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Rise Up: Okinawa Protests Against Foreign Occupation by John Edwin Dietrich III B.A., Albright College, 2008 a THESIS Submitted

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Rise Up: Okinawa Protests Against Foreign Occupation by John Edwin Dietrich III B.A., Albright College, 2008 a THESIS Submitted Rise Up: Okinawa Protests Against Foreign Occupation by John Edwin Dietrich III B.A., Albright College, 2008 A THESIS submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree MASTER OF ARTS Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Social Work College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2016 Approved by: Major Professor Lisa Melander, Ph.D. Copyright © John Dietrich 2016. Abstract Okinawa, Japan has a long history of struggle with Japan and the United States of America. Okinawa was annexed by the Japanese during the Shogunate, mistreated by Imperial Japan during World War II, destroyed during the Battle of Okinawa, and occupied by U.S. military. Okinawa hosts some of the largest U.S. military bases outside of the Continental United States. Since Okinawa has been occupied by the U.S. military since World War II, it also has a history of contentious politics and protests against the occupation. Okinawa’s economy and cultural identity within the domestic and international spheres with the U.S. military and the Government of Japan has shaped its political protest identities. The “Okinawan Struggle” has evolved and into a new form, but often seen as a long lasting and unified struggle. This thesis explores Okinawa’s different protest episodes during different governing administrations and different economic structures. Table of Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... v Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1 - Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Literature ................................................................................................................................... 13 Chapter 2 - The “Okinawan” Experience ..................................................................................... 20 Annexation and Assimilation.................................................................................................... 23 Rebuilding Okinawa ................................................................................................................. 30 Government and Politics ........................................................................................................... 34 International Environment and Politics .................................................................................... 36 Chapter 3 - U.S. Occupation ......................................................................................................... 39 The Episode for Landowners .................................................................................................... 42 Economic Development ............................................................................................................ 45 Accepting the Bases .................................................................................................................. 49 Tourism ..................................................................................................................................... 51 On the Road to Japan ................................................................................................................ 54 Chapter 4 - Okinawa ..................................................................................................................... 59 The Hawaii of Japan ................................................................................................................. 59 One-Tsubo Landowners ............................................................................................................ 61 The Rape Incident and Ota’s Response .................................................................................... 63 Chapter 5 - Discussion .................................................................................................................. 66 Theory and Okinawa ................................................................................................................. 70 Considerations .......................................................................................................................... 71 Bibliography ................................................................................................................................. 76 Appendix A - Acronyms and Meanings ....................................................................................... 82 iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank the committee members that helped me from the initial stages of my thesis process at Kansas State University. Dr. Schaeffer helped me revise and edit my thesis numerous times. He not only helped me with revisions, but with understanding complex ideas and techniques for organizing my work. His guidance also helped me stay focused during a difficult time in my life. I will always remember his guidance and be grateful for it. I would also like to thank Dr. Dickinson for her help at Kansas State University. She was always available, and asked thorough questions which helped me make better informed decisions and directed me to more complex analysis of my thesis. She also helped me refine both simple and complex perspectives that I overlooked. Her questions were a valuable asset to my thesis and my growth as a researcher. Finally, I must express my gratitude to Dr. Melander for her willingness to take up the role and responsibilities as my advisor at the last minute. She helped me stay on track with my thesis, defense, and other graduate duties. Her patience and thoroughness was critical in finishing my thesis while I worked full-time in another State. Her and my other committee members’ patience and belief in me, especially when I lacked self-confidence to write, motivated and encourage me to finish. v Dedication I would like to thank everyone who - my committee members, friends, and my sister – who believed in my ability finish my thesis and for encouraging me during the times that I did not believe in my myself. Most importantly, I am grateful to my mother who is my biggest supporter. My appreciation for her financial assistance is only surpassed by her constant emotional support. I attribute my success as a person (or son, brother, friend, and citizen) to her. I would also like to dedicate this thesis to one person that has not been here with me – my father who died in 2010. It took one of the most difficult times in my life to realize how much he has taught me and how much I should appreciate everyone still with me. vi Chapter 1 - Introduction “Even the weeds are burnt. By the end of June, there will be no more food. This is how the Okinawan people have fought the war. And for this reason I ask that you give the Okinawan people special consideration this day.” -Admiral Minoru Ota, Imperial Japanese Navy 1945 Admiral Ota wrote this telegram to the Imperial Japanese Army 32nd army before committing seppuku (Kerr 1967). In the telegram, Ota described how Okinawans suffered throughout the war. He complained how the Japanese army was negligent and that the assault by Allied Powers had ruined Okinawa and left its people in destitution. Okinawa lost a third of its population during the Battle of Okinawa. Instead of honoring Ota’s request, the mainland government first abandoned Okinawa during the battle and as well as a second time to the U.S. military in 1952 (Kerr 1967). Okinawa’s subsequent return to Japan in 1972 was expected to be viewed as a strong reunion like that of a father and son. However, the Japanese fatherland treated Okinawa more like a distant cousin than a close son (Kerr 1967). Okinawa was a colony under the Japanese feudal Shimazu clan of Satsuma. After it was annexed by Japan in the late 19th century, Okinawa was treated more like a colony than a prefecture like others on the mainland and thus more expendable to the Japanese (Kerr 1967). Japan then handed Okinawa and its people over to the U.S. military under the San Francisco Peace Treaty. Okinawa’s return to Japan in 1972 from the U.S. military regime proved to be no different. Japanese again treated Okinawa like a virtual colony and Okinawa became Japan’s poorest prefecture, holding the highest rate of unemployment in Japan. The U.S. military, meanwhile, maintained a significant military presence on the island. 1 During the U.S. occupation of Okinawa, Okinawa relied heavily on the “base economy” (Tanji 2007). When Okinawa returned to Japan, its economy shifted its dependence from the U.S. bases to government subsidies from Tokyo, and a service industry focused on Japanese tourism (Hiroshi 2011). Okinawa’s service economy emerged during the U.S. occupation and catered primarily to Americans (Hiroshi 2011). After 1972, Okinawa’s service economy refocused on Japanese tourists. Mainland Japanese businesses bought the best beaches and built resorts for mainland Japanese patrons. The Mainland businesses benefited from Okinawa’s resort tourism. However, local businesses have only benefited from off-resort souvenir shopping by resort tourists. Before and after 1972, Japanese tourism strategists pushed Okinawa to become exotic (Figal 2008). The strategists urged Okinawans to develop their unique “Ryukyuan/Okinawan” heritage and improve Okinawa’s subtropical environment to attract more Japanese tourist (Gerald Figal 2008).1Japan pushed to
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