. The layering is often irregular, sinuous and intersecting and the layer boundaries are indistinct because of the remelting of the con• tacts. Gas inclusions in such ice are mostly autogenic and have a geometri• cally regular shape (spherical, cylindrical, pear-like, etc.). In contrast to this type, ice containing a few minerals, but many gaseous inclusions, is distinguished by its bright whitish colour and indistinct layering. The mineral inclusions are dispersed in it in the form of individ• ual nodUles, and the layering is created only by the unequal content of gaseous inclusion in the adjoining elementary veins. Most of the gas inclu• sions are xenogenic and are distinguished by their irregular, sinous or ramified form (pore-remnants of deep-slated rime). All large gas inclusions both regUlar and irregular in shape acquire a secondary vertical elongation after remaining a long time in the upper horizon at a depth of no more than 4 - 5 m be 10\-; the ground surface. By taking into account the above differences in composition and structure, it is possible to distinguish three basic facies among the most widespread recurrent vein-ice types, occurring in alluvial deposits; gradual transitions are observed between these facies. 1. Recurrent vein ice of the high flood-plain facies: it is white, light yellow or light grey in colour, cryptolaminar and has a unit weight of 0.875 • 0.895 g/cm3 *, contains a few mineral inclusions (a fraction of a percent by

* Since the available material is limited, the qualitative characteristics of the recurrent vein ice (unit \'Jeight, quantity of solid and gaseous inclu• sions) is only approximate. Local features of lithology, thickness of sea• sonally thawed layer, vegetation cover, etc., may probably cause deviations from the indicated limits. -34- weight), ｉＱｾｮｹ gaseous inclusions of irregular shape (3.5 - 6.0% by volume) and comparatively many plants remains. 2. Recurrent vein ice of the low flood-plain facies: it is yellowish• 3 grey in colour, distinctly layered, has a unit weight of 0.895 - 0.905 g/cm , contains many mineral inclusions (1 - 3% by weight) and gaseous inclusions (2.5 - 3.5% by weight) with primarily regular shape. 3. Recurrent vein ice of the river-bed facies: it is dark grey to brown 3 in colour, distinctly layered, has a unit weight exceeding 0.905 g/crn , con• tains very many rnineral inclusions (3 - 5% by weight and more), sometimes sandy; and a few gaseous inclusions (2 - 2.5% by volume) of regular shape. Morphology and structure of recurrent veins. The structure of most recurrent vein ice, with the exception of part of the high flood-plain facies, allows us to determine the thickness of annual layers and to trace their direction in exposures. This gives the possibility of investigating the structure of recurrent ice veins, and this structure is the key to understand- , ing the peculiarities of their form and dinlensions. In vertical cross-section epigenetic ice veins have the shape of more or less regular, triangular, vertical wedges, being a few ｣･ｮｴｩｮｾｴｲ･ｳ to 3 - 4 m wide in their upper parts and 1 - 2 to 6 - 7 metres long (verticallY). More• over, large and small veins may occur adjacent to each other, the first on the basic systems of frost fissures, and the second on fractures of higher orders. The dimensions of the veins indicated above cover from a few units to several hundreds of elementary veins or annual ice layers, the nwnber of which deter• mines the minimum duration of formation of a vein in years (in reality the time of formation of a vein can be longer, if the fracturing did not occur every year). The distribution of annual layers is generally fan-like - in the centre it is vertical, on the sides it is sloping and parallel to the vein contacts. Each layer begins at the more or less horizontal upper vein contact (Fig. 65). The latter represents the boundary of the deepest thawing of the ground from the time the vein was formed to the tiIlle of observation. The ice layers are thickest at the top (varying from 0.3 to 3.0 cm), corresponding to the width of a frost fissure, and they taper off downwards. A part of the shorter layers commonly taper off at the side contact of the vein at different depths below the surface, and another part penetrates to the lower end of the vein. Here at the point of the wedge the layers are commonly more and more flexed and intersect each other. Sonle layers may project from the main body of the vein and form offshoots, and inside this lower part of the vein xenoliths of the surrounding ground may be held fast between the ice layers. -35-

In sOllie cases a continuous ice vein will not be formed: fissures continually dissect new sections of the surrounding strata after which a net• work of thin ice veinlets appears and pierces the mass of frozen ground. Such formations were often mentioned in the literature under the name tlice groundtl. Sometimes they fringe the continuous ice veins from the sides and especially from be 10\'J • A similar ramification of recurrent ice veins is apparently typical chiefly of those veins and the portions of them that have met strong resist• ance to their lateral growth from the surrounding soil. This happens at the lower end of the greatly expanded epigenetic veins and especially when these veins grow in comparatively coarse-grained strata with low ice content, such as sandy loams and sands. Considerable warping of the surrounding soil is often observed at the contacts of thick veins; their layers are bent either upwards, less often downwards, to a vertical position or they are folded and plicated (Fig. 66). The epigenetic formation and the type of structure produced by it are inherent to recurrent ice veins of the high flood plains in those cases in which no ice veins were formed during the preceding stages of development of a flood plain. This is possible because, as was mentioned above, on the low, annually submerged flood plains the conditions for the development of ice veins are less favourable than on the high flood plains. It can often be noted, that only the small veins belong to the true epigenetic type, whereas the adjacent and larger veins have in their upper part small (1 - 2 m long) sections of the syngenetic type of growth. The depth of occurrence of the upper ends of the ice veins below the soil surface is most often equal to the thickness of the contemporary or ancient seasonally thawed layer. ｾｦｵ･ｮ veins do not reach the boundary of the recent seasonally thawed layer, it means that these veins have ceased to grow at the present time, and that at the time of or after. the period of their formation the depth of thaw was much greater than at present. But there are cases when the depth of occurrence of ice veins exceeds the thickness of the sep30nally thawed layer, and this is connected with the dep• osition of ice above the new layers of surrounding strata in which ice veins were not grOWing. In these cases the ice veins are buried and can occur at any depth equal to the thickness of the latest deposits plus the thickness of the seasonally thawed layer in the epoch of their formation. Cases are known in which the upper ends of such buried ice veins occur at different depths down to several tens of metres. vfuen the formation of epigenetic ice veins is interrupted by their burial beneath a layer of sediment, and when after the deposition of that layer these -36-

ice veins renew their ､･ｶ･ｊｯｰｮｾｮｴＬ the result of this will be two stages of ice veins occurring at various depths beneath the surface. In this way, ice veins of several stages arise in thick Quaternary deposits. If the veins of an upper stage cut through a new deposit and penetrate into the veins of a lower stage, then composite two-, thl'ee- and mUlti-stage veins will be formed (Fig. ()'(). The utilimate case of such mUlti-stage structure is manifested by those syngenetic ice veins in wh I ch every stage is made up of only one annual ice layer, situated above the preceding layer for the thickness of the one or several annual layers of sediments. The distinctive feature of the structure of syngenetic ice veins is that a part of the annual ice layers in them begins not at the upper, horizontal contact of a vein but at the vertical or inclined lateral contacts (Fig. 68). Veins of that type attain much larger dimensions than the epigenetic ones, and may consist of tens of thousands of annual layers. Their vertical extent is limited only by the thickness of the sediments surrounding them wh.ich accwnulated at the same time, and it can be very great in regions with intensive Quaternary subsidence. Ice veins with a vertical depth of JIO - 50 m are known in the Yana-Indigirka coastal lowland (Chirikhin, 1934j Shumskii, Vtyurin, Katasonov, 1953) and on Bol'shoi Lyakhovskii Island, that depth is

), likely 70 - 80 m (Ermolaev, 1932 1 The thickness of syngenetic ice veins is greater the more annual layers there are in a given cross-section and the thicker they are, i.e. the wider and deeper the frost fissures and the slower the accumulation of the surround• ing soil. Syngenetic veins often attain a thickness of 3 - 5 m with a vertical extent of annual layers (the depth of frost fissures) of 9 - 10 m. A change in the regime of sediment accwnulation leads to a gradual thinning or thicken• ing of parts of the large ice veins of the first order, which are formed at the corresponding period of time. In their upper parts the veins, as a rule, widen and attain in some cases a thickness of 8 m, with a vertical extent of annual layers up to 12 - 15 m. The same changes of conditions often cause a complete cessation and renewal of the growth of the growth of the smaller veins in places where frost fissures of the third and higher orders are situated. Sometimes the cessation of growth of the individual large veins of the basic (first order) system is observed at various depths in the frozen SOil, whereas the adjacent veins continue to grow up to surface. Slanting ice veins with dip angles of 30 - 40° arise in certain cases, e. g. wher-e there is a rapid rearrangement of the polygonal network of frost fissures, on slopes, where there is a great heterogeneity of the surrounding ground, etc. -37-

Branching with lateral off-shoots is less often observed on syngenetic veins than on epigenetic ones. The layers of surrounding soil at the contacts with the syngenetic ice veins are often bent upwards and the alternation of patches of undisturbed horizontal layers with patches of layers bent at vari• ous degrees and partially cutting each other off is characteristic of the ver• tical profile (Fig. 69). In many cases this is accompanied by facial changes of the soil in the horizontal direction, which the most conspicuous is the increase in the peat content of some layers on the vertical profile, in the central intervals between the ice veins when there is a low content of plant remains at the contact parts of these layers. Peat lenses are deposited in the central parts of the swampy polygon hollows, bordered by small ridges. The visible layering of the polygon cores is created by the segregation of inclusions of segregated and injected ice at the lower boundary of the seasonally thawed layer. The layers are parallel to the lower boundary of thaWing, which existed at the time of their formation, and their uplift at the contacts with ice veins is a consequence of a deeper thawing of the water• filled intra-polygonal hollows as compared with the dry walls bordering them. The water regime of the surface and the depth of thaw change in the course of time resulting in a change in the form of the layers and the cutting (not connected with erosion) of one patch of layers by another. The investigation of the structure of the surrounding ground and ice inclusions shows that the deformation of layers plays a secondary role, as a rule, in the creation of the described structures (Katasonov, 1954). In plan, recurrent ice veins form a polygonal network, most often tetra• gonal, but in many cases very intricate and irregular (Fig. 70, 71). The diameter of polygons varies from 15 - 20 m and sometimes up to 100 - 150 m. Usually two veins intersect at the nodes of the network, but sometimes the intersection of 3 to 4 veins at oblique angles to each other is observed. On sections with an expanded network of ice veins, the ice occupies up to 60 • 70% of the whole area and the cores of the polygons, consisting of frozen soil are converted into vertical columns or "earth veins" in the ice. After the ice veins melt, the collapsed polygon cores remain as rows of conical hillocks known in Yakutia as "baidzharakhi". In the sections of the intersecting veins, consisting of young layers, a system of layers intersecting each other is observed. In the older (border) sections of the ice veins, the layering appears to be partially or completely obliterated. The initially sharp corners of the polygon cores are rounded under the influence of the growing ice veins and after them the ice layers of the border parts of the veins acquire a smooth curve in plan. In the end, the initial intersection of layers of the adjacent veins is replaced in the border -38- parts by the smooth curving of layers from one vein into another. Thus, the structure of the vertical network of recurrent ice veins can be very diverse and irregular both in the vertical and horizontal sections. Out• crops of ice veins have much more complicated and diverse shapes due to the curvature of their surfaces which cut the veins in various directions. Vertical ice veins with vertical layering (section across the strike of the veins) are often replaced in exposures by a continuous ice mass exhibiting an apparently horizontal layering (longitudinal profile of veins), or by ice bodies with apparently irregular outlines and ice layers parallel to them (in oblique section) (Fig. 72, 73 and 74). In the widely distributed concave, overhanging scarps one or two ice "horizons" are often visible - the upper and the lower linked by vertical ice colwnns, or an ice mass with a series of earth "windo\'Js". Such profiles give reason for separating two horizons of fossil ice and correspondingly t wo "glaciations" (Vollosovich, 190911 1915; Wollosowitsch, 1909, Skvortsov, 1930), as well as bodies with "cellular or honeycomb structure" of supposedly segregated ice (Taber, 1943). Curvilinear longitudinal vein profiles exhibit various shapes, formed by outcrops of ice layers, which wer-e described in the litherature as "eddies" of turbidity in frozen lakes (Pononarev, 19511 ), etc. The measurement of the strike and dip of the annual ice layers and ice contacts with the surrounding ground at several points enables us to establish in all these cases an actual map of the network of recurrent ice veins. This approach should always be used in surveying areas where recurrent vein ice exists. The usual exploration method of drilling single, vertical boreholes is inadequate when large ice masses occur as more or less vertical veins. In such cases a vertical hole gives only a point-characteristic, which cannot be extrapolated even to the adjacent section. Therefore to reveal the distribu• tion of recurrent vein ice in those cases in which it is ｩｮｾｯｳｳｩ｢ｬ･ to do so by indirect indicators (polygonal micro-relief, etc.) it is necessary to lay out a dense grid of boreholes, or test trenches, or to apply an electrical method of prospecting (Shumskii, Shvetsov, Dostovalov, 1955). The structure of recurrent vein ice. A newly-formed layer of congealed recurrent vein icc consists D10Stly of two rows of ice crystals joining each other on the axial plane, along which most of the gas inclusions, mineral particles and plant remains are concentrated. The edges of such an elementary vein may consist of llIuch smaller crystal originating from the remelting of the contacts by water. In layers of infiltrated ice, where the crystals of deep• seated rime serve as centres of crystallization, the structure is less regUlar. The crystallized granular structure of recurrent vein ice, originating in this way is SUbordinate to the layered structure. This is exhibited by the -39- existence of a direct proportionality between the thickness of the annual layers anc the size of the ice crystals and also partially by the coincidence of the boundary of layers and crystals, and it is the more evident, the more distinct the layering. Later the crystals become rounded and the smallest ones (less than 0.5 • 1.0 mm in diameter) disappear, absorbed by the larger ones. These processes of recrystallization, rounding and collective recrystallization occur rapidly at first but later they gradually fade out. Because of them, in old recurrent vein ice, the axial planes of the junction of the crystals that grew from the opposite sides of the fissure are preserved only there where they contain continuous partings of solid inclusions, separating the crystals. When the crystals come into contact with each other, the boundary between them is shifted during rounding, and the flat axial seam disappears. Nevertheless, the subordination of the ice structure to the layered structure is conserved in general outline and the more evident the layering due to the presence of mineral strata, the better it is conserved. The largest possible diameter of ice crystals across the annual ice layer is limited approximately by half of the thickness of a layer or the half the width of a frost fissure, and the diameter of the crystals in the plane of a layer depends on the nwnber of original nuclei of crystallization per unit area of fissure wall. In the upper parts of the annual layers the ice crystals are comparatively large, up to 1.0 - 1.5 em in diameter, and in the lower parts their average diameter is less than 1.5 mm. In the majority of cases, crystals of generally irregular shape are approximately isometric, or slightly flattened in the plane of the layers. The last case is more characteristic for the deep thinly layered ice, especially of the river-bed facies, or of the low flood• plain facies. The upper parts of the annual layers consist less often of crystals slightly elongated across the layering. In some veins the upper part of them down to a vertical depth of 0.5 - 1.0 m consists of ice with slightly vertically elongated crystals. Since the flattening or elongation of crystals, as a rule, coincides with the direction of the chief crystallographic axes, the flattened crystals are mainly plate-like, and the elongated ones colwnnar. ThUS, recurrent vein ice has in the ｮｾｪｯｲｩｴｹ of cases an allotriomorphic granular or lamellar hypidiomorphic structure (especially in the lower part of the annual layers) and sometimes colunmar hypidiomorphic granular texture (in the upper part of the annual layers), little altered thrOUgh recrystallization. The "granular" structure character (isometric crystals) is stipulated by the protocrystallization in narrow frost fissures, and was erroneously considered as proof for the firn origin of "stone" ice. -40-

The crystallographic orientation of recurrent vein ice is influenced by two different factors: firstly by the prilning action of deep-seated rime and the ice of the surrounding ground, and secondly by the passive orienting influence of fissure walls (Shwnskii, 19551). The first factor determines the orientation of those grains in which the centres of crystallization were the ice crystals which existed in a frost fissure before the water arrived there, and the second determines the orientation of the independently engendered crystals. Since it is possible to judge, according to available information, the priming influence of the deep-seated rime leads, as a rule, to the appearance of chaotic crystallographic orientation, so typical for ice of the high flood• plain facies. The passive, orienting influence of fissure walls leads to diverse results depending on the temperature of the surrounding ground at the time the ice was formed (ShunlSkii, 19531, 19551). At a temperature close to the freezing-point the passive, orienting influence is practically non-existent and there chaotic orientation arises. The lower the temperature of the surrounding SOil, the more orderly becolnes the crystallographic orientation of the engendered ice, because most of the crystals developed are oriented by their main axes normal to the fissure wall. At a temperature of _30° to _40°0 the orientation across the stike of the annual ice layers becomes almost strictly linear. Because of the different water regime on the surface and temperature conditions, the crystallographic orientation of the ice varies in different veins and various parts of the veins from chaotic to distinct linear order across the annual layers. A chaotic orientation is natural to allotriomorphic granular structure and an orderly orientation to the hypidiomorphic granular. A distinctly vertical orientation of the main axes is observed in the rarely occurring veins with vertically elongated crystals at the upper end. It is characteristic that the change in orientation in the various parts of veins is gradual (Fig. 75). The ice of some recurrent veins and their sections is distinguished by the presence of optical anomalies, increased pressure of enclosed gases and the flattening of gas bubbles in the plane of the vein. All these phenomena arise under the influence of lateral pressure, which exceeds the limit of the elasticity of compression of ice. A rather high pressure develops in those cases when the surrounding ground exerts considerable resistance to the lateral growth of ice veins; this will happen when ice veins originate in sandy loams or sands, or it may happen in the deeper part of the greatly expanded epigenetic veins (at a depth of no less than 5 - 6 m below the sur• face) in coarsely disperse ground as well. The most sensitive and easily detected indicators of the pressure that affect ice are the optical ｡ｮｯｮｾｬｩ･ｳ - cloudy extinction and optical biaxial• ity, whLch come about with an elastic bending of ice crystals. In the course of relaxation of the internal stresses the bent crystals disintegrate into groups of smaller ones of sinlilar orientation, which having sufficiently small • dimensions and appearing simultaneously in the field of vision of the micro• scope give the same optical effect as the smooth curve of the crystal network. The structure created in that way and the optical pseudoaxiality stipulated by it are stable. They do not depend on the pressure that causes their existence and are preserved, even after that pressure ceases to act. The quantity of biaxial crystals and the angle between their optical axes are proportional to the pressure experienced by the ice. In those parts of the recurrent ice veins which were subjected to a high pressure, the quantity of biaxial crystals reaches 70% and the average angle of optical axes of all crystals is 12.5% (counting the undeformed uni-axial crystals as haVing the angle between the 0 0 optical axes of 0 ); the largest measured angle was 4'7 • The structure of the ice which is highly deformed by the lateral pressure, in which a substantial part of the larger primary crystals disintegrates into groups of smaller crystals of similar orientation having rectilineal boundar• ies, acquires a cataclastic and pseudoporphyric character (in the latter the large preserved crystals resemble porphyric phenocrysts amid the small, crushed grains). At the same time the features of the primary crystalline granular structure are always clearly preserved. The substantial development of optical anomalies is accompanied by the compression of air inclusions in the ice; these inclusions partly acquire the shape of discs oriented in the plane of the yein, i.e. normal to the direction of pressure. The average pressure of gases enclosed in deformed ice may reach 1.5 - 1.7 atm (against the initial pressure of 1.0 - 1.2 atm in ice of unde• formed veins) and the quantity of disc-like gas inclusion may reach up to 60%. G20graphical distribution and age of the recurrent vein ice. vfuen exanlining the regularity of geographical distribution of recurrent vein ice, it is Lrupor-t.ant to distinguish recent icc of this type from fossil ice. The distribution of recent ice is determined by the existence of conditions required for the formation of recurrent ice veins at the present time, and the distribution of fossil ice - by the existence of the same conditions 1n past

geological epochs, and, n.o r-c over , by conditions r-equi.r-cd for preserving the ground ice frol,l the time of its origin until today. Of all the conditions described above for the possible f'or-mat Lon of recurrent vein ice, only the first cond ition, na.ae Ly the appearance of frost fissures cutting the peren• nially frozen roas s of' strata is of regional significance. Experience -42-

that the second condition - the filling of frost fissures with ice - occurs ever-ywher-e in the permafrost region, because even if no water enters the frost fissures, the ice veins grow at the expense of the sublimation icc which is ｦｯｲｬｊｬ｜ＮＮｾ､ in these fissures as they are oLos Lng . Apparently these conditions become increasingly less favourable with • respect to the possibility of the appearance of deep frost fissures towards the boundary of the peI'lllafrost reGion. The cause of this is partly due to the general increase southward in the thickness of the seasonally thawed layer; because of this the growth of ice veins needs much deeper frost fissures. At the same time the moisture in the surface layer of soil generally decreases towards the south and the warm.Lng influence of surface water is increased; as a result, at the very places that are most favourable for deep frost fissurine;, depending on the amount of water present in the surface layer, there is an intensified development of thermokarst processes and ice melts at the very time it is being formed. Therefore the contemporary e;rowth of recurrent vein icc is not observed throughout the permafrost region but only in its northern part. The southern boundary of contemporary recurrent vein-ice distribution in the European part of the U.S.S.R. is situated between 67°N and 68°N, and in the basin of the Lena River it reaches to 6loN, due evidently to the colder climate of eastern Siberia (Fig. 76). Parallel with the advance towards the south, however, in the region of continental climate, a shift of the southern boundary of the region of contem• porary recurrent vein ice is ｯ｢ｳ･ｲｾ･､ towards the side of the lower geoiso• therms. Thus on the middle Lena River this boundary coincides approximately with the isoline of ground temperature at the bottom of the layer of annual temperature fluctuations of -3°C which is one to two thousands of kilometres distant from the southern permafrost boundary, wher-eaa in the Malozemel' skaya Tundra it coincides with the geoisotherm of about -a.soc and is located only about 100 - ISO kilometres north of the permafrost boundary. This is evidently explained by the difference in moistening of the surface layer of the soil. In eastern Siberia, where the climate is extremely continental and dry, the ｮｾｩｳｴ･ｮｩｮｧ of the surface layer of the soil adequate for the growth of ice veins must be attained by a sufficiently abundant moistening of the surface at which only a much Lowe r soil temperature will counteract the development of ｴｨ･ｲｮｾｫ｡ｲｳｴ processes. For the same reason apparently, ice veins in sands and coarse-grained strata, all of which contribute to the drainage of an area because of their wat e r- permeability, can develop only in the far north, under the most severe temperature regime. In general, the farther north, the larger the growth of recurrent vein ice. Contemporary recurrent vein ice occurs sporadically near the southern boundary of its distribution, only under the most favourable local conditions, but towards the north they occur in increasingly less favourable parts of the country. In particular, on those elements of relief on which a more or less • intensive accumulation of sediment occurs, for example in river flood plains at low altitudes, the growth of ice veins occurs farther north, than in opti• mum local conditions, for example, in river flood plains at high altitudes. In connection with this, only small epigenetic ice veins are being formed in the southern border zone of the distribution of contemporary recurrent vein ice, whereas farther to the north ｳｾｬｧ･ｮ･ｴｩ｣ ice veins are also being formed, and if they grow for a long time they can attain a very large vertical extent and thickness. At the present time in Yakutia the southern boundary of the region of syngenetic recurrent ice vein formation passes approximately 1200 km to the north of the corresponding boundary of epigenetic ice formation. The extreme western and eastern maritime districts, wher-e contemporary recurrent vein ice occurs in the U.S.S.R., encompass only the tundra zone, whereas in the central, continental part recurrent vein ice is being formed not only in the tWldra zone but also far inside the taiga zone, in districts with a summer mean monthly air temperature of up to 19°C. Thus the climatic bOWldaries of the region of recurrent vein ice formation are situated discord• antly with respect to the boundaries of the vegetation zones, which is quite natural since the position of the first, in contrast to the second, is deter• mined not as much by the summer as by the winter conditions which determine the entire annual regime. This regularity fully preserves its significance for the glacial period as well, because the fresh plant remains, perfectly preserved in the frozen state in the ice, indicate, for ･ｸ｡ｮｾｬ･Ｌ that in central Yakutia recurrent ice veins were formed in the Pleistocene under for• est conditions. The initial distribution of fossil recurrent vein ice was sub• jected, it may be asswned, to the same mechanisms as that of the contemporary ice, but that it was connected with the conditions of past geological epochs. The formation of recurrent vein ice proceeded apparently thrOUghout the entire span of the sufficiently cold climate, beginning at the end of the Tertiary or the beginning of the Quaternary, but due to the differences in the course of Quaternary history the dimensions of the ice deposits, and the possibilities for their preservation in various regions were not Wliform. A considerable part of the ancient recurrent vein ice was not preserved up to the present time, not only in areas where the frozen state of the earth's crust vIaS interrupted and all ice disappeared, but also in areas with preserved permafrost, where the ice was destroyed by thermokarst processes. In the last ＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾＮ｟Ｍ ＮＬｾ

case, traces of the pust existence of recurrent vein ice remain in the thermo• 1carst forms of relief and pseudomorphic forms coincident with melted ice veins, filled now by overlying sediments. In the western and eastern parts of the U.S.S.R. consisting of permafrost (from Kola Peninsula to the Annbar River and east of the Kolyma River) the freezing of the earth's crust and the formation of recurrent ice veins on the plains during the Quaternary period was repeated ly interrupted by marine transgressions, the buildup of ice caps of warming during the interglacial periods. The presence of pseudolllorphic forms of ice veins indicates that during the periods of glaciation, recurrent vein ice was distributed in the periglacial regions of Europe and western Siberia much more to the south than now, in places as much as 15° of latitude, beyond the territory consisting at present of frozen strata. The periods of their accumulation were short-lived, however, and the sUbsequent glaciations, nllirine transgressions in the north and warming in the south caused them to melt. Therefore, at the present time there exist mainly in the western and eastern border areas, in addition to con• temporary ice, only ice of postglacial time and only locally is there more or less deeply buried, older recurrent vein ice. In connection '\'lith this the ice deposits there do not reach large dimensions (Fig. 76). On the other hand, the fornllition of recurrent vein ice on the plains of the eastern Siberian continental region was hindered neither by marine trans• gressions nor by ice caps. Here the climatic conditions were apparently more constant than in the western and eastern maritime regions; ｨｏｾｬ･ｶ･ｲＬ during the periods of cooling, the bow1dary of the region of recurrent vein ice formation had been shifting to the south no less than by 8 - 10° of latitude from its present position. It is very probable that the absence in the nor-ther-n part of eastern Siberia of discoveries of recurrent vein ice belonging to the first half of the Quaternary period is associated with the fact that in general the deposits of that period were not preserved because that region is one of removal (ablation). On the contrary, during the middle and late Quaternary, when the present plains of northeast Siberia ＱＢｉｃｾｲ･ s ubrne r-ged , very thick masses of con• tinental deposits were accumulated on them and they were pierced by recurrent vein ice (Fig. 76). In central Yakutia the presence of ice in sediments of several terraces, from the present flood-plain terrace up to the 115 - 135 m level terrace, which is apparently of the middle Quaternary ase, (Solov'ev, 1951; Efimov, Shurnskii, 1952) c;ives evidence of the fact that the build up of recurrent vein ice continued durinr; a vel"J long period of time, which in every case covered almost the Hhole second half of the Quaternary period. Conse• quently this ice is not confined to anyone stratigraphic horizon in the

1 -)15-

region of its ereatest ､･ｶ｣ｬｯｰｮｾｮｴＬ indicating an epoch of intense cooling. The pr-eaent boundary of the region of fossil recurrent vein ice is deter• mined by its melting during the postglacial climatic optimum and it corres• ponds approximately to the position of the southern boundary of the thick layer of soil frozen continuously since the period of glaciation. Beyond it there is only a thin layer of perennially frozen soil, partly relict in nature, and partly of contemporary origin, that came about after the postglacial thermal maximum (Fig. 76).

Cave Ice

The name cave ice conprises ice formations of various shapes and structure coming into being in subterranean ho Lf.ows and caves. By the character of the ice itself there are gradual transitions between cave ice, vein ice and ice cement of coarse-fragmented strata, but the origin of the hollows in rocks filled by this type of ice is variable. Icc cement occurs in the primary interstices between particles of sedimentary SOil, vein ice in fissures, and cave ice in ho LLowe formed by the removal of matter. These hollows are mostly of thermokarst, karst or man-made. Primary caves are also encountered in magmatic rocks.

Thermokarst Cave Ice

Ice of subterranean thermokarst cavities occur in regions consisting of frozen soil with high ice content and thick recurrent vein ice. Thermokarst ice does not have an independent significance because its formation is the secondary result of a partial dcstruction of recurrent vein ice, and apparently its total mass never exceeds 1 - 5?j of the total mass of the large subsurface ice bodies of a given land section. The ability of recognizing ice of this type, however, is very important for understanding the structure of permafrost in regions where recurrent vein ice is developed. Thermolcarst cave ice occurs as lenses and horizontal sheets from 2 - 3 em to 3.0 In in thickness and 1 to 15 III in horizontal extent. It represents a filling of t.her-mokar-s t ho I Lowa , pits and channels. During the me Lting of vein ice, currents of vrat.e r- f'orm deep wells with 1'lidenings or kettles at the bottom, which in the course of that process are shifted deeper and deeper until they reach the erosion base. Hater from the bottom of the kettles flows down t owar-ds the foot of a scarp bordered by mud masses, and washes out horizontal recesses and channels. It is important to note that these processes go on not only at the ｴｩｮｾ of the intensive ｮｾｬｴｩｮｧ of fossil recurrent vein ice, but also simultaneously with its formation, for example on river flood plains after

1 -!fG-

the summer: drop of water level in a river. 'I'her e f'o r-e in places of erosion there can be found both contemporary thermokarst cave ice, piercing the frozen soil discordantly and recurrent ice veins, as well as old thermokarst cave ice, occurring in a similar manner but transected in turn by ice veins or sections of them from the ahove-lying horizons of the surrounding ground mass (Fig. 1'1). The hollows created in that way sometimes remain empty, but in the majority of cases they are filled completely or partially with fossil and plant remains, snow or congelated ice. Snow is most often accumulated in the kettles near the bottom of thermokarst weLfs , but sometimes it penetrates far into the surrounding kettle, recesses and channels. Later it is saturated to a degree by the water which freezes in it and is transformed into infiltrated ice, which is distingUished by a whitish colouration due to the abundance of xenogenic air inclusions, and by the preservation of traces of oblique or horizontal stratification (parallel to the surface of snow accumulation). On the vertical profile, as well as on the strike, transitions are observed from the white infiltrated ice to the bluish congelated ice which is formed by water freezing in the thermokarst cavities. Sometimes above a layer of ice sheet with a completely smooth horizontal surface there is a horizontal cavity with brushes of sublimated crystals (of ice). Therrnokarst cave ice often forms complexes consisting of a thick lens of infiltrated or congelated ice or of soil with plant remains, surrounded by a series (5 - 10) of horizontal layers of ice and SOlI, piercing the recurrent ice veins and sur-r'ound Lng frozen ground, wh Lch in their turn are sometimes cut by the ice veins above or by a section of their annual layers of a later age. The presence of thermokar-s t cave ice greatly complicates the profiles of frozen soil containing ice and makes difficult the interpretation of their development. This is apparently one of the causes of the incorrect interpre• tation of profiles with ground ice by the founders and proponents of the snow• glacial hypothesis of the origin of fossil ice.

Karst Cave Ice

Karst caves occur in soil, having solutions cirCUlating in them whose temperature is above freezing, and they occur mainly outside the permafrost region. In caves there may be considerable local cooling - "cave frost" • resultine; in the formation of ice; this will happen in climatic conditions with a cold enough winter because of the specific conditions for air circula• tion and sometimes because of the adiabatic expansion of ascending carbon dioxide currents. The same phenomenon is also observed in ｳｯｮｾ caves in magmatic rocks. ＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭｾ

I

-47-

Karst "ice caves" outside the permafrost region long since attracted man's attention. A great deal of literature is devoted to their description (see Maksimovich, 1947) among which, however, only a few works present a full• scale investigation of cave ice. In Russia an of great fame is the one near the city of Kungur in the Urals, described in 1730 by Strahlenberg. Today many ice caves are known in the U.S.S.R. - in the Urals, southern Siberia, Crimea and the Caucasus. Despite this, the study of karst cave ice has no particular significance for geocryology, since ice of this type does not participate in the composition of permafrost and is only of mineralogical interest. As a rule, karst cave ice does not completely fill the caves, but deposits sheets on the floor, walls, and roof, often with stalactites, stalagmites and columns. The bulk of this ice consists of the following types: sinter ice (sheets, stalactites, stalagmites and columns); sublimated ice (porous crystal aggregates of deep-seated rime, large skeletal and some• times monolithic monocrystals and druses), and infiltrated ice (the product of freezing of water-saturated aggregates of sublimation crystals of deep• seated rime and sometimes of snow). There are also encountered on the cave floor the comnlon congelated ice of lakes frozen to the bottom and water cur• rents, which take part in the composition of ice sheets together with sinter ice*. In the permafrost region similar complexes of cave ice develop in under• ground mine workings**.

Buried Ice

Surface buried beneath frozen ground was for a long time considered as the most widespread and important group of ground ice. In the literature of the period of domination of the snow-glacial hypothesis the names "fossil ice" (in the sense of ground ice in general) and "buried ice" were often used even as synonyms, because the possibility of any other way of producing large ground ice ｮｾｳｳ･ｳ was not admitted. This opinion was invoked by the fact that recurrent vein and thermokarst ice were assigned to the category of buried ice. After this error had been recognized, it became evident that buried ice has a very restricted occurrence and does not play any important role in the main regions of development of the large ground ice masses. Therefore they

* For a description of karst cave ice see the works of V.Ya. Altberg and V.F. Troshin (193l){ N.P. Golovkov (19391, 19392); G.M. Maksimovich (1947); P.A. Shumskii (1955). ** An interesting study of such ice was made by N.N. Stulov (1949). will be described here very briefly*. Two stages ought to be discerned in the formation of buried ice: the stage of forming the surface ice and the stage of its burial. All the primary features of ice composition and structure are stipulated by the processes of the first stage, and the conditions for the ice occurrence - largely or completely by the processes of the second stage. Surface ice. Surface ice develops through the freezing of water • (congelated ice) and by the conversion of the snow cover (sedimentary• metamorphic ice). The region \'lith frozen soil is the lowermost, internal zone of the cryosphere - the zone of congelation (Shwllskii, 19552) in whLch surface ice represents, as a rule, seasonal formations. To their number belong the congelated ice covers on water (river, lake, sea ice), bottom (or anchor) ice and sinter 'ice of hydroeffusions (surface naleds), as well as snow cover, whLch before being melted away is partly converted into sedimentary-metamorphic infiltrated ice. The perennial ice deposits develop on the surface only under exclusive conditions - in localities with a large accumulation of snow as firn or with the piling up of a large quantity of sinter ice in naleds. Apart from that, there are located in the zone of congelation, regions of glacier abla• tion, consisting of ice of the higher zones of the cryosphere (infiltrated and recrystallized ice), metamorphosed in the course of its movement (dynamo• metamorphic ice). It must be noted that the primary sedimentary-metamorphic ice ("firn" ice), dyanmically unaltered, can exist on the surface in the zone of congela• tion for any protracted tilue only as small under the protection of steep slopes. The ideas on the development of vast, immobile firn-fields, created merely for the purpose of explaining the inconwrehensible contradiction between

the presence of granular ice II s heet s " (in reality, it is a lattice - or grating - of recurrent vein and thermokarst cave ice) and the absence of moraines, do not bear criticism in any respect. "The firns" of the lee side or solar shadow slopes develop far below the climatic snow lines (this is the upper boundary of the congelation zone of the cryosphere) and they are stable formations, preserving a small dimension even at the time of rather considerable changes in climate, because of the automatic cessation of feeding a space unprotected by a slope and the continuation of abundant feeding inside a space protected in that way. Despite this, many similar formations of somewhat larger dimensions are in reality true glaciers (the so-called wLnnowed glaciers) and their slow motion builds up moraines

* For a detailed description see Shumskii, Fundamentals of structural (19552)'

______ｾＬＧ 1 -49-

(StlUDiskii, ＱＹｾＹＩＮ As far as it concerns the vast fields of firn, their accumulation is possible only above the climatic snow-line, and their existence can be only short-lived, because under the preservation of the previous condi• tions they will be soon converted into a moving ice sheet, and under deterio• rating conditions they will disappear (Urvantsev, 1935). The possibility is • also completely excluded of alternating, from top to bottom, the zone of accumulation, then the zone of decrease and again the zone of accwllulation of solid atmospheric precipitation as it demands the supposed development of firn-fields below the tongues of mountain glaciers. Each of the above types and lesser varieties of surface ice possesses distinctive features of composition and structure, reflecting the conditions of their formation. The primary congelatcd ice layer, appearing as the result of protocrys• tallization, is characterized in the ma jor-Lt.y of cases by its disorderly allotriomorphic granular texture and irregular gaseous inclusions, distributed at the boundaries betwe en the crystals of ice. This layer may attain a substantial thickness in the case of freezing of fast-moving or agitated water, as well as in very fast-freezing. With subsequent orthotropic crystallization, a layer of transitional, hypidiomorphic granular texture is formed because of a geometric selection of crystals, followed by ice with panautomorphic-granular texture and cylindrical gaseous inclusions. The principal axes of the colwnnar ice crystals and the cylindrical air bubbles in such ice are oriented in the direction of freezing. Alterations in the rate of heat removal lead to the development of a stratified structure - every acceleration of crystallization produces as a result a layer enriched with autogenous inclusions. The quantity of autogenous gaseous inclusions in congelated ice fluctuates from 0 to 13% of the total volume, and this corresponds to the unit we Lght of ice of 0.9168 to 3 0.905 g/cm , and at a very fast freezing up to 26% (unit weight up to 0.8963 3 g/cm ) • • Ice sheets on calm wat.er-s and ice of small water bodies frozen to the bottom conunonly consist of layers with allotriomorphic or hypidiomorphic granualr texture above and panautomorphic granualar texture below (discounting the layers of snow origin), with horizons enriched by autogenous inclusions, preferably in the upper parts of the profile. In the ice cover on moving water the congelated ice formation is complicated by dynamomorphic processes • breaking, crushing and hummocking of ice and subsequent cementation of frag• ments by the nevI generations of congelated ice, and all this combined creates tectonic ice breccias and ice conglomerates. The bottom ice in rivers and other water bodies grows as bushy clusters of plate-like and partly dendritic crystals; it does not build up thick layers -50-

because in the course of its growth it detaches itself from the bottom and floats to the surface. The bottom ice is converted into a continuous ice s t.r-atum only in the case wher-e a water body freezes to the bottom, or after burial beneath mineral ｳ･､ｾｮ･ｮｴｳＮ The structure of such ice has not been studied. Hydr-oe t't'usLons (surface naleds) consist ruaLnLy of sinter ice, which differ frolil the comlllon congelated ice mainly by their irregular layered struc• .. ture. Moreover, the compos Lt.Lon of hydroeffusions includes infiltrated ice (snow layers saturated with water), the common congelated ice and cores of naled - hummocks \'Jith a specific structure. The conversion of snow into ice in the absence of flow (in snow ice or firn and in the central parts of ice sheets) comes about under the influence of two processes: firstly, through subsidence and ｣ｯｮｾｲ･ｳｳｩｯｮ under the pressure of the layers accumulating above and secondly, through the infiltra• tion and freezing of meltwater in the snow pores. In the absence of melting in the upper zone of the cryosphere the conversion of snow into ice comes about only at the expense of its subsidence and concurrent recrystallization. With intensive melting and freezing at the boundary with the zone of congela• tion, the conversion of snow into ice comes about entirely at the expense of infiltration. Here the infiltrated ice is formed, often separated by layers of congelated sinter ice. The composition and structure of sedimentary-metamorphic ice changes depending on the role of each of the mentioned processes in the course of descent from the recrystallized to the congelated zone. This change comes about in the following way: there appears a more distinct and thin, horizon• tal layering (or oblique-parallel to the surface of the snow deposit); the quantity of enclosed gases is reduced from 130 to 13% of the unit volwne (the 3 unit weLght increases from 0.8 to 0.905 g/cm ); the pressure of gases, enclosed by ice is lowered (to the atmospheric one at a given height); the • shape of air inclusions changes frODl the thinly branched network to the iso• lated, cylindrical and spherical bubbles; the allotriomorphic granular texture • is replaced by ｴｨｾ panautomorphic granular one; the crystals are increasing in size; the crystallographic orientation changes from chaotic to ordered per• pendicular to the surface. According to these signs, it is possible to determine the origin ahd conditions of formation of sedimentary-metamorphic ice. The ice of moving glaciers undergoes the following alterations: the gaseous inclusions are deformed (in a typical case, flattened in the plane of displacement); their disposition is changed from intersertal to intergranular; the pressure of enclosed gases is increased in accordance with the pressure at -51-

the greatest depth that was attained by the ice inside a glacier, and concurrently with that, the unit weight of ice is increasedj the ice attains a crystalloblastic texture, with the principal (crystal) axes oriented in good order normal to the plane of displacementj the size of crystals usually in• creasesj optical anomalies and cataclasm appear. The slip along the thrust • and the local excessive pressure in the bottom zone of the glacier bring about the appearance of blue bands, sometimes of brecciated and mylonitised zones as well and of compression regelation lenses. It can be ascertained according to these signs whether the ice moved and what the peculiarities of movement were. At the same time a series of the primary features is preserved by the struc• ture of dynamomorphic glacier ice (Shumskii, 19552)' The burial of surface ice. To preserve the ice in the region of frozen ground, it must be covered by a layer of mineral or vegetative material as thick as the layer of seasonal thawing. This thaWing protective cover can be detritus deposited on the ice surface, or the product of the "melting out" of mineral admixtures from the ice itself. In the last case the ice reqUires for its preservation such a ratio of its primary thickness to the quantity of admixtures contained in it as would be sufficient for accunlulating the protective cover at the expense of melting not all the ice but only the upper part of it. This will happen in glaciers having a sufficient thickness and containing a large quantity of morainic material. The glacier snouts especially in very rugged mountain regions, are often covered over vast areas by a mantle of ablation moraine, and at the retreat of glaciers they remain as dead ice which remains preserved for a long time in the cores of deposited moraines at a considerable distance from the present glacier. In other types of surface ice, the ice thickness and the quantity of hard inclusions are too small, and their preservation is possible only beneath the detritus deposited on their surface. Assumptions on the burial of surface ice accumulations beneath mineral detritus have been proposed since the first discovery of ground ice by members of the Great Northern Expedition (Laptev, 1851). This process was observed for the first time by Lopatin, who described the burial of a snowdrift by silt I on the Yenisei River and of ice floes on the sea shore (I.A. Lopatin, 1876, 1897). Later the same assumptions were stated by other explorers. It is characteristic, at the same time, that all direct observations refer either to the burial of small ice bodies, or to the initial stage of that phenomenon when, for example, the surface of a large firn body is covered by individual mud flows or sediment of creeks descending from a higher slope. All indica• tions on the burial of large ice masses under detritus belong to the realm of assumption, which in the majority of cases were certainly erroneous, and -52-

based on a wrong conception of the origin of ice. The burial of surface ice by aeolian, talus, river, lake, and marine sediments is very widespread, but in the vast majority of cases it is not a total burial. And if it happens that small ice lenses are completely buried, then erosion and melting will occur soon after burial. This is due to the - following causes. In order to cover the ice with a sufficiently thick layer of water• deposited sediments, a long stay under water is required; the unavoidable consequence of this is either the melting of the ice, its erosion by shallow water currents, or its floating and removal by deep water. Only small ground• ed ice floes are completely buried by ocastal sandy-gravel deposits, but even at high latitudes they soon melt away, leaving groups of conical depressions and pot holes on the beach. Conditions for burying ice under detrital deposits and mudstreams are more favourable because they do not destroy the ice covered by them. However, with the exception of large rock falls, the detritus is not carried far away from the foot of the slopes and it cannot cover large masses of ice. Secondly, where the burial of ice under talus is possible, steep slopes occur only on sections of undermined banks, which are soon destroyed together with the lenses'of buried ice. Conditions favourable for burial under talus and the relatively long preservation of ice lenses of restricted dimensions occur only in regions with rugged topography. Aeolian sedinlents often pollute the surface of snow and ice, emphasizing the sedimentary layering of firn but, as a rule, they do not build up a layer thiclc enough to protect them from melting. An exception could be only the covering of ice accumulations beneath advancing sand dunes but no case of this sort has ever been observed. Thus, the conditions for burying and preserving the ｮｾｪｯｲｩｴｹ of surface ice types are unfavourable. Glacier ice is an exception as it is buried beneath its own deposits - ablation moraine, and locally it forms very large masses of buried ice. In mountain countries the burial and preservation of ice lenses of firn and naled origin is likewise possible, but they are of nmch smaller size than those of glacier ice. The possibility of preserving buried ice on the plains outside the glacier area is extremely limited. The distribution of buried ice. An analysis of the factual data which is very limited at the present time (contrary to the opinions of observers, who could not discern buried ice frorn ice of subsurface origin) shows that with the exception of glacier ice covered by moraine in the districts of contempor• ary glaciation, reliably established occurrences of buried ice are absent. The origin of two small lenses (10 x 2 m) of buried lake ice in the Lena River -53-

delta (Grieor'ev, 1950) do not cause any particular doubt; it is possible that they were frozen to the bottom of small lakes, covered by detritus. However, a detailed investigation of the adjacent Yana marine lowland, where no forma• tions of that kind were found, suggests that buried ice cannot be widespread, The rare small lenses of infiltrated firn ice (3 x 8 m), buried beneath

« detritus in the sanle district, are of recent age and are destroyed soon after their development (ShUDlSkii, Vtyurin, Katasonov, 1953). All of the many other indications of the presence of buried ice outside the glacial districts are not reliable because they do not contain factual data, confirming the opinion of their authors, and on the contrary often contain facts prOVing the sub• surface origin of that ice. ThUS, the problem of the actual distribution of the various types of buried ice should be conSidered as an open question. For its solution, further investigation of the level of present knowledge are required. Infor• mation available at the present time give reason to aSSUDle that the role of buried ice among the types of ice of the lithosphere will turn out to be very small. Glacier ice buried beneath moraine deposits is the only type of buried ice which is widespread and forms large masses; their presence is ascertained only in regions of contemporary glaciation adjacent to glaciers.

Conclusion

The examination of the origin, conditions of occurrence, composition, structure and distribution of ice in the earth's crust leads to the following general conclusions. Ice is a component of frozen soil and governs its basic properties. Ice is present in the frozen horizons of the earth's crust as a mineral act• ing as a cement in the ｣ｯｮｾｯｳｩｴｩｯｮ of polymineral frozen soil, and as a separate mineral along with other minerals. The conditions of occurrence, composition and structure of ground ice depend on the mode of its origin. With respect to the surrounding soil, ground ice can be epigenetic, when it originates in soil already existing, and syngenetic when its formation is simultaneous with the surrounding strata. Every type of sedimentary soil undergoes in the course of its formation an uninterrupted series of physiQal and chemical changes. In the region of frozen soil a special imprint is put on all processes of diagenesis because of the freeZing of the free and poorly bound water; if the processes do not completely cease in the frozen SOil, they are nevertheless greatly changed. The crystallization of water should be regarded as a basic metamorphism, immediately converting the deposit into a constituent of the earth's crust, l.e. permafrost. This change preserves the skeleton of the deposit by inter• rupting the ｮｯｲｾｬ｡ｬ course of diagenetic processes; they are revived later after the t.hawang of the frozen soil, but in a somewhat different aspect, because of the ｩｮ｣ｯｮｾｬ･ｴ･ reversibility of a part of the alteration to which the soil is subjected during freezing. The study of those peCUliarities, which .. introduce the phase conversion of water in the formation of the earth's crust, comprises a most important aspect of geocryology, as well as of general lithology (petrology of sedimentary rocks), called cryolithology, which at the present time is still in the initial stage of development. The science of ground ice is one facet of cryolithology. In the course of diagenesis a deposit is compacted, dewatered and often cemented, i.e. it undergoes changes which hinder the formation of ice in it. The following regularity of cryolithology can be mentioned as being the most general: the hiGher ｾｨ･ degree of initial dispersion*, of a deposit and the earlier the stage of diagenesis at ｾｨｩ｣ｨ it freezes, the higher will be the amount of ice in it, the more distrubed will be the normal course of diagenetic processes and the more the frozen soil will change on thawing. Under the most favourable conditions - with syngenetic freeZing of super• saturated thinly disperse soil - a regularly built-up frozen soil with ice content will form containing an interconnected ｣ｯｮｾｬ･ｸ of types of syngenetic ground ice: ice cement, segregated, layer injected, recurrent vein and thermo• karst cave ice. Under the least favourable conditions, with epigenetic freez• ing of a completely formed, dewatered compact and cemented soil, in general no ice is formed in the soil itself; only vein ice is deposited in fissures, the initial appearance of which is not connected with the formation of ice. Thus, bodies of syngenetically frozen soil are distinguished by a higher ice content and greater variety of ice type, than those frozen epigenetically. According to genesis, three basic groups of ground ice should be distinguished - constituted, cave-vein and buried ice. The first is the pro• duct of freeZing of ground water, the second, the filling of cavities in the frozen soil, and the third, the burial of surface ice. Constituted ice has the greatest significance and distribution because it comprises the main mass of ground ice, but it occurs mostly as small masses in the frozen ground. Cave-vein ice forms deposits of much larger sizes but it is secondary to constituted ice in total quantity in the earth's crust. Still much less are the reserves of buried ice; they are developed almost exclusively in the regions of contemporary glaciation but here they comprise the largest,

* A decrease of initial dispersion exerts an influence analogous to the cementation during diagenesis. ｟Ｎ｟ＭＭＭＭＭｾ

-55-

continuous masses of ground ice. Thus, the greatest quarrtt ty of ground ice is formed from water penetrating soil which is not yet frozen and sUbsequently freezing there. A smaller quantity of ice, but in larger masses, is formed from water and vapour pene• trating hollows in the frozen soil and crystallizing there. Finally, the • smallest quantity of ground ice gets into the earth's crust as ice formed on the surface; but this sort of ice makes the largest ice masses. Consequently, the total quantity of ground ice of various origins is inversely proportional to its concentration in the earth's crust, and this is fUlly explained by the peculiarities of its formation: the more disperse the ice of a given type contained in the earth's crust, the greater its total quantity, and on the contrary, the more it is concentrated as large, continuous masses, the smaller its total quantity. With regard to the national economy the most extensively distributed forms of ground ice - ice cement and. segregated ice - are the most important. -56- Literature

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Yachevslcl1, L.A. A cane of gYP3um deposition with the participation of ice. Geol. Iss1ed. i razved. raboty po linii Sibirslc, zhel.-dor., No. 11, St. Petersburg, 1899. Yachevskii, L.A. The therma.l reGime of the land surface in "linter in connec• tion with geoloGical processes. Gorn. kurn., aprel', mai, iyun', 1905, Vol. 2. Yanchkovskii, A.V. The effect of permafrost on operations at the placer mine on the river Bodaibo. Vantn. zolotopromyshl. i gorn. dela voobshche, 1893, No. 11. Yanovskii, V.K. Expedition to the Pechora River to determine the southern boundary of permafrost. Tr. Komiss. po izuch. vechn. merzl. Vol. 2, Leningrad, Izd-vo AN SSSR, 1933. Yanovslcii, V.K. On the methodology of investigating permafrost for the purpose of designinG engineering structurcs. Geology and mineral resources of northern U.S.S.R. Tr. Pervoi geo1.-razved. lconfer. Glavsevmorputi ＲｌｾＭＲＷ aprelya 1935, Vol. 3. Permafrost. Leningrad, IZd-vo Glavsevmorputi, 1936. Yanovskii, V.K. Permafrost in the region of the Vorkuta coal mine. Rukopis', fondy In-ta merzlotoved., 1944. Yanovskii, V.K. Methods of investigating permafrost for engineering• construction purposes. Izd-vo ANSSSR, 1951.

Zaikov, B.D. The mean run-off and its annual distribution over the terri• tories of the U.S.S.R. Tr. Gos. gidrol. in-ta, No. 24, 1946. Zaitsev, I.K., Gurevich, M.S. and Belenova, E.S. Hydrochemical map of Siberia and the Far East. Gosgeoltelchizdat, 1955. Zaitsev, I.K. Ed. Explanatory notes for the hydrochemical map of the U.S.S:R. at the scale of 1 : 5,000,000. Gosgeotekhizdat, 1958 (sostav1ena ko11ekt. VSEGEO v sostave B.N. Arkhangel'skogo, E.S. Belenovoi i dr.). Zakharov, N.K. Investigation of sheer resistance during thawing. .. Avtoreferat, 1951 . Zalesskii, S.P. Geothermal observations at the 11im open cast mine in the Transbaika1 Ob1ast in 1894. Vestn. zolotoprom. i gorn. de1a voobshche, 1895, No.1. Zamorskii, A.D. Needle-shaped ice in soil. Priroda, 1949, No. 10. Zenkov, N.A. Report on hydrogeological investigations in Soviet territories on the islands of West Spitzbergen carried out in 1935-36. GUSMP, 1937 (manuscript) . Zhidkov, B.M. The Ymoa1 Peninsula. Zap. Geogr. ob-va, Vol. 49, 1913. 1',llu;cov -' V . I,'. (1) Frost 1'18:-)1.11'08 Ln pcrmaf'r-oo t regIon::;. '1'1'. In-to. ｉＱＱ｣ｬＧＺｾｬｯｴｯｶ｣､ .• Vol. i.f , Izcl-vo M,; S:3Sn., lS')fLJ.

'.:llu1-::ov, ':. ｾＢ Ｈ［ｾＩ fI. mct noo 01' d c t cr'm i.nLng pr-c auur-c on pit props Ln ro[:';10n3 of ｐＨＧｩＧｬ［ｬ｡ｾＧｲｯＺＺ［ｴＮ Tr. In-to. mcr-zLot ov ed , , Vol. 6, ｅｏｓｃｏＧｩｬＭｊｊｃｾｮｩｮ｣［ｲｩｬ､Ｌ Izu -yO AN ｾ［ｓＮ｟Ｎｾｩ｜Ｌ ｊＮｾＩｨｌＡＮＮ

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Zhukov, V.I". and Sa1tykov, N.J. Permafrost in the region of Cape Ko.menskii. Rukopis', f'oridy In-to. mer-zLot oved ,, 19lf8. Zol'nikov, V.G. Geomorphological characteristics of the a1uvial plain in Central Yakutia. Rukopis', fondy Yakutsk, fila AN SSSR, 1949. Zol' nLko v , V.G. The origin of fossil ice 1n Central Yakutia, their function in the fonnat10n of relief and the GeomorpholOGical reGions of Central Yalcut La . Hukopis' J fondy Yakut sk, fil. i SOPS AN SSSR, 1950. Zonov, E.N. Secondary lee formation and icc-free spots on rivers of the Yanslco-JColyma mountain region. '1'1'. In-to. merzlotovecl., Vol. 4 J 191-l-4. ZUbakov, V.fI.. F03Gil ice and passive icing. Izv. Vses. [;eoGr. ob-va, 1951, Vol. 83, No. G. ZUbov, N.N. Icc of the Arctic. Izd-vo GUSNl', 19if5.

Zvorykin, A.fI.. Pioneers in the study of the Arctic (expedition of Roman Ncplyuev to Novaya Zemlya 1n 1651-165)). Prirocla, 1946, Ho. 12. -10')-

I Conshtu.tcd

Fie. 57 Classification of ground ice

b

.. D o § WillIJ 0-/% 1-2% Z-J% i-IO% WL"ITill 0 2.5-30% .r0-100% Fig. 58 Crystalloe;raphic orientation of segreGated ice. Lena River delta. Horizontal inclusions in the frozen sandy loam at the depth of 1.5 m; weakly expressed linear orientation of the main axes normal to the plane of inclusions. 121 crystals; highest concentration 14%. Various shades on all diagrams indicate the concentration of the points of emergence of the main axes on an area of 1% Fig. 59 A that'led seasonal ice laooo11tho Kyra River valley (Indigirka River system). Photograph by P.F. Shvetsov and V.P. Sedov

Fig. 60 Profile of a pingo. Lena-Amga interfluve (central Yakutia), after P.A. ｓｯｬｯｶｾ･ｶ 1 - sandy loams; 2 ｾ clay loams; 3 - sands; 4 - ice; 5 - upper boundary of frozen ground; 6 - core boundary with segregation of small lenses of pure ice; 7 - pressure head of a water-bearing hor'izon - 10'(-

b

(1

Fig. 61

ｃｲｹｳｴ｡ｬｬｯｾｲ｡ｰｨｩ｣ orientation of injected ice; the apical part of a core of a flat pingo at Yakutsk. The horizontal banded orientat Lon of the n.ain axea is weakly expressed. 200 crystals; the highest concentration is Ｖｾｾ

• -11'1, '-

r------ｾｾＺＺＺ｟｟｟］ＺＭＧＭｾＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＭＬＭＭＭＭＭ｟｟｟Ｌ

[!-J !f

'0 II 300 () J', ｾｊＨｴ o(») !.'J() ｬ｛ＬﾻｾｮＧ t-_: ] J ｴＺ］ｾＭＺＮｌｾＺｬＮＮ･ＺＺＺ｟Ｂ｟［ＺＺＺＺｌｾ｟ＺＺＺ｟ＺＺＮＺ｟Ｚｴｾ

90 II)) Ill) no 130 ,

Schematic map of rJ13tribution of injected icc c ou.p Llc.d by B.1. Vtyurin and P.A. Shumskii 1 - a r'c t Lc region, no frost hunu.io ck obGc1'vcdj ｾＩ - 1'<;2;10n of perennial (rarely seasonal) frost hummoc]:3, chiefly on the ｦｲ｣ＨｾｺｩｮＺｾ of ullilw uncler Lakc s ; j _ region of perennial and seasonal frost llUliL,;iocks, chie[],:; at the outlLs or spr i n i';3 j L, _ reCj,on wit.h indi';icJual, Gcasonal frost hUli,;,.OC]·:s at the out Lo t of sprinr;s (c;OU1'cos) outside of the per-n.a I'r-o s t :-o:;ionj 5 - 3 ｬｾｬＧｏｕｐ of p,,'rennial frost hW;Jilocl:::; j ;) - sinf':l,) )'01'Onn131 , 1'1'03 t hu..u.ioc ks j ',' - a croup of scasona j frost huu:ocksj :) - c;1n:,;10 3eac;orwl frost hUl,J:,OCl-::j ::: - e ou tuo r-n bounciary of the perJ.1afro:3tj 10 - bOW'lclar1cG of r-c l,:ionG -109-

Fig. 63

Polygonal ｭｩ｣ｲｯｾｲ･ｬｩ･ｦ produced by the grO\\lth of recurrent ice veins. Photograph by B.A. Tikhomirov

Fig. 64 Vertical layering of recurrent vein ice of the ｲｩｶ･ｲｾ｢･､ facies. Photograph by B. I. Vtyurin \1111/1 ! ｅｾ ｾＱＲ -----

Structure scheme of ice V€!irlS. Ve:!:'tical ｣ｲｯｳｳｾｳ･｣ｴｩｯｮ - epigenetic vein; b = three storl8Y epigenetic vein; c = syngenetic vein; 1 - annual ice layer in ice 2 ｾ layering of surrounding soil

\;Jarping of the surrounding soil at the contact of a ,recurrent ice vein. Photograph by E.M. Katasonov

-112-

Occurrence of layers of surrounding strata betvll'een syngenetic ice veins. Outcrop !'/Ius-KJ."1aya in the lot'ler Yana River; scarp height 30 m. Photograph by I::.N. Katasonov

f{/ 0 to 20 30N j"H'.h... d"" I ! I

Fig. 70

rl1ap of the vein ice deposits ｦ｜ｾｵｳＭｋｨ｡ｹ｡ｪ on the Yana River. Mapped by P.A. Shumskii and B.l. Vtyurin (1953)

- ice veins; 2 - surrurli ts of hilJ.v,..a\.o ihing after deglaciation; 3 - scarp edge; 4 - ･ＩＨｔＩｾｉｒｦＧｬＧＨｪ therrilokarst surface with a nlud flo'Vm -lU-

Fie;. 71 Map of vein ice deposit. Mapped by B.l. Vtyurin (June 1953) 1 - ice veins; 2 - frozen ground; 3 - mud flows and banks; 4 - surmnits of hillocks remaining after deglaciation Fig. '(2

section across the strike. Outcrop at ｍｵｳＭＱｑＱ｡ｹ｡ｾ on Yana River; scarp height 30 m. Photograph by E. ｋ｡ｴ｡ｳｯｮｯｾ

Fig. 73 Syngenetic ice veins; oblique Mus-Khaya on Yana River; Photograph by E. -] J :,-

•

LJ2jt Uljjz

Diagram of the structure of a vein-ice deposit and of typical form of ice outcrops in exposures 1 - icej 2 - frozen soil -116-

j-

•

J-

7

s

Fig. 75

Crystallographic orientation of ice in an inclined, syngenetic icc vein (profile at the left side). Gradual transition from the linear orientation of the main axes set normal to the plane of layering in the upper part of the vein to the chaotic orientation be Low Diagrams are given in two projections; bc - plane of annual ice layers, a - perpendicular to it; numbers be-tween and above the diagrams indicate the highest concentration; those - to the left, below - the numbers of thin sections and the number of crystals measured -11 -

•

..

40

4

30J 0 300 ｾｏｄ 9

Fig. (D

Schematic map of the distribution of recurrent vein ice 1 - region and southern boundary of the distribution of fossil and contemporary recurrent vein icc; 2 - region and southern boundary of the distribution of fossil recurrent vein ice;) - southern boundary of the permafrost region (after V.I\. Kudr-ya v t s ov with schematic revisions by 1. Ya . Ba r-anov }, if - areas ｜ｾｩ th very thick masses of ice-laden (vein icc) thinly disperse strota; 5 - areas vlith thin 1I!8SS"'S of ice-J a den thinly disperse s trata; '! - Occurrences of vein ice established by surface investications; ｾ - Occurrences of vein ice detected from aircraft; 8 - elaciers -11;;-

•

•

Erosion with vein and tht:nJ1o]wrst cave ice. Scarp height 8 Ii!. Drawn f'r-ora nature by r , A. Shu.LJsl{il (June 1953) 1 - clay loam containing ice; 2 - ancient ice vein; 3 - clay loanl containing more recent ice; If - Lnjec t cd Lce ; 5 - c oinpao t clay loam in therrnokarst cavity; 6 - t.he r-mokar-s f cave ice; 7 - younger clay Loams ; S- peaty clay loams; 9 - later ice veins intersecting 2,3,5,7, and S; 10 - compact clay loam in Lhcrli;olwrst cavity; 11 - later thermolcarst cave ice intersectinc; 1,2,), and 9, beneath is white ice of snow-infiltrated origin, above is bluish ice; 12 - coverinG clay Loam and turf; ,. 13 - mud dumps