These Proceedings Contain the Presentations and Deliberations Ofth E First PROSEA International Symposium, Which Was Held from May 22-25,1989, in Jakarta, Indonesia

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These Proceedings contain the presentations and deliberations ofth e First PROSEA International Symposium, which was held from May 22-25,1989, in Jakarta, Indonesia. Focal points ofth e presentations wereth e past, present and future ofth e PROSEA project, which is an international, multidisciplinary undertaking that aims to publish a multivolume, illustrated handbook in English, on approximately 5,000 useful South-East Asian plants. Yy

Proceedings of the First PROSEA International Symposium May 22-25,1989, Jakarta, Indonesia

J.S. Siemonsma and N.Wulijarni-Soetjipt o (Editors)

H Pudoc Wageningen 1989

c SU S~I o") S Bibliotheek TEELT Vakgroep Agronomie LU -Wag«ninge n

Cip-Data Koninklijke Bibliotheek, Den Haag

Plant

Plant resources of South-East Asia :proceeding s of the first PROSEA interna tional symposium, May 22-25, 1989, Jakarta, Indonesia:J. S. Siemonsma and N. Wulijarni-Soetjipto (ed.).- Wageningen : Pudoc. - III. With ref. ISBN 90-220-0999-8 bound SISO 632.3UD C 633/635 (59) NUGI835 Subject heading: plant resources ;South-Eas t Asia.

ISBN 90-220-0999-8 NUGI 835

Design: Frits Stoepman GVN.

No part of this publication, apart from bibliographic data and brief quotations embodied in critical reviews, may be reproduced, re-recorded or published in any form including print, photocopy, microfilm, electric or electromagnetic record without permission from the publisher Pudoc, P.O. Box 4, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands.

Printed in the Netherlands CONTENTS

FOREWORD 11 Aprilani Soegiarto Organizers, Committees and Sponsors 12 Acknowledgements 13

INTRODUCTION 15 Welcoming Address 17 Samaun Samadikun Presentation PROSEA Publications 19 H.C.van der Pias The Role of Plant Resources in Environmental Policies 21 Hasjrul Harahap

THE SYMPOSIUM - AN OVERVIEW 23 J.S.Siemonsma, S.Kadarsan & E.Westphal

RECOMMENDATIONS 29

GENERAL PAPERS 33 PROSEA State of the Art ' 35 E.Westphal, S.Kadarsan & J.S.Siemonsma Economic Botany in South-East Asia 48 C.Kalkman PROSEA's Scientific Merits and Limitations 57 Salleh Mohd.Nor PROSEA and New Trends in Information Technology 61 J.M.Schippers Discussion 66

PROSEA PUBLICATIONS 69 Basic List of Species and Commodity Grouping 71 R.H.M.J.Lemmens, P.CM.Jansen & J.S.Siemonsma Pulses for South-East Asia 76 L.J.G.van der Maesen & S.Somaatmadja Plant Resources of South-East Asia: a Selection 83 P.CM.Jansen & E.Westphal Discussion 93

COMMODITY GROUP REPORTS 95 Edible Fruits and Nuts in South-East Asia 97 E.W.M.Verhey & R.E.Coronel Bamboos of South-East Asia 107 E.A.Widjaja & S.Drans field Dyes and Tannins in a Changing World 121 N.R.de Graaf, J.M.Fund ter & J.W.Hildebrand Rattans 130 J.Dransfield, J.P.Mogea & N.Manokaran Vegetables of South-East Asia 142 J.S.Siemonsma & M.H.Aarls-van den Bergh South-East Asian Spices: Present State and Future 154 Prospects as Exemplified by Indonesian Cooking Rugayah, D.Sulistiarini, T.Djarwaningsih & E.A.Widjaja Forage Plants for South-East Asia 164 L.'t Mannetje & R.M.Jones Discussion 176

COUNTRY REPORTS AND DOCUMENTATION SYSTEM 179 Plant Resources and Scientific Infrastructure in Indonesia 181 S.Kadarsan, H.Sutarno & S.Danimihardja Country Report Malaysia 186 Idris Mohd.Said Plant Resources of Papua New Guinea 192 RJ. Johns Country Report Philippines 201 N.C.Altoveros, B.P.del Rosario, A.L.Sanico & M.T.F.Santos Country Report Thailand 206 S.Duriyaprapan, S.Lakmuang & P.Boonklinkajorn Plant Resources of Burma 211 San Maung SAPRIS: the PROSEA Information and Documentation 216 System L.P.A.Oyen & N.Wulijarni-Soetjipto Discussion 225

PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION 1991-1995 227 Proposals for Project Execution 1991-1995 229 H.C.van der Plas Reports Working Groups 243 1. Scientific Content and Quality 243 2. Organization and Finances 244 3. Information and Documentation System 245 4. Publication Policy 246

POSTER PRESENTATIONS 249

Oil-Producing Euphorbiaceae: Ricinus communis L. and 251 Jatropha curcas L. A.T.Aranez An Introduction to Fruit and Nut Trees in Papua New Guinea 252 R.A.Banka Study on Fast-Growing Nitrogen-Fixing Trees in Thailand 253 S.Chitnawasarn & S.Pattanavibul Genetic Resources of Pyrethrum {Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) 254 in Indonesia A.Djisbar PROSEA and IBPGR 255 J.M.M.Engels Uses of Traditional Vegetable Resources of Malaysia 255 Farah D.Ghani-Bauer Rattan Resources of the Philippines 256 E.S.Fernando Cultivated Mussaenda and Indigenous Species with Promising 257 Ornamental Potential in Papua New Guinea O.G.Gideon Traditional Vegetables of Papua New Guinea 259 A.M.Gurnah Salacca Germplasm for Potential Economic Use 260 G.G.Hambali, J.P.Mogea & M.Yatazawa Wild Durio Germplasm for Improving Fruit Quality and 261 Performance of Durio zibethinus G.G.Hambali, M.Yatazawa & A.T.Sunarto Ecophysiological Study and Post-Harvest Handling of Mangosteen 262 Fruits (Garcinia mangostana L.) S.S.Harjadi, A.Hidayat & M.Argasasmita Aspects of Fruit Development in the Sugar Palm 263 (Arenga pinnata Merr.) E.B.Hidajat, H.T.Pramesti & T.Adiastuti Genetic Resources of Fruit Trees in Malaysia ' 264 S.Idris & R.Aman Some Plants of South and South-East AsiaUse di n theTreatmen t of 265 Diabetes Mellitus A.H.M.Jayasuriya, A.S.B.Wijekoon & H.M.Senandheera Rattans of Papua New Guinea 267 R.J.Johns Litsea cubeba Pers.: Potential and Prospects 268 S.Koerniati Mangoes 269 A.J.G'.H.Kostermans & J.M.Bompard Fatty-Oil Plants in the Flora of Vietnam 271 La Dinh Moi & Nguyen Tien Ban Essential-Oil Plants in the Flora of Vietnam 272 La Dinh Moi & Nguyen Tien Ban An Attempt to Inventorize and Document the Collections of Wild 273 Edible Fruit Tree Species in Sabah, Malaysia A.Latiff & K.M.Salt eh Vegetation Maps, Ecological Policy, and the Search for 274 Useful Plants Y.Laumonier, U.R.Djailany & G.Michon Amorphophallus in South-East Asia 276 Li Hen 'Useful Plants of South-East Asia' Project 277 MAB Committee Indonesia Pigeonpea and its Wild Relatives 278 L.J.G.van der Maesen Performance of 'Verano Stylo' under Thailand Conditions 279 C.Manidool APINMAP and PROSEA 279 P.J.O.Medina Traditional Rattan Cultivation in Kedang Pahu River Area, Regency 280 of Kutai, East Kalimantan P.Matius & S.Sutedjo Wild Bananas of Indonesia 281 R.E. Nasution Flora of Vietnam: Medicinal Plant Resources 283 Nguyen Tien Ban Plant Resources of Vietnam 284 Nguyen Tien Ban, Nguyen Tien Hiep, Phon Ke Loc & La Dinh Moi Towards the Utilization of Rosaceae in the Flora of Vietnam 286 Nguyen Tien Hiep Potential of Some Neglected and Under-Exploited Fruit Tree 287 Species M.N.Normah, B.Krishnapillay & H.F.Chin Biology and Ecology of Asystasia intrusa Bl. 288 S.B.Othman Bamboos in the Philippines 289 J.V.Poncho Azolla pinnata R.Br, as a Potential Source of Nitrogen in Lowland 289 Rice Environment S.Partohardjono Fleagrass, a Traditional Cultivated Plant in the Yunnan Tropics, 290 China Pei Sheng-ji & Shen Peiqiong Tannin-Bearing Angiosperm Species in the Flora of Vietnam 292 Phan Ke Loc & Nguyen Tien Hiep Plant Resources of the Dry Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest of 293 Vietnam Phan Ke Loc & Nguyen Tien Hiep The Starch from Sago Palms (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.) 295 C.Phengklai Improvement of Salacca spp. in Thailand 296 P.Polprasid & S.Salakphetch Van Overeem's Unpublished Icônes of Indonesian Edible Fungi 297 M.A.Rifai Indigenous Fruit Trees of Kalimantan in Traditional Culture 299 B.Seibert The Role of Rattan Palm in the Development of Sustainable Forest 300 in Indonesia T.Silitonga & R.Eff end i Gliricidia Leaves as Ruminant Feed 301 S.Silitonga-Sitorus Arenga pinnata Merr. as Multipurpose Palm for Forestry 302 Buffer-Zones W.Smits SEAWIC Contributions to the Management of the Economic Plants 303 of South-East Asia S.S.Soedojo, S.S.Tjitrosoedirdjo & R.C.Umaly Reproductive Biology of Malaysian Fruit Tree Species and their 304 Wild Relatives E.Soepadmo Loss of Ornamental Plant Resources in East Java 305 L.Soetopo Kaempferia galanga L. in Central Java and West Sumatra 306 Sudiarto Importanceo f Non-Traditional Commercial Timbersfo r the Wood 308 Industry in Indonesia B.Supraptono Bamboo and Rattan Resources 309 S.Thammincha & I.Vongkaluang Main Sources of Information on Indo-Chinese Plant Resources 310 J.E.Vidal The Genus Abelmoschus 311 J.H.Vredebregt South-East Asian Plants Used in Traditional Chinese Herbal 312 Medicine Y.C.Wee Potential of Dimocarpus longan in Sarawak / 313 K.C.Wong & I.Yusof Economic Ferns of the Philippines 315 P.M.Zamora

PARTICIPANTS 317

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS 331

FOREWORD

The task of the PROSEA project to publish in a reasonable period of time a multivolume, illustrated handbook on about 5,000 useful South-East Asian plants is a formidable one, needing well-orchestrated international cooperation. The First PROSEA International Symposium was an important event in the process of 'internationalization' of the PROSEA project. Over 150 participants from 19 countries and various international agencies attended, including large delegations from the 6 countries presently actively involved in the project (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, and Thailand). The objective of the symposium was to discuss the scientific and organizational aspects of the whole PROSEA undertaking, based on the experience gained over the last 2 years. The symposium programme comprised 22 invited papers dealing with general aspects of the project, with form and contents of the PROSEA publications, with the progress in a number of commodity groups, with the documentation activities of the Country Office Network, and with proposals for the future course of the project. The papers are presented in these Proceedings. The symposium was greatly enlivened by 57 poster contributions bearing witness of the enormous diversity of the region's plant resources. Summaries of these posters are also presented in these Proceedings. The 'Proposals for Project Execution 1991-1995' were discussed frankly in working groups and plenary sessions, culminating in a series of recommendations which will provide a useful guide for PROSEA Manage ment. May I express the wish that these Proceedings, like the other PROSEA publications, be instrumental in keeping PROSEA rolling smoothly along its well-prepared track. I am grateful to the Editors for their hard work and dedication.

Dr. Aprilani Soegiarto Deputy Chairman for Natural Sciences Indonesian Institute of Sciences

11 Organizers

Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jakarta, Indonesia Wageningen Agricultural University (WAU), Wageningen, the Netherlands

International Advisory Committee

Prof.Dr. Samaun Samadikun (Indonesia) Dr. Salleh Mohd. Nor (Malaysia) Prof.Dr. H.C.van der Pias (Netherlands) Mr. M.Moramoro (Papua New Guinea) Dr. R.V.Valmayor (Philippines) Prof.Dr. Smith Kampempool (Thailand)

Steering Committee

Prof.Dr. Samaun Samadikun (Patronage) Dr. Aprilani Soegiarto (Chairman) Dr. Soetatwo Hadiwigeno (Vice-Chairman I) Ir. Wartono Kadri (Vice-Chairman II) Dr. Sampurno Kadarsan (Executive Secretary) Prof.Dr. S.Ranuwihardjo (Member) Prof.Dr.Ir. S.S.Tjitrosomo (Member) Prof.Dr.Ir. Gunawan Satari (Member) Dr. Achmad Soedarsan (Member)

Organizing Committee

Dr. Sampurno Kadarsan (Chairman) Ms. Moertini Atmowidjojo (Vice-Chairman) Dr. J.S.Siemonsma (Secretary) Mr. Soehartono Soedargo (Member) Dr. Hadi Sutarno (Member) Mrs. N.Wulijarni-Soetjipto (Member) Dr. E.Westphal (Member) Dr. P.C.M.Jansen (Member) Mr. W.Wolters (Member) Ms. J.M.G.Rynja (Member)

Sponsors

Ministry of Education and Science, the Netherlands 'Yayasan Sarana Wanajaya', Ministry of Forestry, Indonesia Wageningen Agricultural University, the Netherlands Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Indonesia

12 Acknowledgements

The Organizing Committee gratefully acknowledges the assistance of the following, who contributed to the success of the symposium: - Members of the Drafting Committee, Chairmen and Co-Chairmen of all sessions and working groups, and panel members at the plenary sessions. - Management and staff of Cibodas Mountain Garden, Bogor Botanical Gardens, Botany Division and 'Dharma Wanita' of the Centre for Research and Development in Biology (Bogor), Forest Research and Development Centre (Bogor), and 'Manggala Wanabakti' Forestry Museum (Jakarta). - The Netherlands Embassy, in particular Mr. W.D.van den Berg, for organizing a PROSEA-related exhibition 'Tropical Plants in Pictures' and for hosting a cocktail party for the delegates at the official opening. - Management and staff of Kartika Chandra Hotel (Jakarta), particularly Mr. Laksana. - Management and staff of P.T. Smailing Tour (Jakarta), in particular Mr. Agus Manta and Mrs. Indarti Ilyas. - The Excursion Coordinator, Mr. R.E.Nasution and his assistants. - Support staff of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (Jakarta), the Centre for Research and Development in Biology (Bogor), and PROSEA (Bogor): Mr. J.Pasaribu, Mrs. Sri Wahyuni, Mrs. Krisbiwati, Ms. Nina Wiraatmadja, Mr. Bachrodji, Mr. Riyanto, Mr. Nanang, Prof.Dr. A.J.G.H. Kostermans, Mrs. M.H.Aarts - van den Bergh, Mr. Sarkat Danimihardja, Mrs. Ch.Aipassa and Mr. Denny Sisgandhi SD.

The Editors are grateful to the following, who assisted in the realization of these Proceedings: - Mr. Denny Sisgandhi SD for most of the typing work. - Mrs. J.Burrough for correcting the English. - Dr. P.C.M.Jansen for working out the Question/Answer forms, recording the session discussions. - Ir. L.P.A.Oyen for assisting in making the camera-ready print-out. - Mr. R.J.P.Aalpol for the publishing advices.

13 Introduction

Welcoming Address

Your Excellency the Minister of Forestry, Mr. Hasjrul Harahap, Honourable Guests, Distinguished Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen,

First of all, allow me to convey my welcome to all the guests at this Opening Ceremony of the First PROSEA International Symposium.M yspe cial welcome goes to the participants and resource persons from overseas. I hope that despite the busy schedule of the symposium you will still find time to enjoy our landscape and cultural attractions as well. It is gratifying to note that since its establishment in 1985, PROSEA has grown to an international undertaking. As you may recall, the objective of the project as a whole is to compile and summarize existing information on an estimated 5,000 plant resources, divided into about 25 commodity groups, to store the information in a data bank and to publish it in a multivolume illustrated handbook in English. The project started with a 'Preliminary Phase 1985-1986', which was an in-house exercise by Wageningen Agricultural University. The 'Preparatory Phase 1987-1990' is intended to broaden the project's base through international cooperation, and to lay a sound basis for the 'Implementation Phase' through data collection. To this end, an administrative arrangement for cooperation with the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) was signed in June 1988. Cooperation with all South-East Asian countries has since been established. In the 'Implementation Phase 1991-1995', the emphasis will be on the compilation, editing and publishing of the handbook, and on making the accompanying data bank operational. To facilitate better communication, a Regional Office has been set up in Bogor, Indonesia. As is the case in many developing countries, South-East Asian countries have also generated side-effects as a consequence of their national development, such as a decrease in plant resources. One way of alleviating this side-effect is to update, compile and inventory information on the plant resources through this project, in the hope that by providing the right information on our plant resources, we will be able to make better judgements on their exploitation and development. However, the future of this project will depend entirely on the joint responsibility of the cooperating countries. This First PROSEA International Symposium is intended to produce recommendations for the 'Implementation Phase 1991-1995' with respect to: (1) Scientific content and quality, (2) Information and documentation system, (3) Organization and finances, and (4) Publication policy. The recommendations will be discussed by the Multilateral Steering Committee, which will meet the day after the symposium. It is my sincere hope that the participants will share their expertise and experience and arrive at a set of viable recommendations. On this occasion, allow me first of all to express my sincere appreciation to His Excellency the Minister of Forestry, who is with us this morning and will give a keynote address. Secondly, on behalf of the

17 Organizing Committee, I would also like to extend my appreciation to Mr. Sudjarwo, Chairman of the 'Yayasan Sarana Wanajaya', who from the beginning has shown interest in this project, and actually initiated the cooperation. My thanks also go to our partner institution, Wageningen Agricultural University, and all other institutions that have extended their assistance, advice, contributions and financial support in making this symposium a reality. All members of the Organizing Committee have been working very hard indeed to try to make the symposium a success. However, they realize that there are still many shortcomings in their services and arrangements. I hope that all of us will accept their sincere apology for these shortcomings. Finally, may I wish you a fruitful symposium and an enjoyable stay in Jakarta. Thank you.

Prof .Dr. Samaun Samadikun Chairman, Indonesian Institute of Sciences Presentation PROSEA Publications

Your Excellency, Honourable Guests, Distinguished Participants, Ladies and Gentlemen,

When Wageningen Agricultural University initiated the PROSEA project in 1985, it was clear from the outset that it would be an ambitious undertaking, possible only through a concerted international effort, involving hundreds of scientists contributing species reports, and involving various national and international agencies for the financial resources. The time that an individual scientist could spend a life-time writing all-inclusive reference books has long since passed. Heyne did so in Indonesia in the twenties, and Burkill did so in Malaysia in the thirties. The fact that Heyne's book, published in 1927, has recently been translated into Bahasa Indonesia, without any updating, is the best 'raison d'être' for the PROSEA project I can think of. Since those early days, the number of scientists has increased dramatically, the number of periodicals, books, journals, proceedings, annual reports, etc. has increased at exponential rates. The never-ending pressure on scientists to publish has resulted in 'quantity without comprehensive compilation'. Easy access by the emerging nations to the vast amount of international literature is still wishful thinking. On the other hand, the emerging class of local scientists is increasingly publishing vernacular reports and journals, which hardly reach an international audience. PROSEA's objective is to compile existing information on the Plant Resources of South-East Asia from international as well as national sources, to store it in a data bank, to summarize and to publish it in a multivolume illustrated handbook in English, and to make it available for education, extension work, research and commerce. PROSEA is a long-term project scheduled to last 10 years. Although the project funding is guaranteed until the end of 1990, present and future donors will only remain or become interested, if the financial contributions are adequately translated into output. The output, Ladies and Gentlemen, realized sincePROSE A was formally launched in 1987, is manifold. A South-East Asian network of supporting Country Offices has been established, the PROSEA data bank isgrowin g ata fast pace, this symposium has been organized to further consolidate the international cooperation, but above all, there is the printed output. Three books are being presented for discussion at this symposium. An international group of about 150 editors and authors has to be credited for these products. The 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping' is intended to help the editors to shape the species content of the respective volumes. As such it is the skeleton of the PROSEA handbook. The second book, 'Pulses', is the first true volume of the handbook.

19 Though not the largest nor the most difficult commodity group, its importance is paramount, economically, nutritionally, and agriculturally. The third book, 'A selection of 86 plant resources' comprises a few representatives of all commodity groups and is a test of the applicability of the PROSEA approach tosuc h mind-boggling diversity. The inclusion ofa large number of crops of major importance has made it a valuable textbook in itself. 'READ, JUDGE and DISCUSS' is the motto of this symposium. During the initial discussions on the PROSEA project with the partners in South-East Asia, the legitimate question has been raised whether the PROSEA undertaking would not result in a net flow of information from the region to other parts of the world, and therefore would benefit competitors more than the South-East Asians. This issue needs to be addressed during this symposium. However, it is our conviction that the South-East Asian region has at least as much to gain from international expertise as it feels it will give away by contributing national experience. Many, if not most of the articles in 'A selection' and in 'Pulses' comprise valuable experience gained in other parts of the world, useful for the South-East Asian region. The crucial issue in the PROSEA project is whether the information will reach broad groups of the South-East Asian population. Only if the individual strands of the delicate fabric of our environment are known, will the human resources be able to exploit wisely and conserve properly the enormous diversity of the region's plant resources. PROSEA may structurally contribute to a wise usage of the environment by providing up-to-date knowledge on the plant resources for education, extension work, research and commercial production. READ, JUDGE and DISCUSS. I wish you an informative, fruitful and inspiring symposium. PROSEA International hopes to benefit from your experience and advice.

Prof.Dr. H.C. van der Plas Rector Magnificus, Wageningen Agricultural University

20 The Role of Plant Resources in Environmental Policies

Mr. Chairman, Your Excellencies, Distinguished Delegates and Observers, Ladies and Gentlemen,

Allow me first to welcome you to this First PROSEA International Symposium which is being held here in Jakarta. We sincerely hope that the symposium will be fruitful, stimulating, informative, and that it will provide recommendations for the benefit of human beings.Th e meeting should be approached in the sense of cooperation and understanding with remarkable wisdom and energy. What is more, its proceedings should be conducted in an atmosphere of friendly dialogue. Today's circumstances require that your participation is not only a matter of intelligence but also of your heart. Solidarity, enthusiasm and friendship are more necessary now than ever. Your agenda includes a discussion on the role of plant resources in environmental policies. The topic of the symposium is indeed appropriate for this moment wherew ear eencouragin g theimprovemen t of environmental policies by means of sound forest management. Ladies and Gentlemen, related to the profound concern for global environmental issues and warnings such as: (1) the depletion of the ozone layer, (2) acid rain, (3) the fouling of our air and water, (4) the devastation of the tropical forests, and (5) other environmental problems, I fully agreed with His Excellency Mr. Noburo Takeshita's statement during his visit a few days ago to Indonesia, that our efforts to solve environmental issues must be premised upon a global approach, must be compatible with sustainable economic growth, and must fully heed the developing countries' position. In this regard, international cooperation is extremely important in assisting the developing countries' efforts to come to terms with environmental imperatives. The management of the forests in Indonesia follows the sustained yield principle in accordance with national sustainable development. Government policies have provided some beneficial effects, such as increasing national income, employment opportunities, wood processing industries and improving access to isolated areas in harmony with the efforts to address the environmental problems. I do believe that our natural rainforests have a specific role to play either as a part of our natural resources for sustainable development in Indonesia or as a global factor in determining the quality of the international environment. Nevertheless, as we agree on the above principle, we are also facing the common challenges such as: (1) the rapid growth of the population and need for improvement of community education, (2) the degradation of the resources due to the rapid growth of the number of poor farmers who seek new land in forests to grow more food, (3) the role of the natural tropical rainforest as a resource of species and their genetic materials; tropical rainforests are by far the richest biological units in terms of genetic diversity, rich in potentially valuable

21 biochemicals which are now being threatened through human activities, and (4) the role of wood forest as an energy resource especially now that rural supplies are steadily collapsing. Ladies and Gentlemen, I would like to thank all of you for the fact that we share common ground in discussing anxieties about forest resources and about the need to see sustained yield policies more widely practised and reintroduced where their use has been eroded. Such efforts have been taken in Indonesia in order to secure and conserve the forest areas by applying a proper Indonesian selective cutting and reforestation programme, by critical land rehabilitation, and by developing large-scale man-made forests to fulfil the needs of the wood industries. Loggers have to pay initially 4 US$ per cubic metre of wood they cut. This will soon increase to 7 US$ and later on even to 10 US$ per cubic metre as a non-returnable deposit for reforestation programmes in the form of man-made forests. On top of that the loggers must stump up the cash to improve the logging operations by means of the Indonesian selective cutting system, called 'tebang pilih Indonesia (TPI)'. But, in the vast jungle tracks of sprawling island chains it is hard to keep track of who is sticking to the rules. We need the help of the international community in monitoring this. We need the sense of belonging, to keep the dynamic role of the forest. Assist us by training us how to manage properly our large forest lands, in order to address environmental problems. We believe that we are making a historic plea here today. We believe this is our chance to get it right. We believe too that something has to be done as soon as possible. We do not want to walk this road alone; we now seek the support of the major developed countries to assist us to solve the global problem. Ladies and Gentlemen, of necessity I have dealt at some length with the role of our forest in environmental policies. If the developing countries' own efforts to surmount their difficulties and to pull themselves up by their own bootstraps are matched by a spirit of openness and solidarity on the part of the developed world, then our dreams will know no bounds. This is needed to wrench humanity from the threat of famine, wretched poverty, underdevelopment, and theinexorabl e destruction of the environment. Fortunately, with the advent of new advances in biotechnology and avowed national interest at the highest levels in reconciling development with the protection of our environmental heritage, we may cherish some optimism about the future. PROSEA can play an important role in the implementation of environmental policies. It is only through a sense of belonging between the developing and the developed countries that the environment problems can be solved. Mr. Chairman, I do hope this symposium will be successful and I declare this symposium officially opened. Thank you.

Ir. Hasjrul Harahap Minister of Forestry

22 The Symposium - An Overview

23 L

I The Symposium - an Overview

1. Introduction

The Schedule of Operations 1987-1990 of the Preparatory Phase of the PROSEA project envisages progress on 4 important fronts, i.e. (a) to develop the project from a Dutch initiative to an international partnership, (b) to document existing information and expertise on the plant resources of South-East Asia and store it in a data bank, (c) to publish parts of the handbook and supporting documents, and (d) to have timely consultations with the partners, policy-makers and donors on the course, organization and funding of the project in the Implementation Phase 1991-1995. The Indonesian Institute of Sciences and Wageningen Agricultural University decided early in 1988 that the consultation with partners and other interested parties could best take place in the form of an international symposium of moderate size, to be held about midway through the preparatory phase, in the South-East Asian region, conditional on adequate progress having been made on items (a), (b) and (c). In terms of time, transport and accommodation of the large number of persons involved, international symposia are expensive undertakings. Furthermore, detailed planning and management by the organizers, as well as active participation by the delegates are prerequisites for success. What benefit justified the investment in the case of the First PROSEA International Symposium?

2. Nature of the Symposium

The rapid progress made in 1988 regarding the establishment of a PROSEA Network, involving key institutions in 5 South-East Asian countries, the fast growth of the project's documentation and information system, as well as the enthusiastic contributions of so many scientists to the first 3PROSE A publications, convinced the organizers that the PROSEA project would greatly benefit from a well-prepared discussion on the past, present and future of the project. When the Organizing Committee was officially installed by the organizing institutions in August 1988, an outline of the programme and a profile of the delegates quickly emerged. The symposium, to be followed immediately by a meeting of the PROSEA Multilateral Steering Committee, seemed an ideal set-up for prompt action to prepare for the next project phase. The symposium, which lasted 4 days, was a mix of invited papers, continuous poster presentations, working groups and plenary discussions, interspersed with visits to a PROSEA-related exhibition 'Tropical plants in pictures', to the Cibodas Mountain Garden, the Herbarium Bogoriense and Ethnobotanical Museum, to timber plots of the Forest Research and Development Centre, and to the 'Manggala Wanabakti' Forestry Museum. In all, 154 participants from 19 countries attended the symposium. They are listed in the Chapter 'Participants'.

25 2.1 Invited Papers

The 22 invited papers, which filled the first one and a half days of the symposium, are presented hereafter in chronological order and arranged according to the symposium sessions. In the Chapter 'General Papers', an overall picture of the history and the present state of the PROSEA project is presented (Westphal et al.), the project is placed in the context and history of economic botany in the region (Kalkman), the responsibilities of the cooperating institutions and the moral obligations for sharing the benefits are discussed (Salleh Mohd. Nor), and new developments in information technology are outlined from the perspective that they will surely affect the PROSEA project well before its completion (Schippers). In the Chapter 'PROSEA Publications', the 3 books officially presented at the symposium, and distributed to all participants as a basis for discussion, are commented upon, in particular with respect to scientific content and quality, but also in terms of organizational aspects: 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping' (Lemmens et al.), 'Pulses' (Van der Maesen & S.Somaatmadja) and 'A selection' (Jansen & Westphal). The Chapter 'Commodity Group Reports' comprisesreport sb y potential editors on 7 groups (or handbook volumes) in various stages of preparation: 'Edible fruits and nuts' (Verhey & Coronet), 'Bamboos' (Widjaja & S.Dransfield), 'Dyes and tannins' (De Graaf et al.), 'Rattans' (J.Dransfield et al.), 'Vegetables' (Siemonsma & Aarts-van den Bergh), 'Spices' (Rugayah et al.) and 'Forage plants' ('t Mannetje & Jones). Then, in the Chapter 'Country Reports and Documentation System', follow reports from the 5 national PROSEA Offices in South-East Asia (Indonesia: Kadarsan et al.; Malaysia: Idris Mohd.Said; Papua New Guinea: Johns; Philippines: Altoveros et al.; Thailand: Duriyaprapan et al.), completed by an overall picture of SAPRIS, the PROSEA Documentation and Information System (Oyen & Wulijarni-Soetjipto). Although not orally presented, the Editors considered it useful to include the paper by San Maung on the 'Plant Resources of Burma'. The discussions during the sessions, as far as they were properly recorded by questioners and speakers, are presented at the end of each Chapter.

2.2 Poster Presentations

There was one continuous poster session during the whole duration of the symposium. Most of the 57 posters dealt with individual or small groups of plant resources, or focused on a certain geographical area. Others spelled out opportunities for cooperation between PROSEA and existing organizations ordat a banks(IBPGR ,APINMAP) ,o rreviewe d sources of information potentially useful for PROSEA. Brief summaries are presented in the Chapter 'Poster Presentations'.

26 2.3 Proposals for Project Execution 1991-1995

As initiator of the PROSEA project, Wageningen Agricultural University was requested by the organizers to prepare 'Proposals for Project Execution 1991-1995', structured around 4 topics, i.e. (a) scientific content and quality, (b) organization and finances, (c) information and documentation system, and (d) publication policy. The proposals (paper by Van der Plas) are presented in the Chapter 'Project Implementation 1991-1995'.

3. Results

The proposals were subsequently frankly discussed in 4 working groups. The reports of the working groups are presented in the Chapter 'Project Implementation 1991-1995'. From these reports the Drafting Committee, consisting of the PROSEA Project leaders of the 6 participating countries, distilled a set of recommendations, which are presented in the next Chapter. These recommendations were remitted to the meeting of the PROSEA Multilateral Steering Committee the day after the Symposium, for consideration and action. The attendance and volubility of the delegates in the sessions, working groups and plenary sessions, remained high from the beginning until the end, a hopeful sign that PROSEA is becoming firmly rooted in the region's scientific research community. The wish of neighbouring countries (Vietnam, Burma, China) to participate in the project was strongly expressed by one of the Vietnamese delegates in the Closing Ceremony. At the request of the working group on 'Scientific Content and Quality', the 'Instructions for Authors' have been included in these Proceedings, to increase awareness of what is expected in a species treatment. Scientists of any nationality who feel competent to contribute to the PROSEA books are warmly invited to contact the PROSEA Offices in the various countries.

J.S.Siemonsma, S.Kadarsan & E.Westphal PROSEA Bureau

27 Recommendations

Recommendations

Preamble

1. Acknowledging the initiative of Wageningen Agricultural University in obtaining financial support from the Netherlands government, which has generously contributed an amount of 4.6 million Dutch guilders for the purposes of: (a) setting up both Regional (Europe and South- East Asia) as well as Country Offices (Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Thailand), (b) documentation, (c) publication, and (d) consultation (this symposium) during the Preparatory Phase (1987-1990),

2. Recognizing the contributions of participating countries in South- East Asia as well,

3. Bearing in mind that the basic PROSEA infrastructure has already been laid down in the region,

4. Recognizing the desire to further pursue PROSEA activities for the future,

The Symposium recommends '

A. Scientific Content and Quality

1. The present commodity groups be retained, except that species in group 21 be redistributed. Volume 21 to be replaced by a Supplementary Volume. Final titles of the books to be decided on by the editors.

2. Larger volumes be subdivided into sections. For example, 'Medicinal and poisonous plants' could be treated in two sections. The volume on 'Timber trees' could be divided into a part on widespread South-East Asian species, followed by specific regional parts (Papuasia, Malay Peninsula).

3. Multipurpose species be treated in the volume of their primary use, with brief notes of secondary uses in other relevant volumes.

4. Less important plants be given reduced text treatment as adopted in 'Pulses', and not a tabular treatment.

5. Every effort be made to maintain the high scientific quality of the publications. It is emphasized that herbarium documentation is essential for lesser-known species.

B. Organization and Finances

6. A Task Force composed of a maximum of 5 members with adequate

31 membership from the region be appointed by the Multilateral Steering Committee. Within the next 6 months the Task Force will: (a) examine/study the options to internationalize PROSEA , (b) recommend the appropriate form of PROSEA International in terms of legal framework, organizational structure, manpower requirements, total funding requirement (indicating both the donor contribution and the government counterpart contribution (in kind)), and (c) recommend steps to be taken to establish PROSEA International. It is further suggested that the work of the Task Force be funded by PROSEA.

7. Potential donors such asEEC , WB,UNESCO ,FAO ,UND P etc.a swel la s South-East Asian governments be approached soon.

C. Information and Documentation System

8. The issue of copyrights of publications and data base be further examined.

D. Publication Policy

9. Considering the call and need for South-East Asian scientists to play an important role in PROSEA, priority should be given to appointing competent and willing South-East Asian scientists as (co-)editors and (co-)authors.

10. Considering the importance of 'Timber trees' and 'Medicinal and poisonous plants', priority be given to these groups in the publication schedule; to this end it is suggested assigning a group of South-East Asian experts to select the species to be treated.

11. Considering the need for the handbook be published in the national language of the participating countries, this publication process be the responsibility of the appropriate country. Further, it is hereby recommended that appropriate actions should be taken, in view of the proposal by PROSEA and PUDOC to publish a low-cost edition of the handbook.

Final Remarks

1. The conservation of plant genetic resources is a very important aspect closely related to the fundamental principles underlying the PROSEA project. There is an important potential for PROSEA and its publications to be used to promote conservation. Priority treatment of endangered species may be a case in point.

2. The desire of other countries in the region (such as Burma, Vietnam and China) to join the project is gratefully noted. Cooperation with other organizations and agencies will remain an important and constant endeavour of the project.

32 General Papers

33 PROS•M mmm #•••% jwMk' 1] PLANT RESOURCES OF SOI FIRST INTERNATIONAL HOTEL KARTIKA CHANDRA, MAY

...,.J I PROSEA State of the Art 1 2 3 E.Westphal , S.Kadarsan & J.S.Siemonsma PROSEA CountryOffic e Netherlands, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands

Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 18, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

1. General

1.1 Historical Background

The handbooks on the plant resources of different parts of South-East Asia written half a century or more ago are now partly obsolescent. Since then, research in tropical agronomy, horticulture, forestry and economic botany has continued, expanding rapidly, aided by new techniques, checking and correcting, discovering new properties, food values, medicinal efficacy or dangers, ecological relations between cultivated and wild plants, studying the prevention of erosion, weed invasion and many other related subjects. In the field of plant resources of South-East Asia no publications givesuc h thorough and comprehensive information asK.Heyne' s 'The useful plants of the Dutch East Indies' (1927) and I.H.Burkill's 'A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula' (1935). The reprint of both these bulky books, in 1950 and 1966 respectively, proves that there is definitely a need for this kind of information. The first publication was translated into Bahasa Indonesia in 1987 and 1988. W.H.Brown's 'Useful plants of the Philippines' (1941-1943), reprinted in 1951-1957, and Reyes' 'Philippine woods' (1938) provide useful information as well. For the purposes of PROSEA, South-East Asia includes Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and parts of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand and Burma. Strict definitions of the region include only the area from Malaysia to Papua New Guinea. However, from the floristic, agricultural and forestry points of view, all these countries and even Sri Lanka and part of India (Kerala) show some similarity. A great majority of the population in this region, a total of 300-400 million people, largely depends on the plant cover, the useful plants in particular, for its survival and well-being. A modern handbook giving information about possible uses of plants, both cultivated and growing wild, the plant resources, is needed for South-East Asia.

35 As for the wild flora, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea are in the favourable position of having a current taxonomie work that provides excellent basic information. Since 1950, a series of issues of 'Flora Malesiana' has been prepared by the National Herbarium in Leyden. They treat the species taxonomically, by family. In the last twenty years Wageningen Agricultural University has been asked several times to re-issue 'Heyne' in an updated and revised version. All attempts to do so failed, mainly because of lack of necessary financial support. In 1982, during a workshop on the research programme of the Regional Centre for Tropical Biology (BIOTROP), Bogor, of the South- East Asian Ministers of Education,Organizatio n (SEAMEO), a proposal to start a project on the useful plants of South-East Asia was approved and given priority. Very useful initiatives were undertaken in the context of this project. However, the financial and personnel basis again appeared to be inadequate for the enormous amount of work needed to realize a new handbook. In 1983,Wageninge n Agricultural University wasapproache d again and, finally, in 1985 it took the initiative of starting a research project on the plant resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA project). It agreed to support the project financially (after the preliminary phase too), in particular by cooperation of the Departments of Forestry, Plant Taxonomy and Tropical Crop Science. A small project team was appointed. However, co-financing by third parties in the Netherlands and abroad was of vital importance. Several institutions agreed to cooperate, i.e. the National Herbarium of Leyden University, theRoya lTropica l Institute in Amsterdam, and the Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (PUDOC) in Wageningen. The Netherlands Ministry of Education and Science pledged a subsidy in 1985. Extra manpower was made available by the University to prepare the publication of a proposal containing a description of the project, a framework of the planned handbook and asampl e treatment of aselectio n of South-East Asian plant resources written by various specialists. In 1986 'Plant resources of South-East Asia, proposal for a handbook' was published. This 'Proposal' has been presented to various senior government officials in Indonesia, the Netherlands, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Papua New Guinea, to national and international agencies and institutions, and to numerous persons engaged in research, education, extension and industry. In late 1986, the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries pledged a subsidy, and in 1987 the Directorate General of International Cooperation of the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs agreed to support the project financially as well, enabling the project to 'internationalize' its activities, in particular to solicit the participation of South-East Asian countries.

36 1.2 Objectives and Target Groups

1.2.1 Objectives

The PROSEA project is a long-term project and aims at:( 1) makin g the existing wealth of information on the plant resources of South-East Asia available for education, extension work, research and industry, in the form of an illustrated, multivolume handbook in English, and (2) making operational a computerized data bank on the plant resources of South-East Asia. This research project is not directed towards gaining new knowledge but to making the existing knowledge accessible, to disseminate it and, by doing so, to facilitate its use in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, botany and other disciplines. The existing knowledge concerns the use of the plants, their botanical properties, occurrence, ecology, husbandry, silviculture, harvesting, yields and processing, their chemical, physical, pharmaceutical and technical properties, as well as their economic importance, their nutritional value if relevant, their genetic resources and breeding. This up-to-date knowledge is integrated per species. An improved knowledge of the plant resources, in all aspects, contributes to a better use of the natural resources, and this benefits the individual farmer as well as the economy as a whole.

1.2.2 Target Groups

The following target groups are important for the project: (1) those professionally concerned with plant resources in South-East Asia and working in education, extension work, research and commercial production (direct users), and (2) those in South-East Asia depending directly on plant resources, but obtaining relevant information through extension (indirect users). In practice, the direct users will be people working in agricultural, forestry and botanical education, in the agricultural extension service, in agricultural and industrial research and in commercial, agricultural, silvicultural and industrial production. In the agricultural extension services of South-East Asia alone, a staff of about a hundred thousand is employed in Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand. For education in Indonesia alone, 7 universities have agricultural faculties and there are several dozens of agricultural colleges, about a hundred senior and hundreds of junior agricultural schools and agricultural training centres. In Indonesia alone, many thousands of students graduate each year. Although South-East Asia is such a vast region, it contains only a few libraries where current world literature can be consulted. For those working in education and extension services, such a library is rarely at hand. Information may be presented to the indirect users (mostly farmers) through specially prepared materials, such as brochures and leaflets, by the extension service or through other means. However, such information has to be based on the most up-to-date knowledge, but, of course, has to

37 be reshaped from the primary source: the handbook.

1.3 Various Aspects of the PROSEA Project

A handbook of this nature brings a lot of existing knowledge to the attention of a wide circle of users and can contribute to the development of agriculture and forestry in South-East Asia and so to rural development to which priority is given by the countries in the region. South-East Asia is one of the major emerging regions in the world. Here, agriculture occupies a key position both in providing food for hundreds of millions and as the vehicle for a more general economic development. Associated with this, the following aspects are relevant: the environment, research (data bank, gene bank), education, extension, lesser-known crops and other useful plants, and international cooperation (see Westphal & Jansen, 1986).

1.4 Phasing of Project Implementation

The project period has been tentatively divided into a preliminary phase, a preparatory phase and an implementation phase. The preliminary phase (1985-1986) was an 'in-house' Dutch exercise meant to investigate the viability of the PROSEA undertaking. It ended with the publication of 'Plant resources of South-East Asia, proposal for a handbook' (1986). In the preparatory phase (1987-1990) the main aims are to establish cooperation with South-East Asia through internationalization, documentation, consultation, publication, training, and to reach agreement on the scientific, organizational and financial structure of PROSEA. In the implementation phase (1991-1995) emphasis is on the actual compilation, editing and publishing of the handbook, and making the computerized data bank operational.

2. The Preparatory Phase of the PROSEA Project (1987-1990)

The major task facing the PROSEA project during this period is to lay a sound basis for the implementation phase 1991-1995, while at the same time continuing to produce concrete results.

2.1 Internationalization

Cooperation with institutions in South-East Asia, forming a field network of Country Offices, has been established with: (1) the Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Bogor (Indonesia), under the aegis of the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI); it houses the Indonesia Country Office and the Regional Office South-East Asia, (2) the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia); it accommodates the Malaysia Country Office, (3) the Papua New Guinea University of Technology, Lae (Papua NewGuinea) ;i thouse sth ePapu a New Guinea Country Office, (4) the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD), Los

38 Banos (the Philippines); the Philippines Country Office is located at the Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB) of the University of the Philippines, and (5) the Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (TISTR), Bangkok (Thailand); the Thailand Country Office is located on the premises of the Agrotechnology Department of TISTR. The objective of the field network is to collect data at the source and to ensure optimal participation of South-East Asian institutions and scientists in the PROSEA undertaking. At the end of 1988 the Regional Office South-East Asia and the Country Offices of Indonesia, the Philippines and Thailand were in full operation. The Offices of Malaysia and Papua New Guinea opened at the beginning of 1989. The Netherlands Country Office and the Regional Office Europe are located at Wageningen Agricultural University. Cooperation has been established through the Regional Office Europe with the 'Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle', Paris (France) and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (United Kingdom), mainly through collabora tion with leading experts on certain plant families.

2.2 Documentation

A documentation and information system, called SAPRIS (South-East Asian Plant Resources Information System), has been developed for information storage and retrieval. SAPRIS consists of a number of data bases which will be explained in detail in the paper by Oyen & Wulijarni- Soetjipto. The Netherlands Country Office is in the best position to perform on line searches in international literature and directories. The main task of the network of Country Offices in South-East Asia is to document the less accessible local know-how. These inventories are essential to ensure optimal participation of South-East Asian scientists as authors.

2.3 Consultation

The internationalization of the project necessitates timely reflection on the course of the project, the form and contents of the output, project organization and future funding. The First PROSEA International Symposium (May 22-25, 1989), held about half-way through the preparatory phase, brings together plant resources scientists, policy-makers and representatives of international agencies, donors included. It will be an appropriate occasion to highlight the importance of the plant resources of South-East Asia through Commodity Group Reports, Country Reports and Plant Resources Reports, to review the progress made so far, and to discuss the form and contents of the handbook on the basis of a number of well-defined symposium documents and publications. Recommendations for the implementation phase (1991-1995) will be formulated and evaluated later by the Board of Governors of the PROSEA project.

39 2.4 Publication

Although PROSEA is still in the preparatory phase, the project policy is 'to get the wagons rolling while the track is being laid', that is: work has started on the preparation of publications while the operational basis of the project is still in the making. The philosophy behind this approach is that the progress of the first wagons is the best indication of the capacity of the track to carry the long train of volumes, which together will form the handbook on the plant resources of South-East Asia. As soon as the project was formally launched in 1987, work started on new publications. The 'Pulses' were selected as the first commodity group to be tackled. Reactions to the 'Proposal' suggested that a larger publication, comprising a few representatives from each commodity group and including a number of major crops, might bea good test of the PROSEA approach and at the same time a valuable textbook. Thus 'A selection' of plant resources became the second wagon on the rails. Another special publication is the 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping'. The importance of this document is obvious: the entire concept of the handbook becomes more clear once a consolidated list shows which species are to be treated in which commodity groups. Such a consolidated list is still a long way off; for the time being the 'Basic list' is a working document subject to continuous revision. The first version comprises all the useful species mentioned in the publications of Heyne, Burkill, Brown and Reyes. At present, the botanical names are being updated with the greatly appreciated assistance of experts from many countries. The next step will be to enter the names of species described since the old handbooks were written some 50-60 years ago. The 'Pulses', 'A selection' and the 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping' have been published for this First PROSEA International Symposium. They serve as a basis for discussions on the form and content of the handbook. Meanwhile, it has been decided that the 'Edible fruits and nuts' will be the next commodity group to be dealt with. With more than 400 species in the 'Basic list' this is a large and diverse commodity group. Preparatory work is in progress and authors are already being invited to contribute to this volume; it is scheduled for publication by the end of 1990. Work on the 'Dye and tannin-producing plants' has been started, whereas preparations for the commodity groups 'Rattans', 'Bamboos', 'Forages', 'Spices' and 'Vegetables' are under way. Introductions to these 7 commodity groups will be presented at the symposium. So, more volumes are sent rolling along the track as experience is being gained. This is of course necessary to complete the handbook within a reasonable period of time (see also Figure 1).

2.5 Training

Training programmes are currently being formulated for PROSEA personnel in South-East Asia. It is expected that appropriate training programmes can be realized in, for instance, the fields of documentation andinformatio n techniquesan deconomi c botany.

40 Figure 1. PROSEA publication umbrella.

41 L 2.6 Fund-Raising

Nearly all funding has been obtained through Netherlands agencies, in particular from the Ministries of Education and Science, Agriculture and Fisheries,: and Foreign Affairs (Directorate General for International Cooperation), whereas Wageningen Agricultural University and the Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation (PUDOC) contribute considerably in manpower and facilities. The institutions in South-East Asia housing the Country Offices mainly contribute in kind. A project proposal of PROSEA for participation in the Research and Development Programme 'Science and Technology for Development' of the Commission of the European Community was not accepted in 1988.Althoug h positive reactions were received from FAO and UNESCO, no financial sup port has so far materialized. It is very encouraging that the 'Yayasan Sarana Wanajaya' in Indonesia has decided to financially support certain aspects of PROSEA. A well-orchestrated effort of PROSEA International to tap national and international financial resources is one of the main tasks lying ahead in the second part of this preparatory phase of the project.

3. Key Issues

3.1 Scientific Content and Quality

3.1.1 Arrangement of Species in Commodity Groups

The basic unit of the PROSEA handbook is the species.Thes e units can be arranged in different ways, giving rise to a certain arrangement of species, which finally gives rise to the handbook. Because so many species are involved (about 5,000), the handbook will be a multivolume publication. Three modes of arrangement are possible. The plant species can be arranged alphabetically by botanical name. Starting with species beginning with the letter A, the handbook would eventually reach Z (as did Burkill, 1935). Another approach is to arrange the plants by family according to a certain taxonomie classification, and alphabetically by species within each family (as did Heyne, 1927). A third approach is classification by commodity group. The last criterion is most flexible. It does not require a detailed general picture in advance of what to include and what to leave out. After the commodity groups have been decided on, each can be worked out separately. Classification by commodity has the advantage that general aspects of a group can be treated in introductory chapters. That is advantageous for agricultural, horticultural and forestry plants. For example, fruits for consumption are principally cultivated in home gardens in South-East Asia. The volume on 'Edible fruits and nuts' would obviously begin with a chapter on the system of home gardening, with its scope and limitations (see paper by Verheij & Coronel). Arrangement by commodity relates more closely to daily practices and facilitates revision of the text.

42 A disadvantage, however, is that multipurpose plants belong to more than one group. These plants can be fitted into the appropriate group according to their primary use, and can be treated completely in that group. For secondary uses, reference is made in the relevant group to the treatment of the plant in the commodity group of primary use.Cassava , for example, is in the first place a starch-producing plant, and has secondary uses as forage and as leaf vegetable. After elaborate discussions with experts from all over the world, PROSEAha sadopte dth ethir dapproach ,distinguishin g3 9commodit ygroup s in the 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping'. Since some commodity groups included in the 'Basic list' are small, it became desirable to cluster them into larger units. At present, PROSEA distinguishes 21 commodity groups (see paper by Lemmense t al.). 3.1.2 Plant Species to be Considered

Thousands of useful plants are known in South-East Asia. Heyne described some 3,000 plants, paying little attention to ornamental plants. For organizational and financial reasons, it is desirable to keep the number of plant species to be treated to a provisional maximum of 5,000. Which plant species are included in the handbook will depend partly on sample surveys in South-East Asia, on the outcome of the survey of literature on useful plants and on the contributions of specialists. Selection and mode of treatment are not only determined by economic importance, but also by considerations such as the prospects for species that have not yet assumed much importance or that have not yet been introduced into South-East Asia. Another consideration is whether to include as many plant species as possible, perhaps at the expense of the amount of information that can begive n about each, or to limit the number and concentrate on depth of treatment.

3.1.3 Method of Treatment For the 'Pulses' and 'A selection', the number of pages for the textual treatment was based on the importance of the species. The categories are 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 page, and some species receive tabular treatment only. An illustration can be included within the allocated number of pages. Information is given on the following aspects, depending on the plant species: general information, botany, ecology, agronomy or silviculture, genetic resources and breeding, other aspects, literature (see paper by Jansen & Westphal).

3.1.4 Categories of Treatment Assuming 5,000 plant species, 8% of these lie within the categories of 3, 4, and 5 pages, 12%i n the category of 2 pages, 50% in the category of 1pag e and 30% receive only tabular treatment. Based on the anticipated distribution of text categories, 5,350 pages will be needed to deal with the 5,000 plants (Table 1). For each of the 21 commodity groups, an introduction of up to 10 pages (in total, 210 pages)

43 Table 1. Overview of text categories, the number of plant species and the number of pages.

Text cat egory Number of plant species Number of pages

5 pages 50 (1%) 250 4 pages 50 (1%) 200 3 pages 300 (6%) 900 2 pages 600 (12%) 1,200 1 page 2,500 (50%) 2,500 tabular 1,500 (30%) 300

Total 5,000 (100%) 5,350

has been assigned. Including a 10% margin for the basic text, this gives a total number of pages of about 6,100.

3.2 Documentation and Information System

TheSAPRI Ssyste mprovide s the necessarysuppor t indocumentatio n and information management for the production of the PROSEA handbook (see paper by Oyen & Wulijarni-Soetjipto). The handbook will, however, only give a picture of the state of knowledge at the time of compilation. The updating and operation of a computerized data bank on plant resources of South-East Asia is as yet beyond the scope of the project, although the idea certainly merits consideration. The present information can be modified to suit specific ecological zones and/or target groups by using advanced techniques of communication (see paper by Schippers).

3.3 Organization and Finances

At this stage PROSEA comprises 6 Country Offices (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Thailand), each headed by a Project leader, and 2 Regional Offices (Europe, Wageningen; South-East Asia, Bogor), headed by a Regional Coordinator. It iscoordinate d by a Daily Management Team and supervised by a Multilateral Steering Committee. In 3 countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Netherlands), a National PROSEA Committee is supervising the national activities. This loose structure, based on nucleus cooperation between Indonesia and the Netherlands, needs further consolidation at international level in this phase. Manpower for management, fund-raising, administration, writing, editing and publishing are at present mainly made available in the Netherlands and Indonesia. However, many authors from the South-East Asian region have already participated in the 3 publications of PROSEA. Most funds have been raised in the Netherlands. International funding is an urgent priority to be taken up in 1989 and 1990. Funding may partly be realized by specific organizations adopting certain volumes of the handbook. Initial steps have already been taken.

44 3.4 Publication Policy

Such an extensive work requires cooperation from many experts on the plant resources of South-East Asia. Another important advantage of using the commodity group approach is that the PROSEA project can in fact be structured as a chain of subprojects. This provides interesting possibilities at the level of management, financing, and editing. For plant resources specialists it is attractive to be involved as an editor of a particular group of plants. In the case of the 'Pulses' and 'A selection', 2 editors were involved for each of the publications. Authors were selected and invited to contribute papers on certain plant resources. Authors received strict guidelines about the length and presentation of their contributions (see paper by Jansen & Westphal). The editors wrote the introduction. Various associate editors or readers were actively involved in assisting the editors in the evaluation and upgrading of the manuscripts. The editing of the papers appeared to be a major task. After delivery of the manuscripts to the publisher an in-house editor guided the printing and publishing stages of the publications. As new publications are in the making ('Edible fruits and nuts', 'Dye and tannin-producing plants') the series will be guided for the moment by 2 general editors, to guarantee scientific quality, uniformity of treatment, and a regular flow of publications. So far, editors and authors from the South-East Asian region have received a fee for their contribution.

3.5 Phasing

The final size of the multivolume handbook will be determined by the total number of species to be treated. So far, PROSEA has adhered to the treatment of 5,000 plant resources. If this target is to be reached, the implementation phase of the project should also be phased. If this target cannot be met within a reasonable period of time, it might be appropriate to reconsider the total number of species receiving a textual treatment, by: (1) reducing the number of commodity groups, and/or (2)reducin g the number of species per commodity receiving textual treatment, and/or (3) reducing the allocated number of printed pages for textually treated species.

4. The PROSEA Project in Perspective

The PROSEA project isa n INTERNATIONAL undertaking, focused on South-East Asian plant resources. It gives many plant resources specialists of that region the possibility of participating in its various activities (information gathering, documentation, publishing and dissemination). PROSEA is INTERDISCIPLINARY by nature, covering the fields of agriculture, horticulture, forestry and botany. The interplay between these disciplines is important. In terms of land use the interests of agriculture and forestry run parallel in the rural areas (Otto, 1987). Tropical biology, botany included, is constrained by a legacy of neglect,

45 unlike its achievements in the past (see paper by Kalkman). Reweaving the fabric of diversity can hardly start as long as the strands remain unknown (Wolf, 1987). PROSEA is a RESEARCH project evaluating existing knowledge on thousands of species, making it available for education, extension, research and commercial production. All species are important and deserve some attention. This may be realized by more research attention from national universities, and the preparation of inventories of the native plant cover. Moreover, education should provide comprehensive knowledge relevant to local conditions (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Most international research deals with a small number of widely grown food crops, whereas at least 3,000 plants have been used for food in human history. Restricting research to familiar crops may diminish possible new developments in agriculture and forestry (Wolf, 1986). The PROSEA project is ECOLOGICALLY focused on promoting plant resources for sustainable tropical land-use systems. The conservation of agricultural resources is urgent, since in many tropical regions cultivation has already been extended to marginal lands, and forestry and fisheries resources have been overexploited. Agricultural production can only be sustained in the long term if the land, water and the forests are not degraded. Therefore, land use in agriculture and forestry should be based on a scientific assessment of land capacity. Rural fuelwood supplies are diminishing rapidly in many tropical countries. Given the basic need for domestic fuel the solution in the short and medium term is to grow fuelwood as a subsistence crop (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). In this respect it is important to gather, organize and disseminate information on national biological diversity in a form useful to national policy-makers (Wolf, 1987). Finally, PROSEA is committed to RURAL DEVELOPMENT through diversification of resources and application of farmers' knowledge. More investment is needed to enhance the environment and the productivity of the resource sectors. Such efforts include reforestation, fuelwood development, watershed protection, soil conservation, agroforestry, small- scale agriculture, and conversion of crops into fuel (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987). Traditional farming methods mimic natural ecological processes, and the sustainability of many traditional practices lies in the ecological modes they follow. This use of natural analogies suggests principles for the design of agricultural practices to make the most of sunlight, soil nutrients and rainfall (Wolf, 1986). The important issue for the coming years is how to combine agriculture and forestry to raise the productivity of food, fuel and timber, and how to improve income and living standards for the rural population. This issue is complex, because the forests also have to maintain the environmental stability on which continued agricultural production depends. Rural development should contain the following major elements: (1) the increase and diversification of agricultural production on existing crop land and pastures, and (2) the planting of new trees and forests near the villages and the reforestation of eroded lands unsuited for agricultural use (Otto, 1987).

46 So let us conserve and use the environment and natural resources for the benefit of the present and future generations, in particular those of South-East Asia.

5. References

Brown,W.H., 1951-1957. Useful plants of the Philippines. Reprint of the 1941-1943 edition. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin No. 10. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Vol. 1(1951 ) 590 pp., Vol. 2 (1954) 513 pp., Vol. 3 (1957) 507 pp. BurkillJ.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Reprint of the 1935 edition with some corrections added. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1(A-H ) pp. 1-1240, Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444. Heyne,K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië. [The useful plants of the Dutch East Indies]. 2nd (enlarged) edition. Vol.1-3. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indië. 1953 pp. Otto,W.M., 1987. Forestry and agriculture: an alliance for survival. In: C.F.van Beusekom, C.P.van Goor & P.Schmidt (editors). Wise utilization of tropical rainforest lands. Tropenbos Scientific Series 1:94-102. Reyes,L.G., 1938. Philippine woods. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Technical Bulletin No. 7. Bureau of Printing, Manilar536 pp. + 88 plates. Westphal,E. & P.C.M.Jansen (editors), 1986. Plant resources of South-East Asia, proposal for a handbook. PUDOC, Wageningen. 76 pp. Wolf,E.C, 1986. Beyond the green revolution: new approaches for third world agriculture. Worldwatch Paper 73. Worldwatch Institute, Washington D.C. 46 pp. Wolf,E.C, 1987. On the brink of extinction: conserving the diversity of life. Worldwatch Paper 78. Worldwatch Institute, Washington D.C. 53 pp. World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987.Ou r common future. Oxford University Press, Oxford/New York. 383 pp.

47 Economic Botany in South-East Asia

C.Kalkman

Rijksherbarium/Hortus Botanicus, P.O.Box 9514, 2300 RA Leyden, Netherlands

1. The Field of Economic Botany

What is economic botany? Within botany it is that field of knowledge, study and research that is concerned with the plants used by man. In Europe, botany split off in the 16th century from a medical specialism (the science and knowledge of healing herbs) to become a discipline in its own right. In other cultures botany has, as far as I know, never proceeded beyond the study of useful, harmful, or beautiful plants. Seeing that the first interests of scientific botany were the medicinal plants and of course the food plants, one can contend that economic botany is the oldest and original kind of botany. The combination of the words 'economic' and 'botany' is a strange one for many people. In the minds of many, botany is still a harmless occupation, as it was over 100 years ago for Alphonse de Candolle (1880), who wrote the famous words (translated): 'Botany may not shine on its own with great lustre, it has the advantage that the mistakes of its practisers do not bring harm to anyone'. Nevertheless, this same De Candolle is one of the fathers of economic botany, since he is the author of the first book on the history of cultivated plants (1882). Still, even nowadays many people do notrealiz eth ecomplet edependenc e of mankind on the plant world and, in consequence, the importance of scientific botany in an economic sense too. Biology and botany are often subdivided according to the level of integration on which the research centres: the levels of molecule, cell, organism, population and biocoenosis. Some subdisciplines operate at different levels, such as evolutionary biology and systematics. Economic botany centres on those properties, attributes and relationships of the plants that are in some way related to the use of these plants by man. It does not operate on one level, and several botanical subdisciplines are involved, from molecular genetics to systematic botany. One of the most conspicuous aspects of economic botany is that it has so many relations to other sciences and actually its most attractive character is that a sharp restriction to botanical matter is hardly possible. The student of economic botany simply has to trespass on other fields of knowledge. In the first place, economic botany is hard to delimit from the science of agronomy. Certainly, some of the more technical and technological parts of that science are not relevant for economic botany, but other parts are distinctly related or overlapping. The less-advanced forms of agriculture are more interesting for the student of economic botany than the modern, highly industrialized forms. The older books on

48 tropical agriculture, like Van Gorkom (1880-1881)contai n matter belonging to economic botany in almost every chapter. The same holds for forestry science. The use of forest products and everything connected with that use, are subjects for economic botany, but modern forestry and the associated technology of extraction and product manufacturing are not of much interest. However, the problems of reforestation are certainly partly botanical problems. Economic botany has a special relation with anthropology and the domain where the disciplines of botany and anthropology meet is called ethnobotany. The usual definition of this field is that it is concerned with the use of plants by people not advanced technologically. Ethnobotanical studies are often restricted to the production of lists of species used for stated purposes by a certain people. Wherever ethnobotany advances beyond this phase of listing, the questions asked and the generalities produced are usually anthropological, not botanical. The study of folk classifications belongs to the philosophy of science. The history of cultivated plants is a fascinating subject. The study of the evolutionary history of plants, their development in the course of time, is a purely botanical subject. The biological tools of genome analysis and variation pattern analysis have revealed the evolutionary history of many old cultivated plants. Archeology, pre- and protohistory have added data stemming from different approaches. For several now important tropical plant products, however, history only starts a couple of centuries ago and botanical methods are irrelevant. The history of the peregrinations of people and their crops, as far as evidenced by printed (or painted) matter is a fascinating subject, although the botanical component is weak. Usually, and this also holds for ethnobotany, these studies need botanical knowledge but do not add to it.

2. Beginnings of Tropical Botany in South-East Asia

In the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch and the British were prominent in what Heniger (1986) has called colonial botany, the body of botanical knowledge that became available through the colony-building activities of the European nations. The British East Indian Company and the Dutch V.O.C. (United East-Indian Companies) were primarily trading companies aiming to bring profit to the European countries. However, the mental climate in the two countries mentioned, and in other European countries, was such that not only financial profit counted. There was also a sincere admiration for, and astonishment about the wonders of the creation, and a scientific curiosity. The interest of the elite class of bankers and magistrates was not only monetary but also scientific, albeit in the non-sophisticated way prevalent in the period. The interest in the plant world of the newly-discovered countries was stimulated by the possibility that among the innumerable strange plants new applications could be found: new food, new medicine, maybe in the first place for the colonial settlements themselves but maybe also for the home population. Thus, Van Reede tot Drakenstein, V.O.C. Commander of the Dutch settlement of Malabar (the present Indian State of Kerala) wrote 'Hortus

49 Indicus Malabaricus', in the last quarter of the 17th century. He was an excellent commander and his biographer, Heniger (1986), suggests that his botanical interest was triggered by his care for the well-being of his charges, as to be expected from a good commander. Since there is nothing new under the sun, in my opinion it cannot be ruled out that he merely wanted to pursue his scientific hobby and that he was clever enough to invent a cover of usefulness, to persuade the Lords XVII to pay for the preparations. Rumphius' masterpiece,'Herbariu m Amboinense',wa sth efirs t and only of the great works of this kind in the 17th and 18th centuries for the region covered by PROSEA. Rumphius worked and wrote in roughly thesam e period as Van Reede tot Drakenstein did, from c. 1660 to 1700, but his work was not published until 1741-1750 (and an additional volume in 1755). 'Herbarium Amboinense' is of course a very famous work, and Van Slooten (1959) has already hailed Rumphius as an economic botanist. However, his interest reached much farther than the uses of plants and covered the animal and plant world in general. From whatever point of view, Rumphius was a solitary giant for this part of the world, until the 19th century. Some time ago (see Dransfield, in: Tan, 1977, p. 286) the production of an English translation of Rumphius was suggested. It would be very nice to have not only a row of PROSEA books but also a translated 'Herbarium Amboinense' on the shelf in the near future. However, as Dransfield said, the plan may be too ambitious. In the 17th and 18th centuries there was also some botanical activity in the Philippines, although , to cite the words of Merrill (1903), the Spanish Government gave little encouragement to the study of the flora of the Islands. A small number of Spanish missionaries paid attention to the flora and wrote manuscripts about the subject, usually paying special attention to the uses of the plants, especially for medicinal purposes. Their works were often not printed or only published much later.

3. The 19th and 20th Centuries

The development of tropical botany in general can be described as proceeding along three different tracks. Botanical knowledge and botanical science could flourish because of: (1) the activities of botanic gardens, (2) botanical exploration, and (3) botanical research.

3.1 Botanic Gardens

The botanic gardens founded in the 19th century in the region concerned are: (1) Buitenzorg, now Bogor, in Indonesia, founded in 1817, (2) Singapore, founded in 1874 (but with forerunners from 1822), and (3) Penang, in West Malaysia, founded in 1884 (but with a forerunner as early as 1796). The reasons behind their establishment fitted in the colonial philosophy of that period. What we now call the search for plant genetic resources started in the early 19th century as the search for useful

50 plants from tropical and other newly-explored countries, useful plants that could bring profit. Also, the activities of the botanic gardens were strongly directed towards economic botany: the introduction, testing and distribution of new crops of which para rubber, oil palm, cinchona and tea are well-known examples. However, the botanic gardens also had a more general function in the development of botany. They were a focal point of professional and amateur botanists, and also performed pure botanical research. They kept these functions until the second world war. The 3 botanic gardens mentioned above were followed by others, but in my opinion, there is room for several more in this region. The role of botanic gardens has changed and the number of symposia on that subject is, in my opinion, more a sign of an identity crisis than of self-confidence. Yet, apart from other important functions like educating the general public, botanic gardens in the tropics can also now play a role in the enlargement of botanical knowledge on useful or potentially useful plants. In the network of plant resources research they must be able, given the necessary funds and manpower, to make a distinct contribution. Whereas in the large agricultural institutes priority is given to research and breeding efforts in the major crops, botanic gardens are less constrained and are well suited to study minor crops, useful plants collected from the wild, and also the plants that could become of value in the future. '

3.2 Botanical Exploration

Botanical exploration of the South-East Asian countries has contributed a vast number of facts about the flora. Herbarium specimens have accumulated in institutes in and outside the countries where they were collected, and from the labels accompanying the specimens some information can be extracted about local uses (see Von Reis Altschul, 1973). However, this is rather insignificant as a contribution to economic botany, the information being very incidental, not corroborated, and hidden away in the herbaria. Much more significant were and are specialized surveys, although they are rare. One recent example is the collecting surveys of Mangifera (mango) species and races, as executed by Bompard in collaboration with Kostermans (Bompard & Kostermans, 1985). Earlier there were other examples. Jeswiet from Wageningen, who from 1912 to 1925 worked at the Sugar Research Station at Pasuruan, Java, joined an expedition headed by Brandes of the USDA Division of Sugar Plant Investigations to Papua New Guinea, at the time (1928) still a very remote place to visit (Brandes, 1929). They were searching for wild and locally cultivated sugar-cane species and indeed did find, among others, Saccharum robustum, a species that entered breeding immediately and with positive results (although it was not formally described until 1946). Another example is provided by the successful expedition made by Simmonds in 1954/55 to several countries in South-East Asia and the Pacific, aimed at the collection of Musa germplasm (Simmonds, 1956). Exploration of plant resources also includes forest exploration and

51 this has been executed with enthusiasm by the forest services and departments of all countries involved. Numerous reports have been produced and the results of the explorations have been used in planning the exploitation of timber but also of minor forest products like rattans and resins. The super-exploitation of forest resources in our days is no longer based on careful exploration and planning, and economic botany is hardly relevant to it, if at all. Another specialized kind of resources survey is the pharmaceutical survey. The latest one of the kind, now in operation and also covering South-East Asia, is the survey sponsored by the US National Cancer Institute and aimed at finding plants containing principles active against cancer and/or AIDS. The chances of finding new cures are slight, but the survey will add distinctly to our knowledge of general and economic botany. Botanical resources surveys are nowadays mainly initiated and coordinated by the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). In 1975 and 1985 at the International Symposia on South-East Asian Plant Genetic Resources at Bogor and Jakarta respectively (Williams et al., 1975; Mehra & Sastrapradja, 1985), reports were given on the state of exploration, conservation and use in breeding for several crops: fruit trees, Cocos, Citrus, Ipomoea batatas, etc. The IBPGR Regional Committee for the South-East Asian Programme has set its priorities, and the National Committee on Conservation of Plant Genetic Resourceso f Indonesia and other comparable national organizations are jointly active in this field. Accessions are accumulating in seed banks and garden plots. A large part of these activities I would hesitate to claim for economic botany, but there are definite relations.

3.3 Botanical Research

Botanical research in the context of economic botany is often monodisciplinary, although it may be placed within a general multidisciplinary programme for the study of a certain crop or a certain promising resource. In this part of the world and in many others it is taxonomical research that has played a major role. The large surveying works like those of Heyne (1913-1917, 1927, 1950), Brown (1920-1921, 1941-1943), Ochse (1931a, 1931b) and Burkill (1935) leaned heavily on taxonomy, all information being linked to scientific names and, therefore, dependent on identification. One of the aims of plant systematics is to produce a classification that is useful to non-taxonomists too. That is not its only purpose: systematics also aims to clarify the existing biodiversity in terms of environmental influence, genetic potential and evolutionary history. Apart from that, however, classification is important as a tool for identification and registration. The problem for taxonomists and taxonomical institutes is that both purposes, the purely scientific and the practical, are valuable and must be pursued. General Floras are useful in economic botany too. For parts of the PROSEA area a few general floras are in existence or are being prepared.

52 They are well known and there isn o need toenumerat e them here. However, not all taxonomists have an eye for the economic importance of plants and obviously they often make their choice of specialization on other grounds: morphological, biological, ecological interest, taxonomical difficulty, evolutionary promise. So it is not always the economically most important plant groups for which a satisfactory taxonomical treatment has been published. Sometimes taxonomists have been and are well-intentioned. For example, the series of taxonomical contributions that was published in the 'Bulletin du Jardin Botanique de Buitenzorg', and called 'Contributions à l'étude de la flore des Indes Néerlandaises'. When this series started in 1923, Smith wrote in the foreword: 'in the first place those families that have some economic importance will be treated'. But of the 28 families published up to 1941, there are less than 10 to which this could apply, like Dipterocarpaceae, Ebenaceae, Sapotaceae and some other tree families. Tree Floras have, of old, been a device to appease foresters in the absence of a general flora. Kurz (1877), Pierre (1880-1907) and Koorders & Valeton (1894-1914) led the way, but in recent times Tree Floras have also been published for parts of the region, such as the 'Tree Flora of Malaya' (Ng, 1978; Whitmore 1972-1973). Weed Floras are also of relevance, since weeds are economically important, albeit in a negative sense. Still, few weed floras have been written and published. The most recent is the pleasing book on 'weeds of rice in Indonesia (Soerjani et al., 1987), but the older surveys in Dutch by Backer & Van Slooten (1924) and Backer (1928-1934) were of the same kind. Identification at the species level of wild plants used for some purpose, locally or more widely, is of course of great importance but is often very difficult, if not impossible to accomplish. The state of taxonomical knowledge in many families often does not permit a reliable identification. Even Heyne, who started his Museum of Economic Botany at Bogor in 1903 (this was probably the first institute in the world with the term economic botany in its name!), could not always obtain the correct identifications he needed, notwithstanding the presence of a well-equipped herbarium and the help of Backer. The institute was moulded by Treub, director of the Botanic Gardens, after the example of the Museum of Economic Products of Calcutta, and Heyne's famous book 'De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië' was inspired by Watt's Dictionary of 1889-1893, but in lay-out especially by the abridged version entitled 'The commercial products of India' (1908). In turn, Watt and Heyne were the inspiration for Burkill (1935). A final remark about the role of taxonomy in the study of plants used by man. Plant species that have been in cultivation or semi-cultivation for a long time, may be poorly accessible for a herbarium taxonomist. He or she may be inclined to underrate the differences that exist. On the other hand, investigators of living plants may be misled by the differences in the used parts of the plants, which are caused by centuries of unconscious selection. This may result in what actually are landraces being described as species. This is not a reproach, but a plea for collaboration or for the combination of field and herbarium research.

53 Genetics is the most important of the other botanical subdisciplines that are relevant for economic botany. Genetic research paves the way for scientific breeding. This was realized early in the history of genetics. Experimental stations, etc. have for long incorporated genetic research and this kind of research still has the full attention of economic botanists in South-East Asia too, where, for instance, the International Rice Research Institute is active on a large scale, and other bodies are active on a smaller scale. I hope I will be forgiven for not elaborating on other botanical or semi-botanical subdisciplines such as physiology, ecology, phytochemistry and plant biotechnology that also have contributions to make to economic botany.

4. PROSEA and Economic Botany

After too long a period of uncoordinated activities in the various countries of South-East Asia, the PROSEA project is now trying to combine national efforts into one series of books, the subject of this symposium. These books are not exclusively devoted to economic botany. As was the case in the books mentioned earlier, by Watt, Heyne, Burkill, etc., there will be much botany in the text but mixed with data on technology, breeding, cultivation methods, etc. The revival of South-East Asian economic botany that will be one of the results of the execution of the PROSEA project is very welcome. Economicbotan y orPROSE A willno t bythemselve s rescue theworl d from the many dangers threatening the biological environment, but they can serve as small but essential contributions to the well-being of mankind in this part of the world. High hopes about new medicinal plants that will eradicate deadly diseases and joyous speculations about new food plants that could eradicate hunger are not realistic. The major food plants were discovered and put to use at the dawn of civilization and these choices cannot be unmade now, but only marginally besupplemented . Obviously, the people of all countries and continents have been exploring their plant world for many centuries and not much has escaped their notice. However, the potential of the tropical plant world has not yet been explored exhaustively and it is probable that several species can be manipulated to make a greater impact on the economy and on the well-being of the people. An extension of tropical economic botany over a large array of subdisciplines and approaches will produce many useful facts and visions. Economic botany is one of the tools of development, in an economic sense and also in a scientific sense.

5. References

Backer,C.A., 1928-1934. Onkruidflora der Javasche suikerrietgronden, Soerabaia. 907 pp. Backer,C.A.&D.F.van Slooten, 1924.Geïllustreer d handboek der Javaansche theeonkruiden en hunne betekenis voor de cultuur. Ruygrok, Batavia. Bompard,J.M. & A.J.G.H.Kostermans, 1985. Wild Mangifera species in Kalimantan, Indonesia. In: K.L.Mehra & S.Sastrapradja (editors):

54 Proceedings of the International Symposium on South-East Asian Plant Genetic Resources. LBN-LIPI, Bogor. p. 172. Brandes,E.W., 1929. Into primeval Papua by seaplane. National Geographic Magazine 66:253-332. Brown,W.H.(editor), 1920-1921. Minor products of Philippine forests, Vol. 1-3. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Brown,W.H. 1941-1943. Useful plants of the Philippines, Vol. 1-3. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin No. 10. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 1610 pp. (reprint, 1951-1957). BurkillJ.H., 1935. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula, Vol.1-2 . Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. 2402 pp. (slightly altered reprint, 1966. Ministry of Agriculture and Co operatives, Kuala Lumpur. 2444 pp.). Candolle,A.L.P.P.de, 1880. La phytographie. Masson, Paris, xxiv + 484 pp. Candolle,A.L.P.P.de, 1882. Origine des plantes cultivées. Baillière, Paris, viii + 377 pp. Gorkom,K.W.van, 1880-1881. De Oost-Indische cultures,Vol .1 -2. De Bussy, Amsterdam. HenigerJ., 1986. Hendrik Adriaan van Reede tot Drakenstein (1636-1691) and Hortus Malabaricus. Balkema, Rotterdam. 295 pp. Heyne,K., 1913-1917. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië, Vol. 1-4. Ruygrok, Batavia. (2nd edition, 1927, Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indië. 3rd edition, 1950. W.van Hoeve, 's-Gravenhage/Bandung). Koorders,S.H. & Th.Valeton, 1894-1914. Boomflora van Java. Vol. 1-13. Kolff, Batavia. Kurz,S., 1877. Forest flora of British Burma, Vol. 1-2. Government Printers, Calcutta. Mehra,K.L. & S.Sastrapradja (editors), 1985. Proceedings of the International Symposium on South-East Asian Plant Genetic Resources. LBN-LIPI, Bogor. 211 pp. Merrill,E.D., 1903. Botanical work in the Philippines. Bulletin Bureau of Agriculture, Manila No. 4. 53 pp. Ng,F.S.P.(editor), 1978. Tree flora of Malaya, Vol.3. Longman, London. Ochse,J.J., 1931a. Vruchten en vruchtenteelt in Nederlandsch Oost-Indië. (also translated as: Fruits and fruitculture in the Dutch East Indies, 1931). Ochse,J.J., 1931b. Indische groenten. Departement van Landbouw, Buitenzorg. 1001 pp. (also translated as: Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies. Archipel, Buitenzorg. Reprinted with notes, Asher, Amsterdam, 1977). Pierre,L., 1880-1907. Flore forestière de la Cochinchine, parts 1-26. Doin, Paris. Reedeto tDrakenstein,H.A.van , 1678-1693.Hortu sIndicu sMalabaricus ,Vol . 1-12. Amsterdam. Reis Altschul,S.von, 1973. Drugs and foods from little-known plants. Notes in Harvard University Herbaria. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, xii + 366 pp. Rumphius,G., 1741-1755. Herbarium Amboinense, Vol. 1-6+ Auct. , Amster dam.

55 Simmonds,N.W., 1956.A bananacollectin gexpeditio n toSouth-Eas t Asiaan d the Pacific. Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad 33:251-271. Slooten,D.F.van, 1959. Rumphius as an economic botanist. In: H.C.D.de Wit (editor), Rumphius memorial volume. Hollandia, Baarn. pp. 295-338. Soerjani,M., A.J.G.H.Kosterman s &G.Tjitrosoepomo , 1987.Weed so f rice in Indonesia. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. 716 pp. Tan,K.(editor), 1977. Sago-76: Papers of the First International Sago Symposium. Kemadjuan Kanji, Kuala Lumpur. 330 pp. Watt,G., 1889-1893. A dictionary of the economic products of India, Vol. 1-6. Government Printers, Calcutta. Watt,G., 1908.Th e commercial products of India.Murray , London. 1189pp . Whitmore.T.C.(editor) , 1972-1973.Tre e flora of Malaya, Vol.1-2 . Longman, London. Williams,J.T., C.H.Lamoureux & N.Wulijarni-Soetjipto (editors), 1975. South-East Asian plant geneticresources .IBPGR/BIOTROP/LIPI , Bogor. 272 pp.

56 PROSEA's Scientific Merits and Limitations

Salleh Mohd.Nor

Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1. Introduction

South-East Asia harbours the world's most diversified plant communities, considered by botanists as the world's oldest. The richness of the South-East Asian tropical rainforests was only explored towards the end of the last century, which marked the beginning of botany in the region. The botanical activities of the early explorers not only uncovered the enormous plant genetic resources for mankind, but also helped enhance botany as a science, especially since many of the South-East Asian taxa are unique, some of which have botanical names originating from the region, e.g.Caladium, Cananga,Koompassia, Pandanus, Pinanga, Salacca and Shorea. This rich and diverse resource offers unlimited opportunities for research and study for scientists from all over the globe. In fact, this scientific laboratory offers studies in a wide range of disciplines, from taxonomy to silviculture, from ethnobotany to new applications. Major works on economic botany have, in the past, been confined to political boundaries, but in line with the 'Flora Malesiana' concept advocated by Van Steenis (1950), there is an urgent need to seriously look into the use of these plant resources on a regional basis. Moreover, much of the work is not easily accessible as it is dispersed widely in various publications and in different languages. Therefore, there is much merit in compiling the resource materials in a form that is easily accessible and understood.

2. Scientific Merits

South-East Asia is now undergoing rapid economic development, with countries vying to leapfrog from the category of 'Developing Countries' to 'Newly Industrialized Countries (NIC)'. Large areas of land previously under natural forests have given way to development, with a considerable loss of plant genetic recources. A more balanced development, which takes into account the biological and ecological conservation needs, has to be pursued, especially so when the natural resources are dwindling. The basis for conservation should be built upon the understanding of the resources, including their full documentation, covering the whole range of both economic and potentially economic plants. PROSEA fulfils such a need in its approach of documenting the whole range of plant resources in this region, which are at present neither fully exploited nor understood, thus opening the way for future research and utilization. PROSEA's objective of providing up-to-date accounts of the plant resources of the South-East Asian region provides the greatest benefit of

57 the project for this region. This ambitious endeavour which hopefully will bring together dispersed, published and unpublished information into well- organized up-to-date publications, will 'become the vademecum for persons involved in the management and improvement of the vegetation in the widest sense' (Anon., 1988). Both scientists and policy-makers, plus the whole spectrum of potential users, could benefit from these publications. Earlier attempts, principally those by Burkill (1935) and Heyne (1927), need immediate updating, in line with the rapid progress in biological research in South-East Asia, especially in the post- independence period. The PROSEA handbook will contain new scientific information not available to the early authors. On account of being compiled within a broader phytogeographical sense by experts in specific commodity groups, the handbook will automatically reveal the proper nomenclatural synonyms and vernacular names of species. Thus, a more realistic list of economic or potentially economic species, estimated at about 5,000 species, will be provided on a larger regional scale. South-East Asian nations still rely heavily on agro-based industries, and the scientific information compiled in the PROSEA handbook can provide important starting points for future research, such as developing new phytochemical products, new disease-resistant crops, high-yielding crops and new hybrids, finding new industrial uses for plants not presently exploited, or storing the lesser-known species in gene banks for future uses. There is also a tendency for South-East Asian nations to be dependent on imported chemical synthetics for various industries, whilst at the same time, enormous locally available natural biological resources remain untapped. This dependence can be greatly reduced by creating a highly productive scientific community within South-East Asia, with research priorities geared to locally available plant genetic resources. At present, some degree of scientific cooperation between South-East Asian countries already exists, but there has been no serious coordinated attempt to document the available scientific information as envisaged by PROSEA. Nevertheless, there is a substantial core of mature scientists in the region who are capable of doing the work. PROSEA funds will goa long way to facilitating the mobilization of this group of scientists, to motivating them to document their work and to encouraging younger scientists in the region to contribute. PROSEA funds function as seed money to motivate scientists and institutions in the region towards greater scientific achievement in this field. PROSEA should not be a vehicle to expand the tropical experience of scientists from developed countries. There is currently global concern on tropical forests and calls for conservation of these resources are being widely publicized. One of the concerns expressed is that the true economic value of the tropical forests is not known. The value of timber and minor forest products can be estimated, but the value of the genetic resources has yet to be assessed. The first step towards this is to document these resources and, hopefully, PROSEA will provide the foundation for such an exercise. If and when scientists can provide reliable information and data on the real economic

58 value of tropical forests, there could be adequate justification for conservation of the tropical forests where resources other than timber could generate greater revenue and income.

3. Limitations

Funding is the main limiting factor to PROSEA's success and so far the Dutch Government has been generous in sponsoring the first two phases. The third phase, which is the main part of the project, involving the actual publication of most of the PROSEA handbook, needs further financial support. There are technical and political factors which must be considered in attempting a project such as PROSEA, especially in convincing South-East Asian countries of the importance of PROSEA, and in setting their participation, commitment and contribution. The success of PROSEA will ultimately depend upon the commitment of individuals, institutions and countries participating in PROSEA. Although it is recorded that the seed of PROSEA was planted at the SEAMEO research programme workshop of 1982, scientific institutions in the region were not really involved in the development of the programme. While the benefits can be seen and appreciated, the institutions involved must be willing to commit resources to make the programme successful. PROSEA relies on country officers, one for each participating country, under the overall management of national committees. Unless there is close cooperation and serious commitment from research institutions and universities within each country, there is no guarantee that PROSEA can be successfully completed. Country officers are given the responsibility to document all available published information. There is therefore a great likelihood that unpublished information and such information transmitted by word of mouth, will be excluded. PROSEA's species data base is built upon existing published works such as Heyne (1927), Burkill (1935), Reyes (1938), and Brown (1941-43), and it would be unfortunate if it cannot be updated with new unpublished data. Unpublished data in files and elsewhere must therefore be obtained and included if PROSEA is to be truly up-to-date. In the final analysis, one must question who would really benefit from PROSEA. Notwithstanding what wassai d in earlier paragraphs as to the benefits of PROSEA, the information will only be useful to countries with the capacity, resources and the vision to follow up with more research. It is countries with the scientific and developmental capacity and financial resources that will gain most from the programme, and these are the developed countries. That capacity is still limited in the developing countries of South-East Asia, especially those with the genetic resources. There is therefore a moral obligation for PROSEA to ensure that the benefits that could accrue from all the work are not limited to the developed countries only, while the owners of the resources remain in the traditional role of raw material supplier. PROSEA, and in particular the Netherlands government, have a strong moral responsibility. How this can be ensured needs serious consideration.

59 4. Conclusion PROSEA's objectives have relevance to South-East Asia in the wake of the rapid economic development taking place in the region. Priority is given to the production of a series of handbooks based on published information PROSEA has both merits and limitations, but on the whole it is a worthwhile effort that needs the support and commitment of participating scientists and institutions in order to make it successful.

5. References Anonymous, 1988. PROSEA Newsletter No.1 October, 1988. Brown WH 1941-1943. Useful plants of the Philippines, Vol.1-3, Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin No. 10 Bureau of Printing, Manila. 1610 pp. (reprint, 1951-1957) Burkill I H 1935. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula' Vol 1-2. Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. 2402 pp. (slightly altered reprint, 1966. Ministry of Agriculture and Co operatives, Kuala Lumpur. 2444 pp.). Ul A'- T AI 1 A\ HevneK 1927 De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indie. 2nd (enlarged) edition Vol 1-3 Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indie. 1953 pp. (3rd edition, 1950. W.van Hoeve, V Gravenhage/Bandung. 1660 pp.). , * • i* A RevesLJ 1938 Philippine woods. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Technical Bulletin No. 7. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 536 pp. + 88 plates. „ . „ ... Steenis C G G J van, 1950. Malaysian plant collectors and collections being' a cyclopaedia of botanical exploration in Malaysia, Chapter 1. Introduction. Flora Malesiana, Series I, Volume 1, pp. xi-xliv. Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges the support of Mr. Idris Mohd. Said and Mr. Saw Leng Guan in the preparation of this paper.

60 PROSEA and New Trends in Information Technology

J.M.Schippers

PUDOC/Library, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 4, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands

1. Some Trends in the Information Industry

Before dealing with the real subject of this paper, i.e. PROSEA and new trends in information technology, it is worthwhile having a quick look at some developments in the information industry. This industry is changing fast, and the changes will have far-reaching consequences for all of us. Certainly, new possibilities are emerging, for the PROSEA project too. The first thing that strikes information specialists is that the total amount of available information is still increasing rapidly. This can be attributed to the following causes: (1) the amount of money invested in research and development worldwide is increasing, (2) agricultural and industrial production are increasingly based on the results of research and development, (3) there is a greater interdependency between scientific disciplines and subdisciplines, (4) more geographically far-reaching research projects like PROSEA have been started; this increases the demand for information, which in turn stimulates the supply of information, and (5) the 'publish or perish' principle is still very much alive. The rapidly increasing supply results in demand for more specialized information products, especially for new ways and means by which information is made available and accessible. Certainly in libraries we have always tried to reduce the chaos by careful cataloguing and indexing and by presenting this product in neatly arranged tiers of card-trays. But nowadays the need for more specialized and better organized secondary information is rising even more rapidly than the demand for primary information. Information has to be supplied conveniently structured and readily accessible. This is most certainly true when we think of satisfying the demand for information in applied research and for industrial purposes. This also means that we have to develop better and more cost-effective means of information transfer, which encourages the use of new information media. The second trend is the growing interest in so-called tertiary information, aided by the emergence of usable expert systems. The discovery by research institutes that data banks built and maintained for research in their own organization can become a source of income, has stimulated the supply of tertiary information. The third trend worth mentioning is the requirement of researchers to have access to all available information, including so-called grey literature and information about current research. Certainly, the importance of grey literature and its accessibility cannot be overstressed in a project such as PROSEA. This will be further elaborated below.

61 Finally, it should be noted that as a result of the trends I have just pointed out and new developments in information technology, the traditional boundaries between libraries, publishers, archives and computing centres are fading. In the next decade, the prospects for information and information transfer will be largely determined by the capabilities of personal computers, high-resolution screens, optical storage media and laser printers, and by the possibility of linking them into networks.

2. On-line Data Bases

From an information viewpoint, PROSEA is, simply expressed, the gathering from all over the world, of available knowledge on a number of useful plants in this region. Expertise is added to this and all the acquired knowledge that results is condensed into a few pages per plant. On-line bibliographic data bases play a time- and cost-effective role, especially in the information-gathering phase. The paper by Oyen & Wulijarni-Soetjipto describes in detail how various data bases have been searched and which information products resulted from this. On-line technology in libraries is already more than 25 years old. In the beginning, printed media were converted into machine-readable form and gathered into data files searchable in batch mode. The product was a list of bibliographic descriptions, often containing abstracts, which matched the search profile. Later, more sophisticated software and hardware were developed, and telecommunication became feasible. Together, these made it viable to search these data bases in a real interactive mode, a question-and-answer dialogue. The batch-mode current awareness service also became more sophisticated. As already mentioned, the supply of secondary information has risen even more steeply than the supply of primary documents, and much of this information is accessible on-line. The impressive growth is best illustrated by pointing out that in the last 25 years the number of data bases has risen from 25 to 3,500, and the number of organizations offering on-line services, so-called hosts, has also risen from a few to more than 500. Of the various technological developments in this field, the use of the personal computer for on-line searching of data bases and the phenomenon of down-loading seem to be the most important, together with CD-ROM technology which will be referred to later. Down-loading is the storage of data from data bases gathered by on-line techniques for further local reference and re-use. It is a widespread and often unauthorized practice that offers excellent possibilities for building a project- oriented data base. Then this data base will contain only the bibliographic descriptions relevant to the project or topic. Information from other sources or different data bases can be added very easily, together with comments and data. In this way a valuable search tool can be tailored. Certainly, the addition of bibliographic descriptions of grey literature greatly enhances the value of such a data base. A unique tool is constructed when various centres make use of the same software,

62 exchanging their special data bases easily so that the same information is available in the same form at the various centres in the research project. Let us now look more closely at the PROSEA project. One disadvantage of the PROSEA scheme is that by the time the descriptions of the last commodity group are published, the information on the commodity group first studied is already outdated. One way of overcoming this disadvantage is to continue to search the relevant data bases with the search profiles used in the initial stage, to continue to evaluate this information for relevance and to add the relevant information to the PROSEA data base. PUDOC is willing to contribute this service to the PROSEA project, pay for the searches and negotiate on the various copyright and royalty issues with host organizations and producers of data bases. Continued participation in this updating scheme of the other parties in our project is essential, especially where the relevant grey literature is concerned.

3. Teleconferencing

In addition to its long realization time, another characteristic feature of PROSEA isth e large number of people involved. The research and subsequent publication of every commodity group involves many authors, editors, editors-in-chief, and so on. Manuscripts have to be exchanged, comments given, drawings made, and proofs corrected and sent back to printers. A PROSEA 'house style' has to be developed and maintained. In short, the project is complicated. Communication is therefore important, certainly in view of the geographically widespread activities. It has to be organized efficiently, so it is wise to shop carefully for tools, even sophisticated ones, that facilitate the organization and planning. Apart from using the computer in the normal way in actual planning, we should also employ it in communications. Of course we can use mail, telephone, telex and telefax. But accessing a computer over a great distance through telephone or data networks can also be used for communication, with the computers' capacities as an extra facility to support it. Two already much-applied techniques can be used in the project: the first is called 'electronic mail', the second is a more refined form of electronic mail, called 'teleconferencing'. Electronic mail is essentially the transmission of a message from a sender via a computer or computers to one or more addressees, who can receive messages by referring to the computer in their location and looking in the system mail box for messages addressed to them. In this way, messages can be exchanged between all the users of a certain computer or computer network. Teleconferencing goes a step further, making use of so-called bulletin-board systems. The software allows the specification of a certain topic to be defined and also the specification of the participants of the conference on that particular topic. Messages can only be exchanged between the participants of this conference. In addition to safeguarding the privacy of the participants of a conference, these systems have other features that support communications, help with the filing of the results of a conference, etc. Many systems allow a number of conferences to go on at the same time, so that hundreds

63 of participants can be taking part in various conferences. As there is no time-limit to speak of, conferences can go on for months. More than a hundred of these systems are in use, especially in multinational enterprises. It is possible to enter a manuscript or part of a manuscript in such a system. The author can specify a number of persons whose remarks are thought to be valuable and they can be invited to make comments. In this way various people at a great distance from each other can write a book or an article together. One particular experience by users of such systems is that communications become informal, even between people who have neversee n each other. This behaviour also emerges in telefax communication, so that people send informal, scribbled notes to each other. I think this informality is a big advantage for people working on the same project. It is my recommendation that for the PROSEA project, we look carefully into the possibilities of teleconferencing, especially since LIPI, various Dutch Embassies and PUDOC use the same hardware.

4. Optical Media

Optical media are the most important innovation in today's information industry. These media will have great impact on libraries, publishers, data base producers and host organizations. They will drastically change the manner in which certain types of information will be produced, manipulated, stored, transformed and consumed. They will certainly change the use of data bases in such a way that on-line techniques will be used much less than they are now and more and more use will be made of an optical medium on a personal computer. A whole paper could be devoted to this subject but I will merely focus on their possible use in the project, i.e. how these media can be used to make the results of the PROSEA research available. There are roughly two kinds of optical media: (1) media that store optical information as pictures, i.e. the picture of a page of a book, and (2) media that store information optically by laser-beam techniques. This distinction corresponds with two product types, namely the video disk and the digital optical disk. Both media were first introduced as consumer products, the video disk with far less success than the CD-Audio, the most common example of the digital optical disk. The essential feature of the video disk is that information is recorded in the form of separate pictures, which can be viewed on a television screen. Separate parts of the picture, text or data cannot be manipulated. The capacity of a video disk can reach about two hundred thousand pictures/pages. As already mentioned, the best known and most widespread form of the digital optical disk is the CD-Audio. For our purpose, other products, for example the CD-ROM, the WORM and the CD-I,ar emos timportant . For the Compact Disk - Read Only Memory (CD-ROM) the same technique that is used for storing music is applied to store data. Its storage capacity ranges from 5,000 to 250,000 A4 pages, depending on the techniques used.A personal computer, a CD-drive and appropriate software are needed to use

64 it. It is well suited to the storage of large quantities of data. Because the production of the first disk of a series is expensive, it is not attractive to use the CD-ROM to store data that change frequently, nor is it suitable in situations where users want to add their own data. Perhaps in a few years time these restrictions will no longer apply, as an erasable disk has already been developed, although it is not being marketed for commercial reasons. The Write Once Read Many times disk (WORM) may offer a solution now for situations in which data change frequently. The Compact Disk-Interactive (CD-I), often a combination of pictures, sound and text, is aimed at the consumer market, with exceptional possibilities in education, but the amount of hardware required to use it is relatively large, i.e. a personal computer, a television screen and an audio unit. Much effort is still needed to reach agreement on the standards necessary to construct the many interfaces required between the various components and the accompanying software. Also, much research on optical media is still going on and, as a result, what is impossible today may be possible tomorrow. What role can these new techniques play in PROSEA, especially in making the various results of research available to science, industry and, most important, education and extension? Presently the results will be published in a series of books, the first of which are now available. A major disadvantage of this set-up is that users will have to obtain access to the complete series, whereas they are perhaps interested in only a few plants per commodity group. To overcome this disadvantage, the contents of the books could be scanned while they are being published, the contents stored on an optical disk and laser-printers be used to publish on demand. In this way users can, so to speak, put together their own book that answers their particular needs. To overcome the quick deterioration of paper under tropical conditions it may be possible to publish the results on WORM disks, adding results, as they appear, to the already existing data base. A third really new product could be a CD-ROM that contains not only the results of PROSEA research but other primary information, e.g. full texts of relevant articles together with relevant secondary and even tertiary information. Another category of products is CD-I's or video disks for educational purposes. All these things are technically possible, but the question of economic feasibility has yet to be answered. Note also that much outside expertise is needed to develop a marketable product, especially for the last-mentioned product category. It can be concluded that a number of opportunities for new information products that are worth considering within thescop eo f PROSEA are becoming available.

65 Discussion

R.Cabangbang: Will PROSEA consider country priorities for the various commodities in terms of matching local resources or by funding projects in the respective countries? E.Westphal: In the publication scheme, priority can be given to certain commodity groups, but the choice is primarily a regional one. Financially, PROSEA is not in a position to help funding projects in the participating countries. Possibly, through PROSEA activities, the interest of other potential donors, national or international, can be aroused.

Y.C.Wee: PROSEA being an international project, I understand the rationale of using English as the working language. But is there any long-term plan to translate PROSEA's publications into the languages of South-East Asian countries? E.Westphal: PROSEA will promote the translation of its publications into the languages of South-East Asia. However, that is primarily the responsibility of the Country Offices. Extra funding will be needed.

L.'t Mannetje: The division of useful plants into commodity groups may not do full justice to a plant's important secondary use. Apart from cross- referencing, editors should be encouraged to include aspects of secondary uses in their volume, referring to the primary use volume for all other aspects. E.Westphal: In principle, all relevant aspects of a given species will be treated fully in the commodity group of its primary use. PROSEA should stick to this approach. However, maybe the introductory chapter of a certain commodity group could be used to include relevant information on important species with other primary uses.

JM M .Engels: Compiling and publishing information on the useful plants of South-East Asia is an important and indispensable activity to enable the people of South-East Asia and the world to use the same resources. However, to make these resources available and exploitable, they have to be collected and conserved. I therefore propose that we try to find ways and means of combining the description of the resources (by PROSEA) and their utilization (by national and international programmes) with their collection and conservation (IBPGR and other organizations). E.Westphal: In principle I agree with this statement. I would like to invite IBPGR to take an appropriate initiative.

Farah D.Ghani-Bauer: Distinctive groups have been identified, such as 'Pulses', 'Rattans', 'Cereals', etc., but how do you plan to document and quantify plants within groups such as 'Plants producing mainly carbohydrates', 'Oil-producing plants', without any overlapping of data? E.Westphal: Since a species is assigned to the commodity group of its primary use, it will be dealt with fully only once. Through cross- reference to volumes dealing with its secondary use(s), overlap can be avoided.

66 H.C.van der Plas: Is it useful to extend the definition of economic botany to the 'use of plants for plant biotechnology' (e.g. genetic engineering)? In this approach economically less useful plants can sometimes be made more useful. C.Kalkman. In the definition given, any use of plants is included. It may be assumed that the techniques of genetic engineering will become important for increasing the value of some plants, maybe even adding species to the list of plants used by man.

S.Silitonga-Sitorus: Most of the farmers in Indonesia are smallholders. It is uneconomic for them to feed their animals with concentrated feed stuff. Leaves from leguminous trees and other plants are very important as a source of protein at low costs. In my opinion it is also very important to discuss plants used as animal feed. C.Kalkman: Economic botany refers to all plants, directly or indirectly useful to man. Forages are certainly included.

G.Tjitrosoeporno: Will the commodity group 'Fuel plants' also include plants that can produce a kind of substitute for gasoline? E.Westphal: Yes, it will.

Pei Sheng-ji: What is the difference between economic botany and ethnobotany? I do not agree with you when you consider ethnobotarty only as an anthropological orientation. C.Kalkman: Ethnobotany is in my opinion and according to the original meaning: knowledge about the uses of plants by 'primitive' (= not technologically advanced) people. So it is part of economic botany. However, what is botanical in ethnobotany? In my definition of economic botany (including ethnobotany) it is stated: the field of knowledge, study and research ... 'within botany'. The botanical aspect of ethnobotany ends with the listing of the uses and the reasons for and basis of those uses (the 'botanical' characteristics). But more can be done with these data: (a) linguistics; names of plants as part of the study of the language, (b) philosophy of science; recognition of a folk classification of the plants relies for a large part on the names, and (c) cultural anthropology; how people build their houses, make their boats, their clothing, compose their diet, using specified plant material, is anthropologically of interest. So, I am of the opinion that ethnobotany consists of a number of parts of which only one, the basic one of listing and understanding, naming and describing, belongs to botany and to economic botany. The only alternative could be that ethnobotany is considered synonymous with economic botany.

C.C.Oosterlee: Dr.Salleh mentioned that the Dutch Government holds a strong moral responsibility with the PROSEA project. What do you have in mind? Salleh Mohd.Nor: PROSEA will make available a lot of information, currently not easily available, to a wide spectrum of potential users including industries. PROSEA and the Netherlands Government havea mora l obligation to ensure that any economic benefit resulting from PROSEA should benefit the owners of the resources. How this is to be done

67 requires further examination. I do not have an easy answer, but both PROSEA and the Dutch Government should be aware of this possibility and their responsibility.

K.C.Wong: Convincing the end-users of the potential of a certain plant species is important, especially after so much effort has been put into identification, documentation and evaluation. I would suggest that PROSEA pays due attention to this aspect.

A.J .G.H.Koster mans: Published texts and books are available for everybody. Business is immoral. South-East Asia should be more aggressive, take opportunities before others do so. Salleh Mohd.Nor: Iagree , we must help ourselves. PROSEA and its follow-up are a challenge for scientists. Doing nothing is immoral.

68 PROSEA Publications

Basic List of Species and Commodity Grouping 1 1 2 R.H M J .Lemmens , P.C.MJansen , J.S.Siemonsma PROSEA CountryOffic e Netherlands, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands

PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

1. Introduction

The first version of the 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping' presents a survey of the plant resources of South-East Asia. The species in the 'Basic list' have been arranged in two ways, alphabetically and according to commodity group. The 'Basic list' is intended to give a survey of the species that should be considered for treatment in the PROSEA volumes, and to help editors and authors to find the correct scientific names and the most appropriate commodity group for each species. '

2. Construction of the 'Basic list'

The 'Basic list' is an extract from BASELIST, which is one of the data bases of SAPRIS (South-East Asian Plant Resources Information System), the documentation and information system of PROSEA. BASELIST itself is based on the following 4 sources dealing with the useful plants of 3 areas in South-East Asia: (1) Heyne, 1927, for Indonesia, (2) Burkill, 1935, for the Malay Peninsula, (3) Brown, 1941- 1943, for the Philippines (excluding timber trees), and (4) Reyes, 1938, for the Philippines (timber trees). BASELIST contains a record for each species mentioned in those sources; this record contains the following 14 information fields:

NO record number SP/1 correct botanical name SP/* synonyms FA family name TY plant type SI siIvicultural importance BS original source of entry (Heyne, Burkill, Brown or Reyes) SL important sources of botanic information (e.g. name of the specialist who checked the species name) OP original publication in which correct name was published PU primary use (using commodity group codes) SU secondary uses (using derived commodity group codes) HU uses as stated by Heyne (primary and secondary use codes) BU uses as stated by Burkill (primary and secondary use codes) BR uses as stated by Brown (primary and secondary use codes) RU uses as stated by Reyes (primary and secondary use codes)

71 In the 'Basic list' the following information on all species has been extracted from BASELIST: (1) scientific name; synonyms are also listed but reference is made to the correct botanical name (SP field), (2) family name (FA field), (3) primary use, indicating to which commodity group the species belongs (PU field), and (4) secondary uses (SU field).

3. Definition of Commodity Groups

The commoditygrou papproache s adopted byPROS EA ,mad ei t neces sary to assign each species to a single commodity group where the species is to be described. For each species, all the uses mentioned by the 4 sources of BASELIST were evaluated. One use was selected as primary use (PU), indicating the commodity group of treatment, the other uses automatically became secondary uses (SU). In BASELIST (and hence in the 'Basic list') 39 commodity groups are distinguished, numbered 2-40 when relating to primary uses, and 52-90 for references to secondary uses. The distinction between primary and secondary uses of species was not always simple. Almost all species have several to many uses, and the sources often cited several uses as important, or even differed in their indication of the primary use. In such cases a choice had to be made. During the updating of the scientific names, records that were originally separate often had to be amalgamated, due to synonymity, requiring new choices to be made about the primary use. The size of the commodity groups varies strongly. Two groups are extremely large: 'Timber trees' (1,517 records) and 'Medicinal plants' (1,182 records). Some groups are medium-sized, such as the 'Ornamental plants' (539 records) and the 'Edible fruits and nuts' (414 records). Other groups contain only a few species, e.g. 'Plants used for smoking' (8 records) and 'Narcotic plants' (9 records). Commodity group 40 ('Other useful plants') consists of a hotch-potch of species with extremely divergent uses, but fortunately the group is not very large (22 records). Some examples of this group are: Aeschynomene aspera, whose pith is used to make sun-helmets (Heyne and Burkill); Luffa cylindrica, producing the loofah sponge (Heyne and Burkill); the palm Pholidocarpus kingiana of which the midrib of the leaf is used to produce blow-pipe darts (Burkill). Weeds and pests are not treated in the basic sources. Plants that belong to these groups have therefore not been included in the 'Basic list'. An example is Eichhornia crassipes, a beautiful floating plant, sometimes used as ornamental, leaf vegetable and for the production of biogas, but a troublesome plant that clogs watercourses. The weeds and pests are of great economic importance to man in a negative sense and their inclusion in the handbook may be considered. The number of species is strongly divergent per commodity group, as illustrated above. To reduce the imbalance between groups to some extent, a new classification of commodity groups is proposed (Table 1), in which some of the original commodity groups are clustered into larger units. In

72 this new classification the 'Cereals' with 23 species form the smallest group, apart from the group 'Miscellaneous plants' (called 'Other useful plants' in the original classification). Each of these rearranged commodity groups may ultimately be described in a separate volume of the handbook.

Table 1.Commodit y groups with number ofspecie s according toth e'Basi c list ofspecies' .

1. Cereals 23 2. Plants mainly producing carbohydrates 94 • root & tuber plants(71 ) - sago andrelate d starch-producing plants(8 ) -plant s producing sugars, alcohols oracid s(15 ) 3. Pulses 27 4. Vegetable oils & fats 74 5. Edible fruits &nut s 414 6. Vegetables 238 7. Spices &condiment s 112 8. Essential-oiI plants 77 • essential-oiI plants(49 ) • camphor-producing plants(4 ) - aromatic woods(24 ) 9. Stimulant plants 72 -plant s used forbeverage s(41 ) - plants used asmasticatorie s(23 ) -plant s used forsmokin g (8) / 10. Medicinal &poisonou s plants 1,350 -narcoti c plants(9 ) -medicina l plants (1182) -plant s producing poison, including insecticides& herbicides(159 ) 11. Timber trees 1,517 12. Fibre plants 328 - fibre plants(252 ) -plant s used formakin g baskets, mats &wickerwor k(57 ) - plants used forpackin g andthatchin g(19 ) 13. Forages 287 14. Dye& tannin-producing plants 121 -dye-producin g plants(77 ) - tannin-producing plants(44 ) 15. Rattans 170 16. Bamboos 58 17. Plants producing exudates 184 - latex-producing plants(97 ) - resin-producing plants(40 ) - balsam-producing plants(5 ) -gum-producin g plants(16 ) -wax-producin g plants(7 ) -plant s producing aromatic resin(19 ) 18. Auxiliary plants inagricultur e andforestr y 166 - shade andcove r plants inagriculture , including mulches and green manures(139 ) - fuel plants: charcoal, firewood(27 ) 19. Ornamental plants 582 -hedg e andwaysid e plants(43 ) - ornamental plants(539 ) 20. Lower plants 270 21. Miscellaneous plants 22 Total number ofspecie s 6,186

73 4. Updating the Scientific Names

The original sources are at least 45 years old, and due to progress in taxonomie botany, many of the names cited by Heyne, Burkill, Brown, and Reyes are now incorrect. Obviously, correct names for species should be used in the PROSEA volumes. When searching for data in recent literature it is necessary to be acquainted with the correct names. How should the names be updated? A number of species found in the core area of the PROSEA region, comprising Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Singapore, are treated in the 'Flora Malesiana'. The 'Basic list' follows the species names published in this work. However, 'Flora Malesiana' is not yet completed and only 21% of the names in the 'Basic list' could be updated in this way. For the plant names in families not yet treated in 'Flora Malesiana' it was decided to consult specialist taxonomists. With their help it was possible to check the greater part of the 'Basic list' in a comparatively short time. The number of corrections differs per family. In some families many names were found to be incorrect. Often, different names in the original list turned out to be synonyms. In that case the records had to be merged, and the plant names from the deleted records were cited as synonyms of the correct name. In the Sapindaceae, for instance, 69 records were originally listed; after updating by Leenhouts only 43 remained. All names used by the original sources have been maintained in the 'Basic list', even when they were found to be synonymous with other names. A reference to the correct name has been inserted after each synonym. When records were amalgamated it was attempted to save all information. In the field 'SL', the sources of the correct name as well as of the synonyms are cited, supplemented by the uses mentioned by the authors. Other information was also transferred before deleting a record.

Table 2. Results of the updating of scientific names.

Number of names originally in the 'Basic list' 6,615 Number of these names in 'Flora Malesiana' 1,368 (21%) Number of these names checked by specialists 3,052 (46%) Total number of names checked 4,420 (67%) Number of names not yet checked 2,195 (33%)

As shown in Table 2, the updating is not yet completed. Checking the names of the remaining part of the list will take a comparatively long time. More taxonomie specialists willing to check family lists might be found, but most of the remaining families must be updated by the PROSEA staff using many different sources of literature. Ultimately, a completely updated list will be presented in a second version of the 'Basic list'. Moreover, the list of plant resources of South-East Asia is not complete. Species not mentioned by the 4 sources, or useful species recently introduced in the region have not yet been included; neither are additional species proposed by some specialists. At the moment it is still undecided whether these species will be inserted in the second version of 74 the 'Basic list' or will be presented in a supplement.

5. Conclusions

The 'Basic list' presented here reflects the situation as of February 1989. Although updating of the names is far from complete and reconsideration of the commodity group of certain species is often necessary, it was considered useful to publish this provisional list. The list gives a survey of the plant resources of South-East Asia. An estimate of the number of species useful to man in the region and consequently of interest to PROSEA, as well as of the number of species per commodity group can be made. It is intended as a starting point. It is stressed that the authors and editors of commodity groups should re-check the scientific names and the inclusion of species in their commodity group. Access to information about a species is through the name. Viewed in that light, updating of the names is essential. Even back in 1948 in the introduction to the 'Flora Malesiana', Van Steenis wrote: 'Invariably it is the duty of the taxonomie botanist to supply basic data to research in directed (= applied) botany. In all cases the name of the species, and eventually its varieties, is the alpha of knowledge, as it represents the key to existing literature embodying earlier work on habits, life-history, on distribution, geographical and altitudinal, ecology and growth habit, current native names if any, etc., and Flora Malesiana must serve for this purpose.' It is hoped that the 'Basic list', especially subsequent versions, will serve this purpose in its own way.

6. References

75 Pulses for South-East Asia 1 9 L.J.G.van der Maesen & S.S'ornaatmadja Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 8010, 6700 ED Wageningen, Netherlands

Central Research Institute for Food Crops, Jalan Merdeka 99, Bogor 16111, Indonesia

1. Importance of Pulses

Many species of theLeguminosa ehav eeconomi cimportance .Pulses , the dry edible seeds of legumes, are among the most important ones. Together with cereals, pulses are among the earliest plants domesticated by man. The remains are found in archaeological deposits, mainly in the Middle and Near East, and the Americas. The first domestication of pulses and oilseed legumes did not take place in South- East Asia, but important diversity developed there after the early settlers imported the pulses through India, or from China. In the last 5 centuries groundnut and several Phaseolus species have been introduced from Central and South America. Soyabean came from the Sino-Japanese Centre. The pre-adaptation of certain legumes gave them an advantage over other potential candidates from other genera and families (Plitman & Kislev, 1988). Such properties include selfing , larger and more seeds, late dehiscence of pods, and availability of mutations that favour production and consumption contrary to natural evolution for fitness. The Leguminosae family has about 18,000 species in 700 genera, of which only a small proportion are of direct economic importance as crops, as useful plants available in natural vegetations, or as auxiliary plants in agriculture and forestry. Many species are planted as ornamentals. As part of many types of natural vegetation, the role of the Leguminosae is difficult to estimate or even to fully understand. The pulses belong to the subfamily Papilionoideae (often still referred to as the family Papilionaceae or Fabaceae), in particular to the tribes Phaseoleae and Vicieae. The oilseed legume Arachis hypogaea, treated here as a pulse along with dry grain legumes because of its many direct uses, belongs to the tribe Aeschynomenae. Soyabean is a member of the Phaseoleae, and has been included although the beans are rarely eaten directly. Soyabean seeds contain anti-nutritional factors, but fermentation, industrial preparation into oil and margarine (Figure 1), and, to some extent, cooking, alleviate this problem. The genus Cicer has a tribe of its own, the Cicereae, which is close to the Vicieae. The other 2 subfamilies, i.e. the Caesalpinioideae and the Mimosoideae, contain mainly non-food legume species, manyo f which areo f considerable interest to man. Some diversity in pods is shown in Figures 2 and 3.

76 Figure 1. Some products of the soyabean: (1) seeds, (2) tahu (tofu), (3) tempeh, (4) soyabean oil, (5) margarine. '

Figure 2. Pods of Leguminosae: (1) Parkia speciosa, peteh, Mimosoideae; (2) Phaseolus vulgaris, common bean (cultivar for slicing), Papilionoideae; (3) Tamarindus indica, tamarind, Caesalpinioi- deae.

77 Figure 3. Podso f Leguminosae:one - tomany-seede dpod si nman yshape sar e variations of the basic epigeal monocarpellary fruit structure.

The taxonomy of the Leguminosae, studied by many scientists who gather regularly in International Legume Conferences (1978, 1986 and probably 1992) (Polhill, 1988) to exchange results and views, is in fairly good shape. For some species infraspecific classification still needs to be tidied up. This is a major task in species with large, geographically widespread gene pools, such as Vigna. Only because of the now existing taxonomie framework, which continues to be refined and updated, is it known where and how to find particular well-defined and properly named species, including wild relatives of crop plants. A major asset will be the results of ILDIS (International Legume Data base and Information Service), currently in preparation (Lockerman et al., 1988). For further details and references, see PROSEA Volume 1.

2. Pulses in Cropping Systems

Pulses fit into a multitude of mixed and intercropping practices, ranging from labour-intensive complete mixtures to machine-planted strip cropping or alley cropping with woody legume species as a hedgerow. The possibilities of combining legumes and other crops are almost endless, and local farmers have often already chosen appropriate mixed and intercropping systems. However, further intensification in order to wisely exploit the soil of small-scale farms is certainly possible. Pulses have also traditionally played an important role in rotation. Usually, rotation trials show the beneficial effect of legume crops to the cereal or oil

78 crop of the following season because of the beneficial effects on the soil's nitrogen status (the well-known pulse-Rhizobium symbiosis) and on the soil structure, as legumes often have a large root system. Legumes also appear to mine soil phosphates efficiently. Several pulses are drought-tolerant or even resistant to drought, and are able to exploit residual soil moisture after the rainy season. Drought-tolerant cultivars are available even in moisture-loving species such as Phaseolus beans and cowpeas. Well-known examples of mixed intercropping with pulsesar e maize-dry beans,sorghum-pigeonpeas , sorghum-groundnuts, and pearl millet-cowpeas. Pigeonpeas may occupy the entire field after the intercrop cereal has been harvested, which is also useful to suppress weeds. The broadcast wheat- chickpea system, once common in North India, is encountered less frequently than 20 or 30 years ago. Soyabeans are grown in rotation with rice: after the main rainy season, rice is followed by one or two crops of short-season soyabean cultivars, even without tillage just after the rice harvest. Chickpeas may follow rice in Burma. Soyabeans and groundnuts are well suited to strip cropping.

3. Future and Prospects

Despite their nutritive advantages in comparison with cereals, the food legumes are of relatively minor importance and only small proportions of national research resources are being allocated to them (Hawtin et al., 1988). As the major production centres of grain legumes are located in developing countries, and most of them in the semi-arid tropics, there is a need for more emphasis on research in those areas. Logically, the most important pulses invite most research. Apart from the worldwide activities by international, regional, national and commercial institutions and universities on crops like groundnuts, soyabeans, chickpeas, pigeonpeas, beans and peas, research in or near the PROSEA region needs to be expanded. The Central Research Institute for Food Crops (CRIFC) with its institutes in Bogor (BORIF) and Malang (MARIF) in Indonesia, and the Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB, Los Banos) in the Philippines, to mention a few, carry out research on pulses, but little attention is paid to the minor ones. ICRISAT (India) and UTA (Nigeria) have regional programmes in South-East Asia. Summerfield & Roberts (1985) have re viewed international research on grain legumes. What can be expected from more research on pulses? Through the completion of the genetic basis by acquiring a good eco-geographical representation of the various species, particularly those in the region, well-maintained germplasm collections will remain available for further research and genetic conservation. Breeding, including local or regional testing, produces higher-yielding, better-adapted cultivars with sustainable, stable yields. Wide adaptation carries the risk of large- scale occurrence of diseases and pests, so breeding is a continuing process. Improved agronomy includes intensive cropping and providing suitable environments to express the genetic potential for optimum production. Yield potential is already available at appreciable levels. Any newly developed cultivar should conform to consumer's preferences,

79 otherwise acceptance by the public will be slow or partial.

4. PROSEA Volume One

4.1 Choice and Treatment of Species

As the first commodity group of crops or plants to be treated in the PROSEA handbook (Van der Maesen & Sadikin Somaatmadja, 1989), much consideration had to be given to the delimitation of the commodity group 'Pulses'. Plants with more than one use (e.g. pulse, vegetable, fodder and green manure) are treated in the commodity group representing their major application in South-East Asia, yet their main use may be different in other geographical regions. If we consider the 1988 enumeration of 21 commodity groups distinguished by PROSEA, it can be seen that apart from 'Pulses', Leguminosae species can be found in at least 9 other commodities: 'Vegetables', 'Spices and condiments', 'Medicinal and poisonous plants', 'Timber trees', 'Forage' (which may include feed plants for silk worms and lac insects), 'Dye and tannin-producing plants', 'Plants producing exudates', 'Auxiliary plants', and 'Ornamental plants'. The choice of 'Pulses' for the first PROSEA volume was a natural one. As a coherent group of crops, including not too many species, all belonging to one plant family, the pulses were an excellent choice for a trial run. The presence of several persons involved in the PROSEA project who have strong affiliation with the legumes further facilitated the choice. The selection of pulses to be treated in the first volume was made from the 'Basic list of species' which in itself consists of the species dealt with in the old handbooks of Heyne (1927), Burkill (1935, reprint 1966), Brown (1941-1943, reprint 1951-1957), and Reyes (1938), supplemented by various other sources. Obviously, the selection is never complete, but the most important pulse species and some potentially important ones have been included. In all, 22 species received textual treatment, whereas 3 species were treated in tabular form, to set an example for further volumes, where the proportion of species of minor importance or with few data may be much higher. A number of 69 legume species which might also be used as a pulse, but whose main use is in other commodity groups (e.g. 'Vegetables', 'Auxiliary plants'), has been listed, but they will be dealt with fully in forthcoming volumes of the PROSEA handbook. The length of the textual treatments had to be limited, even though the 'Pulses' volume is only about 100 pages long. The texts have to be in line with those feasible in subsequent volumes. Very important species have been allotted about 5 pages, less important ones have to fit into approximately one page. Because approximately 5,000 species have to be dealt with in the handbook, only the most important information has been selected; the other data have been stored in the PROSEA data base. An effort has been made to illustrate the species with available line drawings, in most cases adapted for reasons of size and clarity.

80 4.2 Other Experiences

The preparation of a multi-authored book has been a challenge for all editors. Even with a rather homogeneous group of useful plants, data are not abundant for less important crops, or for plants used only occasionally. Data are often expressed in different ways, or obtained in various fashions that make them hard to compare.Th e chemical composition is an example of this: for example, environmental influences may alter the protein content to an even larger extent than the diverse extraction methods employed. Many scientists have skillfully investigated the seeds of one crop or a range of crops, but all 22 species have never been compared in a single series of tests. Comparison on an equal basis proved to be troublesome, but an attempt was made to present the data in a comparable form. The authors and co-authors were very cooperative and sent in their manuscripts well on time, except for one or two chapters that were not commissioned until later in the process. This did not slow down the process to any appreciable extent, however. Clear authors' instructions facilitated uniformity of the incoming manuscripts, but those were not always complete. At the time this volume was being prepared, the Network of PROSEA Country Offices in South-East Asia was not yet in operation. The editors spent a week in Wageningen to finalize editing the available versions of the introductory chapter and treatment/ of the species. For consistency, strict editing has been necessary. Because of the correction of the English, the final differs from the versions returned to the authors after the first editing. Time prohibited another consultation with the authors. Some authors provided floppy disks with the hard copy, but none were compatible with the project's PC-systems. This is a problem that has to be sorted out for the subsequent volumes. Another problem is to identify authors for minor or wild species. The PROSEA documentation work will be extremely important to assist writers and editors in obtaining relevant information about those species. The production of the 'Pulses' volume was in the capable hands of PUDOC after the very precise scrutiny of the general editors and the PROSEA secretariat. The layout, as decided upon in the Project Proposal, has been largely followed, and will itself be the example for the following volumes. The experience has been valuable with regard to choosing which details to incorporate in the texts. For example, Arachis and Glycine are of such regional and worldwide importance, that a general treatment has to omit many interesting data. However, the trends and possibilities for the South-East Asian region are discussed. The most widely grown pulses in the region are groundnuts, soyabeans and Phaseolus beans. However, the national records show large differences. A few examples: as far as statistics go, only Burma grows chickpeas; soyabeans and groundnuts occupy similar areas in Indonesia but soyabean is much more productive; the Philippines grow relatively small amounts of pulses, and beans and soyabeans are grown there much lesstha n groundnuts. In Indonesia cowpeas are not reported as a dry pulse, obviously much is grown as a vegetable. The other pulses play a minor role or are confined

81 to small suitable areas, and some of them have been included because of their potential. For PROSEA Volume 1i t was decided to mention only the most widely used vernacular names for each country. With the multitude of languages and dialects in the area many local names exist, but regrettably not all of them could be incorporated. All known names will be included in the computerized database ,however .Th ename sappearin g inPROSE A Volume1 have been partly supplied by collaborators in the region. Perhaps all the vernacular names can be combined in asupplementar y volume in due course.

5. References

Brown,W.H., 1951-1957. Useful plants of the Philippines. Reprint of the 1941-43 edition. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin No. 10. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Vol. 1(1951 ) 590 pp., Vol. 2 (1954) 513 pp., Vol. 3 (1957) 507 pp. BurkillJ.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Reprint of the 1935 edition with some corrections added. Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. 1(A-H ) pp. 1-1240, Vol. 2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444. Hawtin,G.C, F.E.Muehlbauer, A.E.Slinkard & K.B.Singh, 1988. Current status of cool season food legume crop improvement: an assessment of critical needs. In: R.J.Summerfield (editor). World crops: cool season food legumes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London. pp. 67-80. Heyne,K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië [The useful plants of the Dutch East Indies]. 2nd enlarged edition. Vol.1-3 . Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel inNederlandsc h Indië. 1953 pp. Lockerman,R.H., F.A.Bisby & L.J.G. van der Maesen, 1988. Workshop: integration of information on plant diversity. In: R.J.Summerfield (editor). World crops: cool season food legumes. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, pp. 129-133. Maesen,L.J.G.van der, & S.Somaatmadja (editors), 1989. Plant resources of South-East Asia, PROSEA 1, pulses. PUDOC, Wageningen. 105 pp. Plitman,U. & M.Kislev, 1986. Reproductive changes induced by domestication. In: Abstracts, Second International Legume Conference on the Biology of the Leguminosae, 23-27 June 1986 (full paper in press). Polhill,R.M., 1988. Third International Legume Conference. Bean Bag28:1 . Reyes,L.J., 1938. Philippine woods. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Technical Bulletin No. 7. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 536 pp. + 88 plates. Summerfield,R.J. & E.H.Roberts (editors), 1985. Grain legume crops. Collins, London. 859 pp.

82 Plant Resources of South-East Asia: a Selection

P.C.M.Jansen & E.Westphal

PROSEA Country Office Netherlands, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands

1. Introduction

The book 'Plant resources of South-East Asia: a selection', dealing with 86 species and genera, is not a volume of the PROSEA handbook. The volumes of the handbook deal with commodity groups. The rationale of the 'Selection' is explained hereafter. In 1986 the PROSEA project published the 'Proposal for a handbook', dealing with the need for and objectives of the project and containing 17 examples of the proposed treatment of useful plants of South-East Asia. It was intended to serve as a basis for discussions on the scientific, organizational and financial aspects of the project. The proposed commodity group approach was generally accepted. Within th,e project, however, the 17example s presented were thought to constitute too narrow a base on which to base the treatment of species from all commodity groups. It was decided to widen this basis in a new publication, by testing the framework with representatives from all commodity groups. To meet the long-standing wish for a textbook in South-East Asia, a selection including economically major and promising species was obvious. The articles on the 17 species in the 'Proposal' were also slightly revised and included. The 39 commodity groups mentioned in the 'Proposal' have been arranged into 21 groups by combining smaller groups. Based on experience gained with the preparation of the 'Selection', this paper discusses aspects of organization, scientific content and presentation for the volumes of the PROSEA handbook.

2. Organizational Aspects

2.1 Selection of Authors

The 86 articles in the 'Selection' have been written by 101 authors from 12 countries. An effort was made to select experts from South-East Asia, to ensure a maximum input of data from the region. In total, 15 authors from Indonesia, 5 from the Philippines, 2 from Malaysia, 2 from Papua New Guinea and 1 from Thailand cooperated. PROSEA Offices have since been established in those countries; this will facilitate and stimulate cooperation with authors from the region in the future. From countries outside the South-East Asian region the following number of authors contributed: Netherlands 62, United States 3, United Kingdom 3, Australia 3, Taiwan 3, Japan 1, and Denmark 1.

83 2.2 Authors' Instructions

To guarantee that all articles would be structured in a similar manner, all authors received strict instructions. Based on the experience gained from the 'Proposal', the 'Pulses' and the 'Selection', definite instructions have now been compiled. They are detailed, and leave no doubt about what subject should be treated, where and how. The instructions seem better adapted for describing cultivated plants, but they are suitable for wild plants too, simply by ignoring subjects that are not applicable.

2.3 Limited Space and Data Base,

Depending on the economic importance of a species, the text-length varies from 1-5 printed pages (with some exceptions). Limitations in text- length are necessary in order to limit the size of the complete handbook. Usually, more relevant information is available than space allows in the handbook. Additional information can be stored in the TEXTFILE data base. Within the limits of the instructions and allocated space, the experts (authors) select the information to be presented. When much information is available, continual reflection is necessary to select the most suitable data and views.

2.4 Delivery of Texts on Floppy Disks

For the 'Selection' the authors were asked to submit their contribution typewritten and, if possible, also on a floppy disk. Floppy disks pose several problems: compatibility of computers, flexibility of the wordprocessor used, size and format of the floppies, danger of computer viruses, etc. The experience with the 'Selection' showed that texts on floppies were only rarely more useful than typed ones. The large number of alterations, corrections, displacements and additions to be made in the original texts, make it more practical to start from typescript texts. Furthermore, compatibility problems then become irrelevant.

2.5 Copyrights

When so many authors are involved in preparing such a book as the 'Selection' and the PROSEA handbook volumes, the rights of the individual authors to their texts pose a problem. In practice it is very difficult to contact all authors (in this case, 101) for every future edition, for every translation, for all alterations, etc. The only solution is to ask the authors to grant all their rights to PROSEA. It should be clear that a kind of gentleman's agreement between PROSEA and the authors should guarantee that PROSEA will respect the individual rights as far as is possible and reasonable. Financial profits seem out of the question. The total cost of the handbook will always be higher than the profits from selling the books. The transfer of copyrights to PROSEA should be unconditional: authors not agreeing with this may not contribute.

84 2.6 Illustrations

All taxa treated in the 'Selection' are illustrated. Usually, the illustration is simple and serves as an aid to quick identification of the species concerned. The small format chosen (approximately half a column) means that a detailed drawing will not show up well. This means that almost all existing drawings in other publications or in the original collections of botanical institutes, which PROSEA wishes to use, have to be redrawn and adapted for PROSEA. The illustrations are presented at an original size of 12 cm x 16.8 cm. In the publications they are reduced by 40% to 7.2 cm x 10 cm. In the 'Proposal' it was suggested illustrating about a quarter of all species. If feasible, it seems preferable to try to illustrate all species described.

2.7 Manuscript Path

All treatments of species in the PROSEA volumes will be similarly structured and the same kind of data will be given, to facilitate comparisons. This necessitates streamlining of the manuscripts by the editors. The English of most manuscripts, moreover, requires correction to avoid ambiguities in the texts. Both interventions may change manuscripts considerably. The authors are sent the modofied versions for approval, usually accompanied by a list of queries or remarks. The editors need to have the right to change minor elements of the text without consulting the author for every change. Three native English speakers corrected the 'Selection'. Nevertheless, some differences in spelling may be observed in the texts due to differences in opinion about their correctness. In future a standard spelling list will be used. Lack of time prevented the texts corrected for English from being returned to the authors for approval. It is proposed that in future the English corrections be made before the manuscript is returned to the author for approval.

3. Treatment of Species

3.1 Species/Genus Approach

The 'Selection' comprises 75 treatments of species and 11 of genera. In general, a genus treatment was chosen when several species of the same genus had more or less similar uses and similar importance. A genus treatment has the advantage that more species can be treated together, which prevents unnecessary repetition of the same information. A disadvantage is that characteristics of individual species may remain hidden. The 11 genus treatments are: Averrhoa, Brassica oil seeds, Cinchona, Clausena, Coffea, Cryptocoryne, Diplazium, Indigofera, Paphiopedilum, Rosa, and Rubus.

3.2 Headings and Length of Treatment

In general, the same headings are used for all taxa described. Only for a genus treatment is the heading 'Synonyms' replaced by 'Major species

85 and synonyms', and instead of '2n', the basic chromosome number V is given. For 1-page treatments the headings 'Description', 'Growth and development', and 'Other botanical information' are replaced by one heading 'Botany'; the headings 'Propagation and planting', 'Husbandry', 'Diseases and pests', 'Harvesting', 'Yield', and 'Handling after harvest' are replaced by one heading 'Agronomy' (or 'Forestry'); the headings 'Genetic resources' and 'Breeding' are replaced by the heading 'Genetic resources and breeding'.

3.3 Tables and Source Citations

The presentation of the text in 2 columns per page does not facilitate the use of tables. Although some information might more easily be presented in tabular form, it was decided that as a general rule the information should be described. Tables would necessitate a different lay out, requiring at least the width of 2 columns. As for the illustrations, which would do more justice to the habit of the plant if drawn at a larger scale, space limitations and interference with the columnar presentation led to the decision not to present tables and larger illustrations. In most publications it is common practice to cite authors with year of publication directly after the citation. In an encyclopaedic work such as the PROSEA handbook, this practice would result in continual reference to authors, as general statements are often supported by opinions from many sources. To save space, the solution chosen is to present the major literature sources only once per species under the heading 'Literature'. By studying those sources it will be possible to determine in most cases the source of certain statements in the texts.

3.4 Area Covered by PROSEA

The core area of PROSEA is the same as of 'Flora Malesiana': Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines and Singapore (together called Malesia in 'Flora Malesiana'). Because of agricultural, botanical and climatological similarities, information from Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Vietnam has also been included for species that also occur in the core area. At the end of the book a map of South- East Asia can be consulted for the main geographical names of the region.

3.5 Glossary

To facilitate reading the texts a glossary of terms has been included. The terms are mainly botanical, but medicinal, agricultural and others are included as well. The future will show whether this glossary is useful.

4. Treatment per Heading

4.1 Scientific Name with Author

It goes without saying that the identity of the species must be

86 correct.

4.2 Original Publication of the Correct Name

The correct name, together with its original publication facilitates the identification of the species. Sometimes it is difficult to find these data. The best solution is to leave the nomenclature to the PROSEA taxonomists if the author is not a taxonomist himself.

4.3 Family Name

Family names often facilitate searching for information in literature related to botany.

4.4 Chromosome Numbers

For a better understanding of relationships between species (e.g. for breeding and taxonomical purposes) knowledge of chromosome numbers is useful. For species the diploid number 2n is given, for genera the basic number x.

4.5 Synonyms

Whereas the current correct name is necessary for searching recent literature sources, older sources often use names that nowadays are considered to be synonyms. In taxonomical literature the number of synonyms per species is often large. Citing all synonyms would require much space and is not considered useful for non-taxonomical purposes. Furthermore, it might be impossible to cite all synonyms of species that have not recently been revised. It was decided to cite a maximum of 3 synonyms in the text, preferably those that are relevant for access to older literature sources. Other relevant synonyms should be stored in the data base. For each synonym the author's name and year of publication are given.

4.6 Vernacular Names

The vernacular names are a major problem. Including all existing names in the text would, in many cases, require too much space. It was decided to select a maximum of 3 names per country. Additional names have been stored in the data base. In the texts the English (American) and French names are given first, followed by the names from countries of the core area and subsequently the names from other countries.

4.7 Origin and Geographical Distribution

After mentioning the origin, the distribution in the world and subsequently in South-East Asia is given. The spelling is based on the Times Atlas. For cultivated plants, historical data on the distribution have often been included.

87 4.8 Uses

It has been attempted to indicate all uses briefly, with emphasis on the primary use. When medicinal data are given it is advisable to include exact data about preparation and amounts, if these data can be found in the literature.

4.9 Production and International Trade

An attempt has been made to give average data from the last 5 years on production, cultivated area, price, export, consumption, ratio production by smallholders and by estates, for the world and for each country in South-East Asia. It is difficult to obtain data especially for the minor crops, and the information will often remain incomplete. In the literature, data are often not given per commodity.

4.10 Properties

This heading is intended to give more detailed information on the plant part(s) used. For edible plants, for instance, the nutritional value per 100 g edible portion is given (content of water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, fibre and the energy value). For medicinal plants, dyes and tannins, natural insecticides, and poisonous plants, the active chemical substances are indicated. If seed is used for propagation, seed weight is mentioned.

4.11 Description

A short morphological description of the species is given, following the order: habit, root, stem, branch, leaf, inflorescence, pedicel, flower, calyx, corolla, androecium, gynoecium, fruit, seed, seedling. Together with the illustration the description can help to portray the general appearance of a species. The description is presented in telegram style, including many botanical terms, most of which are explained in the glossary. It is difficult to determine the balance between usefulness of the presented information for the general reader and the requirements of descriptions for taxonomy. For timbers, a separate heading 'Wood characteristics' is used with data on colour, volumetric mass, durability, texture, strength and anatomy.

4.12 Growth and Development

An attempt has been made to describe the sequence of germination, vegetative growth, generative development with flower initiation, flowering, pollination, fruiting and maturation, or tuber development, with emphasis on turning points in the developmental path. For perennial plants are added: phenological cycle, longevity data (plant, leaves), functioning of shoots, alternate flowering/fruiting. Very often the data were incomplete. 4.13 Other Botanical Information

Here subclassifications are given, with their characteristics. For cultivated plants, authors were requested to mention cultivars, cultivar groups or other subclassifications but the information is generally not sufficiently comprehensive. Would it be useful to mention, for instance, 5 major cultivars with their distinctive characteristics?

4.14 Ecology

Requirements with regard to climatic factors such as daylength, photosynthetically active irradiance, temperature, water availability, relative humidity and altitude are stated. Favourable soil types, physical and chemical limitations are mentioned. The type of vegetation is indicated for wild plants. Very often the data were incomplete.

4.15 Propagation and Planting

Methods of dormancy breaking, propagation, sowing, seed-bed preparation and maintenance, selection of strong and healthy plants, timing of planting, planting densities and cropping methods are described.

4.16 Husbandry (or Management for Timber)

Weeding, staking, pruning, irrigation, fertilizing, green manuring, mulching, mechanization and crop rotations are mentioned. For many timber trees information is scarce.

4.17 Diseases and Pests

The most serious diseases and pests are mentioned and control measures indicated. Possibly more attention should be given to integrated control methods. Recognition of diseases and pests is difficult. Certainly, in most cases, more information is needed for the data base.

4.18 Harvesting

Time or period of harvesting and harvesting methods are mentioned.

4.19 Yield

Average yields per ha in South-East Asia are compared with world data.

4.20 Handling after Harvest

Transport, storage, packing and processing in relation to the destination of the products are treated. In many cases, information is scarce.

89 4.21 Genetic Resources

Existing germplasm collections are mentioned. If such collections do not exist, the centres of diversity may be mentioned.

4.22 Breeding

Main breeding objectives, and characteristics sought in available wild relatives are mentioned. Data on wild relatives are often scarce.

4.23 Prospects

Expected developments and advisable research priorities are mentioned.

4.24 Literature

Depending on the length of the entry, 4-10 sources are mentioned. Other sources are stored in the data base. For the shorter entries, it is worth considering citing more sources. Full citation of the sources here has the advantage that the entry is complete. However, one could envisage a citation method with numbers in the text and a full citation of the numbers with corresponding sources at the end of the book. The advantage of this method would be that many more references can be given requiring little additional space.

4.25 Name of the Author(s)

Only the names are cited here, while the affiliation of the author(s) is presented separately in a list of contributors in the initial pages of the book.

5. Problems and Proposed Solutions

5.1 Synonyms

So far it has been the practice to cite a maximum of 3 synonyms in the texts and to store other relevant ones in the data base. For many species the problem is which synonyms to select for citation. The number of synonyms in the data base should preferably be as complete as possible, because they allow access to all possible sources of information and reduce identity problems. Complete synonymity, however, can only be given by taxonomical revisers of families and genera. In the PROSEA area, 'Flora Malesiana' is the main source. Storing the complete synonymity given by 'Flora Malesiana' in the data base deserves consideration and for families not yet dealt with, synonyms should provisionally be collected from other sources.

90 5.2 Vernacular Names

Citing only 3 vernacular names per country per species is certainly unsatisfactory, but is necessitated by the space limitation. What should be done with the rest? Vernacular names, if handled with care, are often a useful aid to identification of a species. Care is necessary because names are often misapplied and transcription to English is difficult (for instance, see the names from Indo-China). It is proposed to store all available vernacular names, with country, language and region in the data base. Once the project is finished, all vernacular names could be published in a separate volume. Collection of names and selection of the names to be cited in the textbook can best be done by the respective PROSEA Country Offices.

5.3 Properties

To ensure that the data under this heading are comparable, it is proposed to define, per commodity group, which data should be included.

5.4 Literature

The possibility of citing the references in each entry by number (with pages) and of listing them at the end of the volume, has already been mentioned. A combination of full citation and by number is also feasible. It is proposed to continue with the current method and to store additional relevant literature references in the data base.

5.5 Indexes

In this 'Selection' indexes for scientific and vernacular plant names have been included. With 21 volumes of the handbook planned for the future, it will be difficult to find quickly in what volume a certain species is described. It is proposed that at the end of the project a separate volume of general alphabetical indexes referring to the respective volume and page number of the treatments be prepared.

5.6 Access to and Maintenance of the Data Base

Collecting data, storing data and keeping the data base up-to-date is almost a project in itself. The possible ways of doing this should be discussed. It is proposed to use the same framework per species in the data base as is used now in the book. As long as the data base is not operational as a data bank, access is only possible through the PROSEA Offices. It should be discussed to what extent requests for print-outs can be honoured.

5.7 Possibilities for a Second Edition

With its many economically important species, it is hoped that this

91 'Selection' will also be suitable as a textbook. When the complete handbook has been published, a second edition could be made, including all species thought to be most suitable for educational purposes. Even different editions are plausible, each including information relevant only to a specified target group.

6. Conclusions

The following conclusions can be drawn: (1) the framework of the species/genus treatment is applicable for all commodity groups, both for cultivated and wild plants, (2) to guarantee a smooth flow of manuscripts from authors via editors to the publisher, clear and detailed authors' instructions are necessary and authors and editors should grant their individual copyrights to PROSEA International, (3) the data base, as a kind of expansion tank to store additional information, is indispensable to the textbooks; ultimately, a worldwide accessible PROSEA data bank could be created if manpower and means become available, (4) the quality of the papers varied considerably, requiring much editorial work; to guarantee the quality and uniformity of the handbook, editorial work will remain very important.

7. References

Maesen,L.J.G. van der, & S.Somaatmadja (editors), 1989. Plant resources of South-East Asia, PROSEA 1, pulses. PUDOC, Wageningen. 105 pp. Westphal,E. & P.C.M.Jansen (editors), 1986. Plant resources of South-East Asia, proposal for a handbook. PUDOC, Wageningen. 76 pp. Westphal,E. & P.C.M.Jansen (editors), 1989. Plant resources of South-East Asia, a selection. PUDOC, Wageningen. 322 pp.

92 Discussion

E.Boa: Since when have fungi been classified as plants? It is unlikely that mycologists or those interested in (edible) fungi would consult books entitled 'Plant Resources of South-East Asia'. L.J.G.van der Maesen: The original classification used by Heyne considered fungi as part of the plant kingdom. The present classification considers fungi as a separate kingdom. We feel it still useful to include edible fungi in the PROSEA project.

J.E.Vidal: What do you intend to do with data concerning the useful plants of Indo-China? Have they been included already in the 'Basic list'? P.CM.Jansen: The core area of PROSEA is formed by the countries Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. For plants of the core area which also occur in Thailand, Burma, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, it is proposed to include relevant information from those countries also.

E.S.Fernando: It has been suggested that copyrights of authors be given to PROSEA International. Does this include royalties as well? P.C M .Jonsen: It is proposed to continue with the payment of a fee to authors. Royalties on the sale of the book should benefit PROSEA International.

R.E.Coronet I am amused by the titles of the presentations: Bamboos 'of' South-East Asia, Edible fruits and nuts 'in' South-East Asia and Pulses 'for' South-East Asia. To me these prepositions connote different meanings, e.g. the word 'of' implies that all the plant species to be treated are indigenous to South-East Asia, but according to the 'Basic list' many of the plant species are not native to the region. What is the opinion of PROSEA? P.CM.Jansen: The correct indication is Plant Resources of South-East Asia. This includes of course all indigenous useful plant species. It is proposed, however, also to include species that have been introduced (both recently and long ago) or that are promising to be considered for introduction now. As soon as a plant grows in South-East Asia (whether native or introduced) it starts being a plant resource of South-East Asia.

A.J.G.H.Kostermans: Local names are uncritically published in 'Flora Malesiana'.Sometime s 70%ar e wrong.Wron g namesca ncreat e more problems than no names. How will PROSEA tackle this problem? P.C M J onsen: Although the problem with vernacular names can never be resolved satisfactorily, it is proposed to continue including vernacular names in the texts. To guarantee more correctness it is proposed that the Country Offices start to collect vernacular plant names and decide which 3 names have to be published in the handbook and which have to be stored in the data bank.

93 Commodity Group Reports

Edible Fruits and Nuts in South-East Asia

E.W.M.Verhey1 & R.E.Coronel2

PROSEA CountryO ffic eNetherlands , Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands

Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines

1. Introduction

1.1 Fruit in the Garden of Eden

Most fruit in South-East Asia is produced in home gardens. These gardens are presumably as old as settled agriculture. Through the ages South-East Asians have grown up under the shade of fruit trees around the house. This long tradition of familiarity with the trees and their fruits has given rise to the notion that: (1) the fruits hold no secrets for the consumer, and (2) the trees hold no secrets for the grower. / In keeping with these notions, South-East Asians are excellent judges of fruit quality, they are familiar with the many uses of the fruit, both green and ripe, and with the beneficial effects of fruits on health according to traditional medicine. In short, they have a great appreciation of fruit. This means that they are eager and discerning buyers, providing fruit growers with a large market which generously rewards them for better quality. This description suggests an ideal situation and that impression is further strengthened by the lush vegetation in home gardens and the seeming abundance of fruit in the market place. One might easily be led to believe that all is well with fruit growing in South-East Asia and that there is little need for research and development to improve on the achievements of a long and rich tradition. Indeed, the emphasis in fruit research on quality aspects of the fruit and on packing, storage and transport does reflect the notion that the grower knows as much about the trees as the consumer knows about the fruit; the research worker only needs to streamline the flow of fruit from the grower to the consumer. Development efforts are often directed towards the export markets, where again the post-harvest problems demand most research attention.

1.2 Exile from Paradise

Unfortunately this idyllic picture crumbles under close scrutiny. In fact, consumers in South-East Asia cannot afford to eat as much fruit as they would like, not even as much as nutritionists recommend. Fruit is often too expensive for large sections of the community!

97 Where eager consumers face scarcity rather than abundance, there must be serious constraints on the production side. The simple truth is that most fruit trees are shy bearers. Young trees take a number of years to come into bearing and factors such as biennial bearing also depress yield levels. Low yield levels tend to make a commodity expensive. Growing one's own fruit in the home garden in fact was the natural solution , enabling rural societies to enjoy fruit without having to pay. The solution was all the more effective since surplus fruit could be sold. Presumably that is how the idyll of people surrounded by fruit trees and enjoying their plentiful fruit came into being. However the population explosion exiles increasing numbers of people from the 'Garden of Eden' to the growing towns, where the low productivity prices fruit out of their reach. The assumption that growers know all there is to know about fruit growing has resulted in stagnating yield levels, whereas the yields of most other crops have risen steadily through sustained research efforts. Where low productivity is the root of the problem, there is much to say for a drastic shift in emphasis in research work from the fruit to the tree.Th e dramatic breakthrough in productivity which hastransforme d some plantation crops and temperate fruits, still has to reach the tropical fruits. Recent developments in Thailand suggest that traditional skills provide the necessary clues to initiate such a breakthrough, so that research workers do not have to grapple with a superhuman task. This train of thought, leading from low consumption and production levels to possible solutions, will be elaborated in the next section. In section 3 a brief survey will be given of the various cropping systems for fruit. The Thai example will be discussed to show that a breakthrough in productivity will affect the position of fruit crops in the farming system: orchards gradually take over production for the market and home grown fruit can again be enjoyed by the family. In Annex 1 an outline will be proposed for PROSEA's 'Edible fruits and nuts' volume.

2. Consumption and Production Levels

2.1 The Problem

Fruits and nuts are consumed because they are tasty and good for health. Fruits contribute mainly vitamins and minerals to balance the diet, but some fruits, nuts and seeds are rich in protein and/or energy as well. Banana and breadfruit form part of the staple diet in certain areas and the same applies to jackfruit, durian and avocado in their season. A simple comparison of statistical data on population and fruit production reveals that fruit consumption per head is rather low, for many below the recommended daily intake of 50-100 g fresh fruit (18-36 kg edible portion, or say 30-60 kg fresh fruit per head per year). National statistical data may not give an accurate picture, but nutrition surveys also reveal a high incidence of deficiencies of vitamins (A,C) and minerals (Fe), indicating that a higher intake of fruit is very desirable. In view of the high appreciation of fruit, the low consumption levels can only be explained by fruit being scarce, i.e. expensive. The main reason is the low productivity of most fruit crops. Discussing the basis

98 of productivity of fruit crops, Verheij (1986) has argued that the few important unbranched fruit plants such as pineapple, banana, papaya and coconut are naturally productive: they simply produce as much fruit as they can under the prevailing growing conditions. The large number of branched species on the other hand tend to be rather unproductive: better growing conditions usually lead to more vigorous growth at the expense of flowering and fruiting. For pineapple, banana and papaya, yields of 50 tons and more per ha per year are within reach, but mean yields for the branched fruit trees in South-East Asia usually range from 3-10 tons per ha. Such yields are so low that they hardly affect tree growth. Instead of growth and yield being balanced, growth is uninhibited and flowering and fruiting are only of marginal importance in the tree's energy budget. This situation leaves the field wide open for improvements. A realistic target, approached by coconut (Ouvrier, 1984) and coffee (Cannell, 1971), and surpassed by oilpalm (Corley, 1983), apple (Verheij, 1972) and peach (Miller & Walsch, 1988), is that half the energy fixed by the tree should be recovered in the fruit. With the exception of energy- rich fruit such as durian and avocado, yields of 50 tons fresh fruit per ha are indeed a realistic goal. Gains in yield of such a magnitude obviously leave much scope for lower prices, to the benefit of consumers.

2.2 Towards a Solution ,

To attain such a breakthrough the tree itself needs to be manipulated, in the first instance through: (1) vegetative propagation, and (2) girdling and root treatments to improve flowering. These techniques are mentioned here first because they are traditional methods in South-East Asia. Moreover, vegetative propagation is a kind of breakthrough in itself and the key to further progress. By selecting superior trees for clonal propagation the yield level can be raised substantially, and that is only the beginning of the benefits. Clonal propagation eliminates or minimizes the juvenile phase, so that trees come into bearing quickly. This precocity diverts energy from root and shoot growth to fruiting, resulting in a smaller tree. Small tree size not only facilitates management (pruning, thinning, picking, crop protection), but also permits planting more plants per hectare, which further advances the achievement of worthwhile yields. Another major advantage of clonal propagation is that it gives the fruit a name in the market. One no longer sells an indifferent durian but for instance a 'Mon Tong', a durian with known quality attributes. In view of wide seedling variation in most fruits, it is a tremendous advantage to sell a well-defined cultivar. All fruits of some importance can be vegetatively propagated. In fact it is generally believed that most propagation methods originated in Asia and some sophisticated forms of suckle grafting are practically unknown outside Asia. Nevertheless, the great majority of the fruit trees in home gardens are raised from seed. Girdling and various root treatments (withholding irrigation, root pruning, laying roots bare, applying salts in a ditch around the tree) are seen so infrequently in the gardens that

99 it is even difficult to form an opinion about the value of these methods for improved flowering. The striking observation that known skills are not widely applied in home gardens provides food for thought. In a typical home gardening situation, where everybody grows fruit but nobody is a fruit grower, the traditional expertise is dispersed and much of it is latent, i.e. not put to use. The gardens are a sideline for the farmers, the field crops have priority and the growers are amateurs rather than professionals. In Thailand, professional fruit growers and nursery men have come to the fore since the second world war. It is revealing to see the full impact of traditional skills as accumulated and applied by these 'experts'. Vegetative propagation provides a good example to illustrate the difference between amateur and professional. In the hands of an amateur a particular grafting method is a risky technique, usually with such high failure rates that it is not surprising that most gardeners use seedling trees. The professional, who grafts hundreds or thousands of trees in this way each year, has accumulated all the peripheral know-how and so developed a foolproof routine, in which the emphasis has shifted from mere survival to attaining high quality planting material. Whereas vegetative propagation is the major thrust towards a breakthrough, further progress is more difficult. The effect of girdling and root treatments depends very much on proper timing in relation to tree phenology. Proper timing is also important for other techniques intended to regulate the growth rhythm of the tree: (3) defoliation to synchronize the growth rhythm, (4)dormancy-breakin g chemicals(cyanamides ) toforc e a new cycle of growth, and (5) growth retardants (paclobutrazol) and other bloom-inducing chemicals, e.g. potassium nitrate on mango (Bondad, 1983). Literature gives virtually no information about the phenology of tropical fruits in certain climates and it is not clear how much traditional knowledge has been gained in this field. Phenological research to clarify the rhythm of flushing, floral development, flowering, fruit growth, root growth and leaf fall deserves top priority. It fosters the understanding of how trees function and provides a basis for proper timing of all manipulative treatments, e.g. avocado in Queensland (Cull, 1986). The uniformity of clonal material greatly facilitates phenological research, but it also extends the field, since cultivars may show considerable phenological differences. Tree phenology has to be studied at the shoot level to answer questions such as: 'Are shoots which have recently flushed likely to flower?' and 'Are twigs which fruited last year able to produce shoots which flower and fruit this year?' (Singh & Khan, 1939). The answers help us to penetrate further in understanding fruitfulness (or the lack of fruiting). They also provide guidance for other manipulative techniques such as: (6) pruning of branches to restrict tree size and eliminate twigs that are unlikely to flower, and (7) thinning of inflorescences to suppress biennial bearing, i.e. in longan (Groff, 1921). The importance of proper crop protection to improve productivity is evident. Just think of the current crisis in citrus growing brought on by virus and mycoplasma diseases and of the damage that the leafhopper can do to the mango crop. For efficient crop protection and minimal use of

100 Chemicals we must again turn to tree phenology, because control measures should be based on the link between the life cycle of the pathogen or its vector and the growth rhythm of the tree. Summing up, it can be said that the scarcity of fruit is first and foremost a consequence of the low productivity of most fruit crops. To remedy the situation, the large and erratically bearing trees need to be transformed into smaller, precocious, reliably bearing trees. Traditional know-how on vegetative propagation can provide the initial thrust for such a revolution. Growers appear to have further tricks to manipulate the growth rhythm. These tricks should be picked up by research workers and incorporated in a study of tree phenology. Our ignorance of tree phenology appears to be the main barrier for effective manipulation of the tree to recover half the energy accumulated by the tree in the fruit.

3. From Gathering Wild Fruit to Fruit Production in Orchards

Within South-East Asia, fruits are harvested in an extremely wide range of cropping systems, i.e.: (1) collecting wild fruit, (2) fruit- enriched fallows in shifting cultivation, (3) fruit grown in home gardens, and (4) fruit grown in orchards. It is clear from this list that fruit can be found in virtually all farming systems; it is also clear that the list shows a progression towards more intensive and market-orientated cropping systems, fn Table 1 a few characteristics of the cropping systems are compared.

Table 1. Predominant propagation method, age distribution and spatial distribution of fruit trees in different cropping systems.

Cropping system Propagation Tree age Tree spacing

collecting wild fruit seed random random fruit-enriched fallows seed even clustered home gardens seed/clonal uneven uneven orchards clonal even even

Of some 400 species primarily used for their edible fruits or nuts in South-East Asia, less than half are cultivated, even though 'cultivation' here is used in a minimal sense. This leaves more than 200 wild species, many of which are classified merely as 'edible' or, even less invitingly, as 'non-poisonous'. However, a good many are eaten readily by people visiting the forest and quite a few are gathered for sale in local markets. It is generally believed that cultivation of some of these wild fruits, particularly from remote areas, may prove worthwhile. The simplest and most natural form of fruit growing is found in shifting cultivation. After clearing a field, farmers plant seeds of fruit trees to enrich the succeeding fallow vegetation. This is common practice in South-East Asia. If wild species hold promise for cultivation, one would expect them to be tried first of all by shifting cultivators. This is what the Amazon Indians in South America do; 'wild' fruits play an important role in their swidden culture (Denevan et al., 1984). Lists of

101 species found in fallow vegetations in South-East Asia, however, only record well-known fruit species, often including introduced species such as soursop and avocado (Bodner & Gereau, 1988). This may be an indication that in South-East Asia there is not much scope for bringing further wild fruit species into cultivation. If that is so, their main potential in fruit development is as rootstocks and in breeding programmes for cultivated relatives. Home gardens are by far the most important source of fruit in South- East Asia. Vegetables, flowers and other ornamentals have long found their way from the home gardens to market gardens, where they are grown by professional vegetable growers, floriculturists and nurserymen. Fruit is lagging behind because of the iow productivity of most fruit crops. Production in orchards by professional fruit growers entails high risks, since the grower has to wait a number of years for the orchard to come into production; moreover, the yield of many fruit species is notoriously erratic. Species with a long juvenile phase cannot even hold their ground in the home gardens; Ahmad et al. (1983), for instance, report an alarming decline of mangosteen cultivation in Malaysia between 1970 and 1980. After a period of unqualified praise for home gardens it is now fashionable to stress the need for improvements. Trees, in particular fruit trees, dominate the gardens almost everywhere. In view of the foregoing analysis it may be more appropriate to say that the trees need to be improved rather than the gardens. If the suggested transformation of large, unproductive trees into manageable precocious trees is successful, cultivation in orchards will become attractive, taking the pressure off the home gardens! After all, home gardens are more suited to feed the family than the millions. These small units with their intricate mixture of crop plants are not really compatible with production for large markets. As mentioned before, even traditional skills are often not practicable for individual trees in such a mixed stand. Orchards can only be successful if clonal material is used, as shown in Table 1; the long juvenile phase and the fact that the product lacks the identity of a named cultivar in the market, rules out the planting of orchards with seedling trees. In fact, where orchards are found they nearly always consist of precocious trees, of small-sized and relatively fruitful species: papaya, tangerine, guava, apple. Pineapple and banana, the only fruit crops which are grown on a plantation scale, exhibit these properties in the extreme. In Thailand the use of clonal material is standard practice and it is no accident that Thailand is also the only country in South-East Asia where fruit for the market comes mainly from orchards rather than home gardens! The clonal durians, rambutans, mangosteens, langsats, etc. in Thai orchards are indeed much smaller and much more productive than their seedling counterparts. Moreover, the accelerating pace of developments in Thai fruit-growing appears to confirm that clonal propagation is the first step on the way towards a complete transformation. There are no signs that home gardening suffers from the shift of fruit growing for the market to orchards, on the contrary: home gardeners benefit from the clonal material available in the nurseries. This means, for instance, that instead of one large seedling durian tree, several smaller durian cultivars can be

102 accommodated in the garden. Whereas there is no hard information on the rise in productivity of the fruit crops grown in orchards compared to the previous situation, visitors to countries in the region cannot fail to note the low price levels for fruit in Thailand in relation to the standard of living. This is of course a great bonus to consumers; fruit appears to be within everyone's reach. Other benefits which should not be overlooked are the increased employment (there is so much more fruit to be picked !) and a stronger foothold in export markets. Nurseries fulfil a key role in the development of fruit growing. Nurseries can also be valuable indicators of development trends. Increasing sales of trees show that fruit growing is expanding and the assortment indicates which crops and cultivars are in the lead. Where national statistics are hard to interpret, particularly in the case of fruits with their wildly fluctuating yields, nursery surveys can give a much more direct and predictive assessment of development.

4. Conclusion: Return to Eden?

That the people of South-East Asia like fruit so much and like so much fruit, offers growers tremendous scope for expansion of fruit production (Coronel,1983). To achieve this a breakthrough in yield levels is necessary. Traditional skills exist to force such a breakthrough and modern technology can sustain further development, provided research focuses on the tree, not just on the fruit. Vegetative propagation opens the road to progress; a better understanding of tree phenology will guide growers along that road. Because fruit-growing in Thailand has a great reputation in South- East Asia, developments in that country have been used to argue some of the points in this paper, including the shift from home gardens to orchards in producing fruit for the market, where yield levels rise. Similar developments are under way elsewhere in South-East Asia, more hesitant perhaps and often hampered by the shortage of high quality nursery trees. Nevertheless, there is reason to hope that South-East Asia's delicious fruits will again come within everyone's reach. PROSEA's volume on the 'Edible fruits and nuts' should help to strengthen these developments, in particular through the cooperation of authors within South-East Asia and the incorporation of facts and figures gathered by PROSEA's South-East Asia Network.

5. References

Ahmad,M.S., Z.A.Mohamed, C.S.Teck, W.Hamidah &W.Hussein , 1983.Past , present and suggested future research on mangosteen with an example of research and production in Malaysia. Paper, International Workshop for Promoting Research on Tropical Fruits, Jakarta, May 1983. 20 pp. Bodner,C.C. & R.E.Gereau, 1988. A contribution to Bontoc ethnobotany. Economic Botany 42(3):307-369. Bondad,N., 1983. Aspects of mango research and production: past, present and future. Paper, International Workshop for Promoting Research on

103 Tropical Fruits, Jakarta, May 1983. 40 pp. Cannell,M.G.R., 1971. Production and distribution of dry matter in trees of Coffea arabica L. in Kenya as affected by seasonal climatic differences and the presence of fruit. Annals of Applied Biology 9-120. Corley,R.H.V., 1983. Potential productivity of tropical perennial crops. Experimental Agriculture 19(3):217-237. Coronel,R.E., 1983. Promising fruits of the Philippines. College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, Los Banos, College, Laguna. 508 pp. Cull,B.W., 1986. A phenological cycling approach to tree crop productivity. Acta Horticulturae 175:151-156. Denevan,W.M., J.M.Treacy, J.B.Alcörn,C.Padoch ,J.Denslo w &Flore s Paitan S., 1984. Indigenous agroforestry in the Peruvian Amazon: Bora Indian management of swidden fallows. Intersciencia 9(6):346-357. Groff,G.W., 1921. The lychee and lungan. Part 1. Orange Judd Co., New York. Miller,A.N. & C.S.Walsh, 1988. Growth and seasonal partitioning of dry matter in eight-year old 'Loring' peach trees. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 113(3):309-314. Ouvrier,M., 1984. Etude de la croissance et du développement du cocotier hybride PB-121 (NJM x Goa) au jeune âge. Oléagineux 39(2):73-82. Singh,L. & A.A.Khan, 1939. Relation of growth to fruiting in mangoes. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 9(6):835-867. Verheij,E.W.M., 1972. Competition in apple, as influenced by Alar sprays, fruiting, pruning and treespacing .Mededelinge n Landbouwhogeschool 72- 4, Wageningen. 54 pp. Verheij,E.W.M., 1986. Towards a classification of tropical fruit trees. Acta Horticulturae 175:137-150.

104 Annex 1. The volume on 'Edible fruits and nuts'

The fruits and nuts form a large and diverse commodity group of about 400 species. Another 400 species bearing edible fruits, nuts or seeds are included in other commodity groups, the use of the fruit being only of secondary importance. The cocospalm is primarily used for its vegetable oil, kei apple as a hedge plant, but both plants also produce an edible fruit/nut. The following subdivisions of the 420 species in the 'Basic list' give some idea of the diversity of plants to be dealt with:

herbaceous plants 45 woody plants 375 nuts or seeds 50 fruits 375 recent introductions* 75 indigenous or naturalized 330 cultivated 185 growing wild 225 * according to the old handbooks. The herbaceous group comprises afe w annuals (e.g.watermelon) ; most perennials belong to the ginger family (making it hard to draw the line with the commodity group 'Spices'). The woody species can be divided into 250 tree species, about 60 shrubs or treelet-! and nearly 50 vines and scramblers. The sources for the 'Basic list' describe about 75 species, of which at the time only a few specimens were growing in botanical gardens and the like. This group has been singled out because by now k may be known whether or not these species deserve a niche in South-East Asia. Old-time introductions which are now part of everyday life, such as the papaya and the soursop, have been grouped with the indigenous species. It may come as a surprise that more than half the species in the 'Basic list' are not in cultivation, even though 'cultivation' is used in a minimal sense here. Moreover, according to the old handbooks, most cultivated species appear to be just seedling populations; varieties or cultivars which propagate true to type are mentioned for only one-third of the cultivated species. Agronomically, this last group is of course of major importance; it is hoped that all these species can be given one or more text pages in the book, as shown in Table 2. The total number of papers aimed at for the book is slightly over 100. About one-quarter of these papers deal with more than one species, usually an entire genus. The total number of species treated in the text pages therefore should come to about 200; the same number of species will have to find a place in the tables. An attempt will be made to limit the volume to approximately 300 pages. The following information is being gathered for all fruit and nut species in the 'Basic list': (1) synonyms and vernacular names, (2) plant habit, (3) main product: fleshy fruit/dry fruit, or nut/seed, (4) other uses, (5) husbandry: cultivated/wild, with some subdivisions, and (6) occurrence: established species/recent introduction; availability of propagules at species/cultivar level. It is clear that complete species records contain a wealth of information. Unfortunately, much information is still lacking. It is hoped that with the help of the PROSEA South-East Asia Network most of the missing data can be filled in before the tables go to print. As stated earlier, the big breakthrough in fruitfulness has yet to 105 come for the large majority of the tropical fruits. Editors and authors should assist in paving the way for such a breakthrough in South-East Asia. There is no room for complacency, pretending that all will be well if only a few post-harvest problems can be solved. On the contrary, the need to foster insight in tree growth and productivity will have to be stressed. The PROSEA 'Fruits and nuts' volume can contribute most to the development of fruit growing in South-East Asia if it not only describes what is known, but also draws attention to what we do not know!

Table 2. Estimated number of papers, of species described, and total number of pages of the 'Edible fruits and nuts' volume.

Category Number of Number of Number of papers * species pages

5 pages 12 ( 2) 17 60 3 pages 20 ( 3) 30 60 2 pages 30 (10) 98 60 1 page 45 (12) 67 45 tabulated 192 25

106 (27) 400 250

Introduction, Index, etc. 50

Total volume 300 pages

* between brackets: number of papers dealing with more than one species, usually an entire genus.

106 Bamboos of South-East Asia

E.A.Widjaja1 & S.Drans field2

Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE, United Kingdom

1. Introduction

Bamboos represent one of the many important groups of plants in the economy of the rural areas of South-East Asia. This is evident from the fact that all parts of bamboos are extensively used by the local people. It is interesting to note that in recent years bamboos have entered the highly competitive world market in the form of canned foods, bamboo boards, fancy parquets and so on. Therefore, it is not surprising that the future prospects of bamboo are bright, in line with the increasing inputs from modern technology in bamboo production. Although bamboos have many uses and large-scale production of certain bamboo species is geared towards a specific primary use (such as Dendrocalamus asper for canned vegetable, Gigantochloa atroviolacea for musical instruments, Gigantochloa atter for toothpicks and chopsticks, the spotted Bambusa vulgaris for furniture), bamboos have always been considered ason e commodity group in any treatment of economic plants because of their overall similarity. The purpose of this paper is to present the present state of knowledge on the biology and uses of bamboos in South-East Asia and to summarize the important species growing in this region, both the wild and cultivated ones. The content of the PROSEA handbook volume on 'Bamboos' will also be elaborated.

2. Scope of the Commodity Group

Bamboos are members of the grass family Gramineae,an d form the tribe Bambuseae of the subfamily Bambusoideae. They occur mostly in the natural vegetation of tropical, subtropical and temperate regions. They have a tree-like habit and can be characterized by having woody, usually hollow culms, complex rhizomes and branch systems, petiolated leaf-blades and prominent sheathing organs. Moreover, all members possess similar anatomical features in the leaf-blades, that is fusoid cells and arm cells, which set the bamboos apart from the grasses. Some herbaceous genera in the Gramineae have the same anatomical features and other characters as the bamboos, and are therefore included in the same subfamily. In tropical Asia, members of this grass family grow into giant bamboos which are a familiar sight in the rural scenery of South-East Asia.

107 Based on the handbooks on economic plants written by Heyne (1927) for Indonesia, Burkill (1935 ) for Peninsular Malaysia, Brown (1920 , 1951-1957) for the Philippines, and taxonomie studies published by Holttum (1958, 1967), Dransfield (1981, 1983), Lin (1968), Pancho & Obien (1988), Wong (1982) and Widjaja (1987), it is estimated that about 180 species of bamboos, belonging to about 20genera , are found in South-East Asia (Annex 1). Some of them (100 species) are indigenous to the monsoon areas of South-East Asia and have limited distribution. About 30 species are found only in cultivation and were probably brought in from other areas. About 125specie s are growing wild in their natural habitats but they have been brought also into cultivation in other regions. Some important bamboos were introduced from other parts of Asia such as Gigantochloa apus from Burma and Bambusa multiplex from China. People probably also brought bamboos along for making temporary dwellings and for other purposes, during the great migration of people from mainland Asia to the Malesian Archipelago which took place some 3,000 years ago.Consequently , Holttum (1958) presumed that the distribution of bamboos has been greatly modified by human intervention. At the moment the identification and naming of bamboos in South-East Asia present many problems, because earlier classifications and monographs were based on flower structure in spite of the fact that most bamboos flower infrequently. Remedies to alleviate this situation have been attempted and recent taxonomie studies on Asiatic bamboos have used almost all parts of the plants. In this paper some genera, rather than species, are discussed and described briefly to indicate the present state of our knowledge on their biology and their multiple uses.

2.1 Bambusa Schreber

Bambusa is the most widespread genus of bamboos in tropical Asia. There are about 37 species of Bambusa widely distributed in South-East Asia. Of these, 16 species are growing wild in their natural habitats and 7 species (Bambusa balcoa, B.multiplex, B.oldhamii, B.tuldoides, B.utilis, and B.vulgaris) are only found in cultivation. Most species of this genus are erect, only few grow as leaning or scrambling bamboos (such as Bambusa brevispicula, B.horsfieldii, B.klosii, B.microcephala, B.montana and B.pauciflora). Only 13specie s of Bambusa have meaningful economic value and play an important role in the life of rural people, as well as having potential for large-scale industrial development. The genus Bambusa can be recognized by itsthick-walle d culms, rough aerial roots, and one dominant lateral branch among numerous smaller lateral branches at each node. The spikelet of Bambusa has 2 to many florets on a long rachilla-internode which terminates in reduced florets (i.e. lemma and its floral parts). Every floret possesses 3 stigmas.

2.2 Dendrocalamus Nees

The vegetative parts of this genus are very similar to the previous genus, so that to the uninitiated it is rather difficult to separate them without the presence of their flowers. The present genus has a perfect

108 uppermost flower and hardly recognizable rachilla-internodes. There are 17 species of Dendrocalamus growing in South-East Asia, of which 9 species are important economically. Except for Dendrocalamus pendulus, which has pendulous culms, this genus has erect and very strong culms.

2.3 Dinochloa Buse

Dinochloa is a climbing, endospermless bamboo genus found in South- East Asia. There are about 20 species, only 14 of which are named; each has a limited distribution area. The species are found scattered in the lowland and hill dipterocarp forests, but they become weeds in logged and disturbed forests, thus preventing regeneration of commercial timber. In the field the genus is easily recognized by its climbing habit with zig zag culms, distinctive rugose bases of culm sheaths and by the dormant primary branch buds surrounded by small, short branches (Dransfield, 1981). Mature culms, which are usually solid, are strong and are used by the local people as material for making rough baskets to carry stones from rivers. Because Dinochloa species are economically of little value their natural history is little known. From the taxonomie point of view Dinochloa is a very interesting genus. The inflorescence is huge, up to 3 m long, leafless, bearing a large number of very small spikélets and producing a large number of fruits. The berry-like fruit has a thick and fleshy pericarp, no endosperm (or much reduced), and an embryo with a large scutellum containing starch grains.

2.4 Gigantochloa Kurz ex Munro

Gigantochloa is the most useful genus in South-East Asia and its species are widely used for construction, basketry and other household utensils, especially by the Malays and Indonesians (Widjaja, 1984). There are 21 species recorded in South-East Asia, the uses of 5 species being unknown. Gigantochloa scortechinii is one of the most important species in Peninsular Malaysia, whereas G.levis is the bamboo most used in the Philippines and also, as a vegetable, in Peninsular Malaysia. G.apus is the most commonly utilized species in Java. The genus Gigantochloa is characterized by sessile florets and a terminal empty lemma. The vegetative parts of this genus resemble those of Bambusa and Dendrocalamus, so it is rather difficult to distinguish between them without flowers.

2.5 Melocalamus Bentham

Melocalamus is related to Dinochloa and is found growing wild in the mountains from the eastern part of Bangladesh to the northern part of Thailand. Only 1 species, Melocalamus compactiflorus, a climber with a large fruit, is found in South-East Asia. It differs from Dinochloa in having 2-flowered spikelets (in Dinochloa the spikelets have 1 flower). Local people use the culms of this species for making baskets.

109 2.6 Melocarina Trin.

The only species in the genus, Melocanna baccifera, is the most useful bamboo in Bangladesh, where it is found commonly. The species is native in the areas from Assam to the western part of Thailand. It has been introduced elsewhere in the tropics. The culms are used for all purposes. The clump is open because the rhizome has long necks. This bamboo flowers gregariously and then dies. The fruit is large, as big as a pear, has a thick pericarp, reduced endosperm and an embryo with a large scutellum. It germinates when it is still attached to the parent plant (Stapf, 1904).

2.7 Nastus Nées

The vegetative parts of this genus resemble those of Racemobambos, so it is rather difficult to distinguish between them without their flowers. Nastus has 1 floret with several glumes in the spikelet, whereas Racemobambos has more than 1flore t and 2-3 glumes. The genus is found mainly in the southern hemisphere from Madagascar to the Solomon Islands, although it has been recorded in the northern hemisphere in Sumatra. There are about 10 species found only in montane vegetation. The only species found in Java, Nastus elegantissimus, occurs in Pangalengan (West Java) and is used by local people for poles for drying tobacco leaves; it may represent an endangered species.

2.8 Racemobambos Holttum

Racemobambos consists of 15 species, of which only 1 species, Racemobambos raynalii, has been used traditionally by local people in mountainous areas to make fire. They are all scrambling bamboos of the montane forests. The genus is confined to Malesia, especially to Peninsular Malaysia, Borneo, Seram and New Guinea. The uses of these bamboos are not known. In the field they can be recognized by their thin- walled culms, many branches at each node with the middle branch dominant. The 2 species on Mount Kinabalu, R.gibbsiae and R.hepburnii, are reported to flower every 10-20 years (Wong et al., 1988).

2.9 Schizostachyum Nées

The genus is widely distributed in tropical Asia. There are about 30 species but many of them are confined to very small areas and hence need further study. Most of the species are found growing wild or occur spontaneously along roadsides, near villages or in the forest. This is probably the reason why most Schizostachyum species are widely used by local people. The genus can be recognized by its thin-walled culms (except Schizostachyum caudatum from Sumatra which hasalmos t solidculm s though soft in the middle), with many equally short branches at each node. Almost all species produce flowers continuously. The culms are erect, 5-10 m tall, 1.5-7 cm in diameter, the length of the internodes varies from 60 cm

110 to 1 m. Because the walls are thin, the culms are light and easily split. They are used for making rafts, floors, roofs, baskets, native musical instruments and numerous kinds of handicraft. S.brachycladum is the most widespread species in the region, either planted or naturalized. There are 2 types of culms, green and yellow; the yellow variety is not common and is planted as an ornamental, whereas the green variety is used widely for roofs (split lengthwise into 2 as for the Toraja rice barns and houses in South Sulawesi), water containers, handicrafts, banana props or for cooking glutinous rice called 'lemang'.

2.10 Thyrsostachys Gamble

Thyrsostachys consists of 2 species native to Thailand and Burma. Thyrsostachys siamensis is one of the most useful bamboos in Thailand. It is found planted, or growing wild scattered in forests or as almost pure stands. The culms are slender and erect, about 7 m tall and about 2.5 cm in diameter, with relatively thick walls. Branches are few and at the upper nodes only. In the field this species can be recognized by its compact clump with erect slender culms with short internodes. The culms are used for making baskets or fences, whereas the young shoots are eaten as vegetable. T.siamensis has been introduced into other countries in South-East Asia and is used as an ornamental plant.

2.11 Yushania Keng

Yushania is a small genus found in Taiwan, Luzon and on Mount Kinabalu (Sabah), and is often put under Sinarundinaria Nakai from China. So far there are 2 species in South-East Asia, Yushania niitakayamensis in Luzon and Y.tessellata on Kinabalu. The genus was described based on Arundinaria niitakayamensis from Taiwan, which differs from the typical Arundinaria species in having 2 stigmas in its flower. The uses of these 2 species are not yet known, but they have great potential as ornamental plants. The culms are up to 5 (rarely 7) m tall, with a diameter of 1.5-2 cm, erect. They are found growing at altitudes of about 1,000-2,000 m (Dransfield, 1983).

3. The Role of Bamboos in South-East Asia

It is an established fact that as a group, bamboos represent one of the major plant resources of South-East Asia, at least for the people living in the rural areas. The many uses of bamboo are well known but more significantly they are economically important as sources of raw material for building purposes, musical instruments, handicrafts and as a vegetable. In modern time, the input of highly sophisticated technology has made it possible for bamboo to enter the highly competitive world market in the form of pulp for paper, parquets and ply-bamboo and as a canned vegetable.

Ill 3.1 Production and Propagation

The many uses of bamboo offer opportunities and better income to the rural people. In this connection it is of interest to note that bamboo industries in Thailand encourage farmers to establish bamboo plantations by offering incentives, such as guaranteed prices, cheap seedlings and cuttings. However, the planted area is still well below the target. The average annual production (198 1-1984 )o f bamboo poles wasabou t 52millio n culms in Thailand, whereas in Indonesia (1974-1981) the production was about 58,089 tons or 53,105 culms. The Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia 1982 recorded that in 1972 and 1973 Indonesia exported 2,954 poles to Japan and 23,389 poles to the United Kingdom. According to Nor & Wong (1987), it is estimated that 10,500 tons of bamboo of the 'betung' type have been harvested from 173,776 ha of logged forests in Peninsular Malaysia. For the Philippines, Basio et al. (1989) reported that about 12,000 poles/ha were harvested from a Gigantochloa levis plantation and 9,000 poles/ha of Sphaerobambos philippinensis by the clear-cutting method. However, Hilario (1988) suggested that up to 30,000 poles/ha can be harvested after the clump reaches 6 years of age. From the above account it is evident that the production of bamboo comes from 2 sources, by harvesting those species under cultivation and by collecting them directly from the wild. The majority of culms marketed come from bamboo plantations established especially for this purpose. There are 2 general methods of bamboo propagation, i.e. by seeds or vegetatively. Propagating bamboo by seeds is not very popular because most species do not bear flowers very often (except Cephalostachyum pergracile, Dendrocalamus strictus, Gigantochloa albociliata and Thyrsostachys siamensis). Vegetative propagation by rhizome and culm cuttings is commonly employed in planting bamboos,an d about5 0specie so f bamboo are cultivated by this system. Culm cuttings are obtained from 1 to 1.5 year- old culms. People already use fertilizers in order to obtain good results in establishing the plantation. A complete fertilizer with a 1:1 ratio of 6 tablespoons of 16-20-0 and 21-0-24 in 6 litres of water is applied to newly emerged plantlets. Clearly, this fertilizer application should be modified in accordance with the soil type (Caasi, 1989). Good management of bamboo stands is essential for better production and prevention of clump damage.Althoug h clear-cutting methods could give better biomass yields in the subsequent years (Caasi, 1989) irrespective of the quality of the poles and the size of the culm, Basio et al. (1989) concluded that selective harvesting gives better poles and results in lower mortality of the clumps.

3.2 Utilization

In South-East Asia and elsewhere, the most-used part of bamboo is the culm, which serves various purposes.

3.2.1 Construction

The most important use of bamboo isfo r building material, and Monroy

112 (1955) estimated that 80% of the bamboo consumed in Indonesia is used for buildings, including pillars, floors, walls, doors, windows, rafters, and roof-laths as well as for ceilings and roofs. Besides houses, numerous village structures such as smoke-houses for drying newly harvested tobacco, raised guard-houses in rice fields, roadside food shops, hot houses for growing mushrooms, store-houses for rice, cattle sheds and many others all use bamboo as the main component of construction. Besides, bamboo is also much used in making fences, village bridges, and pipe lines to bring water from far away. Previously, bamboo was extensively employed for scaffoldings. The species in thegener aBambusa, Dendrocalamus and Gigantochloaar e the most suitable for the purposes mentioned above. However, local people in the Philippines and Sulawesi also use species of Schizostachyum such as S.brachycladum and S.lumampao, for walls and roofs, but never for pillars.

3.2.2 Handicrafts

The other important use of bamboo is in the handicraft industry. Table-mats, handbags, hats and other woven bric-â-brac can be made of bamboo. The best developed bamboo handicraft industry is the weaving of bamboo splits. In weaving the bamboo splits, many different patterns have been created. However, there are some handicrafts made of unsplit bamboo. Usually this kind of handicraft consists of engravings on the outer part of the culm or the rhizome. Furniture made of unsplit bamboos has developed into an extensive industry. The species employed in woven handicrafts are mostly species with long and flexible fibres such as Bambusa atra, Gigantochloa apus, G.scortechinii, and Schizostachyum latifolia. Species that are easily engraved are Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, and Schizostachyum brachycladum. A number of species of the genera Bambusa. Dendrocalamus and Gigantochloa are commonly used in the furniture industry (Widjaja, 1980).

3.2.3 Musical Instruments

Bamboo musical instruments have been developed by most tribes in South-East Asia. There are 3 types, i.e. idiophones (percussion or hammer instruments), aerophones (blown instruments), and chordophones (stringed instruments). Apparently, bamboo musical instruments have been known in South-East Asia for a long time, because flutes are known to every tribe in South-East Asia. Filipinos, Indonesians and Thais have stringed instruments, although the number of strings varies. Species of the genus Schizostachyum are the most suitable for making aerophones. The main species used for making idiophones and chordophones are Gigantochloa atroviolacea, G.atter, Clevis, G.pseudoarundinacea and G.robusta. Sometimes Dendrocalamus asper and Gigantochloa apus are also used.

113 3.2.4 Food

Young shoots are the most famous part of bamboo used as food and recently a large-scale canned-food industry has developed. Thailand is one of the most advanced South-East Asian countries in producing bamboo shoots and it has been estimated that its plantations produced an average of 9,631 kg/ha in 1984. Potharam & Panchatri (1986) reported that Thailand in 1985 exported bamboo shoots to Japan (10,265 tons), the United States (1,238 tons), West Germany (602 tons), Saudi Arabia (437 tons), Hongkong (286 tons), Denmark (302 tons) and other countries (924 tons). Indonesia is also beginning to produce bamboo shoots but there are no data available on the annual production.

3.2.5 Other Uses

Bamboo is often planted along rivers so that its root system will prevent soil erosion. As a curiosity it can be pointed out that in some places people traditionally use the culm sheaths for making rainshades and food wrappers. In East Madura (Java) bamboo leaves are given to cattle in times of severe drought, and the dried leaves are collected and sold to be used as fuel in pottery or tile factories. The use of bamboos as ornamental plants, hedges or wind-breaks are well known, so it is not surprising that some ornamental bamboos are very expensive. The favoured ornamental bamboos mostly comefro m Chinaan d Japan and include Bambusa multiplex, Bambusa tuldoides and Phyllostachys aurea. However, there are also some native bamboos in South-East Asia widely used as ornamental plants, such as the yellow varieties of Bambusa vulgaris and Schizostachyum brachycladum, and also Thyrsostachys siamensis. A number of bamboo species have potential for ornamental uses, such as Schizostachyum gracile, species of Dinochloa, Racemobambos and so on.

4. Future Prospects

The world demand for bamboos has increased recently, sotha t bamboo- producing countries have initiated large-scale bamboo plantations. In Thailand and the Philippines these plantations are established by small farmers and coordinated by farmer cooperatives. The Ministry of Forestry in Indonesia has been cultivating bamboo in disturbed habitats to meet the demand of the paper industry, and also to prevent soil erosion in these areas. More recently, large bamboo plantations have been established by private companies, especially in southern Sumatra and East Java, to fill the growing needs of bamboo-based industries for producing young shoots, chopsticks, toothpicks and fancy handicrafts. The increasing demand for bamboo goes hand in hand with the increasing use of modern and sophisticated technology in processing bamboo products for modern society. There is an indication that the demand for bamboo in building and construction is steadily decreasing, but handicraft and other industries (especially ply-bamboo, parquets and canned bamboo shoots) have been growing in the past 10 years. Unfortunately, there are no published data on annual demand and supply, or on the available bamboo

114 plantations in South-East Asia, especially as regards details on specific uses and species needed. However, local people understand precisely which bamboos are most suitable for specific purposes and this information is being collected to be analysed further (Soeprayitno et al., 1989). Bamboo scientists are now carefully studying some species which have good potential for future development of the bamboo industry. The emphasis is on the physical and mechanical properties, propagation methods, application of fertilizers and management of the stands. The results of these studies are needed to provide the right inputs to the production sectors. Needless to say, the correct identification of species is a prerequisite for all these activities.

5. Proposals for the PROSEA Volume on 'Bamboos'

All species of bamboo in South-East Asia have many similar properties. Therefore, in preparing the volume on this unique commodity group, a number of subjects (such as morphology or propagation) can be generalized and described in an introductory chapter. Consequently, it is proposed that the content of the volume be as follows:

Chapter I: General introduction: 1-2 pages - Morphological structure of bamboos: 3-5 pages - Propagation, cultivation and silviculture: 2-3 pages Chapter II: Key to the bamboo genera in South-East Asia ' Chapter III: Textual treatment of important species (about 50), following the PROSEA text headings as much as possible. Chapter IV: Tabular treatment of less important species (about 130). Appendix: Bamboo glossary: 4 pages.

6. References

Basio,C.C, D.D.Eliarda &C.D.Carcallas , 1989.Comparativ e study of bamboo varieties, method of planting and harvesting in relation to pole production.Proceeding s of theFirs t Symposium/Workshop onBamboo , Los Banos, 27 February - 1 March 1989. (in press). Brown,W.H.& A.F.Fisher , 1920.Philippin e bamboos.In :W.H.Brow n (editor). Minor products of Philippine forests. Bureau of Printing, Manila, pp. 250-310. Brown,W.H., 1951-1957. Useful plants of the Philippines. Reprint of the 1941-43 edition. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin No. 10. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Vol.1 (1951) 590 pp., Vol.2 (1954) 513 pp., Vol.3 (1957) 507 pp. Burkill,I.H., 1935. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula, Vol.1-2 . Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. 2402 pp. Caasi,M.C, 1989. Growing bamboo for livelihood and environmental protection in Davao Province. Proceedings of the First Symposium /Workshop on Bamboo, Los Banos, 27 February-1 March 1989. (in press). Dransfield,S., 1981. The genus Dinochloa (Gramineae - Bambusoideae) in Sabah. Kew Bulletin 36(3):613-633. Dransfield,S., 1983.Th e genusRacemobambos (Gramineae - Bambusoideae). Kew Bulletin 37(4):661-679. Heyne,K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië [The useful

115 plants of the Dutch East Indies]. 2nd enlarged edition. Vol.1-3 . Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indie. 1953 pp. Hilario,R.E., 1988. Growing bamboo for livelihood and environmental protection. Techno-Transfer Bulletin No.1. Holttum,R.E., 1958.Th e bamboos of the Malay Peninsula. Gardens' Bulletin Singapore 16:1-135. Holttum,R.E., 1967. The bamboos of the New Guinea. Kew Bulletin 21(2): 263-292. Lin,W.C, 1968. The bamboos of Thailand. Special Bulletin Taiwan Forest Research Institute 6:1-52. MonroyJ.A.von, 1955. Interim report on the raw material supply for the East Java paper project. Jakarta, (unpublished paper). Nor,S.M. &K.M.Wong , 1987.Th e bambooresourc e inMalaysia :strategie s for development. In: A.N.Rao, G.Dhanarajan & C.B.Sastry (editors). Recent Research on Bamboos, pp. 45-49. PanchoJ.V. &S.R.Obien , 1988.Ne w records of bamboos for the Philippines. Philippine Agriculturist 71(2):199-228. Potharam,A. & Panchatri, 1986. Study report on shoot production and marketing of Dendrocalamus asper. Division of Marketing Economics, Department of Internal Trade, Bangkok. Soeprayitno,T., T.L.Tobing & E.A.Widjaja, 1989. Why do the Sundanese of West Java prefer slope-inhabiting Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea than those growing in the valley. Proceedings International Bamboo Workshop. Cochin, India, 14-18 November 1988 (in press). Stapf,0. , 1904. On the fruit of Melocanna bambusoides Trin., an endospermless, viviparous genus of Bambuseae. Transactions of the Linnean Society of London (Botany):401-425. Widjaja,E.A., 1980. Indonesia. Country Report. In: G.Lessard & A.Chouinard, 1980. Bamboo Research in Asia. pp. 63-68. Widjaja,E.A., 1984. Ethnobotanical notes on Gigantochloa in Indonesia with special reference to G.apus. Journal of the American Bamboo Society 5(3- 4):57-68. Widjaja,E.A., 1987. A revision of Malesian Gigantochloa (Poaceae - Bambusoideae). Reinwardtia 10(3):291-380. Wong,K.M., 1982.Tw one wspecie so f Gigantochloa (Bambusoideae) from the Malay Peninsula. Malaysian Forester 45(3):345-353. Wong,K.M., C.L.Chan & A.Philipps, 1988. The gregarious flowering of Mill Gibb's bamboo (Racemobambos gibbsiae) and Hepburn's bamboo (Racemobambos hepburnii) on Mt.Kinabalu, Sabah. Sabah Society Journal (in press).

116 Annex 1. List of South-East Asian bamboos.

Species Phil Mai Ind PNG Thai Uses

Arundinaria argenteo-striata C Orn Arundinaria ciliata U + Arundinaria graminea C Orn Arundinaria pusiIl a W + Arundinaria pygmaea C Orn Arundinaria suberecta C Orn Bambusa amahussana W Bambusa angulata C Orn Bambusa atra U + Bambusa balcoa C(Bot) Bambusa bambos U + Bambusa blumeana W + Bambusa brevispicula U Bambusa burmanica - Bambusa cornuta u Bambusa dolicho cIad a w Orn Bambusa dolichômerithaiia Orn Bambusa forbesii u Bambusa fruticosa Bambusa heterostachya w Bambusa hirsuta Bambusa horsfieldii U? w Bambusa klosii w Bambusa longispiculata W? Bambusa macrolemma Bambusa magica w Bambusa merriI l ii Bambusa microcephala w Bambusa montana Bambusa multiplex Orn Bambusa oldhamii Bambusa palIid a Bambusa pauciflora Bambusa pierreana W? Bambusa polymorpha C(Bot) U Bambusa ridleyi Bambusa riparia Bambusa schizostachyoides W? Bambusa solomonensis Bambusa thorelii W? Bambusa tulda C(Bot) W Bambusa tuId oide s + C C Bambusa utilis Orn Bambusa vulgaris C Bambusa wrayi Orn W

Cephalostachyum mindorense Cephalostachyum pergracile w,c Cephalostachyum virgatum w

Chimonobambusa marmorea C(Bot)

Dendroca lamus asper C C c Dendroca lamus brandis ii w.c Dendroca lamus curranii Dendroca lamus dumosus Dendroca lamus elegans Dendroca lamus giganteus C(Bot)C(Bot ) C(Bot) Dendroca lamus hamiltonii Dendroca lamus hirtellus U

117 Annex 1. Continued.

Species Phi I Mai Ind PNG Thai Uses

Dendroca lamus latiflorus C C C Dendroca lamus longispathus W Dendroca lamus membranaceus W Dendroca lamus merri11ianus W,C Dendroca lamus nudus U? Dendroca lamus parviflorus W Dendroca lamus penduI u s Dendroca lamus sinuatus W Dendroca lamus strictus W,C

Dinoc hlo a andamam'ca W? Dinoc hlo a dielsianum W Dinoc hlo a diffusum W Dinoc hlo a elmeri U Dinoc hlo a luconiae W Dinoc hlo a maclelland ii Dinoc hlo a obclavata Dinoc hlo a prunifera Dinoc hlo a pubirame a Dinoc hlo a scabrida Dinoc hlo a scandens Orn Dinoc hlo a sipitangensi s Dinoc hlo a sublaevigata Dinoc hlo a trichogona

Gigantochloa achmadii Gigantochloa albociliata W,C Gigantochloa apus c c W Gigantochloa atroviolacea - c Gigantochloa atter - w.c Gigantochloa auriculata W? Gigantochloa hasskarliana w w,c Gigantochloa heteroclada u - Gigantochloa holttumiana w - Gigantochloa latifoli a u - Gigantochloa Ie vis c c Gigantochloa Iigulata u - Gigantochloa manggong - u Gigantochloa nigrociIiata - w,c Gigantochloa pruriens - w,c Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea c c Gigantochloa ridleyi c c Gigantochloa robusta - c Gigantochloa rostrata C(Bot) C(Bot) Gigantochloa scortechinii Gigantochloa w - wrayi w w,c Guadua amplexifolia C(Bot)

Melocalamus compactiflorus W,C

Melocanna baccifera C(Bot) u

Nastus elastus Nastus elegantissimus Nastus hooglandii Nastus longispiculatus Nastus obtusus Nastus productus Nastus reholttumianus Nastus rudimentifer

118 Annex 1. Continued.

Species Phil Mal Ind PNG Thai Uses

Nastus schlechten Nastus schmutzii Neohouzeana dulloa w - Neohouzeana mekongensis u - Oxytenanthera densa w? - Oxytenanthera hosseusii w? - Oxytenanthera parvifolia w? -

Phyllostachys aurea C C . Orn Phyllostachys aurea var. flavescens-inverse C(Bot) - Orn Phyllostachys bambusoides var. holochrysa C(Bot) - Orn Phyllostachys edulis C - Orn Phyllostachys nigra C • Orn Phyllostachys pubescens C - Orn

Pleiobatus chino var. vaginatus C(Bot) Orn

Pseudostachyum polymorphum W

Racemobambos ceramica Racemobambos congesta Racemobambos gibbsiae Racemobambos glabra Racemobambos hepbrunii Racemobambos hirsuta Racemobambos hirta Racemobambos holttumii Racemobambos kutaiensis Racemobambos multiramosa Racemobambos novohibernica Racemobambos raynalii Racemobambos rigidifolia u - - Racemobambos schultzei - w w Racemobambos setifera w - - Schizostachyum aciculare w - . Orn Schizostachyum alopecurus - w - Schizostachyum blumei - u - + Schizostachyum brachycladum C c w,c w + Schizostachyum brachythyrsus - - w Schizostachyum caudatum Schizostachyum curranii w - - • Schizostachyum fenixii w - • - Schizostachyum gracile - w - - Schizostachyum grande - w - - Schizostachyum hantu - u - - Schizostachyum hirtiflorum w - - - Schizostachyum insulare - u - - Schizostachyum iraten - - w - Schizostachyum irratun - - w - Schizostachyum jaculans - w - w Schizostachyum latifolium - w w - Schizostachyum lima w - w u Schizostachyum lumampao w,c - - - Schizostachyum luzonicum u - - - Schizostachyum palawense u - - - Schizostachyum pilosum Schizostachyum pleianthemum Schizostachyum ridleyi W?

119 Annex 1. Continued.

Species Phil Mai Ind PNG Thai Uses

Schizostachyum rogersii W Schizostachyum terminate Schizostachyum textorium W Schizostachyum toppingii W Schizostachyum undulatum Schizostachyum whitei Schizostachyum zollingeri

Shibatea kumasaca Orn

Sphaerobambos philippinensis W,C

Thyrsostachys oliveri Thyrsostachys siamensis C C W,C

Yushania niitakayamensis U Yushania tessellata

Notes: W :Wil d C(Bot) :Cultivate d in Botanical Gardens W,C :Wil d and cultivated Orn :Ornamenta l plant W? :Wil d status doubtful : Not found/no recorded uses C :Cultivate d + :Man y uses

120 Dyes and Tannins in a Changing World

N.R.de Graaf, J.M.Fundter & J.W.Hildebrand

Department of Forestry, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 342, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands

1. Introduction

Dyes and tannins are often used in conjunction. In certain plants, one part may be used as a dye and another as a tannin. There are even plant products that act both as a dye and as a tannin. This, plus the relatively small size of both commodity groups is why in PROSEA the two are dealt with in one volume. Vegetable dyes are a category of colouring agents occurring widely in plants, often performing important physiological tasks, as do e.g. the carotenoids and the chlorophylls (Karstens, 1943). In many cases, as in flowers and fruits, they are easily visible, and in fact probably evolved tob e conspicuous.Som e important vegetable dyes, however, comefro m plant components not coloured in their original (live) state, or hidden under bark. Their chemistry is complex. Most plant pigments are not permanent, and only the most durable are rated among the dyes. There are many species in that group, but only a few have been important in world trade, and most are of local importance only. Natural dyes, including those of animal origin, have suffered severe competition from synthetic dyes, which are superior in quality and lower priced. Vegetable dyes were, and still are used for colouring clothes, utensils, woodwork and wickerwork, objects of art, food and much more. The various uses of dyes pose diverse quality demands, e.g. the use in food requires not so much a good resistance to sunlight, but rather a proven non-toxicity and non-carcinogenity. The 'anatto' (Bixa orellana) is a good example, being most popular as a food additive because of its generally accepted harmless nature. What are tannins? These are bitter and astringent substances present in the barks, fruits, leaves, roots and timber of a multitude of plants. These products are able to react with proteins, e.g. transforming a fresh and easily rotting or dried, hard animal hide into a far more durable and supple piece of leather or pelt. Their chemical composition is complex, and still not yet fully known. The different plant tannins give different qualities of leather: hard, soft, light-coloured or dark, heavy or light. Vegetable tannins can be used singly or in mixtures with other tanning agents to produce the desired effect. Tannins are not only used for tanning hide into leather: they also serve to tan netting, ropes and sails, and for the production of synthetics; they are used in glues, stains and mordants, are used in the ceramic industry and for cleaning out boiler scale; also as an additive to the sludges used in drilling for oil, or, a special use, to clear wine (Yaque Gil et al., 1969). Last but not least they are used in medicine, and as luxury goods, such as the 'gambir', associated with betel chewing. The tannins in tea and wine are

121 an essential part of the beverage, as every consumer knows. Below, tannins and dyes will be discussed separately, notwithstanding the many things they have in common.

2. Dyes

2.1 History

The history of man's use of plant pigments goes back a long way. Body-painting is a very old custom, probably preceding the use of clothes, at least in warm climates. Cosmetics and the extrovert revival of such styles in non-conformist groups in post-modern societies, are the present- day manifestations of this use. Here one should not only think of the use of lipstick or rouge but also of the use of the extract of walnut to provide the pale city-dweller with a brown skin colour, often mixed in with sun-tan oils to speed up the process of tanning during sea-side holidays. In such uses the quality is more important than price or quantity, and the cosmetics market may be lucrative for merchants in developing countries. The most important use of dyes may be the colouring of tissues, implements and utensils, for daily life as well as for special occasions and rituals. Colours have a special influence on the human attitude and much of our culture might be lost with them. Most of the ancient dye-stuffs from plants have been replaced by the synthetic dyes. Only a few have partly survived, and mostly only on a local scale. An example of this is the 'indigo' (from Indigofera arrecta and other Indigofera species), which still seems to be used on a small scale in a few developing countries, though since 1896 its synthetic counterpart has crushed the commercial application of vegetable 'indigo', not because of better resistance to light, but mainly because of higher purity and much lower price. This fate of the Indigofera cultures is not unlike the fate of the 'woad' cultures (Isatis tinctoria, Cruciferae) in Europe, during the 16th century. 'Woad', a laboriously extracted and thus expensive blue dye-stuff was defended forcefully against the 'indigo' intruding from the East, but it lost the battle. The cost of 'woad' was also high because it had a monopoly in being a highly light-resistant dye used in most dying processes, and thus was taxed heavily by the governments in Europe. 'Woad' was already known to the ancient Britons, who painted themselves with it for warfare. The 'indigo' was known already in ancient Egypt, and the synthetic substitutes have thus changed a long history of these vegetable dyes. Another special case of colour, much related to culture but located in South-East Asia, is the yellow colour of the robes of the Buddhist monks. This comes from the wood of Artocarpus heterophyllus, the jackfruit tree; the colour has the special significance of holiness and abstinence. A very special subject, highly related with culture, is the age-old use of colours in the batik process, well-known from Indonesia, but also existing in other countries of the region. In Java, some colours used for batik are still derived from vegetable sources, like the 'soga', a brown colour, made from the bark of Ceriops tagal, Madura cochinchinensis and Peltophorum pterocarpum. In batik painting, the dyes must be applied in

122 cold baths, because the wax mixtures used to make the pattern would be lost from the cloth in hot liquids. This reduces the number of possible dye-stuffs. In batik, many dye-stuffs have been replaced by synthetics, as has been the case with 'mengkudu' (from Morinda citrifolia, Symplocos fasciculata and some more ingredients) which has been replaced by synthetic Alizarin in a mixture still comprising Symplocos to provide the necessary aluminium ions to obtain the final colour (Haake, 1984). A special case of a colouring-matter is the shellac produced by lac fleas {Coccus laccae) on 'kesambi' trees (Schleichera oleosa, Sapindaceae), on Acacia villosa and other mother trees. It is exported in quantity from Java.

2.2 Prospects

Most vegetable dyes have remained only of local importance, because of the superiority of synthetic dyes. World population has increased so much that agriculture and forestry would hardly be able to meet the global demand for dyes. Vegetable dyes are not as efficient as synthetic ones. But for local use in developing countries, the growing and gathering of the dye-plants will form a source of income in rural areas. Objections against the use of synthetic dyes do exist, however, as some of them are suspected to be carcinogenic. This counts in the food industry even more than in the textile industry. The main reason for this suspicion is the proven carcinogenity of the base chemicals, i.e. benzene- derivatives (benzidine). In most developed countries, these dyes have been forbidden or restricted in use, but in developing countries their production and use seem to be continuing, if newspaper articles are to be believed. Publications from the dye industries (Sewekow, 1988) point to the fact that carcinogenic action of organic synthetic pigments has not yet been proven, and only a low percentage were found to be poisonous to some degree. Quite a number of pigments (of the azo group), however, were found to be allergenic. A basic problem in food tests with chemicals is that the animals used for the tests react very differently than humans. Other aspects of such tests are open to criticism too. The vegetable dyes are considered to be non-carcinogenic. However, because of the lack of research, in many cases this has not been proven, and it might be less true than desirable. It is known for 'anatto' at least, that a high daily intake may occasionally lead to hypersensitization. Poisonous plants and plant extracts are quite common, and to call a product 'natural' is no guarantee of safety. Consumers in the highly industrialized regions of the developed countries, however, are increasingly seeking natural products, and this might improve the market for natural quality products from developing countries. The world is changing, and new avenues should be explored.

3. Tannins

3.1 History

The history of the tannins should start with a look at the plants

123 that produce them. It is not fully clear why tannins are produced by plants. Tannins may be considered to be waste products, but a positive effect of their presence is the repellent action to herbivores, insects included, and the sterilizing effects on microbes. Vulnerable parts, such as the cambium of gymnosperm and dicotyledonous trees, are better protected against consumption when covered by bark full of tannin. Monocotyledonous plants, with their very different structure, are not vulnerable in this way, and many of these plants have only low contents of tannin. Plants with high tannin content are most frequent in open vegetation in tropical and subtropical regions with heavy grazing pressure, which lends support to this reasoning. The discovery of tanning to conserve hides must have been a great step for prehistoric man. It then became possible to design warm clothes, and well-fitting footwear, and with these the conquest of the temperate and cold regions of the earth became possible. We would rank this development as second only to the domestication of fire, which enabled early man to change the face of the earth. The production of woven cloth surely came later than the use of leather and pelts. It should be added that leather can also be made with fish-oil and other fats, a technique practised locally in northern regions. The ancient Egyptians knew tanning very well, and in this arid part of the world well-conserved leather has been found, dating from 3,000 years ago. The Greeks and Romans also used much leather, and the Arab civilization later spread its skills in making quality leather with the Muslim conquest. The use of leather seems not to have been promoted by the coming of the Muslim faith to, for instance, Indonesia, but here the prevailing Hindu religion may have restricted animal slaughter. Moreover, even the best leather, if unprepared, is not very durable in hot and humid climates. The European colonists brought with them a mass of leather implements, and this revived interest in local tanning agents which were often quite superior to those from Europe, such as the 'terra japonica', the extract from Acacia catechu, which is much more effective than the classic oak bark. In modern times, the synthetic tanning materials as well as the mineral salts and their composites, have taken a good share of the market, but there still is a place for the classic vegetable tannins, for special types of leather and for use in mixtures. These vegetable tannins are complete tanning agents; synthetics usually have to be completed with other materials. The mineral tannins, such as the chrome salts, produce fine leather, but have not yet superseded the other tannins completely.

3.2 Commercial Tanning Agents

There are so many tannin-bearing plants that it is quite impracticable to enumerate them all, and moreover most of them have a tannin content which is too low for efficient use. A good number of species with good tannin content are known, and rural tanners have been using these for centuries. In certain parts of the world the gathering and selling is a special trade, and the product is also sold to large tanneries. Only a restricted number of these are important for the world

124 trade. The best known of these tannins are (with a rough and outdated estimate of quantity traded, from Yaque Gil et al., 1969): (1) 'quebracho' extract (Schinopsis spp., Anacardiaceae), > 200,000 tons/year, (2) Castanea and Quercus extract (Fagaceae), > 100,000 tons/year, and (3) 'wattle' bark and extract {Acacia mearnsii, Leguminosae), > 100,000 tons/year. Other important vegetable tannins, without even an estimate of quantity are: (1) 'sumac', as leaf extract (Rhus coriaria, Anacardiaceae), (2) 'babul', as pod and bark extract (Acacia arabica, Leguminosae), (3) 'algarobilla' or 'divi-divi' pods (Caesalpinia brevifolia, Leguminosae), (4) 'mirabolans' (fruits from Terminalia spp., Combretaceae), and (5) Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae), wood and bark extract.

3.3 Important Tannin-Producing Plants in South-East Asia

The following species are of special interest for South-East Asia, although for many of these the tannin production is secondary to other uses (see the Annexes): (1) 'gambir' as leaf and twig extract (Uncaria gambir). Gambir extract is very mellow, and it gives a buff-coloured leather. It is generally used in combination with more astringent tannins, to increase the tensile strength of the leather. 'Gambir' is a high-quality tannin, but its primary use is as a stimulant, and it thus should not be dealt with in the 'Dyes and tannins' volume, (2) 'bakau', a bark extract from Rhizophora spp. and other Rhizophoraceae, has the same problem with regard to the commodity grouping, the wood of these trees being very important, even more than bark, for use as an energy source and building material. But mangroves are known more for their bark than for their wood. The 'bakau' is important for leather production, but delivers an intensely red end-product, and the leather is not of high quality. Its extended use has destroyed much of the original mangrove forests, as the wood is also much in demand, (3) Acacia catechu has its primary use as tannin producer in South-East Asia and supplies the 'cutch' or 'cachou' as an extract from its timber, (4) Acacia arabica ('babul') provides a much-used tannin from its pods, this being its primary use. Other Leguminosae, such as Acacia leucophloea and Cassia auriculata, produce tannin, (5) in the Combretaceae a number of Terminalia spp. produce the already mentioned 'mirabolans'. To the species listed above for the region should be added the already mentioned 'wattle' (Acacia mearnsii), which has been grown in the uplands of Java before the second world war on several thousands of hectares, but is not important in the PROSEA region; it is mostly used as a shade tree. Furthermore, Japing (1936) named 'segawe' (Adenanthera microsperma), 'weroe' (Albizia procera), 'pilang' (Acacia leucophloea), 'tekik' or 'kedinding' (Albizia lebbek), and 'trengguli' (Cassia fistula) as locally important on Java. No recent information could be found on amounts traded.

125 3.4 Prospects

The vegetable tannins seem to be keeping their place in international trade. Quality is the main reason for continuing to use them for tanning. The important 'quebracho' extract is derived from the wood of wild trees, and the resource may diminish sharply in the future. The Castanea extract also comes from the wood of old trees, which means the resource is vulnerable. Oak tannin, from the bark, is a relatively expensive product, and the coppice cultures in which it was produced are outdated systems of silviculture in Europe. The 'wattle' is cultivated specially for its bark, and supplies of this superior tannin will be safe, also because research on this species is well developed. If the world market for vegetable tannins is to increase in the future, it must be supplied from cultivated sources. In the tropics, with their high productivity for tree cultures, and their low labour cost, the possibilities for production should not be neglected. Growing tannin plants, especially trees, should be a multiple-use culture (e.g. also producing energy wood and/or etheric oils, as well as providing protection against erosion). A trend towards the processing of valuable skins, especially of reptiles grown in captivity in local small industries, may be seen in the region. The added value is thus maximized, and use is made of local cheap sources of tannins. For certain types of skins, however, the vegetable tannins seem not to be ideal to give the high quality for export.

4. Proposals for the 'Dyes and Tannins' Volume

The number of dye plants to be dealt with comes to approximately 75 species. Of these, the preferential list (Annex 1) gives an estimate of 11 species with dye as primary use, and 19 with dye as a secondary product. These groups comprise trees and shrubs as well as herbs. Dye-producing plants are usually cultivated, for local or domestic use also. Approximately 45 species yielding tannins should be dealt with. In the preferential list (Annex 2), 12 species having tannin as primary use and some 20 with tannin as secondary use are given. One of this group is a liana, but most are trees and shrubs. Tannins are often gathered from sources not yet cultivated (regenerated by planting), as is the case with the mangrove forests in many regions. The criteria for the preferential lists were above all a proven efficiency and general use of the product, and occurrence in the PROSEA region. Furthermore, the frequency of information about the species in recent and less recent literature, in international journals as well as in local publications, has been taken into account. These preferential lists are preliminary, and should be scrutinized by all who offer to help with this 'Dyes and tannins' volume. The preferential species mentioned should, it is estimated, cover 3 pages each, which gives amaximu m of about 70pages .Th e remaining species would be treated in tabular form. Classification might be done according to the part of the plant used, e.g. flower, fruit, leaf, stalk, wood or bark and root (bark), or

126 according to the chemistry or the final product. Here, the relative ignorance of the chemistry of many of the lesser-known species with mainly local use is a formidable drawback, which will most probably favour the first option. Information about vegetable dyes and tannins is most abundant in older literature. More recent information is sparse, which stresses the current limited importance of these commodities on a world scale. Additionally, the locally published literature is not easily accessible for research workers outside the region. The need for authors from the region, who know the local developments, is quite clear. Their contribution would be most welcome.

5. References

Haake,A., 1984. Javanische Batik; Methode, Symbolik, Geschichte. Verlag M. & H.Schaper, Hannover. 123 pp. Japing,H.W., 1936. Looibasten op Java. Korte Mededeelingen van het Boschbouwproefstation No. 57. Reprint from Tectona 29:793-841. Karstens,W.K.H., 1943. Plantaardige kleurstoffen. Noorduijn's Wetenschappelijke Reeks, J.Noorduijn en Zoon N.V., Gorichem. 232 pp. Sewekow,U., 1988. Naturfarbstoffe - eine Alternative zu synthetische Farbstoffen? Melliand Textilberichte 4:271-276. Yague Gil,A., M. de Gavina Mugica & J.Toner Ochoa, 1969. Los tanninos végétales. Instituto Forestal de Investigaciones y Experiencias, Ministerio de Agricultura, Madrid. 289 pp.

127 Annex 1. Preferential list of dye-producing plants.

A. Primary use species Family

Aporusa frutescens 81. Euphorbiaceae Bixa orelIan a L. Bixaceae Caesalpinia sappan L. Leguminosae Crocus sativus L. Iridaceae Haematoxylon campechianum L. Leguminosae Indigofera arrecta Höchst, ex A.Rich Leguminosae Morinda bracteata Roxb. Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia L. Rubiaceae Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC.)Back , ex Heyne Leguminosae Rubia cordifolia L. Rubiaceae Symplocos fasciculata Zoll. Symplocaceae

B. Secondary use species Family

Acacia arabica (Lam.)Wi lId . Leguminosae Areca catechu L. Palmae Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae Bischofi a javanica Bl. Euphorbiaceae Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. Rhizophoraceae Syn.: Bruguiera conjugata Herr. Carthamus tinctorius L. Composita e Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. Rhizophoraceae Syn.: Ceriops candolliana Arn. Codonopsis javanica (Bl.) Hook.f. Campanulaceae Syn.: Campanumoea javanica Bl. Curcuma longa L. Zingiberaceae Syn.: Curcuma domestica Val. Gordonia excelsa (Bl.)Bl . Theaceae Lumnitzera littorea (Jack)Voig t Combretaceae Madura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner * Moraceae Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae Sauropus androgynus (L.)Merr . Euphorbiaceae Spatholobus ferrugineus (Zoll.& Mor.) Benth. Leguminosae Syzygium polyanthum (Wight)Walp . Myrtaceae Syn.: Eugenia polyantha Wight Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.)Roxb . Combretaceae Woodfordia fruticosa (L.)Kur z Lythraceae Syn.:Woodfordi a floribunda Salisb.

* Name not in 'Basic list of species' version 1.

128 Annex 2. Preferential list of tannin-producing plants.

A. Primary use species Family Acacia arabica (Lam.) WilId . Leguminosae Acacia catechu (L.) WilId . Leguminosae Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.)Wi tId . Leguminosae Cassia auriculata L. Leguminosae Castanopsis javam'ca (Bl.)A.DC . Fagaceae Syn.: Quercus discocarpa Hance Macaranga triloba (Bl.) Muell.Arg Euphorbiaceae Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae Syn.: Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Shorea obtusa Wall. Dipterocarpaceae Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Combretaceae Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae Uncaria gambir Roxb. Rubiaceae B. Secondary use species Family Acacia mearnsii De Wild. Leguminosae Adenanthera pavonina L. Leguminosae Syn.: Adenanthera microsperma T. & B. Albizia falcataria (L.) Fosberg * Leguminosae Atbizia lebbek (L.) Benth. Leguminosae Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. Leguminosae Anogeissus acuminata Wall. Combretaceae Archidendron clypearia (Jack) Nielsen Leguminosae / Syn.: Pithecellobium clypearia (Jack) Benth. Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.) Lam. Rhizophoraceae Syn.: Bruguiera conjugata Merr. Cassia fistula L. Leguminosae Casuarina equisetifolia L. ssp. equisetifolia Casuarinaceae Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou Rhizophoraceae Syn.: Ceriops roxburghiana Arn. Ceriops tagal (Perr.) C.B.Rob. Rhizophoraceae Syn.: Ceriops candolliana Arn. Lithocarpus sundaicus (Bl.) Rehd. Fagaceae Syn.: Quercus sundaica Bl. Rhizophora mucronata Lam. Rhizophoraceae Shorea robusta Gaertn.f. Dipterocarpaceae Syzygium polyanthum (Wight) Walp. Myrtaceae Syn.: Eugenia polyantha Wight Xylocarpus granatum Koen. Meliaceae Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) Roem. Meliaceae Syn.: Carapa moluccensis Lam. Ziziphus xylopyra WilId . Rhamnaceae * Name not in 'Basic list of species' version 1

129 Rattans 1 2 3 J.Dr ans field , J.P.Mogea & N.Manokaran Herbarium, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE, United Kingdom

Herbarium Bogonense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Jalan FRI, Kepong, K.B.201, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1. Introduction

The rattans represent the most important forest product after timber. In social terms they are, perhaps, of even greater significance than timber, providing a source of income to rural people. The dependence of lower income groups of people living near forest on the harvesting of rattan to supplement their meagre incomes has been clearly demonstrated (Siebert & Belsky, 1985). Yet despite this, the rattans have traditionally been rather neglected by forest departments that have concentrated their manpower and research resources on timber trees. Recent shortages of rattan supply have prompted intense and growing interest in the potential of rattan as a renewable natural resource.

2. What are Rattans?

Rattans are climbing palms belonging to the subfamily Calamoideae (Uhl & Dransfield, 1987). There are probably about 600 different species arranged in 13 genera, all confined to the Old World. Three genera (Eremospatha, Laccosperma and Oncocalamus), with about 24 species in all, are restricted to the perhumid areas of Africa where they form the basis of cottage industries of not very great extent. One species of the largest rattan genus, Calamus, also occurs in Africa. The rest of the rattan genera, i.e. Calamus (almost 400 species), Daemonorops (about 115 species), Korthalsia (about 26 species), Plectocomia (about 16 species), Ceratolobus (6 species), Plectocomiopsis (5 species), Pogonotium (3 species), Calospatha (1 species), Retispatha (1 species), and Myrialepis (1 species), are found in the Asian and Malesian regions, being distributed from Peninsular India, Sri Lanka, the foothills of the Himalaya and South China, southwards through the Malay Archipelago to Australia and Fiji. The areas with greatest generic and specific diversity are Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo, Sumatra and the island of New Guinea. For example, Peninsular Malaysia has about 105 indigenous rattans (Dransfield, 1979a, 1985), Sabah 79 (Dransfield, 1984a), Sarawak 106

130 (Dransfield, in press) and the Philippines 65 (Fernando, in press). Within the richest areas the diversity can be astonishing, with as many as 40 different species growing in a small area of forest, e.g. at Bukit Rengit in the Krau Game Reserve in Pahang, Malaysia (Dransfield & Raja Barizan, pers.obs.).

2.1 Historical Aspects of Rattan Cultivation

Of this immense diversity, perhaps only a dozen or so species have been cultivated for their canes (but note, many species have been cultivated at one time or another in botanic gardens and arboreta), and of these, only 2, Calamus caesius Bl. and C.tr achy col eus Becc, have been cultivated on a large scale (Dransfield, 1977). Local people have relied for their rattan supplies on the diversity of species occurring naturally wild in the forest. It is only in a few areas where primary forest cover is much depleted and there is a strong tradition of rattan handicrafts, that there has been the incentive to attempt cultivation. Thus in the 1st Division of Sarawak, people may cultivate several rattan species in secondary forest or orchards adjoining their longhouses; such small-scale cultivation supplies the needs of the village for its handicrafts but is usually insufficient to provide raw material for the rattan trade. Only in Kalimantan (Central and East) has rattan cultivation been carried out with the purpose of directly supplying the rattan trade. In Kalimantan, 2 main systems of rattan planting have been practised. In one, reported by Weinstock (1983), rattan planting is fitted into the shifting cultivation agricultural cycle. After the harvest of dry rice, rattan seedlings {Calamus caesius) are planted in the regenerating secondary forest. After a fallow period of between 10 and 15 years, rattan is ready for harvesting and then the forest is felled and burned to provide land for dry rice cultivation, and so the cycle begins again. Incidentally, this method of utilizing the fallow period in the shifting cultivation cycle is most unusual in South-East Asia and presents an ecologically very sound method of land utilization. In the other now very famous system (Dransfield, 1977), as practised in Barito Selatan, Calamus caesius and C.trachy col eus are planted in secondary forest and poor quality rubber stands, and are cultivated in permanent plantations, forming the main livelihood of the villagers in the region. This method of cultivation has been used as a model in recent years for the development of new rattan plantation schemes in other areas of South-East Asia.

2.2 The Natural History of Rattans

The natural history of rattans has been discussed in some detail elsewhere (e.g. Dransfield, 1979a; Manokaran, 1985; Uhl & Dransfield, 1987). Here we will mention only basic details as an essential background for this paper. Members of rattan genera are not all climbers; a few species are tree-like (e.g. Calamus arborescens Griff, and Retispatha dumetosa J. Dransf.), several are short-stemmed and erect (e.g. Calamus perakensis Becc), and some have no emergent stem at all (e.g. Calamus pygmaeus

131 Becc). Most, however, have long stems, often climbing high into the canopy of the forest. Stems are either solitary, as in Calamus manan Miq. (and thus there can only be one harvest, as the stems cannot regenerate from the cut base), or clustered, as in C.caesius (in which case there is the possibility for multiple harvests). Only very rarely do the stems branch in the canopy (only in the genus Korthalsia). The stems are enclosed in leaf sheaths which are usually very spiny; during harvesting these sheaths are removed to reveal the smooth, jointed stem, which is the cane or rattan of commerce. There are 2 main methods of climbing. In one, the leaf is terminated by an extension of the leaf rachis; this, known as a cirrus, is armed with grouped spines which act as grapnels. In African Eremospatha, Laccosperma and Oncocalamus the cirrus is also armed with paired modified spine-like leaflets, known as acanthophylls. In the other method of climbing, a cirrus is lacking, but instead the leaf sheaths bear a whip, similarly armed with grapnel spines; this, the flagellum, is confined to some species of the genus Calamus. Whether a species is cirrate or flagellate has some bearing on the ultimate quality of the canes. Because the flagellum, a modified inflorescence, is borne in the axil of a leaf and is joined to the internode above it and to the sheath of the following leaf, the internodes on flagellate species are ridged down one side, the side varying from one internode to the next. This results in an uneven, and thus poorer quality cane. Nevertheless, such canes are used, usually after decortication. All Asiatic rattans are dioecious except for Korthalsia which has hermaphrodite flowers. Flowering can occur throughout the adult life of the rattan, either seasonally or not, or flowering terminates the growth of stems and death follows flowering or fruiting. Those rattans in which growth of the stem is terminated by flowering are usually of poorer quality than those in which flowering continues throughout the adult life; this seems to be associated with the presence of a soft pith in the terminal flowering species, in which starch is laid down before the onset of flowering. Little is known of the natural history of flowering and fruiting. Fruits are often produced in great abundance. They are covered with overlapping reflexed scales and usually contain a single seed, covered (except in Korthalsia in Asia) in a fleshy seed coat (or sarcotesta) which may be sweet, sour or bitter and is often eaten. Seeds are generally dispersed by birds and mammals. Germination of seeds usually commences soon after the seeds are dispersed; the embryo in the seeds is very sensitive to drying out (rattan seeds are recalcitrant) which makes it very difficult to store rattan seed for any length of time. Some rattan seedlings require the presence of a light gap in order to develop an aerial stem, others do not. The manipulation of light reaching the seedlings is a critical aspect of rattan silviculture. Rattans can be found in most forest types in the South-East Asian region. Greatest abundance is to be found in humid lowland rainforests. In the perhumid areas of Malesia, there is a marked change in the rattan flora at the transition from lowland and hill dipterocarp forests to lower montane forest, many lowland species or even genera not being found above

132 an altitute of about 1,000 m where they are replaced by a different set of species. The highest altitude record of a rattan is held by Calamus gibbsianus Becc, which occurs at about 3,000 mo n Mount Kinabalu in Sabah (Dransfield, 1984a). Rattans are not common on limestone, but most other substrates carry a rich representation. Outside the perhumid areas of West Malesia there is also a transition to a different set of rattan species, those adapted to more monsoonal climates. Some species are very widespread; Myrialepis paradoxa (Kurz) J.Dransf., for example, is found throughout Indo-Chinasouthward s through Thailand and Burmat o Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra. Other species, and there are many of them, are narrow endemics, being confined to very restricted areas. Little is known about the population dynamics of rattans, even though such information should be a basic requirement to formulating plans for sustainable harvesting. Growth rates in trials have indicated that under good conditions Calamus manan may grow at over 3 m a year, while 7 m a year has been recorded for Calamus trachycoleus in a plantation in Sabah (Shim, quoted in Dransfield, 1988). Cultivated individuals may begin flowering as early as four years old, or even earlier. This fact, coupled with the fast growth rates, suggests that even the longest rattans ever recorded (e.g. 186 m long, Burkill, 1935, reprint 1966) may be less than 100 years old. One begins to gain the impression that many rattans are opportunistic species, exploiting light gaps in the forest canopy, growing and reproducing rapidly and perhaps not persisting long. We are greatly in need of careful demographic studies to test these impressions.

3. Uses of Rattans

The diversity of species is matched by the diversity of uses to which rattans are put. Besides being the source of high quality cane for the cane furniture industry, rattans are used for a bewildering array of purposes: for weaving baskets and mats, for binding and hawser manufacture, for thatch, food and medicine, and for a wealth of minor purposes from coconut graters to the whistles on giant kites. For some purposes, rattan may be replaced by split bamboo, but rattan is usually regarded as being more durable and is preferred. The most important commercial species are all high climbers. However, even the so-called 'stemless' species may have local uses; thus petioles of Daemonorops calicarpa (Griff.) Mart, in Peninsular Malaysia are extensively used by the Orang Asli (Malay Aborigines) for the weaving of baskets and winnowing trays which are sold in local markets as a source of income, while the fruit of Calamus castaneus Griff, is used by the same people as a cough medicine.

3.1 The Role of Rattans in South-East Asia

As stated above, rattans represent the most important forest product in South-East Asia after timber. World trade in rattans is dominated by the supply from the region. African rattan accounts for a very small proportion of international trade, if any, although it may be of some significance locally. The value of world trade in rattan is very difficult

133 to quantify, but estimates of US$ 2.5 billion are probably conservative. Indonesia dominates the world market as a producer of between 70 and 90% of the world's rattan. It exported about 143,400 tons of raw, processed and manufactured rattan in 1987wit h avalu e of US$ 191.9millio n (Godoy& Tan, in press). All other countries in the region, except perhaps for Singapore, have the potential for producing rattan, and indeed, all countries have at one time or another exported rattan. Most rattan is harvested from the wild. Villagers harvest canes by pulling them manually from the support trees, cleaning them of leaf sheaths and debris, cutting them to the required length (depending on the diameter) and hauling bundles of cut rattan out of the forest. The harvested canes may be partially processed by the rattan gatherers or, more usually, sold to rattan merchants who process small-diameter canes by cleaning, smoking over sulphur and drying, and large-diameter canes by boiling in diesel oil, followed by drying. The whole process of harvesting is a complex one. Decreasing forest cover has resulted in spiralling over-exploitation of rattan, and some species are now severely threatened to the point where only seedlings are left in the forest. The situation is particularly acute in Thailand and the Philippines, and the over-exploitation in these countries has been further exacerbated by the introduction of restrictions on the export of unmanufactured rattan from neighbouring rattan-producing countries, such as Indonesia, on which manufacturers have partially depended. At present, shortages of supply have encouraged government agencies in the South-East Asian region to consider the cultivation of rattans.

3.2 The Extent of Rattan Cultivation

Rattans have been cultivated in a few areas of the region. Usually, such cultivation is on a small scale and involves the planting of a few clumps of favoured species on the outskirts of villages. Only in Kalimantan has large-scale planting been carried out. It is estimated that the area under smallholding rattan cultivation in Kalimantan is about 12,000 hectares producing about 12,000 metric tons of rattan each year (Rombe, in: Godoy & Tan, in press). There is no doubt that the large- scale planting of Calamus caesius and C.trachycoleus in Kalimantan is economically successful, as whole villages have depended on rattan as almost the sole source of income. Yet the system of cultivation has only recently been transferred elsewhere. The first large-scale plantation of rattan outside Kalimantan was established by the Sabah Forest Development Authority in the late 1970's. Since then, large-scale plantations have been established in Sarawak (Commonwealth Development Corporation, jointly with Sarawak authorities), Philippines (mostly private venture), and Indonesia (several areas, mostly by the government forestry agencies INHUTANI and PERHUTANI).Onl yth efirs t newplantatio n atBat u Putih in Sabah has reached harvestable age, and even here we do not yet have data on yield and rate of return. Besides these large-scale plantations, there are many trial plantings recently established by forest departments, often with the funding of aid agencies such as FAO/UNDP and IDRC in India, Sri

134 Lanka, Thailand, China, Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, Sabah, Brunei, the Philippines and Indonesia. Forestry departments in Papua New Guinea, Burma, Vietnam, Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands have begun rattan projects. Although such rattan projects have been well publicized, we have little critical data on just how much land is actually planted with rattan.

3.3 The Rattan Trade

Furniture manufacture accounts for almost the entire commercial use of rattan, but matting and high-grade handicrafts also have great potential as export commodities. Increasingly, nations in the region are introducing punitive export taxes or total export bans to encourage the manufacture of rattan items within the countries and thus increase the value of the export. The results of these measures in the short term have been very disruptive on trade and in many areas have adversely affected the rattan growers or gatherers by depressing the price paid for rattan within the country. In the long term it is expected that such disruptions will disappear and that the trade and prices will tend to stabilize. In Indonesia, however, the ban on export of all but manufactured rattan objects has removed any immediate incentive to investment in the expansion of rattan plantations, by depressing prices. This is considered to be most unfortunate, as the long-term prospects for the commodity depend on a sustained supply, which, we believe, is dependent on the cultivation of rattan in plantations. It is difficult to obtain accurate figures or indications on each nation's volume of rattan export and share of total world trade. This is complicated by the fact that some countries not only produce rattan but also import rattan from other countries for manufacturing furniture or handicrafts which are then exported. Thus, figures for the tonnage of rattan exported from a given country may include rattan imported from another country and already included in its own trade statistics. The Rattan Information Centre has disseminated the official trade statistics for the countries of the region through its bulletin (RIC Bulletin). One must also be aware that such official statistics do not usually take account of the local use of rattan nor the volume of cane that is smuggled. It has been estimated that Indonesia accounts for about 70-90% of the world's rattan production. The remaining 10-30% originates from Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand, China, India, Sri Lanka and other South-East Asian countries (in order of volume exported). We are, however, much in need of new, reliable figures for the trade, especially as countries such as Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu have begun to exploit commercially their wild stocks of rattan.

4. Prospects for Rattans

4.1 Adequacy of Supply

As mentioned above, the present supply of rattan in the wild has

135 been severely affected by over-harvesting and forest destruction. There is little legally harvestable rattan remaining in Thailand and the Philippines. Elsewhere, restrictions on the export of rattan from Indonesia, the major supplier, have tended to put great pressure on the wild stocks of rattan in neighbouring countries. Traditionally, there seems always to have been a shortage of supply of top-grade rattan, and thus many less good species have entered trade as substitutes (this has a bearing on the contents of the proposed PROSEA volume on 'Rattans', as discussed below). There have been complaints that there is a shortage of 'manau' and 'sega', but there is plenty of low grade rattan. The future of the rattan industry will depend very much on the control of the present over-exploitation and the development of rattan silviculture.

4.2 Species Suitable for Cultivation

There should be little difficulty in choosing which species would be worth growing on a commercial scale; the problems arise when we consider whether such species can be successfully grown. Research has been too slow to provide silvicultural answers and some agencies have forged ahead with large-scale planting before a firm research basis has been established. We do know sufficient to cultivate C.caesius and C.trachycoleus within their rather narrow ecological requirements, but even with these 2 species there is considerable scope for refining the silvicultural system. These 2 species are both small-diameter canes (i.e. canes with a diameter of less than 18 mm). Such canes are excellent for the manufacture of 'chair cane' (thin strips of split rattan), for weaving and production of webbing, high-grade matting and for binding components of chairs. For most traditional rattan furniture, large-diameter cane is required for the production of the frames. Of these larger canes, Calamus manan, native to South Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and South Kalimantan, is undoubtedly the best, but where this species is absent, other species of almost comparable quality are used. C.subinermis H.A.Wendl. ex Becc. is the preferred large cane in Sabah and Palawan, a related species known locally as 'rotan tohiti' in Sulawesi (though not C.inops Becc. ex Heyne, as often cited), C.merrillii Becc. in much of the Philippines, and C.peregrinus Furtado in Thailand. Besides these species there are many other large canes of good quality. Calamus manan has, for obvious reasons, been the large-diameter cane favoured for silvicultural trials. However, it must be borne in mind that this species is single-stemmed and therefore only capable of a single harvest. Although some commercial concerns have planted C.manan, asye t it is not possible to recommend this species as a silvicultural subject. In Peninsular Malaysia there is a whole range of potentially exciting trials of 'manau' of various ages under primary and logged-over forest, at various elevations, and under plantation trees including pine and rubber. Growth under pine and rubber is particularly encouraging, but there may be serious problems related to the support of this massive species. Until we know at what age it can be harvested it will not be possible to make recommendations about large-scale planting of this species. We know much less about the silvicultural potential of other large-diameter canes,

136 although a wide variety of trials of different species have been established throughout the region, and furthermore, some species, such as the Sri Lankan Calamus ovoideus Thw., seem particularly promising.

4.3 Social Desirability of Rattan Cultivation

The long-established rattan gardens of Kalimantan show how viable rattan smallholdings can be as a source of livelihood. The success of the silvicultural system depends to a great extent on the use of Calamus trachycoleus; this species has a unique growth form which makes it an ideal plantation subject (Dransfield, 1977). Furthermore, permanent agriculture in the area of the rattan gardens is hampered by the prolonged seasonal flooding to which the rattan species is adapted; thus rubber or rice cultivation in the area is not particularly efficient, giving rattan a competitive edge over other crops. Intensive cultivation of C.trachycoleus by smallholders is likely to be successful in areas which are similar to the floodplains of the Lower Barito. The few rattan smallholdings in Sarawak and Sabah, however, indicate that the cultivation of C.caesius on a small scale in poor rubber plantations or in village orchards, can also be a good source of extra income to villagers. If the cultivation of C.manan under rubber can be shown to be physically feasible by the many trials established by the Forest Research Institute Malaysia, then there will be very great potential for the cultivation of this species as an intercrop by smallholders. Rattan, from intercropping, has the potential to be an excellent secondary source of income which may help to insulate villagers from the fluctuations in price of rubber or other crops.

4.4 Ecological Desirability of Rattan Cultivation

There is a further very attractive aspect to rattan cultivation; rattan requires a tree cover to provide initial shade and later support. Thus it may be possible to fit rattan cultivation into the cultivation cycle of a pre-existing tree crop or use it as a supplementary source of income for forest areas, thereby creating a disincentive to forest destruction and an encouragement to forest conservation. Rattan would seem ideal, for example, for establishment in water-catchment forest or in the buffer-zones to national parks. There is very great potential, but until we have more reliable research results, we will not know whether such schemes would be economically viable.

4.5 Research Priorities

Rattan is certainly a new crop, and even though 2 species have been cultivated by smallholders for over 100 years, we still understand little about the growth requirements of rattans in cultivation. Research is required on many fronts. Our basic taxonomie knowledge is incomplete (see below). We have almost 600 species to choose from when selecting species for cultivation. We know little about the natural history of rattans in the forest, and in particular there is little reliable information on the

137 demography of rattans, information which is crucial to understanding how to manage wild stocks of rattan to allow a sustained yield. As far as nursery practices are concerned, systems for the production of large quantities of rattan seedlings have been well established at Kepong and the Sabah Forest Development Authority, and this aspect of rattan cultivation probably does not require intensive research input. Within Calamus manan and C.caesius, attempts to investigate different provenances in order to select elite strains have only just begun, so it would seem premature to invest much research effort on rattan tissue culture.

4.6 The Need for Conservation

At a time when such wide-scale over-exploitation of rattan is taking place it is essential that attempts are made to conserve wild stocks, at least in nature reserves. Such is the long tradition of harvesting rattan from the forest, that even within strict nature reserves, rattan continues to be pulled. Indeed in some areas, local people may continue to hold statutory rights to pull rattan within reserves for their own purposes; nowhere are rattans really safe. In the short term we shall have to rely on wild rattan as a source of seed for establishment of trials or plantations. It is therefore essential that seed supplies be strictly protected.

5. Proposals for the PROSEA Volume on Rattans

5.1 Problems

There are several problems which have to be addressed in writing an account of rattans for the PROSEA handbook. The first is a problem of taxonomy. Within the last 10 years, monographic treatments have been completed of the following genera: Calospatha (Dransfield, 1978), Ceratolobus (Dransfield, 1979b), Korthalsia (Dransfield, 1981), Myrialepis (Dransfield, 1982a), Plectocomia (Madulid, 1981), Plectocomiopsis (Dransfield, 1982a), Pogonotium (Dransfield, 1980, 1982b) and Retispatha (Dransfield, 1979c). However, for the 2 largest genera, Calamus and Daemonorops, which are also the genera with the most economically important species, we still have to rely on the splendid but out-of-date monographs of Beccari (1908, 1911, 1913). At the floristic level, we have complete accounts for Peninsular Malaysia (Dransfield, 1979a), Sabah (Dransfield, 1984a) and Sarawak (Dransfield, in press), while accounts for Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and the Philippines, and certain areas of Indonesia are in preparation in those respective countries. The major gap in our taxonomie knowledge remains the rattan flora of the area of Malesia east of Wallace's Line, i.e. Sulawesi, Moluccas, Irian and Papua New Guinea, and the Lesser Sunda Islands. It is lack of collections from this area which has also prevented the monographing of the 2 remaining large genera. Incomplete material of rattans from this eastern area suggests a very rich flora with many undescribed species, some of which may be important components of the rattan trade.

138 The second problem relates to the difficulties of matching local taxonomies with a botanical taxonomy. Local names be used inconsistently or consistently within a small area, but frequently the same names are used for different species in other areas. The consequence of this is that ethnobotanical information linked to a local name, without a herbarium voucher or a critical determination by a rattan taxonomist, is of no use. Much recent literature on the results of rattan research in the region is riddled with such uncritical reliance on local names. The confusion surrounding the identity of 'rotan tohiti' in Sulawesi is a good example of this. Identified as Calamus inops Becc. ex Heyne in Heyne (1922), 'rotan tohiti' has uncritically been equated with this species ever since; yet it seems certain that most cane harvested as 'rotan tohiti' in the forests of Sulawesi, belongs to at least one quite different species. Miss Padmi Kramadibrata is undertaking research to clarify aspects of this problem. A third problem is a reflection of the sheer versatility of the rattans. In some areas, people living near the forest can ascribe uses to all the rattans occurring in the area; for example, Penan living in and near the Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, had uses for all the 71 different rattans recorded there (Dransfield, 1984b). At the other end of the scale, commercial rattan merchants may be handling as few as half a dozen species at any one time. Nevertheless, as the best quality species are depleted, they are replaced by other species with similar properties, though of not quite such good quality.

5.2 Content of the Volume on 'Rattans'

All these factors will pose the major question of just how many and which species should be included within the volume. Within 'De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië' (Heyne, 1922), some species (e.g. Calamus impar Becc. and C.corrugatus Becc.) are cited in detail but are of very little significance while others are not mentioned, either because they were overlooked or because they were not recorded for Indonesia. It will be difficult to avoid these shortcomings in the proposed volume. Obviously, the most economically important species will need to be treated in depth, while those of lesser importance will require much more superficial treatment. We estimate that perhaps as many as 250 species will need to receive some mention, and the whole volume may need to be at least 300 printed pages. As to the source of information, we have drawn attention to the need for a critical taxonomie basis for any data published; this will restrict the information to that which is vouchered by critically determined herbarium material. Again, the dependence of this project on the great herbaria of the region and Europe is emphasized. Furthermore, it will be necessary to rely on scarce rattan taxonomie expertise.

5.3 Source of Information

Part of the task of compiling the volume has been eased by the publication of the bibliography, produced by the IDRC-funded Rattan

139 Information Centre at the Forest Research Intitute Malaysia (Kong-Onn & Manokaran, 1984) and the publication of the proceedings of 2 recent international rattan symposia(Won g& Manokaran , 1985;Ra o& Vongkaluang , 1989). Nevertheless, there will be a large and somewhat daunting task ahead of selecting and compiling data and pre-existing rattan expertise is mostly already overcommitted to other research projects; finding the manpower will be a serious problem.

6. References

Beccari,0., 1908. Asiatic palms - Lepidocaryoideae. Part I. The species of Calamus. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden Calcutta 11:1-518. Beccari,0., 1911. Asiatic palms - Lepidocaryoideae. Part II. The species of Daemonorops. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden Calcutta 12(1):1- 237. Beccari,0., 1913. Asiatic palms - Lepidocaryoideae. Supplement to Part I. The species of Calamus. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden Calcutta 11 (Appendix):1-142 . BurkillJ.H., 1966. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Reprint of the 1935 edition with some corrections added. Ministryo f Agriculture andCo-operatives , KualaLumpur .Vol .1 (A-H) pp. 1-1240, Vol.2 (I-Z) pp. 1241-2444. Dransfield,J., 1977. Calamus caesius and Calamus trachycoleus compared. Gardens' Bulletin, Singapore 30:75-78. Dransfield,J., 1978. Systematic notes on some Malayan rattans. Malaysian Forester 41:325-345. DransfieldJ., 1979a. A manual of the rattans of the Malay Peninsula. Malaysian Forest Records No. 29. Forest Department, Kuala Lumpur. 270 PP. Dransfield,J., 1979b. A monograph of the genus Ceratolobus (Palmae). Kew Bulletin 34:1-33. DransfieldJ., 1979c. Retispatha, a new Bornean rattan genus (Palmae: Lepidocaryoideae). Kew Bulletin 34:529-536. Dransfield,J.,, 1980. Pogonotium (Palmae: Lepidocaryoideae), ä new genus related to Daemonorops. Kew Bulletin 34:761-768. Dransfield,J., 1981. A synopsis of Korthalsia (Palmae: Lepidocaryoideae). Kew Bulletin 36:163-194. Dransfield,J., 1982a. A reassessment of the genera Plectocomiopsis, Myrialepis and Bejaudia (Palmae:Lepidocaryoideae) . KewBulleti n 37:237- 254. Dransfield,J., 1982b. Pogonotium moorei, a new species from Sarawak. Principes 26:174-177. Dransfield,J., 1984a. The rattans of Sabah. Sabah Forest Records No.13 . Forest Department, Sabah. 182 pp. DransfieldJ., 1984b. The palm flora of Gunung Mulu National Park. In: A.C.Jermy (editor): Studies on the flora of Gunung Mulu National Park, Sarawak. Forest Department, Kuching, Sarawak, pp. 41-75. Dransfield,J., 1985. Name changes in Malayan rattans. RIC Bulletin 4(2):1 - 2. Dransfield,J., 1988. Prospects for rattan cultivation. Advances in

140 Economic Botany 6:190-200. DransfieldJ., in press. The rattans of Sarawak. Forest Department, Kuching, and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Fernando,E.S., in press. A preliminary analysis of the palm flora of the Philippine Islands. Principes 33. Godoy,R.A. & C.F.Tan, in press. Smallholder rattan cultivation in southern Borneo, Indonesia. Human Ecology. Heyne,K., 1922. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indië. Vol.1. Ruygrok & Co., Batavia. 570 pp. Kong-Ong,H.K. & N.Manokaran, 1984. Rattan: a bibliography. Forest Research Institute, Kepong. 109 pp. Madulid,D.A., 1981.A monograph of Plectocomia (Palmae: Lepidocaryoi- deae). Kalikasan 10:1-94. Manokaran,N., 1985. Biological and ecological considerations pertinent to the silviculture of rattans. In: K.M.Wong & N.Manokaran (editors). Proceedings of the Rattan Seminar, 2nd-4th October 1984, The Rattan Information Centre, Forest Research Institute, Kepong. pp. 95-105. Rao,A.N. & I.Vongkaluang (editors), 1989. Proceedings of the Rattan Symposium held in Chiengmai, October 1987. Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Thailand/IDRC, Canada. Siebert,S.F. & J.M.Belsky, 1985. Forest product trade in a Filipino village. Economic Botany 37:58-68. Uhl,N.W. & J.Dransfield, 1987.Gener a Palmarum. A classification^ palms based on the work of H.E.Moore Jr. The L.H.Bailey Hortorium and the International Palm Society, Lawrence, Kansas. 610 pp. Weinstock,J.A., 1983. Rattan: ecological balance in a Borneo rainforest swidden. Economic Botany 37:58-68. Wong,K.M. & N.Manokaran (editors), 1985. Proceedings of the Rattan Seminar 2nd-4th October 1984. The Rattan Information Centre, Forest Research Institute, Kepong. 247 pp.

141 Vegetables of South-East Asia

J.S.Siemonsma & M.H.Aarts-van den Bergh

PROSEA Regional Office, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

1. Introduction

Vegetables are plants which are consumed as supplementary food to make the starchy basic foods more palatable. As a consequence of this rather vague description, the group is not clearly defined, is extremely heterogeneous and its delimitation is subject to personal preferences and interpretations. Therefore, the group has open boundaries with other PROSEA commodity groups, e.g. 'Spices and condiments', 'Edible fruits and nuts', 'Pulses', and 'Plants producing carbohydrates'. Since August 1988, the PROSEA Regional Office supported by the documentation units in the various countries, has been accumulating information on the 'Vegetables of South-East Asia' in order to elucidate this commodity group. This paper describes the work done so far, is an attempt to delimit the group according to the PROSEA concept, and proposes further steps for the realization of the PROSEA volume on 'Vegetables'.

2. Methodology

2.1 Basic List of Species and Commodity Grouping

Thanks to a concerted effort of PROSEA staff during the second half of 1987, a tentative 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping' was prepared based on the old handbooks of Heyne (1927), Burkill (1935), Brown (1941-1943) and Reyes (1937). The first internal versions comprised about 6,500 species names, among them 250 primary use vegetables and 625 secondary use vegetables.

2.2 Updating Scientific Names

Many of the scientific names in the 'Basic list' were outdated and the PROSEA Wageningen Office undertook amajo r updating effort, with the assistance of an international group of taxonomists. About 60% of the scientific names of primary use vegetables listed in this paper have been checked for taxonomical accuracy.

2.3 International Literature

The PROSEA Wageningen Office has been assigned the task of tapping information in the large international data banks through on-line searches. The general search for information on South-East Asian

142 vegetables has been completed and has yielded approximately 2,300 literature records, covering the period from the late sixties to the present.

2.4 Regional, Less-Accessible Literature The Network of Country Offices in South-East Asia is responsible for gathering less-accessible 'grey' information. The Regional Data Bank currently comprises about 2,000 records, 230 pertaining to vegetables. Because large discrepancies are expected between Papua New Guinea and the rest of the PROSEA target area, oneo f the PNG PROSEA staff will specifically survey local vegetables as part of an M.Sc. research project.

2.5 Derived Data Base 'Vegetables' Starting from the vegetable records in the 'Basic list of species', a more elaborate data base (called 'PU8') has been created, facilitating incorporation of important additional information (Table 1).

Table 1. Additional information in 'PU8'.

Field label Field content

OR Origin (indigenous/introduced; introduced from where) DI Distribution in the Indonesian Archipelago (island names) DR Distribution in the South-East Asian region (country names) CU State of cultivation (cultivated/wild/both) GH Growth habit (herb/shrub/tree; annual/biennial/perennial) MIA Minimum altitude of cultivation/occurrence MAA Maximum altitude of cultivation/occurrence PP Plant parts used (leaves/fruits/flowers/seeds/stems/tubers) VU Vegetable usage (raw/cooked/steamed/fried/pickled) PR Propagation (vegetative/generative/both) BL Species mentioned in 'Basic list of species' (yes/no) LI Literature since old handbooks (yes/no) EN English names FR French names IN Indonesian names MA Malaysian names PNG Papua New Guinean names PH Philippine names TH Thai names

3. Progress 3.1 Economic Significance The Production Yearbook 1987 (FAO, 1988)give sproductio n estimates for vegetables (including melons) in the PROSEA target region (Table 2). The data refer mainly to crops grown in field and market gardens offered for sale, thus excluding vegetables cultivated in kitchen gardens or small family gardens mainly for household consumption. Even in some Western countries like France and West-Germany, thisinforma l production circuit is estimated to contribute up to 40% of total production. The informal circuit is assumed to play an even more important role 143 in South-East Asian countries. This can be illustrated by data from Indonesia, the most populous country in the region. Based on household expenditure surveys (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1983), the consumption of vegetables in 1980 amounted to 36 kg/caput/year, or a total production (exports and imports being negligible) of 5.3 million tonnes. Assuming losses of 15% between production and consumption, actual production is almost twice the official FAO statistics.

Table 2. Production estimates forvegetable s in 1987.

Country Production J Population Production x 1000 MT x100 0 kg/caput/year World 420,981 4,996,989 84.2 Brunei 9 250 36.0 Indonesia 3,343 172,323 19.4 Malaysia 466 16,231 28.7 PapuaNe w Guinea 238 3,682 76.9(? ) Philippines 808 57,001 14.2 Singapore 17 2,613 6.5 Thailan d 3,118 53,090 58.7

Household expenditure on vegetables amounted to 8% of total food expenditure and 5.3% of total expenditure. Vegetables accounted for 6% of the total value of agricultural production, exceeding the value of all major secondary food crops such as corn, cassava, groundnut, soybean, sweet potato and mungbean. Most South-East Asian countries are still at the lower end of the recommended vegetable consumption of 40-200 kg/caput/year (depending on the composition of the basic foods). Contrary to the staple foods, demand for vegetables shows high income-elasticity, and with increased economic performance, demand is expected to grow sharply.

3.2 Delimitation of the Commodity Group

It is estimated that in the course of time and worldwide about 2,000 plant species have been used as supplementary food. Originally collected from the wild, some form of protection led to primitive cultivars in an estimated 500 species. The most suitable ones (c. 200 species) were domesticated for home consumption, the most profitable ones (c. 80 species) were selected for market garden production, while highly intensified production systems as found in Western countries are limited to a mere 20 species. For the tropics worldwide, Terra (1966) lists approximately 850 cultivated or much used vegetables and another 800 which are collected from the wild or are only of occasional importance. For South-East Asia, the numbers are 500 and 300 respectively. Of these 800 species, approximately 580 are used primarily for other purposes than vegetable, and thusbelon gt oothe r PROSEAcommodit y groups. Approximately 215ca n be considered primary use vegetables, being potential candidates for inclusion in the PROSEA volume. Numerically these data agree reasonably closely with the number of vegetables listed in PROSEA's 'Basic list'.

144 Like most plant resources, many vegetables are multipurpose plants. A good example isSauropus androgynus ('katuk'), acommo n home garden plant. Its leaves are eaten, but it also serves as a hedge plant and has medicinal applications. Secondary uses of vegetables often encountered are: (1) medicinal usage, (2) use as feed plant, (3) as fresh fruit, (4) as ornamental plant, or (5) as spice or condiment. Much more information is needed on the lesser-known species to discover changes in primary use, which might justify changes in the tentative commodity grouping. Although the bulk of the vegetable production in the region is accounted for by a mere 50 species, PROSEA's significance does not lie in description of the major vegetables, but in highlighting and re-exposing the lesser-known ones. Much depends on the availability of new information, but PROSEA should principally opt for an effort of completeness.

3.3 Species Listing

Annex 1 presents a tentative list of primary use vegetables. Not all of the scientific names have been checked for taxonomical accuracy. Important synonyms are part of the 'PU8' data base file, but are not reported, to save space. The list is an amendment of the 'Basic list of species' based on further literature surveys (e.g. Astley et al., 1982; Backer & Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1963-1968;Esquinas-Alcaza r&Gulick , 1983;Grubben , 1977; Grubben &Va nSloten , 1981; IPBGR , 1981; Ochs e& Bakhuize n vande n Brink, 1931; Purseglove, 1968, 1972; Terra, 1966; Tindall, 1983). The main reasons for deleting approximately 30 records were: (1) species seem not to occur in the South-East Asian target region, (2) names are synonymous with other names in the 'Basic list', and (3) species should preferably be treated in other commodity groups. The main reasons for adding approximately 30 records were: (1) species are mentioned by more recent sources, have been introduced more recently or have potential for the region, and (2) certain species from other commodity groups should preferably be treated as 'Vegetables'. Arbitrary choices still had to be made. Sweet and hot peppers (Capsicum spp.) are included in 'Spices and condiments'. Shallot and garlic (Allium spp.) are listed as 'Vegetables'. Annex 1 lists presently 242 species. Comments from vegetable and other specialists are warmly invited.

3.4 Structure of the Commodity Group

3.4.1 Taxonomie Composition

The heterogeneity of the commodity group is well illustrated by the fact that the 242 species listed belong to 60 different plant families. Best represented is the Compositae family with 24 species, all herbaceous plants, mainly cultivated for their leaves. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) is economically the most important species. Also important are

145 Indian lettuce (Lactuca indica) and 'kenikir' (Cosmos caudatus). The Cucurbitaceae are represented by 23 species, all climbing or trailing herbs, easily grown at tropical low altitudes. They are generally cultivated for their fruits, but most species also have edible leaves, flowers and seeds. The importance of the cucurbits is illustrated by the fact that of the 20 most important vegetables of Thailand, 6 belong to the Cucurbitaceae. The best known member is the cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Other important species are pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.), bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) and chayote (Sechium edule). The Cruciferae, with 13species , are economically an important group, the genus Brassica in particular. Many of the species have been introduced from temperate regions and have to be cultivated at higher altitudes in the tropics. Their cultivation poses many problems (pests, diseases, propagation), but nevertheless they have become prestigious vegetables. Species belonging to other genera include radish (Raphanus sativus) and watercress (Nasturtium officinale). Also well represented are the Liliaceae, with Allium as the major genus, cultivated for its bulbs and leaves. Onion and shallot (Allium cepa) belong to the most important market vegetables, while garlic (Allium sativum) is very popular. Its cultivation still poses problems, and garlic alone accounts for most of the value of vegetable imports in Indonesia. Asparagus (Asparagus officinale) , also a species of this family, is receiving more and more attention, especially in Indonesia. Another relatively homogeneous group is formed by the Solanaceae, with 10 species, mainly cultivated for their fleshy fruits (e.g. tomato, eggplants). Other families with more than 5 representatives are the Polygonaceae (11) Amaranthaceae (9), Leguminosae (8),Commelinacea e (7), Umbelliferae (7), Euphorbiaceae (6) and Rubiaceae (6).

3.4.2 Origin, Domestication and Distribution

Nearly half (108) of the vegetables listed are indigenous to South- East Asia, 91 are introduced, while data on 43 species are lacking. Table 3 shows that about 70% of the indigenous vegetables are still collected from the wild, while about 30% have been domesticated. Most introduced species, in contrast, occur only in cultivation, although a considerable number, predominantly introductions from Latin America, have proved to be well adapted and have become naturalized.

Table 3. Origin and domestication of vegetables.

Origin Domestication

Cultiva ted Cult iva ted & wild Wild No data Total

Indigenous 3 29 75 1 108 Introduced 57 23 10 1 91 Unknown 8 12 17 6 43

Total 68 64 102 8 242

146 Approximately 30specie shav ebee n introduced from Europe,mainl y as a result of the colonial past. They are commercially cultivated at higher altitudes in the region, and play an important role in the sector of market vegetables. Vegetables introduced from other Asian countries (20 species) have probably been brought along by merchants and settlers. The data on distribution are still incomplete, but about 20 species can be considered of worldwide importance, another 40 species are pantropical. About 120 species are common throughout most of the South-East Asian region, while 65 species seem to be of more localized occurrence. 3.4.3 Utilization

In Table 4 the vegetables are classified according to the plant parts used. Leafy vegetables are by far the most frequent. Among the 69 multi-purpose vegetables, the leaves are again most frequently used (66 species), followed by the fruits (38), the flowers (23), the seeds (9) and other plant parts such as stems and tubers (15). Among the vegetables used for their fruits, cucurbits and solanaceous fruits account for more than half of the species. Themos tcommo n wayo f consuming vegetables iscooke do rfried , often with chillies and other spices. Consumption of raw vegetables ('lalab', 'sayur ulam'), which is preferable from the nutritional point of view, is much more frequent in South-East Asia than in Western cooking.

Table 4. Vegetable types according toplan t parts used.

Vegetable type Number Leafy vegetables (leaves, shoots, whole seedlings) 143 Fruit vegetables 14 Flower vegetables 4 Other plant parts (stems, tubers, bulbs, seeds,etc. ) 9 Multipurpose vegetables 69 No data 3

Total 242

3.4.4 Other Aspects Concerning the growth habit, about 75% of the species listed are herbaceous, annuals being more frequent than biennial or perennial species. Most of the vegetables with a woody growth habit are shrubs, often occurring wild. About 80-90% of the vegetables listed are lowland vegetables, thriving best at altitudes below 500 m. In most South-East Asian countries it is realized that the small group of Western-type highland vegetables have received a disproportional share of the research and development effort, and that more attention has to be paid to the lowland vegetables. For many species (98), mostly wild species, no data are yet available on their way of propagation. Most cultivated vegetables, however, are propagated generatively by seed. Seed production is one of the main 147 problems of vegetable growing in the tropics. Much seed has to be imported because many introduced species do not set seed under the influence of the tropical climate and daylength. In general, storage facilities are poor and seed quality declines very fast. Vegetative propagation is less troublesome but not always possible.

3.5 Sample Papers

The contributions on important vegetables in the books 'Pulses' and 'A selection' are an excellent illustration of the complexity, but also the flexibility of the PROSEA approach. (1) Phaseolus vulgaris and Vignatmguiculata are both dealt with in the volume 'Pulses' because of the use of their dry, ripe seeds (field bean, cowpea). However, the PROSEA principle that species are only dealt with once, i.e. in the volume of their primary use, implies that the secondary uses (in this case the important vegetable uses of common bean and yardlong bean) must be properly addressed in the contributions. (2) The cultivation and uses of the major Amaranthus species are so similar, that logically 'A selection' has opted for genus treatment instead of treatment of individual species. (3) The contribution on okra {Abelmoschus esculentus) in 'A selection' frequently refers to a distinct species called 'West African okra' (A.caillei). Although naturally restricted to West and Central Africa, active germplasm exchange is presently taking place within the IBPGR network. In view of its potential for equatorial regions, separate treatment in the 'Vegetables' volume might be justified. (4) The contribution on Brassica rapa, covering turnips as well as Chinese cabbage, 'pak choi' and 'caisin', is a nice example of the need to make choices with respect to the species concept.

4. Time Schedule

Table 5. Time schedule PROSEA volume 'Vegetables'.

Activity Semester Trimester

2/89 1/90 2/90 1/91 2/91 3/91 4/91 Literature surveys I I Market/Field observations I I Inventory contributors I I Finalizat ion species list and page allocation I I Invitations to authors I- Submission manuscripts by authors Submission to publisher

5. References

Astley,D., N.L.Innes & Q.P.van der Meer, 1982. Genetic resources of the Allium species. IBPGR, Rome. 38 pp. Backer,C.A. & R.C.Bakhuizen van den Brink Jr., 1963-1968. Flora of Java, 148 Vol.1-3 . Wolters-Noordhoff N.V., Groningen. Vol.1 (1963) 647 pp., Vol.2 (1965) 641 pp., Vol.3 (1968) 761 pp. Biro Pusat Statistik, 1983. Statistical yearbook of Indonesia 1982. Jakarta. Brown,W.H., 1941-1943. Useful plants of the Philippines, Vol.1-3. Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Technical Bulletin No. 10. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 1610 pp. (reprint, 1951-1957). Burkill,I.H., 1935. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula, Vol.1-2 . Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. 2402 pp. (slightly altered reprint, 1966. Ministry of Agriculture and Co operatives, Kuala Lumpur. 2444 pp.). Esquinas-Alcazar,J.T. & P.J.Gulick, 1983. Genetic resources of Cucurbitaceae. IBPGR, Rome. 101 pp. FAO, 1988. Production yearbook 1987, volume 41. FAO Statistics Series no. 82. FAO, Rome. Grubben,G.J.H., 1977. Tropical vegetables and their genetic resources. IBPGR, Rome. 197 pp. Grubben,G.J.H. & D.H.van Sloten, 1981. Genetic resources of Amaranths. IBPGR, Rome. 57 pp. Heyne,K., 1927. De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch Indié, 2nd (enlarged) edition, Vol.1-3. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indie. 1953 pp. (3rd edition, 1950. W. van Hoeve, 's- Gravenhage/Bandung. 1660 pp.). ' IBPGR, 1981.Geneti c resources of cruciferous crops. IBPGR, Rome. 48 pp. Ochse,J.J. & R.C.Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931. Indische groenten, 2nd (enlarged) edition. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Nederlandsch Indie. 1005 pp. (3rd (English) edition, 1980. A.Ascher and Co B.V., Amsterdam. 1016 pp.). PursegloveJ.W., 1968. Tropical crops, Dicotyledons, Vol. 1-2. Longman, London, xv + 719 pp. PursegloveJ.W., 1972. Tropical crops, Monocotyledons, Vol. 1-2. Longman, London, x + 607 pp. Reyes,L.P., 1938. Philippines woods. Department of Agriculture and Commerce, Technical Bulletin No. 7. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 536 pp. + 88 plates Terra,G.J.A., 1966. Tropical vegetables. Royal Tropical Institute, Amsterdam. 107 pp. Tindall,H.D., 1983. Vegetables in the tropics. Macmillan Press, London. 533 pp.

149 Annex 1. Tentative list of primary use vegetables.

Abelmoschus caillei (A.Chev.) Stevels West African okra Abelmoschus esculentus (L.)Moench . okra;lady's finger Abelmoschus mam"hot (L.)Mediku s sunset hibiscus Acalypha caturus Bl. Acmella paniculata (Wall, ex DC.) R.K.Jansen Aganope heptaphylla (L.) Polhill Allaeanthus luzonicus F.vill. Allium ampeloprasum L. var. porrum leek Allium cepa L. forma ascalonicum shallot Allium cepa L. forma cepa onion Allium chinense G. Don rakkyo Allium fistulosum L. Welsh onion AlMu m sativum L. garlic Allium schoenoprasum L. chives Allium tuberosum Roxb. Chinese chives Allmania nodiflora (L.)R.Br. ex Wight Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.)G.Do n large taro;roasting coco Alpinia regia R.M.Smith Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb. alligator weed Amaranthus blitum L. amaranth Amaranthus cruentus L. panicled amaranth Amaranthus dubius Mart, ex Thellung amaranth Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthus tricolor L. edible amaranth Amaranthus viridis L. pigweed Amischotolype mollisima (Bl.)Hassk . Aniseia martinicensis (Jack) Choisy Apium graveolens L. celery;celeriac Aporusa microstachya (Tul.)Muell . Arg. Ardisia laevigata Bl. Ardisia littoralis Andr. Areca borneensis Becc. Asparagus officinalis L. asparagus Barbarea praecox R.Br. upland cress Barringtonia fusiformis King little Barringtonia Basella alba L. Ceylon spinach Begonia hirtella Link. Begonia tuberosa Lamk. Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn. wax gourd;ash pumpkin Beta vulgaris L. Swiss chard;garden beet Blixa auberti Rich. Blumea lacera (Burm.f.)DC . Brassica campestris L. field mustard Brassica chinensis L. pak choi,-spoon cabbage Brassica juncea (L.)Czern . Indian mustard Brassica napobrassica Mill. swede;rutabaga Brassica napus L. rape;swede;rutabaga;colza Brassica oleracea L. cabbage Brassica pekinensis Rupr. pe-tsai.-Chines e cabbage Brassica rapa L. turnip Cardiopteris lobata Wall. Cardiopteris moluccana Bl. Carum roxburghianum Benth. Cassia obtusifolia L. Celosia argentea L. quail grass;sokoyoto Champereia maniliana (Bl.)Merr . Chrysanthemum coronarium L. garland Chrysanthemum;tango Cichorium endivia L. endive Cichorium intybus L. Brussels chicory Cissus repens Lam. Claoxylon longifolium (Bl.) Endl. ex Hassk. Cleistanthus sumatranus (Miq.)Muelt . Arg. Cleome gynandra L.

J5 0 Annex 1. Continued.

Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt ivy gourd;smalI gourd CommeUn a benghalensis L. Commelina paleata Hassk. CommeUn a paludosa Bl. Conyza sumatrensis (Retz.) E.H.Walker fleabane Cosmos caudatus Kunth Crateva religiosa Forst.f. Cryptotaenia canadensis (L.) A. DC. honewort Cucumis sativus L. cucumber;gherkin Cucurbita ficifolia Bouche Malabar gourd Cucurbita maxima Duch. ex Lam. pumpkin Cucurbita mixta Pang. winter squash Cucurbita moschata (Duch. ex Lam.) Duch. ex Poir. Chinese pumpkin;pumpkin Cucurbita pepo L. marrow Curcuma mangga Val. & Van Zijp Cyanotis cristata (L.) D.Don Cyclanthera pedata Schrad. var. edulis wiId cucumber Cynanchum ovalifolium Wight Cynanchum pauciflorum R. Br. Cynara cardunculus L. cardoon Cynara scolymus L. globe artichoke Cyperus diffusus Vahl. Cyrtandra decurrens De Vr. Daucus carota L. carrot Dendrolobium umbellatum (L.) Benth. Dicliptera javanica Nees Diplocyclus palmatus (L.) C.Jeffrey Elatostema spp. Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. goosegrass Embelia H bes Burm.f. Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC. Enydra fluctuans Lour. Erechtites hieraciifolia (L.) Raf. ex DC. Erechtites valerianifolia (Wolf) DC. Ficus conora King. Ficus fistulosa Reinw. ex Bl. Ficus grossularioides Burm.f. Ficus superba Miq. Finlaysonia maritima Backer Galinsoga parviflora Cav. yellow weed Garcinia cowa Roxb. Garcinia microstigma Kurz Glinus oppositifolius (L.) DC. Gymnema syringifolium BoerI . Helicia robusta (Roxb.) R. Br ex Wall. Hibiscus acetosella Welw. ex Hiern false roselle Hibiscus sabdariffa L. roselle;Jamaican sorrel Hibiscus surattensis Linn. Hydrocharis dubia (Bl.) Back. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam. Hygrophila quadrivalvis Nees Hypobathrum microcarpum (Bl.) Bakh.f. Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. water spinach;swamp cabbage Lactuca indica L. Indian lettuce Lactuca sativa L. lettuce Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standi. bottle gourd Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw. Limnanthemum spp. Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau yellow sawah lettuce Lobelia zeylanica L. Luffa acutangula (L.) Roxb. angled gourd Luffa cylindrica (L.) M.J. Roem. smooth loofah;sponge gourd Lyeium chinense Mill. Chinese box thorn

151 Annex 1. Continued.

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. tomato Lysimachi a Candida Lindl . Maesa blumei G.Don Maesa latifolia (Bl.) DC. Medinilla crassifolia (Bl.) Bl. Millettia eriantha Benth. Miriophyltum aquaticum (Veil.) Verde. Momordica charantia L. bitter gourd Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. spiny bitter cucumber Momordica dioica Roxb. ex WilId . bitterless bitter gourd Momordica subangulata Bl. Monochoria hastata (L.) Solm s Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) Presl Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan Murdannia spirata (L.) Brueckn. Musa errans (Blanco) Teodoro var. botoan Teodoro Musa salacccensis Zoll. Nasturtium heterophyllum Bl. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. watercress Nauclea coadunata J.E. Smith Neanotis hirsuta (L.f.) Lewis Neanotis indica (DC.) Lewis) Neptunia oleracea Lour. Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Ochthocharis borneensis Bl. Ocimum americanum L. basiI Oenanthe javanica (Bl.) DC. water dropwort Olax scandens Roxb. Osmoxylon palmatum (Lam.) Philipson Oxalis corniculata L. Paedaria verticillat a Bl. Passiflora biflora Lamk. Pastinaca sativa L. parsnip Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Phytolacca decandra L. Phytolacca esculenta Van Houte Pilea glaben'm a (Bl.) Bl. Pilea melastomoides (Poir.) Bl. Pisonia grandis R.Br. lettuce tree Plagiostachys crocydocalyx (K.Schum.) Burtt & Smith Planchonia grandis Ridl . Pleomele elliptica (Thunb.) N.E. Brown. Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc. Polygonum orientale L. Polygonum perfoliatum L. Polygonum puIc hru m Blume Polyscias cumingiana (Presl) F.-Vi11 . Portulaca oleracea L. purslane Portulaca quàdrifida L. purslane Portulaca tubèrosa Roxb. purslane Pothomorphe peltata (L.) Miq. lizard's tail pepper Pseuderanthemum racemosum RadIk . Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC. winged bean Pterococcus corniculatus (Sw.) Pax & Hoffm. Raphanus caudatus L. Chinese radish Raphanus sativus L. radish;daikon Renealmia exaltata L.f. Rheum rhaponticum L. rhubarb Rhinacanthus calcaratus Nees Rumex acetosa L. sorrel Rumex ambiguus Gren. sorrel;Indian spinach Rumex hydrolapathum Huds. great water dock Rumex patientia L. spinach dock;herb patience

152 Annex 1. Continued.

Rumex sagittatus Thunb. sorrel Rumex vesicarius L. bladder dock Saccharum edule Hassk. Saraca indica L. Sauropus androgynus (L.) Herr. Schefflera aromatica (Bl.) Harms. Schismatogtottis calyptrata (Roxb.) Z. & M. Scleria biflora Roxb. Scorzonera hispanica L. beach salsify Sechium edule (Jacq.) Sw. chayote;Christophin e Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. samphire;sea purslane Sicana odorifera (Veil.) Naud. melocoton Smilax leucophylla Bl. Smilax megacarpa DC. Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. Solanum americanum Mill. Solanum blumei Nees Solanum indicum L. Solanum lasiocarpum Dunal Solanum macrocarpon L. local garden egg Solanum melongena L. eggplant,-brinjaI; melongen e Solanum torvum Sw. plate brush Solena amplexicaulis (Lam.) Gandhi Sonchus asper (L.) Hill spiny sow thistle Sonchus malayanus Miq. Sonchus oleraceus L. sow thistle Sonchus wightianus DC. Sonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. Spathiphyllum commutatum Schott Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. Spilanthes iabadicensis A.H. Moore alphabet plant;para cress Spilanthes paniculata Wall, ex DC. Spinacia oleracea L. spinach Suaeda maritima (L.) Dum. sea blite Talinum trianguläre (Jacq.) Uilld. water leaf.-Surina m spinach Tamilnadia uliginosa (Retz) Tirvengadum & Sastre Taraxacum officinale Weber dandelion Telosma procumbens Merr. Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng. Tetragonia tetragonioides (Pallas) O.Kuntze New Zealand spinach Tournefortia argentea Linn. f. Trema cannabina Lour. Trianthema portulacastrum L. Trichosanthes celebica Cogn. Trichosanthes cucumerina L. var. anguina (L.) snake gourd;club gourd Trichosanthes ovigera Bl. Valerianella olitoria Moench. corn salad;lamb's lettuce Vallaris heynei Spreng. Vallisneria natans (Lour.) Hara Vallisneria spiralis L. Villebrunea semierecta Bl. Vitis discolor Dalz. trait in g begonia Zizania latifolia Turcz. water bamboo;wild rice

153 South-East Asian Spices: Present State and Future Prospects as Exemplified by Indonesian Cooking

Rugayah, D.Sulistiarini, T.Djarwaningsih & E.A.Widjaja

Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

1. Introduction

How monotonous the foods we eat would be if there were no spices! Spices have been defined as any of various aromatic vegetable products used in flavouring foods and drinks. To every housewife, spices are the most valuable substance to enrich or alter the quality and the taste of the food or drinks she is preparing. Used in appropriate (normally small) amounts a spice will improve the flavour of sauces, the pungency of soups, or the piquancy of pickles. Therefore, it is not surprising that from the dawn of human history spices have played a very important role in daily life. It is an established fact that the road to the Orient was paved by the drive to obtain direct access to the source of exotic spices. Indonesian history probably would have been different without the Moluccas which harbour so many world-famous spices. It is these particular spices which attracted the Portuguese, the Spaniards, the Dutch and other nations to come all the way from their respective far- away countries and to trade with the local people. This is well illustrated in an advertisement in Garuda Magazine I, 1989 which indicates that in those old days one did need a fleet of galleons and tons of gunpowder to obtain spices from Tidore and the Moluccas. The rest of the story is well known to every school child. In spite of the discovery of monosodium glutamate at the turn of the century, followed by its rapid development and use by the public at large thanks to aggressive advertisements, the demand for oriental spices is steadily increasing. Prompted by these bright prospects, a research group at the Herbarium Bogoriense has focused on these fascinating plants since 1985. All spices known and used in Indonesia at the present time have been listed, the available literature has been surveyed and as much information as possible collected related to this important commodity. It was decided to prepare an account of each species using the approach outlined by the Indonesian Economic Plant Resources Project (Rifai, 1977), initiated by the former National Biological Institute (LBN/LIPI) during the course of the second Five Year Development Plan (REPELITA II: 1974- 1979). During REPELITA IV (1984-1989) the group undertook biological flora surveys modelled after a series of articles published in the Journal of Ecology (Burdon, 1983).Th e styles of the two approaches were combined in preparing the individual treatments of the spices. The bulk of the work has been completed and set down in a draft manuscript written in Indonesian. The launching of the PROSEA project offers an opportunity for the

154 research group to participate in this venture, since spices are one of the commodity groups covered by the project. In the following account, our experience in treating Indonesian spices will be presented, taking other species from elsewhere in South-East Asia into account as well.

2. The Usage of Spices in South-East Asia

South-East Asian people have highly varied foods, innumerable dishes, overspiced cooking (at least to outsiders) and are unique in their wide use of fermented fish sauces. Therefore, it is not very surprising that their use of spices is more abundant than that of Europeans and Americans combined. Moreover, people make different use of the same plant species, so that some plants widely known and used as vegetables elsewhere, may be primarily used as spices in the South-East Asian region. For example, whereas standard handbooks written for European audiences list tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) and the Welsh onion (Allium fistulosum) as vegetables, Indonesians consider them to be useful to enrich the taste and flavour of their dishes. Indonesian cooking does not have tomato soup, but the use of tomato in a soup is to slightly acidify the taste (similarly Indonesians put a piece of potato into their soup not as a source of carbohydrate but as a vegetable). A number of plant species treated elsewhere as fruits such as 'gandaria' (Bouea macrophylla), 'belimbing' or cucumber tree (Averrhoa bilimbi) and lime {Citrus auranti f olid), are primarily employed here as a condiment to improve the relish of 'sambal', prawn paste and other fish sauces. Still other species which serve as medicinal plants for other people, e.g. East Indian galangale {Kaempferia galanga), or even as a source of essential oils, e.g. lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus) and porcupine orange (Citrus hystrix), are also primarily utilized by Indonesians as spices. Therefore, elsewehere Indonesian spices may have other primary uses such as medicinal plants, fruits, vegetables, essential oils, dyes, or fodder plants. By combining the results of our unpublished accounts of spices of Indonesia and the 'Basic list' provided by the PROSEA project, supplemented with other sources (Ochse & Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931; Cobley, 1965; Rosengarten, 1973; Powell, 1976; Purseglove et al., 1981; Mitchell, 1982), there are 125 species that can be listed as spices in South-East Asia (Annex 1). Of these, only 35 species are widely used primarily as spices throughout South-East Asia. Of the 43 species generally considered as major spices in the world (Rosengarten, 1973), only 14 species are not used by the South-East Asian people. Annex 1 shows that this commodity group comprises representatives from a large array of plant families. Zingiberaceae is the best- represented family, followed by Lauraceae, Apiaceae, Myristicaceae and Piperaceae. It is interesting to note that each family mostly has a very characteristic aroma arising from a specific essential oil or glucoside alkaloid it contains. As is well known, it is these chemicals which produce the desired flavour or taste, and it is the same chemicals that sometimes are used by plant taxonomists to define taxonomie entities, to understand their relationships, or sometimes even to identify accurately the species.

155 Depending on the species, usually only certain parts of the plant can be used to fulfil their role as spice, ranging from rhizome, stem, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits to seeds. Leaves (45 species) are the most used plant-part, followed by fruits (40 species), seeds (19 species), rhizome or roots (13 species), bark (12 species), flowers (7 species), bulbs (4 species), stems (2 species), buds (1 species) and petioles (1 species). Our surveys and accounts reveal that 63 species are used as spices in Indonesia. Approximately 20 species are used only locally by the people in a small area; theyinclud eAmomum acre(Ujun g Pandang),Bouea macrophylla (West Java), Clausena excavata (Semarang, Bogor), Garcinia macrophylla (West and North Sumatra), Moringa pterygosperma (Jakarta), Myristica succedanea(Moluccas) ,an d Urophyllum arborea(Banten) .A sma yb e expected for some of these locally much-used spice plants, suitable substitutes exist and are commonly applied in other places. The well-known 'salam' (Syzygium polyanthum), locally much used by the Javanese to flavour soup, for example, can be replaced by 'manglak' (?) leaves by the Thai, whereas the Europeans and Americans usually employ bay leaves (Laurus nobilis) to obtain a similar flavour. Tamarind, which is widely used to give a sour taste to many South-East Asian dishes, is occasionally replaced by 'belimbing' (Averrhoa bilimbi) or Phithecellobium dulce, but some tribes in Sumatra like to use Garcinia macrophylla instead. In some areas (especially in the interior of Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya) where salt or salt water is difficult to get, people use plant-ash obtained from leaves of Asplenium nidus, Coix gigantea, Elatostema macrophyllum, Eriocaulon australe, Impatiens platypetala, Imperata cylindrica, Polypodium sp., Saurauia spp. and stems of Acalypha insulana as a substitute.

3. The Role of Spices in South-East Asia: Indonesia as a Case Study

Spices play a very important role in the economy of Indonesia, although less than before the second world war. Therefore, spices represent one of the major groups of Indonesian plant resources. Many scientists believe that a number of these spices originally came from India and China, brought in by migrating people in the past 1,000 years. In the last 4 centuries about 20 species have been introduced from tropical America, the Mediterranean, Europe and also from Africa. Chilli, tomato, and vanilla, for example, originate from tropical America, but they have been cultivated for a long time on a large scale in South-East Asia, so that they have become very important commodities. Mediterranean spices, introduced by the Europeans when they colonized South-East Asian countries, are represented by coriander, anise and fenugreek, usually in small-scale cultivation. Parsley was also introduced from Europe, but without much success; recently people have become interested in this spice due to the increasing interest in European dishes. A similar story is applicable to rosemary. This accounts for the fact that Indonesia is now importing smallamount s of processed spicesfro m theNetherlands , Germany, Austria and other European countries. However, most spices used in Indonesia are especially cultivated to meet the local demand and for export. Approximately 10 species are

156 recorded as still growing wild, so that people collect them from the forest for their own consumption. Nevertheless, some of those cultivated on a large scale are still being imported from other countries because local production can not meet the existing demand. According to the Indonesian foreign trade statistics (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1986), Indonesia imported cloves, garlic, onion and spring onion, shallot and coriander seeds in considerable quantities, and also ground and dried chilli, dried ginger and ground black pepper in small amounts. The statistics on the world trade in major spices between 1961-1970 indicate that the following 9 tropical spices dominate the trade (ranked according to the estimated average annual export value): pepper (68,045 tons/year), chilli (45,360 tons/year), vanilla (1,134 tons/year), cloves (14,742 tons/year), cinnamon and cassia (13,834 tons/year), cardamom (2,494 tons/year), nutmeg (5,670 tons/year), ginger (9,979 tons/year) and allspice (2,268 tons/year). The 10 most important spice-producing countries in the world (ranked according to the estimated annual net exports during 1961-1970) are: India, Indonesia, Malagasy Republic, Malaysia, Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Spain, Jamaica, Brazil and Mexico.Th e main exported spices from Indonesia are pepper, nutmeg and mace, cassia, vanilla, and cloves (Rosengarten, 1973). Moreover, Indonesia also exported chilli, shallot, garlic, onion, tamarind, tomato, and cardamom, mainly to Europe (the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, France, Austria and other small countries), America (USA, Central and South America), Saudi Arabia, and other Asian countries (Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, South Korea). The foreign trade statistics of Indonesia (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1987) recorded that Indonesia exported 75,421 tons of spices in 1986 and 83,309 tons in 1987 to, among others, USA (23,500 and 22,200 tons respectively), Netherlands (9,000 and 11,100 tons respectively), Hong Kong (6,800 and 39,000 tons respectively) and New Zealand (100 and 200 tons respectively). Most spices are exported both as fresh, dried or processed materials. In the past few decades Indonesia has begun to develop technology for widening the horizon for the utilization of plant products, which makes the spices useful for other industries too. Therefore they are not only used for seasoning foods and drinks, but also to give aroma to soaps, cosmetics, and perfumes as well as to wines and other beverages, candies, biscuits, toothpastes and many others. This has been made possible by the input of high technology for extracting the active substances, which have entered the competitive world market in the form of oleoresin, curcumin, calamus oil, citronella oil, and cardamom oil. Consequently, it is understandable that the demand for spices is steadily increasing to meet the requirements of these industries.

4. Prospects

It is unlikely that the demand for spices will ever decline in the future, because they will always be needed as long as man enjoys tasty food. Although for someyear sno wthi scommodit y groupha sbee n supplanted by oil as the major foreign exchange earner for Indonesia, the spice industry and its ramifications still provide employment for a substantial

157 labour force. Admittedly, not all species are of equal importance for the future development of the spice industry as the figures (Table 1) on the yearly area of lands committed to spice plantations show (Biro Pusat Statistik, 1984). The upsurge and the decline of certain species largely depend on the demand from the market, as well as on the production constraints met in the field. In vanilla, for instance, Fusarium stem rot represents a serious disease. It is evident that research on spice diseases should be pursued rigorously, not only in vanilla but also on viroid and tar disease of clove, yellow disease of pepper (Sitepu & Wahid, 1988) and dry rot disease of nutmeg (Mandang-Sumarau, 1985).

Table 1.Are a (ha)o fsom e cultivated spices inIndonesia .

Area (ha)ove r1979 - 1983 Spice 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 Clove 3,394,000 3,914,000 4,948,000 5 ,396,000 5,489,000 Nutmeg 574,000 555,000 571,000 578,000 581,000 Cinnamon 693,000 714,000 694,000 774,000 776,000 Pepper 633,000 683,000 766,000 748,000 772,000 Lemongrasse s 66,000 51,000 7,000 7,000 7,000 Vanilla 36,000 31,000 30,000 600 600

In order to sustain the supply of spices, the production level will have to be increased and the use of high-yielding varieties is the most efficient way to achieve this goal. However, it is common knowledge that no cultivars of spices currently cultivated in Indonesia have ever been subjected to a purposeful breeding programme. At the most, those cultivars favoured by the farmers have undergone simple selection and no real attempt has been made to proceed beyond this level. However, it is gratifying to note that the government of Indonesia is developing a spice germplasm collection garden in Bacan (Moluccas), so that one may expect that in the future these valuable genetic resources will be fully utilized to create new superior cultivars through breeding programmes, using the most sophisticated approaches developed in recent years. Agronomic research will also be needed to improve the present practices of the farmers and to increase yields. Perhaps the most promising development in the field of research on spices in Indonesia is the recent establishment of the Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops (BALITTRO) in Bogor, with a mandate to coordinate all aspects of research and development in spices. This institute is also responsible for formulating the government policy for extending the cultivated areas of cinnamon in Bengkulu, pepper in Lampung and Kalimantan, clove in Sumatra, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Irian Jaya, nutmeg in Sulawesi and Irian Jaya, vanilla in Bali, ginger in Bengkulu and Lampung, and so on. During the course of this study some problems in taxonomie and other basic research were encountered which have to be solved to provide support for further developmental studies. For example, the white, yellow and red gingers, which have different chemical contents and are therefore differently priced in the market, are still mistily shrouded by taxonomie and nomenclatural uncertainty. There are also problems with the generic 158 delimitations in the Zingiberaceae, so that perhaps a biosystematic approach has to be attempted to supplement the morphological characters currently employed. Farmers are still clamouring for sexed nutmeg seedlings, because they will lose a lot of money if, after some 5 or 6 years, they find out that they have been planting male nutmeg trees. It is high time that the sophisticated air-layering technique developed in Grenada was introduced into Indonesia (Flach & Tjeenk Willink, 1989).

5. Proposals for the Volume on 'Spices'

To date, complete accounts of 57 Indonesian spices have been written in Indonesian, containing such information as the correct scientific name, list of synonyms, vernacular names, description, diversity of cultivars, distribution and ecology, phenology, genetics and cytology, uses, chemical composition, physical and chemical properties, propagation, cultivation and standardization, and references. Compared with the species enumerated in the 'Basic list' prepared by the PROSEA project, those 57 species constitute all major spices of South-East Asia. Therefore, when the time comes to produce the volume on spices, translation of these manuscripts into English would be a sound basis to which further relevant information from other South-East Asian countries can be added, especially on production figures, world trade and other items to meet the 'standard requirements of the PROSEA handbook. Moreover, more information on the minor, locally used spices especially in Thailand, Papua New Guinea and the Philippines, will have to be collected and added to complete the volume. Therefore we propose that the handbook on spices should contain:

Chapter 1: Introduction - History of the South-East Asian spices - Hints on the preparation of certain spices (e.g. fermentation of the toxic Pangium edule to nullify the deadly poison in the seed) Chapter 2: Accounts of important spices • Treatment of about 75 species following the PROSEA standards Appendix: Glossary of specialized terms used in the text. 6. Time Schedule

Semester Activity 1/90 2/90 1/91 2/91 1/92 2/92 Preparatory period I I Completing existing treatments I I

Translation of existing accounts I I Accounts of additional species I I Manuscript to editors-in-chief I I and publishe r I I

159 7. References

Biro Pusat Statistik, 1984. Statistik Indonesia 1984. Jakarta. Biro Pusat Statistik, 1986. Statistik perdagangan luar negeri Indonesia. Imports. Vol. 1-2. Jakarta. Biro Pusat Statistik, 1987. Statistik perdagangan luar negeri Indonesia. Exports. Vol. 1-2. Jakarta. BurdonJ.J., 1983. Biological flora of the British Isles. Journal of Ecology 71:307-330. Cobley,L.S., 1956. An introduction to the botany of tropical crops. Longman, London, pp. 192-219. Flach,M. & M.Tjeenk Willink, 1989. Myristica fragrans Houtt.. In: Westphal,E. & P.C.M.Jansen (editors). Plant resources of South-East Asia, a selection, pp. 192-196. Mandang-Sumarau,S., 1985. Biologi penyebab penyakit busuk buah pala, khususnya busuk kering. Thesis.Gadja h Mada University, Yogyakarta. 172 pp. Mitchell,K., 1982. A taste of Thailand. Hongkong. 40 pp. Ochse,J.J. & R.C.Bakhuizen van den Brink, 1931. Indische groenten; 2nd edition. Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel in Neder landsen Indië. 1005 pp. Powell,J.M., 1976. Ethnobotany. In: K.Paijmans (editor). New Guinea vegetation, pp. 133-134. Purseglove,J.W., E.G.Brown, C.L.Green & S.R.J.Robbins, 1981. Spices. Longman, London/New York. 813 pp. Rifai,M.A., 1977. Indonesian economic plant resources No. 1-15. Lembaga Biologi Nasional, Bogor. Rosengarten,F.,Jr., 1973.Th e book of spices. Pyramid Book, New York. 473 pp. Sitepu,D. & P.Wahid, 1988. Yellow disease of pepper and its control in Bangka, Indonesia. In: M.A.Rifai et al. (editors). Proceedings of the Symposium on Crop Pathogens and Nematodes. BIOTROP Special Publi cation 34:111-118.

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Dr.Mien A.Rifai (Bogor) for immersing in this project from its inception, and also for kindly coordinating and supervising its execution.

160 Annex 1. A list of South-East Asian spices.

Plant Species part Indo Mal Phi PNG Thai used

Acalypha insulana M.A. St 7 7 7 W 7 Acorus calamus L. R C c,w w ? + Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. S c.u c c c,w + Allium ampeloprasum L. Bulb C c 7 ? C Allium cepa L. Bulb C,Im c c c c Allium fistulosum L. L C c 7 c + AIlium odorum L. L C c 7 ? + AIliu m sativum L. Bulb C.Im c c c c Allium schoenoprasum L. Bulb.L C 7 7 ? + AIlium spp. L ? 7 7 c 7 Alpinia spp. R ? 7 7 u ? Amomum acre Val. F,P C 7 7 •> 7 Amomum aromaticum Roxb. F 7 u 7 •} ? Amomum compactum Soland ex Maton S c,u 7 ? ? C Amomum krervanh Pierre ex Gagnep. F 7 7 ? ? c,w Amomum ochreum Ridl. F - u ? 9 7 Amomum sp. R 7 7 ? w 7 Amomum subulatum Roxb. F - Im ? 1 - Amomum testaceum Ridl. F 7 C,W ? ? c Amomum uliginosum Koenig F 7 W ? ? w Amomum xanthophlebium Baker FI - c,w ? ? + Apium graveolens L. L,R,S c c c c c Ardisia boissieri A.DC. F,FI ? 7 c,w 7 AspIeniur n nidus L. L c,w 7 ? Ü' + Averrhoa bilimbi L. F c,w c c ? + Barringtonia scortechinii King F 7 w ? ? 7 Boesenbergia pandurata (Roxb.) Schlecht. L,R C^w c ? ? C Bouea macrophylla Griff. F c,u c,w ? ? 7 Capsicum annuum L. F c c c c C Capsicum chinense Jacq. F C,Im 7 c ? 7 Capsicum frutescens L. F C c c c C Cinnamomum burmannii (C.G & Th.Nees) Bl. B C,W c ? ? + Cinnamomum cassia Nees ex Bl. B C,Im c c ? + Cinnamomum deschampsii Gamble B ? c ? ? + Cinnamomum impressinervium Meissn. B ? Im ? ? 7 Cinnamomum obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees B ? Im ? ? + var. koureir i P. SE. Cinnamomum puberulum Ridl. B ? U ? ? + Cinnamomum scortechinii Gamble B ? W ? ? 7 Cinnamomum spp. B ? ? ? u 7 Cinnamomum tamala (Ham.) Th.Nees & Ebenn. B ? Im ? 7 + Cinnamomum zeylanicum Gare, ex Bl. B C,Im C c 7 + Citrus amblycarpa (Hassk.) Ochse F C C ? 7 7 Citrus aurantifolia (Christin.S Panz.)SwingI e F C C w 7 C Citrus hystrix DC. F,L C C,W c,u 7 C Claoxylon polot (Burm.f.) Merr. L C c,w ? 7 c Clausena excavata Burm. L C,w ? ? 7 + Coix lachryma-jobi L. L ? 7 ? W + Coriandrum sativum L. L,R,S C,Im C c 7 c Cuminum cyminum L. S C c c 7 c Curcuma viridiflora Roxb. L,R C c c C c Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. St c,w c ? 7 c Cyrtandra pendula Bl. L w w ? 7 7 Dipteryx odorata (Aubl.) Willd. F c c ? 7 7 Elatostema poludosum (Bl.) Hassk. L 7 7 ? W 7 Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Malton S c c ? c c Embelia phiIippinensi s A.DC. L 7 7 w 7 7 Eriocaulon australe R.Br. L 7 7 ? W 7 Eryngium foetidum L. F c c ? 7 C

161 Annex 1. Continued.

Plant Species part Indo Mal Phil PNG Tha used

Eupatorium chinense L. L C C 7 ? C Evodia sp. L ? ? 7 w 7 Ficus trematocarpa Miq. L c|u ? 7 ? 7 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. F,L C C C 7 C Garcinia macrophylla Miq. F c,u ? 7 7 ? Globba marantina L. S u W w W 7 IlUcium verum Hook.f. F Im Im Im 7 Im Impatiens hawkeri Bull. L ? 7 ? W 7 Impatiens platypetala Lind. L ? ? ? w 7 Impatiens sp. L ? ? ? w 7 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. L W W U w W Kaempferia galanga L. R c C C c,w + Languas galanga (L.) Stuntz. R C,W C w 7 C Languas officinarum Hance Fl,R C 7 7 7 7 Limnophila rugosa (Roth.) Merr. L c w c.w 7 + Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. F c,u 7 7 7 + Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. F C,Im C c C C Massoia aromatica Becc. B c.w C 7 7 7 Monodora myristica Dun. S C c w 7 7 Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. Rt c.w 7 ? 7 + Myristica argentea Warb. F,FI c.w 7 ? C ? Myristica cinnamomea King F 7 w ? 7 + Myristica fragrans Houtt. F,FI c^w w c 7 C Myristica succedanea Bl. F,FI w ? ? 7 7 Nicolaia solaris (Bl.) Horan. F w c 7 7 7 Nigell a sativa L. S Im Im 7 7 + Ocimum americanum L. L c.w C c C C Ocimum basilicum L. S c.w C c C C Ocimum gratissimum L. S c.w 7 7 7 + Ocimum tenuiflorum L. S c.w w 7 7 7 Patmeria spp. 7 7 7 W 7 Pandanus amarylIifolius Roxb.ex Vrigt. C c 7 7 C Pandanus conoideus Lamk c.w 7 7 C 7 Pandanus krauelianus K.Schum. c.w 7 7 W 7 Pangiurn edule Reinw. c.w c.w c,w c.w c.w PeriI l a nankinensis Decne. 7 C.Im 7 7 7 Petroselinum crispum (Milt.) Nym. ex Airy Shaw C c 7 7 C Pimenta officinalis Lindl . c C 7 7 7 Piper caninum Blume c.w W 7 7 7 Piper lolot CDC. 7 ? 7 7 W Piper longum L. c C 7 7 + Piper nigrum L. c C 7 7 C Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Bth. c.w 7 c 7 + Polygonum hydropiper L. Bud.L 7 w W 7 + Polygonum pgbescens Blume 7 w 7 7 7 Polypodium sp. w 7 7 W 7 Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms 7 c 7 7 + Polyscias sp. 7 7 7 W 7 Rhaphidophora lobbii Schott w w 7 7 7 Rosmarinus officinalis L. c ? C 7 7 Saurauia spp. 7 7 7 W ? Sesamum orientale L. c^w c.w 7 7 + Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr.S Perry C,Im c 7 7 C Syzygium polyanthum (Uight) Ualp. c.w c.w 7 7 C,W Tamarindus indica L. F.Fl.L C.Im.W ? C 7 c Thymus vulgaris L. C w C 7 7 Toddalia aculeata Pers. W c.w c.w c.w c.w Trigonella foenum-graecum L. Im 7 7 7 ? Urophyllum arboreum (Reinn.ex Bl.) Korth. c.w w 7 7 7

162 Annex 1. Continued.

Plant Species part Indo Ma Phil PNG Thai used

Vanilla fragrans (Salisb.) Ames S C.Im ? B C,U •> Zanthoxylium avicenniae (Lamk) DC. F,L U •> Zanthoxylium alatum Roxb. L ? •> Zanthoxylium bungei Planch. F,S •> C Zingiber officinale Roxb. R C.Im C Zingiber spectabile Griff. Zingiber spp. c,u

Notes: Plant part used: Occurrence:

B : Bark C : Cultivated F : Fruit Im : Imported Fl : Flower W :Wil d P : Petiole ? :N o information R : Rhizome + :Presen t but no information about its cultivation S : Seed : Not present St : Stem

163 Forage Plants for South-East Asia

L.'t Mannetje1 & R.M.Jones2

Department of Field Crops and Grassland Science, Wageningen Agricultural University, Haarweg 333, 6709 RZ Wageningen, Netherlands

CSIRO Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures, 306 Carmody Road, St.Lucia, Queensland 4067, Australia

1. Introduction

Grassland and fodder plants serve as feed for domestic and wild herbivores. They mostly belong to the families Gramineae and Leguminosae, although other herbaceous and woody plants are also eaten by animals. Grassland and fodder plants are collectively named forages. Forage can be defined as feed for herbivores, usually with lower nutrient concentration and digestibility than concentrates such as grain. Forage plants can occur in the wild, but are more commonly found in grasslands, in tree crop plantations or in open spaces in and near forests and along roads and canals. They can also be cultivated for the specific purpose of producing feed for livestock. Forage is either grazed in situ or cut and carried to penned or tethered animals. Although South-East Asian agriculture is mostly geared to the production of rice and plantation crops, livestock play an important role in providing draft power and for the production of meat, milk and dung. The livestock in South-East Asia comprise about 28 million cattle, 19 million buffaloes, 6 million sheep and 17 million goats (Table 1). Most animals are kept in the densely populated areas.Betwee n 1969-71 and 1986 the number of cattle, sheep and goats increased, but the number of buffaloes did not change. However, there are big differences in the trends of large and small ruminants within and between countries. The number of cattle in Indonesia hardly changed, while that of buffaloes decreased and that of sheep and goats increased substantially. In Malaysia the number of cattle doubled and of buffaloes decreased, but that of goats did not change. However, the overall regional changes were not very great. This might be taken to indicate that the need for forage has hardly changed over that period. However, many of these animals suffer from malnutrition and the demand for meat and milk is rising as a result of increased buying-power of the population, so that there is a need for increased quality and quantity of forages. Remenyi & McWilliam (1986) estimated that the demand for forage would double by the year 2000. Although there are forage research programmes in the region (Blair et al., 1986), little use is made of improved grasslands and forage plants. However, there is a large potential for increased forage production in the region.

164 Table 1. Ruminant livestock (x 10 ) in South-East Asia; means for 1969-71 and 1986 (FAO, 1987).

Country* Catt e Buffa loes Shee P Goats

•69-71 '86 '69-71 •86 '69-71 '86 '69-71 •86

Burma 7.0 10.0 1.6 2.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.3 Indonesia 6.3 6.5 3.2 2.9 3.2 5.2 6.9 12.3 Cambodia 2.2 1.6 0.9 0.7 X X X X Laos 0.4 0.6 0.9 1.0 X X X X Malaysia 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.2 X X 0.4 0.4 PhiIippine s 1.7 1.8 4.4 3.0 X X 0.8 2.2 Thailan d 4.5 4.8 5.6 6.3 X X X X Vietnam 1.8 2.5 2.3 2.7 X X 0.2 0.3

Total 24.2 28.4 19.2 19.0 3.4 5.6 8.9 16.5

* Brunei and Singapore have been omitted because of small numbers of animals, x less than 100,000 animals.

2. Sources of Forage

2.1 Grasslands

In tropical areas with high rainfall, grasslands are usually sub- climax vegetation, because the natural climax is almost always closed forest. These sub-climax grasslands have been formed by man clearing forests for shifting agriculture and then maintained as a sub-climax by grazing and burning of abandoned croplands (Whyte, 1974). Natural grasslands in South-East Asia are restricted to some frequently flooded lands, as has been reported for parts of Vietnam. Grasslands are sometimes referred to as 'savanna', a term that denotes a continuous graminoid stratum, more or less interrupted by trees or shrubs (Johnson & Tothill, 1985). One of the characteristics of savanna is that the climate is seasonal with wet, warm to hot summers alternating with more or less dry, warm to cool winters (Johnson & Tothill, 1985). However, the term savanna is still subject to confusion and we will use the term 'grassland', defined as vegetation types in which the tree cover is less than 40% (UNESCO). Grasslands can be divided into pure (i.e. treeless) and wooded grasslands. It has been estimated by FAO (1987) that there are about 14 million ha of permanent grasslands in South-East Asia and the western Pacific Islands, whereas Soerjani (1970) estimated that there were 16 million ha in Indonesia alone. The dominant species in these grasslands is usually Imperata cylindrica. Major areas of grassland include: (1) the large central plains of Thailand and the Korat plateau, which extend into Laos and the northern parts of Cambodia, (2) parts of north and north-western Thailand, extending into Burma and northern Laos, and (3) moderately high areas which are almost totally converted to wooded grasslands by livestock husbandry, especially on the plateaus of northern Laos and Vietnam. The grazing-lands of Indonesia are wooded grasslands resulting from degradation of climax forest. These may be the result of drier conditions 165 combined with annual fires, as on the eastern islands (Nusa Tenggara), or they may be abandoned croplands used for grazing. Very often these lands are impoverished as a result of frequent exploitative cropping. On Java and Madura grazing-lands occupy less than 5% of the land. Nevertheless these 2 islands support 65% of the livestock of Indonesia, but their feed comes from roadsides, banks of canals, open areas within and alongside forests and from crop residues. In the Nusa Tenggara region of Indonesia pure or wooded grasslands cover large areas, e.g. 35% on Lombok and 65% on Sumba and Timor. About 12% of the Philippines is grazing-land which is maintained by frequent fires. There are considerable areas of plantation crops in South-East Asia (e.g. 2.6 million ha in Indonesia and 2.8 million ha in Malaysia (Rika, 1986)). These plantations often have a herbaceous understorey of native species used for grazing. Grazing can enhance nutrient cycling, control waste herbage and reduce the use of weedicides, enable easier management of the plantation crop and may improve crop yields. The species occurring in these grasslands are native or naturalized and, except for fire, no cultural or management practices are imposed. Dry matter yields and the nutritive quality of the species are low. Grass genera commonly encountered (Mehra & Fachrurozi, 1985;Mclvo r &Chen , 1986) are: Andropogon, Arundinella, Arundo, Axonopus, Capillipedium, Chloris, Chrysopogon, Coix, Cryptococcum, Cymbopogon, Dactyloctenium, Digitaria, Eleusine, Echinochloa, Eragrostis, Heteropogon, Hyparrhenia, Imperata, Ottochloa, Paspalum, Paspalidium, Pennisetum, Phragmitis, Saccharum and Themeda. None of the species concerned, except Pennisetum purpureum, is purposely used for grassland or forage crop establishment. There are very few legumes in these grasslands, the main species being Desmodium heterophyllum, Indigofera spp. and Rhyncosia minima. Grass species of temperate origin (C3 species) occur at high altitudes in the region, such as on Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, on mountains in Indonesia and in the highlands of Malaysia and New Guinea (Whyte, 1974).

2.2 Fodder Crops

Fodder crops in present use fall into 3 categories, i.e. herbaceous crops, root crops, and trees and shrubs. The herbaceous crops are mostly grasses and legumes. The main grass crops are Pennisetum purpureum, P. americanum, P.purpureum x P.americanum, Panicum maximum, Tripsacum laxum, Saccharum officinarum and Zea mays. The second and the last 2 species listed are also used as food crops. The main herbaceous legume fodder crops are Lablab purpur eus, Stylosanthes guianensis and Vigna unguiculata. The root crop used for human and animal nutrition is Manihot esculenta. Of the trees and shrubs, Leucaena leucocephala is the most extensively used, but other species such as Calliandra calothyrsus, Flemingia macrophylla, Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania grandiflora, and S.sesban also have a place. Fodder crops are used by smallholder farmers as well as by large- scale animal production units, mostly dairy farms near the larger cities.

166 However, in almost all situations the cultivation of forage crops is subservient to that of food crops. Nevertheless, there is scope for forage crops in combination with food crops, either as alley-farming or undersown to provide better quantity and quality of stubble after a grain crop harvest.

2.3 Crop Residues

Nearly all food crops leave residues that can be used as forage. Important sources include rice hulls and straw, maize stover, sorghum stover, cassava leaves, sugar-cane bagasse and tops, and pulse straws (Ranjhan, 1986). The importance of different crop residues varies very widely between sites and between seasons at one site (Soedomo et al., 1986). Crop residues are particularly important in intensively farmed areas. In addition, by-products from crop processing are used for concentrate feedstuffs.

2.4 Current Inputs to Forage Systems

Permanent native grasslands in this region can be classed as extensive forage production systems, as there are no managerial inputs such as irrigation, fertilizer or controlled grazing. Even though the pastures may be over-utilized to the point of overgrazing, the ofily inputs of fire and grazing are basically uncontrolled. Semi-intensive forage production systems have inputs such as fertilizer, weeding and irrigation primarily applied to the main cash crop, which also benefit associated forage. Intensive forage production systems have inputs applied for the sole purpose of forage production. An example of this would be large-scale dairy farms near urban centres, where fertilizers are used on planted forage crops. Based on the classification of Perkins et al. (1986), 5 forage production systems, each with its typical level of input, can be distinguished in South-East Asia: (1) extensive permanent grassland: (a) privately owned land, (b) communally grazed hill-land, and (c) communally grazed and cut roadsides, (2) semi-intensive permanent forages: (a) understorey of tree crop plantations, (b) forage from shade-trees in plantations, and (c) paddy-field bunds, (3) semi-intensive annual forages: (a) forage crops sown after the harvest of food crops, and (b) crop residues, (4) intensive permanent forages: (a) protein banks of trees or shrubs, and (b) forage trees used in alley cropping, and (5) intensive short-term forages: (a) fodder crops replacing food crops, and (b) fodder crops on special areas.

3. The Main Limitations to Forage Production

Forage production constraints in South-East Asia can be attributed to climate, soil conditions, species and management.

167 3.1 Climate

In the humid regions without a dry season of any significance, the climatic conditions are generally conducive to good forage growth. However, even in such areas cloud cover will frequently reduce incoming radiation, resulting in lower photosynthesis. Daylength in equatorial regions can also limit growth by comparison with higher latitudes. The combination of longer days and less cloud cover in northern Australia, for example, results in more total incoming radiation than at the equator (Cooper, 1970). Forage growth under trees is also restricted through the interception of light by the tree canopy, as well as by competition for nutrients and moisture. Temperature is not a limiting factor in equatorial regions except at higher altitudes. However, as the distance from the equator increases, temperature will be limiting during the time of year with the shortest daylength. At high altitudes and latitudes frost can destroy leaves and stems or even kill the plants of tropical species, particularly legumes and C4 grasses. At high altitudes, where growing conditions are temperate, the adaptation of the vegetation is reflected in the presence of C3 species. However, at higher latitudes within and immediately north and south of the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, the growing conditions are primarily tropical. This is because the period of adequate moisture conditions coincides with that of high temperatures and longest daylength. The grasses occurring in these regions are mainly of the C^ type, which cannot grow at temperatures below about 15°C (McWilliam, 1978). Rainfall is not often limiting in equatorial regions, although periods of up to 6 weeks without rain have been encountered (Niewolt, 1982). However, total rainfall and the period of the year in which it is received generally decrease with increasing distance from the equator. The following tropical climates were distinguished by Troll (1966) as occurring in South-East Asia: Vj = tropical rainy climates with 12 to 9.5 humid months (Indonesia, New Guinea, Malaysia, southern Thailand), V2= tropical humid-summer climates with 9.5 to 7 humid months (eastern Java and Lesser Sunda Islands in Indonesia, Indo-China), Vo = wet and dry tropical climates with 7 to 4.5 humid months (central Thailand). For the purpose of tropical forage production the following subtropical zones in South-East Asia should be included: IV7 = permanently humid climates (1 0t o 12 wetmonths )wit h hotsummer san d maximum rainfall in the summer (eastern China), IV4 = climates with 9 to 6 humid summer months and dry, cool winters (south-eastern China). Mountainous areas in equatorial regions pose a problem in climatic classification. However, from the point of view of forage plant adaptation, such areas can be regarded as equivalent to the subtropical zones IV7 and IV4, depending on rainfall distribution. Soil moisture will be limiting in the zones V2, V3 and TVA durin g the period of shortest daylength and in the latter zone this will coincide with temperature constraints. In zones V3 and IV4 the unreliability of rainfall during the rainy period can also impose strong limitations on forage production.

168 3.2 Soil Conditions

Soil fertility varies widely over the region. Higher fertility soils are derived from basic volcanic rocks, coraline material, or alluvium. These soils are intensively cropped. In contrast, some 60% of the soils in South-East Asia have severe nutrient deficiencies or toxicities (Kerridge et al., 1986), even though they have medium to excellent physical conditions. These soils are leached and have low organic matter levels and cation exchange capacity. They are acid, with consequent high availability of soluble aluminium and manganese and low availability of phosphates, calcium and some trace elements. However, many tropical forage species, including legumes, are adapted to acid conditions and tolerate high levels of available aluminium. Soils in Troll's V3 and IV4 climatic zones tend to be less acid than those in Vj, V2 and IV7.

3.3 Species

The native and naturalized forage species are adapted to the prevailing climatic and soil conditions. Rainfall in climatic zones Vj and IV7 is sufficiently regular that drought tolerance is not a requirement for the plants. However, adaptations for persistence under irregular and/or seasonally low rainfall is required for plants in zones V3 and IV4. In all zones, soil fertility is a major constraint to growth, ^although species differ in their adaptation to low fertility (Kerridge et al., 1986). Plant species that are adapted to unfavourable rainfall and soil fertility have developed strong survival mechanisms. These are based on vegetative propagation and competitive ability to exclude other species (e.g. Axonopus compressas and Imperata cylindrica) or on the ability to produce copious seed (e.g. Mimosa pudica). High dry matter production and nutritive value are not necessarily attributes for species to survive, and so native species generally are of low productivity and poor nutritive value. However, most introduced species would not persist unless soil fertility were amended and if they do, they are often no more productive than native or naturalized species. Conversely, some native and naturalized species can yield as much as introduced species under improved conditions of soil fertility. Species differ in their adaptation to defoliation. Some species, such as Themeda triandra, are unable to persist even under moderate grazing pressure. Other species, such as Imperata cylindrica and Mimosa pudica, avoid high grazing pressures because of low palatability, whereas others, such as Axonopus compressus, are resistant to grazing through their prostrate growth habit.

3.4 Management

The production of forage from a given area of land does not solely depend on climatic and edaphic conditions. Within these given constraints the farmer has a large influence on both the quality and quantity of forage harvested. The options are: (1) to return removed nutrients or

169 not, (2) to fertilize or not, (3) frequency and height of cutting, and (4) numbers and movement of animals in the case of grazing. The first 2 options are seldom applied to native forage species. In fact, the usual system is to remove forage, feed it to stalled or tethered animals and to use the excrement as manure on food crops. This amounts to mining of nutrients, leading to impoverishment of the soil under forages and consequently to lower forage yields. In the case of grazing, most of the nutrients are returned to the field, but the distribution is very uneven and losses of inorganic nitrogen will occur through volatilization of ammonia and leaching of nitrate. A high frequency of harvesting can accelerate the exploitation of nutrients and the disappearance of species not morphologically adapted to frequent defoliation. On the other hand, forage harvested in a young stage of growth is of higher protein and mineral concentration and of higher digestibility than material harvested at an older stage of growth. A stocking rate exceeding the carrying capacity of a grazed area will lead to overgrazing, often resulting in the disappearance of palatable species and the dominance of species that are not readily eaten, such as Imperata cylindrica and Mimosa pudica. Overgrazing thus leads to reduced productivity of the land, but on the other hand, unpalatable species protect the land against soil erosion.

4. Overcoming Limitations to Improving Forage Resources

4.1 Socio-Economic Barriers

Intensification requires investments of money and labour and therefore the development of intensive forage production systems depends on: (1) the economic value and marketability of the animal products, (2) the availability of land and land tenure, (3) accessibility to finance and knowledge, (4) motivation of the farmer, and (5) economic alternatives within the farming systems. Much animal production in the region has no direct market-value, for example, draft power; many farmers have no land available for intensive forage production and if they do, they may not have access to finance or may not know how to go about obtaining it. In many situations, animals graze or utilize feed which is grown on land not owned or leased by the owner of the animals. Therefore, the possibilities for forage production improvement at present are somewhat limited, particularly as regards smallholders. However, if extension campaigns motivate farmers to increase animal production, they may be able to start appropriate forage improvement, even on a small scale, for example by reserving part of their back-yard for forage production. Opportunities for intensification of forage production are greater where animal products are supplied to an urban cash market or under some forms of plantation cropping or agroforestry systems. Some of these socio-economic barriers to improvement will be impossible to remove without major changes to social and cultural systems, but some could be alleviated by government action.

170 4.2 Nutrition

It is highly unlikely that inorganic or organic fertilizers will be used on a widespread basis on extensive grasslands in South-East Asia in the near future. There are better prospects for fertilizers being applied to vegetables, grain or tree crops and thus having an indirect impact on forages in semi-intensive systems and to forage production areas. Phosporus will be the main element required for legumes, though S, K, Cu, Mo, B and lime may also be needed. Nitrogen is the primary limitation for grasses. In grass/legume systems, the legume supplies nitrogen to the grass, but rarely enough for the grass to reach maximum yield. In some localities there is potential for increasing animal production by supplying Co and Na directly to animals, as these elements can be deficient for animals but not for plants.

4.3 Improved species

The need for new forage species is obvious; native and naturalized species usually lack production capacity and nutritive value. Improved forage species have been selected for yield potential and nutritive value, but will frequently require amendments to soil fertility and some control of defoliation to express this potential. Since the main emphasis of this publication is on species^ some of the very large number of native or naturalized species and potentially useful foreign species have been listed in Annex 1, with an indication of the climatic zones to which they are best adapted. The importance of adequate nutrition and correct management in optimizing the use of these improved species is discussed in a series of reviews edited by Blair et al., (1986). The grasses and herbaceous legumes can be used in mixtures in grasslands and under plantation crops, or separately as forage crops. The tree and shrub legumes can be used in protein banks, in alley cropping, as hedges, shade trees or as single trees. In selecting species for forage production improvement, consideration should be given to particular adaptation requirements. For cut-and-carry systems, erect species such as Panicum maximum, Pennisetum purpureum, or Leucaena leucocephala have advantages over prostrate species such as Brachiaria spp. or Desmodium heterophyllum, which are better suited to grazing. Ability to tolerate shading is an important selection criterion for species under plantation crops.

5. Conclusion

Improved forage production is very important for South-East Asia in order to feed the increasing number of livestock. With increasing purchasing power of the population in the region and to cater for tourism, the demand for high quality meat and milk requires better quality forages. This demand can be met by small and large farms, provided that due consideration is given to the strong interactions between socio-economic conditions, management of the forage production system within the existing

171 farm system, and marketing. Concentrating on providing new species and neglecting the other factors would not lead to lasting results. Increased animal production on smallholdings can lead to higher incomes for poor farmers.

6. References

Blair,G.J., D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors), 1986. Forages in South-East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12,Canberra . 202 pp. Cooper,J.P., 1970. Potential production and energy conversion in temperate and tropical grass. Herbage Abstracts 40:1-15. FAO, 1987.Productio n yearbook.Foo d andAgricultura lOrganization , Rome. Johnson,R.W. & J.C.Tothill, 1985. Definition and broad geographic outline of savanna lands. In: J.C.Tothill & J.J.Mott (editors). Ecology and management of the world's savannas. Australian Academy of Science, Canberra, Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks. Kerridge,P.C, D.G.Edwards & P.W.G.Sale, 1986. Soil fertility constraints - amelioration and plant adaptation. In: G.J.Blair, D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors). Forages in South-East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12, Canberra, pp. 176-187. MclvorJ.G. & C.P.Chen, 1986. Tropical grasses: their domestication and role in animal feeding systems. In: G.J.Blair, D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors). Forages in South-East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12, Canberra, pp. 54-60. McWilliam,J.R., 1978. Response of pasture plants to temperature. In: J.R.Wilson (editor). Plant relations in pastures. CSIRO, Melbourne, pp. 17-34. Mehra,K.L. & Z.Fachrurozi, 1985. Indonesian economic plant resources: forage crops.Lembag a Biologi Nasional, Seri Sumber Daya Alam 117, LBN 31, Bogor. 61 pp. Niewolt,S., 1982. Climate and agricultural planning in Peninsular Malaysia. MARDI Publication, Serdang. 139 pp. Perkins,J., R.J.Petheram, R.Rachman & A.Semali, 1986. Introduction and management prospects for forages in South-East Asia and the South Pacific. In: G.J.Blair, D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors). Forages in South-East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12, Canberra, pp. 15-23. Ranjhan,S.K., 1986. Sources of feed for ruminant production in South-East Asia. In: G.J.Blair, D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors). Forages in South- East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12, Canberra, pp. 24-28. Remenyi,J.V . &J.R.McWilliam , 1986.Ruminan t production trends in South- East Asia and the South Pacific, and the need for forages. In: G.J.Blair, D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors). Forages in South-East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12, Canberra, pp. 1-6. Rika,I.K. 1986. Forages in plantation crops. In: G.J.Blair, D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors). Forages in South-East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12, Canberra, pp. 157-160.

172 Soedomo,R., P.M.Ginting & G.J.Blair, 1986. Non-leguminous trees and shrubs as forage for ruminants. In: G.J.Blair, D.A.Ivory & T.R.Evans (editors). Forages in South-East Asian and South Pacific agriculture. ACIAR Proceedings No. 12, Canberra, pp. 51-54. Soerjani,M. 1970. Alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.): pattern of growth as related to its problem of control. BIOTROP Bulletin 1. 80 pp. Troll,C. 1966. Seasonal climates of the earth. The seasonal course of natural phenomena in the different climatic zones of the earth. In: E.Rodenwaldt & H.J.Justaz (editors). World maps of climatology. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp. 19-28. Whyte,R.O., 1974.Grasse s and grasslands. In:UNESCO :Natura l resources of humid tropical Asia. UNESCO, Paris.

173 Annex 1. The main forage species for South-East Asia and their adaptation to the climatic zones as defined by Troll (1966).

Zone Forage species w iv7* IV, a. Native/naturalized grasses

Arundinaria pusilla + Axonopus compressus + Brachiaria distachya + Centotheca lappacea Chrysopogon aciculatus + Chrysopogon orientalis + Dichantium annulatum + Digitaria microbachne + Digitaria radicosa Echinochlo a colonum + Echinochloa crus-galli + Eragrostis tenella + Eragrostis unioloides Heteropogon contortus Imperata cylindrica Isachne globosa Ischaemum aristatum Ischaemum rugosum Leptochloa chinensis Microstegium ciliatum Ottochloa nodosa Panicum repens Paspalum conjugatum Pennisetum macrostachyum Pennisetum polystachyum Sporobolus diander Themeda triandra Thysanolaena maxima Zoysia matre ll a b. Selected grasses

Andropogon gayanus + + Brachiaria brizantha + + Brachiaria decumbens + + Brachiaria dictyoneura + + Brachiaria humidicola + + Brachiaria miliiformis + + Brachiaria mutica + + Brachiaria ruziziensi s + + Cenchrus cilia ri s + Chloris gayana + + Cynodon dactylon + + + Cynodon nemfluensis + + Digitaria decumbens + + + Digitaria setivalva + + Panicum maximum + + P.maximum var.trichoglume + Paspalum dilatatum + Paspalum plicatulum + + + Pennisetum americanum + + Pennisetum clandestinum

Species adapted to zone IV- areals o usually adapted to high altitudes inth ewe ttropics . 174 Annex 1. Continued.

Zone Forage species v1&v2 IV * IV .V3. 4 Pennisetum purpureum + + - - Saccharum officinarum + + + - Setaria sphacelata + + + - Sorghum spp. (perennial) - - - + Sorghum sudanense + + + + Tripsacum laxum + - - - Urochloa mosambicensis - + - + Zea mays + + + - c. Shrub legumes Albizia lebbek - + - + Calliandra calothyrsus + - - Codariocalyx gyroides - + + Flemingia macrophylla + - - Gliricidia sepium + - - Leucaena leucocephala + + + + Sesbania grandiflor a + - - Sesbania sesban + - - d. Herbaceous legumes Aeschynomene americana + - + Aeschynomene falcata - - + + Alysicarpus vaginalis + + - Astralagus spp. + + - Calopogonium mucunoides + + - Cassia rotundifolia - + - + Centrosema acutifolia + + - Centrosema macrocarpum + + - Centrosema pascuorum - + - Centrosema pubescens + + - Clitoria ternatea - + - Desmodium heterocarpum + + + Desmodium heterophyllum + + - Desmodium ovalifolium + + + Desmodium trifloru m + - - Desmodium uncinatu m + Lablab purpureus + + + + Lotononis bainesii - - + Macroptilium atropurpureum - + + + Macroptilium lathyroides + + + Macrotyloma axillare - + + + Medicago sativa - - + + Mimosa pudica + - - Neonotonia wightii - - + Pueraria phaseoloides + + - Stylosanthes capitata + + - Stylosanthes hamata cv.Verano - + - + Stylosanthes humilis - + - + Stylosanthes guianensis + + + + Stylosanthes macrocephala + - - Stylosanthes scabra - + - + Trifolium repens - - + Trifolium semipilosum - - + Vigna parken' - - + Vigna unguiculata + + - +

175 Discussion

E.B.Hidajat: Since a large amount of information is needed to complete PROSEA's work on fruits and nuts, the speaker has asked for available expertise. I suggest that a list of plants for which knowledge on phenology is needed be distributed to botanists or collaborators in countries where those plants are grown or grow naturally. E.Verheij: This is a splendid suggestion. Copies of the provisional list of taxa for which the editors of the volume seek papers will be given to all participants in the symposium, with the request to pass the list on to colleagues in their home countries.

O.Satjapradja. Bamboo was once an important raw material for the pulp and paper industry in Indonesia. Now it has been replaced by wood species (Pinus spp., etc.). What is the reason? E.A.Widjaja. Bamboo as pulp and paper raw material has been replaced by wood (e.g. in Goa) because the cost of cutting down the spiny bamboo (Bambusa bambos) is very high. That is why a study on management systems (how to cut that spiny bamboo?) should be carried out. In India and China, the cutting system has been studied and usually paths are made in the plantations to make cutting easier. In India, Dendrocalamus strictus is also used for the pulp and paper industry.

G.Tjitrosoeporno: I do not find Rhizophora and Areca catechu under the tannin-producing plants. Are these overlooked or considered not important enough? N.R.de Graaf: Both species mentioned have their primary use in other commodity groups. For Rhizophora this was a rather recent change, as traditionally it was indeed placed under the tannin-producing species.

Pei Sheng-ji: Will the rattans that are traditionally cultivated by indigenous people in the area also be included in the volume on rattans? The traditional uses of rattans should also be mentioned and not only the vernacular names. J.Dransfield: As far as information is available, all 'useful' species will be included. The treatments will follow the general framework (see: 'A selection'), including all relevant subjects. Information based on local names only is often unreliable, because of uncertainty about the identity of the species concerned.

L.J.G.van der Maesen: Is there any progress regarding vegetative propagation of nutmeg? E.A.Widjaja. Studies are being done on vegetative propagation of nutmeg, but so far without success.

M.Flach: In Indonesia most clove is used in 'kretek'. Would the clove not be better grouped in the commodity group 'Stimulant plants' (as a plant used for smoking) instead of in 'Spices'? E.A.Widjaja. Yes, cloves are mainly used in cigarettes in Indonesia. On a global scale, however, inclusion in the 'Spices' seems more appropriate.

176 T.Silitonga: Could you say more about Setaria grass and especially on the effect of its calcium oxalate content on animals? My second question concerns Gliricidia. In Indonesia, due to insect problems in Leucaena, Gliricidia is preferred now. Do you have any experience with Gliricidia ? L.'t Mannetje: The remedy for oxalate poisoning of animals eating Setaria grass is to give other feed as well. The problem with Leucaena will probably be only temporary. Nevertheless, using several species as fodder crops is always preferable.

177 Country Reports and Documentation System

179

Plant Resources and Scientific Infrastructure in Indonesia

S.Kadarsan , H.Sutarno & S.Danimihardja

Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 18, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

PROSEA Country Office Indonesia, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

1. Introduction

Indonesia is one of the countries in South-East Asia whose economy largely depends upon agriculture. Realizing that plant resources have been and will remain important elements of the country's economic structure, information available on those resources has been widely utilized in determining policies at national as well as regional levels, including the institutional structuring of agriculture and related fields. Nonetheless, a great deal of information on the plant resources is still stored in numerous and scattered scientific publications, reports or othef types of documents awaiting to be unravelled further for various uses. In line with the PROSEA objectives, the Indonesian Country Office has scanned periodicals, serials, and proceedings of scientific meetings, in order to record in a computerized data base the available information on the 'who, how and where' of dealings with the plant resources in the country. The work carried out since August 1988 is presented hereafter.

2. Plant Resources in Indonesia

It is widely recognized that Indonesia is located in the centre of diversity of some important crops. If action is not being taken to maintain the wealth of our forests, genetic erosion may occur, resulting in the disappearance of wild relatives of the crops. Consequently, any attempts to improve crops through breeding would be seriously handicapped in the future by the absence of adequate sources of wild materials. About 30,000 species of plants are believed to be found in Indonesia alone. A large number of them still occur wild in the forests or other natural habitats. About 3,000 - 3,500 species have been recognized as possessing various actual of potential usages (Heyne, 1927, translated into Bahasa Indonesia, 1987). PROSEA has grouped them into 22 commodity groups. The number of species in each commodity group is presented in Table 1. The largest commodity groups are the 'Timber trees' with 803 species, and the 'Medicinal/narcotic/poisonous plants' with 548 species. Many tropical plants are known to have originated in this country. Indonesia possesses a number of species which are absent or rare in Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand, e.g. Durio dulcis and

181 D.grandif lorus for fruits, Eusideroxylon zwageri for timber and Mucuna bennetti for ornamental usage. On the other hand, many species are widely distributed in the South-East Asian region, e.g. the tropical fruits Aegle marmelos, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Averrhoa bilimbi, A.carambola, Citrus aurantium, C.grandis, C.hystrix, C.medica, C.nobilis, Diospyros embryopteris, Durio zibethinus, Flacourtia indica, F.inermis, Garcinia mangostana, Lansium domesticum, Limonia acidissima, Mangifera foetida, M.indica, Manilkara kauki, Musa acuminata, Nephelium lappaceum, Persea americana, Phyllanthus acidus, Psidium guajava, Spondias dulcis, and Syzygium aqueum (Sastrapradja, 1975).

Table 1. Number of plant species used in Indonesia arranged according to the PROSEA commodity groups.

Number Commodity group of species A. Cereals 13 B. Starch/sugar/alcohol/acid-producing plants 40 C. Pulses 18 D. Vegetable oils andfat s 39 E. Edible fruits andnut s 305 F. Vegetables 173 G. Spices andcondiment s 64 H. Essential oilplant s 19 I. Plants forbeverages/chewing/smokin g 45 J. Medicinal/narcotic/poisonous plants 548 K. Timber trees 803 L. Fibre plants/plants used forpacking/thatching/wickerwor k 181 M. Feed plants 262 N.Dy ean dtannin-producin g plants 42 0. Rattans 118 P. Bamboos 32 Q. Plants producing exudates/aromatic woods 95 R. Auxiliary plants inagricultur e 140 S. Ornamentals/hedges/wayside trees 147 T. Fuel plants 22 U. Lower plants 156 V. Other plants 11

Total 3,273

3. Scientific Infrastructure

Research on the plant resources, performed by universities and research institutions located in various parts of the country, has contributed much to our present knowledge. Indonesia's leading institutions of higher learning are the Bandung Institute of Technology, Bogor Agricultural University, Brawijaya University (Malang), Gajah Mada University (Yogyakarta), and Pajajaran University (Bandung). Basic research is carried out at the Research and Development Centre for Biology (LIPI) andth e Regional Centre for Tropical Biology (SEAMEO-BIOTROP), both located in Bogor. Applied research is conducted by various research institutions of the Ministries of Agriculture and Forestry. They comprise specialized institutions dealing with food crops, spices and medicinal plants, estate 182 crops, horticultural products and forest products. TheInstitut e for Research andDevelopmen t of Agro-Based Industry and the chemistry departments of several universities are actively carrying out research on agricultural products for industry. Sixty institutions publish 95 periodicals, which can be grouped according to the area of activities (Table 2).

Table 2. Number of institutions and periodicals.

Area of activities Institutions Peri odicals Basic research 22 31 Applied research 29 35 Extension services 9 29 Total 60 95

The number of researchers dealing with plant resources in various fields of science is presented in Table 3 (LIPI & Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1981/82).

4. PROSEA Project Organization in Indonesia

Under theagreemen t signed between Wageningen Agricultural Universi ty and the Indonesian Institute of Sciences, during its preparatory phase (1987-1990) the PROSEA project is being supervised by a Bilateral Steering Committee. Two members of this policy-making body are from the Nether lands Steering Committee and the other two are from the Indonesian Steering Committee. The latter is made up of representatives from different sectors, i.e. Agriculture, Forestry, Education, Research and Technology, and the National Committee for Germplasm. The Country Office, which was formerly incorporated in the PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia, recently became a separate unit to continue the documentation work and perform other activities for the benefit of the PROSEA project. It is envisaged that the translation of the PROSEA handbook into the national language will become part of the publication policy. The copyrights of all PROSEA publications, however, should be taken up by the Multilateral Steering Committee and agreed upon by all cooperating parties.

5. Progress at the PROSEA Country Office Indonesia

The PROSEA Country Office Indonesia has carried out documentation work since August 1988. Of the 3 data bases to be established, i.e. on literature (PREPHASE), on institutions (ORGANYM) and researchers (PERSONYM), the PREPHASE data base was given priority. Literature data are obtained from periodicals, serials and proceedings of scientific meetings, which are published in Indonesia. The different steps for searching and recording data for the PREPHASE data base are as follows: (1) all journals/serials/periodicals/proceedings of scientific meetings published since 1928, have been listed, (2) each

183 Table 3. Number of researchers dealing with plant resources in Indonesia.

Researchers Field of specializatio n Number %

Basic biology 11 2.5 Botany 31 7.1 Ecology 10 2.3 Plant physiology 10 2.3 Phytochemistry 8 1.8 Biotechnology 6 1.4 Microbiology 12 2.7 Plant breeding : 21 4.8 Animal husbandry (forage crops) 3 0.2 Phytopathology 46 10.5 Genetics 1 0.1 Plant taxonomy 8 1.8 Agronomy 220 50.1 Agricultural technology 52 11.8

Total 439 100.0

publication is scanned systematically for articles of interest to PROSEA , (3) the required information is entered on the standard PREPHASE input- sheets; species names not listed in the 'Basic list of species' are given separate attention, (4) data are entered in the electronic data base, and (5) batches of records are sent to the Regional Office South-East Asia for final editing. In accordance with the PROSEA publication schedule,emphasi s was put on the priority commodity groups. These are the 'Fruits and nuts', 'Vegetables', 'Dyes and tannins', 'Forage plants', 'Bamboos' and 'Rattans'. So far, 1,528 records have been obtained by screening 82journal s and serials and 13 proceedings of scientific meetings. The oldest data were obtained from a 1929 publication and the most up-to-date ones from publications as recent as 1988. Each data base record refers to one or more commodity groups. Table 4 presents the distribution of the records over the commodity groups. So far, no less than 350 species names that do not occur in the 'Basic list of species' have been encountered. Some of them are surely synonyms of names listed in the 'Basic list', but others are new additions. Future plans (June 1989 - December 1990) in documentation work include the continuation of work carried out so far and the training of more documentation workers.

6. References

Heyne.K., 1987. Tumbuhan berguna Indonesia. Vol.4, pp. 1853-2521. Yayasan Wana Jaya, Jakarta. Translation of 1927 Dutch edition. LIPI &Departeme n Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1981/82.Direktor i Pejabat Fungsional Peneliti Departemen/Lembaga Pemerintah Non Departemen, Keadaan 31-3-1981. Proyek Penelitian Kesegaran Jasmani dan Rekreasi, 184 Jakarta. 189 pp. Sastrapradja,S., 1975. Tropical fruit germplasm in South-East Asia. In: J.T.Williams, C.H.Lamoureux & N.Wulijarni-Soetjipto (editors). South- East Asian plant genetic resources. IPBGR/BIOTROP/LIPI, Bogor.pp .33 - 46.

Table 4. Distribution of 1,528 literature records over the PROSEA commodity groups.

Commodity group Number*

A. Cereals 76 B. Starch/sugar/alcohol/acid-producing plants 176 C. Pulses 96 D. Vegetable oils and fats 135 E. Edible fruits and nuts 287 F. Vegetables 199 G. Spices and condiments 138 H. Essential oil plants 51 I.Plant s for beverages/chewing/smoking 105 J. Medicinal/narcotic/poisonous plants 251 K. Timber trees 234 L. Fibre plants/plants used for packing/thatching/wickerwork 111 M. Feed plants 70 N. Dye and tannin-producing plants 69 0. Rattans 34 P. Bamboos 27 Q. Plants producing exudates/aromatic woods 10 R. Auxiliary plants in agriculture 124 S. Ornamentals/hedges/wayside trees 179 T. Fuel plants 26 U. Lower plants 53 V. Other plants 17

Total 2,564

* Number of times a commodity group is referred to.

185 Country Report Malaysia

Idris Mohd.Said

PROSEA Country Office Malaysia, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1. Introduction

PROSEA Malaysiao fficiall ycommence d on November 1,1988, follow ing the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding between Wageningen Agricultural University and the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). A Country Office for Malaysia has been established at FRIM since then. Initially, FRIM offered the services of one of its Research Officers to start the PROSEA project, but a full-time Country Officer has recently been recruited. Documentation work only began in February 1989.

2. Plant Resources of Malaysia

The total land area of Malaysia is 330,000 km , divided over Peninsular Malaysia (138,000 km2) and East Malaysia (192,000 km2). The total number of species for Peninsular Malaysia is estimated at about 8,000-9,000 species of flowering plants (Ridley, 1922-1925; Keng, 1969; Jacobs, 1974), representing about 3% of the world flora (Keng, 1969). In addition, there are about 500 species of ferns occurring in Peninsular Malaysia (Holttum, 1954). For East Malaysia (States of Sabah and Sarawak), located in the northern part of Borneo, the total number of species is presumed to be less than 10,000. This figure is based on the estimated total number of species for the whole of Borneo, which is just over 10,000 (Merrill, 1921). With an estimated 40% specific endemism for Borneo (Merrill, 1921), and an estimated 50% specific endemism for Peninsular Malaysia (based on Ridley, 1922-1925), and overlapping of taxa (unknown at present) between Peninsular Malaysia and East Malaysia, it is estimated that the total number of species in Malaysia as a whole is close to 10,000. Based on Burkill (1935), approximately 3,700 Peninsular Malaysian species are of use to man, representing nearly half of the species listed in PROSEA's 'Basic list of species' version 1. It is assumed that a similar number of species are of use to man in East Malaysia. Again taking into account species endemism and overlapping of taxa, the number of species which are of use to man should amount to about 5,000 species or more. The number of useful species is presumably slightly higher, considering the number of species of various commodity groups introduced in more recent years. The distribution of species over the various commodity groups is still largely unknown. The estimated number of species for some of the commodity groups are presented in Table 1. It can be seen that for just 6 of the commodity groups almost 2,500

186 species are already represented, as compared with 5,000 species which PROSEA aims to cover in its handbook. In 'Medicinal plants' alone, 1,400 species (from 370 genera and 130 families) have been recorded. Although here too there is overlapping between commodity groups, these figures support the present claim that the total number of species useful to man is presumably well over 5,000 in Malaysia.

Table 1.Distributio n ofMalaysia n species over 6 commodity groups.

Commodity group Number ofs pecies Source ofdat a Timber 677 lee.Y.H.& K.M.H o (1975) Medicinal plants 1,400 Latiff,A. (pers. comm.) Vegetables 60 Salma Idris (pers. comm.) Fruits (semi-cult ivated) 118 SaIm a Idris (pers. comm.) Rattans* 104 Dransfield.J. (1979) Bamboos 70 FRIM, pamphlet * Peninsular Malaysia only The estimated total number of species for the Malesian region is somewhere between 25,000 to 30,000 species (Van Steenis, 1948), and it is estimated that possibly about half of the total flora occurs in Malaysia alone.

3. Scientific Infrastructure in Malaysia

Malaysia is a rapidly developing country. As a result of its post- independence policies it is currently on course to becoming one of the Newly Industrialized Countries (NIC). The scientific infrastructure is excellent for an Asian nation. There are 7 universities, mostly centred within or near Kuala Lumpur, the capital city, and with branches in various regions of the country. Research on plant resources is carried out in at least 4 universities, i.e. University of Malaya (UM), National University Malaysia (UKM), University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM) and Science University Malaysia (USM). Various commodity groups, including those of agricultural produce, medicinal plants and essential oil plants are being covered. Basic research on plant resources is also conducted at these universities. There are at least 5 major research institutes associated with research on plant resources. These institutes are Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM). Palm Oil Research Institute Malaysia (PORIM), Rubber Research Institute Malaysia (RRIM) and Institute for Medical Research (IMR). As their names indicate, each of these institutes is responsible for research on specific commodity groups. Apart from the universities and research institutes, there are Agricultural Departments in all states, dealing mainly with research on major agricultural crops. These departments are also responsible for monitoring the annual production of various agricultural commodities at the national level, as well as their prices. There are also Forestry Departments in all states, which are mainly concerned with forest management and the timber industry. 187 There are several publications on plant resources in Malaysia. The major ones include 'The Malaysian Agricultural Journal' (Agricultural Division), 'MARDI Research Journal', 'Pertanika' (UPM),'Sain s Malaysiana' (UKM), 'Malayan Nature Journal' (Malayan Nature Society), 'Journal of Tropical Science' (FRIM), 'Malayan Forester' (Forest Department of Malaysia), TMR Research Bulletin', 'Journal of Natural Rubber Research' (RRIM), 'Planters Bulletin' (RRIM) and a score of others. The majority of these research journals are published in English, and they are often subscribed to by foreign libraries. The scientific community in Malaysia is well served by an efficient library network. There are 110 libraries (major libraries including their branches) all over Malaysia (National Library, 1987). The major libraries subscribe to most of the important international scientific journals. It is estimated that over 400 scientific journals dealing with plant resources are available in Malaysian libraries. A considerable number of staff are involved in ongoing research on plant resources in the various institutes, but the exact number in this field for the whole country is unknown at present.

4. PROSEA Malaysia Project Organization

The Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) is the organizing institution for PROSEA Malaysia. The PROSEA Country Office Malaysia is situated on its premises (Biology Building) at Kepong, about 10 kilometres north of Kuala Lumpur. PROSEA Malaysia is currently governed by a PROSEA National Committee, on which 15governmenta l organizations are represented, headed by the Director-General of FRIM (Annex 1). The National Committee, which meets regularly (3 to 4 times each year), monitors the progress of the project, whilst at the same time, the member organizations are actively involved in the documentation work. The project is led by a national Project leader, temporarily the Deputy Director-General of FRIM. The Country Office is manned by a Research Officer (who also acts as Project Coordinator) and a Research Assistant, and is equipped with a computer system acquired with PROSEA funds.

5. Activities of the PROSEA Country Office Malaysia

Due to initial technical difficulties, documentation only began in February 1989. It is most systematic to scan data journal by journal, and it was decided to start with The Malaysian Agricultural Journal. Using the first batch of 70 literature records, the proper functioning of the system and communication with the Regional Data Bank inBogo rar ecurrentl y being tested out. Documentation work is currently concentrating on the CATALOG (PREPHASE) data base (literature). At the same time, the Country Office has been requesting the member organizations of the PROSEA National Committee to complete the ORGANYM (research organizations) and PERSONYM (scientists) data base forms. Response from these organizations has been good. The Country Office is gathering more data before actually

188 entering them in the ORGANYM and PERSONYM data bases. At this stage, improvements to the BASELIST data base (species list) are not immediately apparent. The main problem will chiefly be nomenclatural changes and uncertainties. It is not uncommon to find journal articles providing only the vernacular or common names. Undoubtedly, there are cases where species names do not appear in BASELIST, but no further conclusion is drawn here. On the whole, improvements to the BASELIST data base are expected to be necessary. The staffing of the Country Office is not yet settled at present, but there are plans to increase personnel for PROSEA in the future. PROSEA Malaysia is confident that the documentation work can be completed in the June 1989 - December 1990 period, in all 3 data bases. Qualified personnel will be recruited to speed up the documentation work.

6. Implementation Phase 1991-1995

Project organization for PROSEA Malaysia as a whole will not undergo further changes. The present arrangement in which the PROSEA National Committee is the governing body for the project will remain for the Implementation Phase. Since PROSEA Malaysia is confident of completing the documentation work by December 1990, it is hoped that more effort will be spent on the actualwritin g of the PROSEA handbook. PROSEA Malaysia would like topla y the leading role in the Implementation Phase, by becoming the organizing agency for Malaysian co-authors. This is very much in line with PROSEA's policy of inviting local scientists as co-authors for the various commodity group volumes of the PROSEA handbook. The success of PROSEA is a prime concern for FRIM, and for this reason, FRIM will call on the support of the Malaysian government to finance the project where necessary. Documentation work will continue in the Implementation Phase, and possibly beyond 1995. It should at least benefit Malaysian interests, if not PROSEA. The documentation work should be made available to Malaysian scientists, and FRIM suggests that the data bank somehow be published.

7. Conclusion

The PROSEA Project is relevant in the context of Malaysia's endeavour to promote scientific productivity by documenting all the scientific information, especially on plant resources, to provide a basis for future research. Exchange of vital scientific information between South-East Asian nationsca nb eeffectivel y accomplished through PROSEA's Network of Country Offices. The project is beneficial to Malaysia, in terms of training of local co-authors, and in providing a centralized scientific information system.

8. References

BurkillJ.H., 1935. A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Vol.1-2 . Crown Agents for the Colonies, London. 2402 pp.

189 (slightly altered reprint, 1966. Ministry of Agriculture and Co operatives, Kuala Lumpur. 2444 pp.). Dransfield,J., 1979. A manual of the rattans of the Malay Peninsula. Forest Department, Ministry of Primary Industries, Malaysia. FRIM (Forest Research Institute Malaysia). Jenis-jenis buluh yang berpotensi untuk kegunaan komersial. (pamphlet). Holttum,R.E., 1954. Flora of Malaya. Vol.2. Ferns. Government Printing Office, Singapore. 627 pp. Jacobs,M., 1974. Botanical panorama of the Malesian Archipelago. Natural resources of humid tropical Asia. Natural Research UNESCO 12. Keng,H., 1969. Orders and families of Malayan seedplants. Singapore University Press. 437 pp. Lee,Y.H. & K.M.Ho, 1975. Malaysian timber for estate use. Malaysian Forester 38(4):247-259. Merrill,E.D., 1921.A bibliographic enumeration of Bornean plants. Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Singapore, Special Number. 637 pp. National Library, 1987. Panduan kekukuhan koleksi perpustakaan. Kuala Lumpur. Ridley,H.N., 1922-1925. Flora of Malaya. Vol.1-5. L.Reeve, London. Steenis,C.G.G.J.van, 1948. Introduction. Flora Malesiana I, 4(1):xi-xii .

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my thanks to Dr. A.Latiff of the Department of Botany,Nationa lUniversit y Malaysia(UKM ) for providingdat ao n medicinal plants, to Mrs. Salma Idris, of the Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) for providing data on fruits and vegetables, and to Ms. L.Tipot for presenting this paper in my absence.

190 Annex 1. Member Organizations of the PROSEA National Committee Malaysia.

1. Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM): Organizing Agency - Dr. Salleh Mohd. Nor (Chairman) - Idris M. Said (Coordinator/Country Officer ad interim) - Lesmy Tipot (Country Officer) 2. Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) - Dr. Ahmad Zammam Mohamed/Dr. N.T.Arasu 3. Science University Malaysia (USM) - Dr. Leong Yuch Kwong 4. Agricultural Department Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur - M.Sivanasar 5. Forestry Department, Sabah - Rahim Sulaiman 6. Agricultural Department, Sabah - Dr. E.B.Tay 7. Forestry Department, Sarawak - Lee Hua Seng 8. Agricultural Department, Sarawak - Dr. Rita Manurung 9. Forestry Department Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur - Mohamed Ismail 10. Game and Wildlife Department, Kuala Lumpur / - Rahim Ahmad 11. Rubber Research Institute (RRIM) - Dr. Mohd. Noor A.Ghani 12. Palm Oil Research Institute Malaysia (PORIM) - Dr. Zin Zawawi Zakaria/Dr. N.Rajanaidu 13. University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM) - Prof. H.F.Chin/Mohd. Basri Hamzah 14. University of Malaya (UM) - Dr. Chin See Chung 15. National University Malaysia (UKM) - Prof. Zakri A.Hamid/Dr. A.Latiff Mohamad

191 Plant Resources of Papua New Guinea

R.J.Johns

PROSEA Country Office Papua New Guinea, University of Technology, Private Mail Bag, Lae, Papua New Guinea

1. Introduction

Papua New Guinea, together with Irian Jaya (Indonesia) and the Solomon Islands, forms a biogeographical region commonly known as Papuasia, The flora of the region is a unique admixture of elements from Australasia, such as Nothofagus, the Proteaceae and Casuarina, together with Malesian elements such as Castanopsis, Lithocarpus, Rhododendron and the genera of the Dipterocarpaceae such as Anisoptera, Hopea and Vatica. These elements are mixed with widespread tropical genera. Despite extensive research (van Balgooy, 1976) much work is required on the relationships and origins of the flora. Recent studies on the Eocene Australian flora indicates that the Gondwanic element in the Papuasian flora is perhaps of greater significance than previously supposed. Many genera that are at present not represented in the Australian flora probably became extinct due to the climatic fluctuations on the Island Continent and remain now only in Papuasia. Listing the endemic elements in the flora helps understand the unique contribution that Papuasia makes to the plant resources of South-East Asia. Although the Papuasian region has no endemic families and only 82 endemic genera are at present recognized (Johns, unpubl.) there is a very high degree of endemism at the species level in many families. For example, the percentage of endemic species in the genus Rhododendron exceeds 90%. Many of these species are of potential value as horticultural plants but have only comparatively recently been introduced into cultivation. The varieties and cultivars of Impatiens schlechten, the New Guinean balsams, have only recently been introduced into cultivation (1972-1974) but already command sales in Europe and North America reportedly in excess of US$ 5 million. Timber trees such as Terminalia brassii Exell. are ideally suited for reforestation in very wet and swampy sites in the lowland tropics (Johns & Siaguru, 1989). A brief survey will be given in this paper of the major groups of plants in the region, emphasizing their potential value to the region in particular and to the tropics and subtropics generally. Major areas for research are identified and the requirements for future study outlined.

2. Commodity Groups

2.1 Commercial Trees

Papuasia is potentially a rich source of tree species with potential

192 for plantation establishment. These will, however, require field trials to determine their suitability for commercial plantations. Over 2,000 species of trees exist in the region and few of these have been studied in detail. At present some 120 genera of trees are used in the trade for timber exports and these tend to have been studied in greater detail. Field keys (Johns, 1978; van Royen, undated) and manuals (Havel, 1975; Johns, 1976, 1983) are available for tree identification but these have been developed mainly for use in instruction of trained professionals. At present a project has been submitted for partial funding to AIDAB for the preparation (in English and Pidgin) of a Guide to the major commercial and potentially commercial species of trees. This Guide will be aimed for use at the village level and will be prepared in a joint project of the Forest Research Institute and the Forestry Department at the University of Technology in Lae. Much research is required on the lesser- known species of trees in the rainforest (Tisseverasinghe, 1981). Ecological studies on even the major commercial species are limited. Ash (1988) has recently studied the Nothofagus forests, Enright (1978) the Araucaria forests, particularly in the Bulolo Valley, and Johns (1987a, 1987b) the Anisoptera and Hopea forests.

2.2 Minor Forest Products

2.2.1 Rattans ,

With the introduction of aba n from 1989b yth eIndonesia n Government on the export of unprocessed rattans, the world market for rattan cane will have to switch its source of supply from that country to Papuasia, more particularly Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. In consequence, the cane resources of both these countries will come under increasing pressure from importing countriessuc ha sTaiwa n and Hong Kong. In recognition of this the IDRC is funding a project in Papua New Guinea to study the rattan resources of the country. This study will, at first, concentrate on the taxonomy and properties of the major commercial or potentially commercial canes and will then continue into the assessment of the resource and experimentation on resource management, particularly resource replacement. Studies are progressing on the collection (Johns, in press) and the preparation of taxonomie descriptions of the species of rattans in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. Collaboration with the Forestry Department in the Solomon Islands is proposed. The University of Technology also has a staff member (Dr.E. Matcham) studying the tissue culture of rattans with the long-term objective of producing plants for cultivation.

2.2.2 Bamboos

Few studies have been made on the bamboos of Papuasia. Many species occur but few are utilized. Uses appear limited to the consumption of suckers as a food, the use of bamboo culms for carrying water and as a suitable container for cooking. Croft (1987) reports that torches are made of bamboo internodes filled with the resin of hoop {Araucaria hunsteinii).

193 2.2.3 Gums

Very little use of gums is made in Papuasia, although several genera exist which are widely used throughout Asia and Africa. As Croft (1987) noted, gums can be used as foods, in medicines and as glues. He lists the following genera: Acacia, Adenanthera, Bombax, Buchanania, Ceiba, Flindersia, Geijera, Heritiera, Lagerstroemia, Mangifera, Melia, Spondias, Terminalia, and Toona. Little traditional use is made of these in Papua New Guinea.

2.2.4 Resins

Four major groups of resins are used (Croft, 1987): copals (from Agathis and Araucaria); resin (from Pinus); dammars (from Anisoptera and Vatica), and lacquers from the Anacardiaceae {Gluta and Rhus). Both dammar and copal have been produced commercially in Papua New Guinea and large stands of Agathis along the Sepik and Vatica stands on Sudest Island have provided a source of material for export. Libocedrus produces small quantities of resin, used locally. Anisoptera dammar is eaten as a chewing gum along parts of the Morobe Coast.

2.2.5 Latex

The milky exudate of Palaquium yields a rubber-like compound (Croft, 1987) that was highly valued until replaced by plastics. Several expeditions, notably those of Lauterbach and Schlechter, were funded to identify and locate possible sources of 'gutta-percha' (Schlechter, 1903).

2.2.6 Aromatic Oils

Oils, particularly from Cinnamomum, were used traditionally for their medicinal properties. Several Lauraceae are listed by Croft (1987) as having their bark harvested as a source of essential oils and spice-like substances. The major genera are Cryptocarya, extensively harvested in Irian Jaya for export (Zieck, 1973), and Cinnamomum which is often found for sale in the native markets. Sandalwood, Santalum macgregorii (Santalaceae), is exported to China in large quantities from the Central Province for use in the production of perfumes and joss-sticks.

2.2.7 Drying Oils

Candle nut (Aleurites moluccana) produces seeds rich in oil (Croft, 1987). Zieck (1977) proposes that the high quality producing strains from Papua New Guinea offer a considerable potential for replacing linseed oil. Aleurites, a fast growing secondary species, could also be used to produce timber after production of seeds declines.

2.2.8 Tannins

Mangrove bark has been harvested in Papua New Guinea as asourc e of

194 tannin. In the early 1950's an experimental factory was established in the Gulf Province but this did not prove economically viable. Tannins can be extracted from Bruguiera and Rhizophora.

3. Horticultural Plants

A large number of families include plants of horticultural potential. The most obvious are: (1) the orchids which are represented in the Papuasian flora by in excess of 2,000 species, (2) the rhododendrons with some 160 species, (3) balsams with a considerable market already in temperate Europe and America, (4) palms with many potentially important commercial species, and (5) a wide variety of genera scattered through many families. The major areas where commercially important species occur are discussed below.

3.1 Orchids

The orchids of Papuasia form a very important and diverse part of the flora of the region. The largest genera, Bulbophyllum and Dendrobium, are each represented by over 600 species. Few detailed studies, however, exist on the orchid flora and funding is urgently required for a team of taxonomists to work on this family in the region. Millar (1976) produced a general book introducing the orchids of Papua New Guinea and Howcroft (1984) has produced the first in a projected 3-volume review of the orchid genera of Papuasia. Stocker (pers.comm.) has estimated that the commercial value of epiphytic orchids destroyed in logging operations, probably exceeds the value of the timber exported during these operations. Funding is urgently required for a detailed series of taxonomie studies on this family which has tremendous economic potential. Particularly appropriate would be tissue culture and export of the species from Papua New Guinea.

3.2 Palms

Papuasia is an important potential source of palms for cultivation as horticultural plants in addition to its importance as a source of rattan for cane furniture (particularly Calamus). Hay (19.84) reported some 31 genera of palms in the region. Many of these are desirable horticultural plants but detailed taxonomie work is required for most genera.

3.3 Begonias

Two genera, Begonia and Symbegonia, are reported from Papuasia with some 60 and 15 species respectively (Johns, in prep.). A large number are of commercial potential, particularly for their outstanding foliage. Little research has been done on this group for the last 40 years, essentially since the work by Merrill and Perry in 1943 (Johns, in prep.). A list of the species in Papuasia has been prepared but several species remain undescribed. Taxonomie work is urgently required and marketing of the species should be promoted in Papua New Guinea.

195 3.4 Rhododendrons

Papuasia is a major centre of recent speciation in the genus Rhododendron. Sleumer (1966) in 'Flora Malesiana' has provided a recent revision of the genus with additional species described by Stevens and Korres. It is the only horticultural genus of major commercial potential where an adequate taxonomie revision has been published in recent times. Detailed work is now required on the propagation and sale of the species with important commercial potential, particularly those plants with the most outstanding flowers, both from the point of view of colour and scent.

4. Medicinal Plants

Croft (1987) provides an excellent summary of previous reports on medicinal plants and their use in the region. This is extracted largely from the review of Powell (1976) and the studies of Holdsworth (1977). As noted by Croft (loc.cit.) this area of plant use is poorly researched despite the many papers on the subject. Various plants are prepared and used for the treatment of diseases and illness. People use heated leaves of Calophyllum inophyllum or Vatica russak which are applied to wounds to restrict blood flow; various plant parts (latex, leaves, powdered seeds or bark) are applied for treating sores; snake bites are treated by using the bark of Mangifera minor or the leaves of Timonius or Barringtonia.

5. Fruits and Nuts

Papuasia has proved an important source of fruits and nuts. The breadfruit probably originates from this region (Jarrett, 1959) and the area is also a major centre of diversity for coconuts. Many trees such as Pometia pinnata ('taun') have been carefully selected by local people. Canarium, Gnetum,Mangifera, Pandanus and Terminalia arefurthe r examples of the many species which are cultivated, or at least tended, to promote fruit production. Some species such as Canarium indicum and Terminalia kaernbachii have considerable economic potential, as possibly does oil extracted from Anisoptera thurifera \ax.polyandra. As yet we have only a superficial knowledge of the potential of these fruit and nut trees and a major function of oneo f the twoPROSE A Officers in PapuaNe wGuine a ist o study them in detail. The long period of human occupancy (in excess of 55,000 years with tools) and careful selection of planting material, has resulted in intense selection and a high variability in cultivated tree crops in traditional societies in Papuasia. Seeds of Corynocarpus cribbianus and Finschia chloroxantha are eaten. Nuts of Elaeocarpus, Omphalea gageana and Sloanea are edible (Croft, 1987). Seeds of Héritiera, Sterculia and some species of Macaranga and Pittosporum are also eaten. Castanopspermum australe (black bean) has edible seeds but interest in this species has recently been tied to its possible use in the treatment of AIDS. The fruits of Dracontomelon dao and some species of Garcinia are eaten. Extensive stands of Metroxylon sagu provide an important starchy

196 staple for populations in several areas in Papuasia. The origins of these sago stands need study as they could be anthropogenic, resulting from the removal of the swamp trees for building houses and for firewood.

6. Vegetables

As with fruit and nut crops, amajo r emphasis in the PROSEA Office in Papua New Guinea will be the investigation of traditional vegetables. In addition to the more classical crops such as taro, bananas, sugarcane, Gnetum leaves, and yams, Papuasia supports a wide variety of Amaranthus spp. and other vegetable crops such as 'pitpit' (Saccharum) and the leaves of Ficus dammaropsis and Flacourtia. The growing apices of many palm species are eaten. Around Morehead the locally occurring Licuala is quite rare near the village due to collection of apical meristems for consumption (Johns, unpubl.obs.).

6.1 Edible Fungi (Dr.F.Arentz)

Edible fungi form a small component of the traditional diet, and Shaw (1984) reviewed the published information on the species consumed in Papua New Guinea. One mushroom, Lentinus edodes (Shiitake), occurs widely on Fagaceae, and work is currently under way on the commercial production of this mushroom in the Southern Highlands (Arentz, 1985).Furthe r funding is being sought to expand this work in other parts of the country. Other edible mushrooms, such as Auricularia, Pleurotus and Volvariella, are common, and have good commercial potential. In the Western Highlands of PNG several species of Boletus and Russula have been used as hallucinogens (Shaw, 1984). It has been suggested (Shaw, 1984) that further work was required into the nature of the chemical substances which appear to promote temporary psychosis, and into the distribution and effects of these species in other parts of Papuasia.

7. Traditional Plants

The study of traditional plants is of importance to a wide variety of commodity groups. It is of interest to note the highly varied emphasis in traditional plant uses between different regions. Hide (1982), in a study in the Karimui area of the Simbu Province, identified some 300 species of plants. The largest group of plants identified as of traditional use were those which had fruits or seeds eaten by birds. This totalled 62 species, as against 31 species with edible fruits and leaves. This reflects the serious deficiency of protein in the diets of people in this region as they must identify potential sites for hunting birds for food. In addition to this group, many are used as rope, for house building, etc. In areas away from the centres of population the uses of plants tend to be confined to food and hunting. Near the village there is a greater variety of plant uses. Powell (1976) listed a large number of plants of traditional use but most of her article was based on the study of the Highlands of Papua New Guinea. In a brief study in the South Naru area of

197 the Madang Province it was observed that a large number of the plants used in the villages were widespread secondary species of the regenerating and secondary forests (Johns, unpubl.). Our knowledge of the plants used in the village is rudimentary in most of the regions of Papuasia and further studies could produce a wealth of material with potential, particularly for medicinal purposes. Croft (1987) notes that the fruits of Atuna racemosa are pulped, then used as a waterproof, adhesive caulking for canoes. Other genera are also used for this purpose: Euodia, Ficus, Glochidion and, on Kairuru island, Planchonia papuana. Exudates of Araucaria cunninghamii are used to attach stone clubs to their handles. Several exudates are used when preparing spears and arrows: Araucaria, Calöphyllum, Euodia, Euroschinus and Rhus. Many genera are used for traditional carvings. Perhaps the most important are Intsia and Pterocarpus and, in areas of Papua, Diospyros. The New Guinea walnut, Dracontomelon dao, and kerosine wood, Cordia subcordata, are also extensively used. Traditional 'ebony' carvings from the Tobriand Islands were evidently carved from Rhizophora which had been left in mangrove soils to blacken. The sticky exudates of several species are used for catching small birds. These include Artocarpus, Euodia, Evodiella, Ficus and Rhus. Canoes are constructed from a variety of large trees which include Artocarpus, Campnosperma, Canarium, Octomeles, Podocarpus, and Thespesia (Croft, 1987). 'Tapa' cloth is prepared mainly from the fibrous bark of Artocarpus altilis and Ficus, particularly F.robusta F.tr achy siphon and F.wassa. The leaves of Pandanus are used as raincoats and the bark of Libocedrus papuanus is stripped from the trees and used as a wide belt from which leaves of Cordyline are hung. Narcotics are used in several areas. Galbulimima bark contains large amounts of alkaloids and, when mixed with the leaves of an aroid (Homalotnena), it produces a violent hallucinatory frenzy followed by deep sleep (Hamilton, 1960). In the Lufa area the aril from the seeds of Myristica womersleyi is smoked because of its narcotic effects.

8. Conclusions

The Papuasian region offers a wealth of botanical material for investigation and research. It represents a major area of biological diversity in South-East Asia and has the potential to provide many plants for use in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The unique mixture of Gondwanic and Tropical elements, each with a high degree of local speciation, makes the study of the plant resources of the Papuasian region most important. The region is not just an extension of South-East Asia and Western Malesia, it is a unique biogeographical region with a major contribution to make to the plant resources of the tropics and subtropics. Development of the plant resources must, however, await the input of adequate funds for the taxonomie study of the major plant groups, and for testing the properties and uses so as to develop an export industry in plant materials. An important function of PROSEA must beth e provision of funds for the identification and development of these resources and for

198 the training of national staff to conduct the study of the plant resources. National institutions in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands do not have the resources necessary to conduct these studies and to train and employ the manpower necessary for their development.

9. References

Arentz,F., 1985. The cultivation of Shiitake mushroom in Papua New Guinea. Harvest ll(2):60-65. Ash,J., 1988. Nothofagus forests on Mt.Giluwe, New Guinea. New Zealand Journal of Botany 26:245-258. Balgooy,M. van, 1976. Phytogeography. In: K.Paijmans (editor). Papua New Guinea vegetation, pp. 1-22. CroftJ.R., 1987. The other products from the forest. Klinkii 3(3):35-52. Enright,N., 1978. The comparative ecology and population dynamics of Araucaria species in Papua New Guinea. Unpublished PhD Thesis. Australian National University, Canberra. Hamilton,!.., 1960. An experiment to observe the effects of substances called ereriba leaves and agara bark. PNG Science Society Transactions 1960:16-18. Havel,J.J., 1975. Forest botany. Part 2. Botanical taxonomy. Forestry College, Bulolo. PNG Department of Forests, Port Moresby. Hay,A.J., 1984. The Palmae. In: R.J.Johns & A.J.Hay. A guide to the Monocotyledons of Papua New Guinea, Part 3. Henty,E.E., 1980.Harmfu l plants in Papua New Guinea. Botany Bulletin No. 12. Division of Botany, Department of Forests, Lae. Hide,R.L., 1982. South Simbu: studies in demography, nutrition and subsistence. Research report, Simbu Land Use Project. Holdsworth,D.K., 1977.Medicina l plantso f Papua NewGuinea .Sout h Pacific Commission, Technical paper No. 175. Howcroft,N.H.S., 1984. The Orchidaceae (in part). In: R.J.Johns & A.J.Hay. A guide to the Monocotyledons of Papua New Guinea, Part 4. Jarrett,F.M., 1959. Studies in Artocarpus and allied genera. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 40:1-29. Johns,R.J., 1976. Common forest trees of Papua New Guinea. Parts 1t o 12. PNG Forestry College, Bulolo. Johns,R.J., 1978. A new approach to the construction of field keys for the identification of tropical trees. Australian Journal of Ecology 3:403- 409. Johns,R.J., 1983. Common forest trees of Papua New Guinea, Parts 1, 2, 3. Revised edition. Forestry Department, PNG University of Technology, Lae. Johns,R.J., 1987a. A provisional classification of the dipterocarp forests of Papua New Guinea. In:A.J.G.H.Kosterman s (editor). Proceedings of the Third Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps. UNESCO, MAB. Johns,R.J., 1987b. The natural regeneration of Anisoptera and Hopea in Papua New Guinea. In: A.J.G.H.Kostermans (editor). Proceedings of the Third Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps. UNESCO, MAB. Johns,R.J., (in press). A guide to the collection of Calamus (Palmae) in Papuasia. Forestry Department, PNG University of Technology, Lae.

199 Johns,R.J., (in prep.)- Flowering plants of Papuasia, Part 3. Caryophyllidae, Part 4.Dilleniidae .Forestr y Department, PNG University of Technology, Lae. Johns,R.J. & P.Siaguru, 1989. Terminalia brassii. In: E.Westphal & P.C.M.Jansen (editors). Plant resources of South-East Asia, a selection. PUDOC, Wageningen. Millar,A.N., 1976. The orchids of Papua New Guinea. Powell,J., 1976. Ethnobotany. In: K.Paijmans (editor). Papua New Guinea vegetation, pp. 106-183. Royen,P. van, (undated). Key to field characters. Unpublished report, Division of Botany, Department of Forests, PNG, Lae. Schlechter,R., 1903. Über die neue Guttapercha von Neuguinea. Tropenpflanzer 7:467-471. Shaw,D.E., 1984. Micro-organisms in Papua New Guinea. Department of Primary Industry, Research Bulletin No. 33. Sleumer,H., 1966.Ericaceae , 1.Rhododendron . Flora Malesiana I,6(4):474 - 668. Tisseverasinghe,A.E.K.T., 1981.Timbe r utilisation in the tropical lowland forests. Commonwealth Forest Review 60(3):197-206 . ZieckJ.F.U., 1973.Masso y bark in Papua New Guinea, including available information on Irian Jaya. Forest Products Research Centre, Technical Paper No. 1. Department of Forests, PNG, Lae. ZieckJ.F.U., 1977. Candlenut trees (Aleurites moluccana) near Morehead- Oriomo Plateau and the importance of candlenut oil production as a village industry for PNG in general. Forest Research Notes VII/166-310. PNG Office of Forests.

200 Country Report Philippines

N.C.Altoveros, B.P.del Rosario, A.L.Sanico & M.T.F.Santos

PROSEA Country Office Philippines, PCARRD, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines

1. Introduction

Over 8,000 plant species were listed by Merill (1926) to be present in the Philippines. Adding to Merrill's list the plant species listed by Coronel & Zuno( 1980) ,D eGuzma n & Fernando (1986) ,D eLaubenfel s (1978), Herrera et al. (1984) , Macabenta &Capin a (1984) ,Maduli d (1981), Moody et al. (1984), Pancho (1983a, 1983b), Price (1974), Vera Santos (1986a, 1986b), among many others, and considering that some of the species named may have been reduced in taxonomie rank, it is estimated that over 8,600 plant species are found in the Philippines (Table 1). Of this number, 6,673 are not listed in the PROSEA 'Basic list' Version 1. However, it is likely that some of the species not found in the 'Basic list' may be synonyms of species which do appear in the list. A total of 1,995 species reported in the Philippines are in the 'Basic list' (40% of the species in

Table 1. Estimate of total number ofp lant species inth e Ph ilippines, classified according tocommod i ityg roups.

Commodity group Number of species A. Cereals 18 B. Starch/sugar/alcohol/acids 35 C. Pulses 15 D. Vegetable oils andfat s 17 E. Edible fruits andnut s 181 F. Vegetables 123 G. Spices andcondiment s 32 H. Essential oilplant s 19 I. Beverages/chewing/smoking 24 J. Medicinal/narcotic/poisonous plants 457 K. Timber trees 367 L. Fibre plants/packing/thatching/wickerwork 133 M. Feed plants 150 N. Dyes andtannin s 43 0. Rattans 57 P. Bamboos 33 Q. Valuable exudates 33 R. Auxiliary plants 67 S. Ornamentals/hedges/wayside trees 151 T. Fuel plants 11 U. Lower plants 25 V. Other plants 4 Sub-total 1,99 5 Species noti n 'Basic list' Version1 6 ,673 Total 8 ,668

201 Table 2. Plant species actually utilized in the Philippines classified according to commodity groups, number of species utilized,an d number ofspecie s noti nth ePROSE A 'Basic list'.

Number of Spec ies species not in Commodity group utilized 'Basic list'

A. Cereals 12 . B. Starch/sugar/alcohol/acids 31 1 C. Pulses 13 - D. Vegetable oils andfat s 14 - E. Edible fruits andnut s 250 84 F. Vegetables 103 17 G. Spices andcondiment s 28 1 H. Essential oilplant s 16 1 I. Beverages/chewing/smoking 21 6 J. Medicinal/narcotic/poisonous plants 291 40 K. Timber trees 355 88 L. Fibre plants/packing/thatching/wickerwork 121 8 M. Feed plants 89 36 N. Dyes andtannin s 32 - 0. Rattans 74 24 P. Bamboos 38 7 Q. Valuable exudates 28 2 R. Auxiliary plants 33 3 S. Ornamentals/hedges/wayside trees 104 23 T. Fuel plants 8 - U. Lower plants 25 - V. Other plants 2 • Total 1,688 341

the 'Basic list'). When classified according to commodity groups, 7 categories ('Edible fruits and nuts', 'Vegetables', 'Medicinal/narcotic/ poisonous plants', 'Timber trees', 'Plants used for fibre/packing/ thatching/wickerwork', 'Feed plants', and 'Ornamentals') account for 78% of the total. Brown (1941-1943, reprint 1951-1957) enumerated over 1,200 plant species actually utilized in the Philippines. When the useful species obtained from the PREPHASE data base are added, a total of 1,688 species are of economic use in the country (Table 2). Of this estimate, 341 species are not found in the 'Basic list'. When classified according to commodity groups, 6 categories ('Timber trees', 'Medicinal/ narcotic/poisonous plants', 'Plants used for fibre/packing/thatching/ wickerwork', 'Vegetables', and 'Ornamentals/hedges/wayside trees') account for 73% of the total. There are 307 species present in the Philippines and listed in the 'Basic list' which are not considered useful in the Philippines. In addition, over 3,300 species in the 'Basic list', which are considered useful in other South-East Asian countries, are not present in the Philippines.

2. Scientific Infrastructure

According to the information available at PCARRD, 43 research institutions and 25 colleges and universities in the Philippines are currently conducting research on various aspects of plant resources. Most 202 projects are conducted on plants from 5 commodity groups, i.e. 'Timber trees', 'Cereals', 'Plants producing starch/sugar/alcohol/acids', 'Pulses', 'Edible fruits and nuts', and 'Vegetables' (Table 3). A total of 274 serial publications dealing with varied aspects of plant resources are published in the Philippines (Table 4). Scientific journals, technical reports, technical bulletins, proceedings, book/ scientific paper series, and research digests are particularly useful sources of information for the PREPHASE, PERSONYM and ORGANYM data bases.

Table 3. Number of universities and research institutes concerned with plant resources, andon-goin g projects, classified according tocommodit y groups.

Number of

Commodity group Agencies Projects A. Cereals 17 99 S. Starch/sugar/alcohol/acids 16 75 C. Pulses 14 73 D. Vegetable oils andfat s 12 38 E. Edible fruits andnut s 15 59 F. Vegetables 14 59 G. Spices andcondiment s 2 15 H. Essential oilplant s 1 /1 I. Beverages/chewing/smoking 5 31 J. Medicinal/narcotic/poisonous plants 10 19 K. Timber trees 33 113 L. Fibre plants/packing/thatching/wickerwork 10 34 M. Feed plants 8 18 N. Dyes andtannin s 3 3 0. Rattans 9 32 P. Bamboos 5 11 Q. Valuable exudates 7 9 R. Auxiliary plants 9 13 S. Ornamentals/hedges/wayside trees 3 9 T. Fuel plants 1 1 U. Lower plants * * V. Other plants * * Total 712 *n o information

Table 4. Serial publications onplan t resources published inth ePhilippines .

Type of publication Number Scientific journals 53 Technical bulletins 31 Technical reports 81 Research digests 26 Proceedings 3 Scientific paper/book series 10 Abstracts/bibliographies 6 Newsletters 64 Total 274

203 3. Organization of the PROSEA Project in the Philippines

The institution that implements the PROSEA project in the Philippines is the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD). Its Executive Director serves as a member of the PROSEA Multilateral Steering Committee. The PROSEA Country Office, with official address at the headquarters of PCARRD, was set up in November 1988. The Country Office has a project leader, a full- time staff-member of PCARRD, who isresponsibl e for theadministratio n of the project, and a country officer, a full-time staff-member of the University of the Philippines at Los Banos, who deals with the technical aspects of the project. The project has two research assistants, one of whom assists in the administration of the project and the other in the technical aspects. PCARRD also provides staff for clerical, messenger and driving duties. Office space and equipment, and the use of a vehicle are provided by PCARRD. Amicrocompute r system consistingo f a64 0K b computer process ing unit, 30 Mb hard disk, colour monitor, standby power supply, letter- quality printer, and voltage stabilizer, was obtained using project funds.

4. Documentation Work

The search strategy used in the documentation work takes into account the objective of PROSEA to locate 'grey' literature, i.e. publications on plant resources which may not be available outside the country. A list of publications indexed by data bases (e.g. AGRIASIA, AGRIS) was obtained, and those abstracted in these data bases were considered of low priority for documentation. In addition, emphasis was given to publications that appeared after 1943, on the assumption that earlier publications were covered by Brown's 'Useful Plants of the Philippines' (1941-1943). Documentation work concentrated on journals, bulletins, digests, reports, and dissertations from the research agencies and institutions, including colleges and universities in the national agricultural research system, for which PCARRD is the national coordinating agency (Table 5).

5. References

Brown,W.H., 1951-1957. Useful plants of the Philippines. Reprint of the 1941-1943 edition. Department of Agriculture and National Resources, Technical Bulletin No. 10. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 3 volumes, 1610 pp. Coronel,R.E. & J.C.Zuno, 1980. Fruit crops in the Philippines: a systematic list. University of the Philippines at Los Banos. College, Laguna, Philippines. DeGuzman.E.D. & E.S.Fernando, 1986. Philippine palms. In: Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Volume IV. Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines, pp.1-43 . DeLaubenfels,D.J., 1978. The taxonomy of Philippine Coniferae and Taxaceae. Kalikasan, Philippine Journal of Biology 7(2):117-152 . Herrera,C.L., E.V.Ramos & R.A.Villanueva, 1984. Philippine plants as

204 possible resources of antifertility agents. Philippine Journal of Science 113(1-2):91-129 . Macabenta,J.P . & R.O.Capina, 1984.Th eMarantacea e of theNationa l Botanic Garden. Philippine Journal of Science 113(1-2):47-65. Madulid,D.A., 1981. A monograph of Plectocomia (Palmae: Lepidocaryoi- deae). Kalikasan, Philippine Journal of Biology 10(1):1-94 . Merrill,E.D., 1926. Enumeration of Philippine flowering plants. Bureau of Printing, Manila. Moody,K., C.E.Munroe, R.T.Lubigan & E.C.Paller, 1984.Majo r weedso f the Philippines. Weed Science Society of the Philippines. University of the Philippines at Los Banos. College, Laguna, Philippines. 328 pp. PanchoJ.V. 1983a. Plants poisonous to livestock in the Philippines. Kalikasan, Philippine Journal of Biology 12(3):193-284 . Pancho,J.V. 1983b. Vascular flora of Mount Makiling and vicinity (Luzon: Philippines), Part 1. Kalikasan, Philippine Journal of Biology. Supplement 1. 476 pp. Price,G.R., 1974. Cultivated Mussaendas in the Philippines. Kalikasan, Philippine Journal of Biology 3(l):37-55. Vera Santos,J., 1986a. Philippine bamboos. In: Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Vol. IV. Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines, pp. 1-43. Vera SantosJ., 1986b. Philippine grasses. In: Guide to Philippine flora and fauna. Vol. IV. Ministry of Natural Resources and University of the Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines, pp.45-144.

Table 5. Number of records documented in the PREPHASE data base and their distribution over the commodity groups.

Numbero f Commodity group records documented A. Cereals 56 B. Starch/sugar/alcohol/acids 80 C. Pulses 61 D. Vegetable oils andfat s 39 E. Edible fruits andnut s 71 F. Vegetables 108 G. Spices andcondiment s 38 H. Essential oilplant s 8 I. Beverages/chewing/smoking 30 J. Medicinal/narcotic/poisonous plants 44 K. Timber trees 78 L. Fibre plants/packing/thatching/wickerwork 76 M. Feed plants 43 N. Dyes andtannin s 21 0. Rattans 13 P. Bamboos 18 Q. Valuable exudates 24 R. AuxiIiary plants 72 S. Ornamentals/hedges/wayside trees 38 T. Fuel plants 18 U. Lower plants 4 V. Other plants 8 Total 948

205 Country Report Thailand 1 1 7 S.Duriyaprapan , S.Lakmuang & P.Boonklinkajorn 'PROSEA Country Office Thailand, TISTR, 196 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

2Agro-Technology Department, TISTR, 196 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

1. Introduction

The Kingdom of Thailand is located in the Indo-Chinese Peninsula of South-East Asia, between latitudes 5° and 21° N and longitudes 97° and 105° E. The total area is about 513,000 km2, natural forests cover approximately 29% of the area (Center for Agricultural Statistics, 1988). Most tropical evergreen forests are located on the peninsula, where average annual rainfall exceeds 2,000 mm. Deciduous and dipterocarp forests are scattered in the northern, north-eastern and central parts of the country with average annual rainfall of approximately 1,000 mm. Thailand has an agriculture-based economy, approximately 40%o f the total country area is agricultural land. The important land-use categories are shown in Table 1 (Center for Agricultural Statistics, 1988).

Table 1. Land-use categories in Thailand.

2 Category Area (km) %

Forest land 146,648 29 Agricultural land 207,752 40 Unclassified land 158,715 31

Total 513,115 100 2 Agricultural land Area (km) %

Rice 118,774 23.1 Field crops 51,321 10.0 Fruit trees/tree crops 22,257 4.3 Vegetables/flowering plants 861 0.1 Grasslands 1,451 0.2 Farm buildings/housing 4,916 0.9 Idle land 5,692 1.0 Others 2,480 0.4

Total 207,752 40.0

Rice is usually grown in the lowlands throughout Thailand but the Central Plain along the Chao Phraya River Basin is considered the most important rice production area of the country. Most field crops are grown in the north-east and upper parts of Central Thailand. The tropical humid

206 climates of eastern and southern Thailand offer ideal conditions for growing most tropical fruits. However, 'longan' and 'litchi' prefer the drier climates of northern Thailand, especially in Chiang Rai, ChiangMa i and Lam Phun. Coconut and oil palm plantations are concentrated in southern Thailand.

2. Plant Resources in Thailand

Previous compilations of botanical andvernacula r names of plants in Thailand listed approximately 800 plant species (Smitinand, 1980). The list is surely not exhaustive. With respect to the distribution over PROSEA commodity groups, another published report on the useful plant resources in Thailand lists 113 vegetables, 125 edible fruits, 755 flowering and ornamental plants, 538 tree species of which 59 are useful timbers, 25 poisonous plants and 684 plants with medicinal properties (Kittikorn et al., 1980). Polprasid et al. (1977) reported on the distribution in Thailand of 334, mostly unexploited fruit trees, from 64 genera and 32families . Asman y as7 0rattan s (Vongkaluang, 1986) and 41 bamboo species (Ramyarangsi, 1985) are listed for Thailand. Out of 113 vegetables only 17 are in commercial production (Department of Agricultural Extension, 1988). Planted area and production of vegetables and economically important field crops in Thailand are presented in Table 2 (Center for Agricultural Statistics, 1988). '

Table 2. Total planted area of economically important vegetables and field crops in 1987-88.

Crop Area Productio n (ha) (1 ,000 tons)

Vegetables 279,075 2,133 Rice 9,851,360 18,868 Corn/sorghum 2,144,960 4,520 Cassava 1,411,200 19,554 Sugarcane 539,220 24,450 Pulses 921,760 826 Cotton 50,400 57 Kenaf 205,280 226

Total 15,403,255 70,634

Fruits that can be found in local markets throughout the country amount to 60 species, of which 52ar e tropical and 4 are temperate fruits. However, only 17 of the tropical species are commercially grown (Polprasid, 1989). Area planted and production of Thailand's important fruits are presented in Table 3 (Department of Agricultural Extension, 1988). The most important under-exploited tropical fruits with potential economic value are 'gandaria' (Bouea oppositifolia Adxelt), 'makoknam' (Elaeocarpus madopelatus), 'maphut' (Garcinia dulcis (Roxb.) Kurz), 'sala' (Salacca sp.), 'kluai lepmuenang' (Musa: AA), and 'kabok' (Irwingia malayana Oliv.).

207 Table 3. Planted area and production of 17 economically important fruits in 1986-87.

Scientific name Common name Area Production (ha) (tons)

Musa spp. Banana 186,600 577,300 Hangifera indica Mango 171,100 386,500 Durio zibethinus Durian 76,100 426,240 Nephelium lappaceum Rambutan 70,700 476,300 Annona squamosa Sugar apple 51,500 188,900 Citrus reticulata Tangerine 44,800 560,800 Artocarpus heterophyllus Jackfruit 37,400 265,600 Citrus aurantifolia Lime 25,800 46,000 Lansium dornesticum Langsat 24,800 91,000 Dimocarpus longana Longan 20,300 20,100 Achras zapota SapodiIl a 19,200 54,200 Psidium guajava Guava 17,100 53,200 Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen 13,500 64,500 Citrus grandis Pomelo 12,700 55,710 Litchi chinensis Litchi 8,200 14,200 Citrus chinensis Sweet orange 4,100 18,800 Syzygium spp. Chom-phu, jambu 3,700 11,800

Total 787,600 3,311,150

3. Scientific Infrastructure in Thailand

The institutes dealing with plant resources research and development are mainly government offices under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives. The main institutions are the Department of Agriculture and the Royal Forest Department. The Department of Livestock Development, Department of Agricultural Extension, Royal Irrigation Department, and Land Development Department alsocarr y outsom eresearc h work, but usually with limited scope. Most government universities also play a significant role in research on and development of the country's plant resources. The leading universities are Kasetsart University in Bangkok, Khon Kaen University in the north-east, Chiang Mai University in the north and Prince of Songkhla University in southern Tailand. The National Genebank of Thailand (NGT) at TISTR isresponsibl e for plant germplasm conservation. At present, NGT maintains approximately 2,500 plant accessions under short-term (15°C), medium-term (0-4°C) and long-term (-15°C) storage conditions. In addition, the Plant Genetic Resources Coordinating Subcommittee under the National Research Council (NRC), with 19 representatives from various government offices, plays an important role in coordinating and promoting activities concerning the country's plant genetic resources. The NRC Report 1986-87 (National Research Council, 1987) gives a clear picture of research activities on plant resources in recent years. There were 4,786 agricultural experiments in Thailand in 1986-87, of which approximately 91% were undertaken by government offices. The remainder were carried out by various universities, agricultural colleges, and government enterprises. At present, research in Thailand is concentrated on major crops, as shown in Table 4. The arrangement according to

208 geographical zones indicates the extent of regional interests in particular plants.

Table 4. Number of research activities carried out on economic crops in various parts of Thailand in 1986-87.

Crop Central N NE S Whole Total (%> Rice 184 9.4 72 50 8 408 (8.5) OiIseed crops 47 95 118 10 14 284 (6.0) Edible fruits 35 74 48 53 3 213 (4.5) Vegetables 62 85 37 9 3 196 (4.1) Corn/Sorghum 46 83 15 1 13 158 (3.3) Fibre plants 6 51 31 - 5 93 (2.0) Sugarcane 40 7 10 - - 57 (1.2) Cassava 45 - 4 • - 49 (1.0) Forestry 17 17 10 22 4 70 (1.5) Total 482 506 345 145 50 1,528 (32.1)

The results of agricultural research in Thailand are well disseminated. There are approximately 90 local agricultural journals and periodicals in Thailand. However, only a small number seem to provide information in line with PROSEA's objectives. The 'Thai Journal of Agricultural Science', published in English, is the most important journal, while 'Kasikorn' and 'Warasarn Witthayasartkaset' (ASST Newsletter) are the leading Thai language journals.

4. Organization and Activities of the PROSEA Country Office Thailand

The PROSEA Country Office Thailand is located within the Agro- Technology Department of TISTR in the Bang Khen area of Bangkok. The office has been in operation since September 1988. Mr. Prapandh Boonklinkajorn, Director of the Agro-Technology Department is the Projectleader. Mr. Soonthorn Duriyaprapan and Mr. Somchai Lakmuang are responsible for the daily operation as Country Officer and Assistant Country Officer respectively. Documentation work on Thailand's plant resources is progressing well. So far, approximately 1,000 records have been compiled from 12 volumes of the 'Kasetsart Journal', 19 volumes of 'Warasarn Phuetsuan', 20 volumes of the 'Thai Journal of Agricultural Science' and 62 volumes of 'Kasikorn'.

5. References

Center for Agricultural Statistics, 1988. Agricultural statistics in brief, crop year 1987-88. Office of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Bangkok. 119 pp. (in Thai). Department of Agricultural Extension, 1988. Vegetable crops production in 1986-87. Annual Report. 186 pp. (in Thai). Kittikorn,S., S.Phoowiphadawat, B.Ruchirekserikul, W.Chaowanapricha, O.Wongwanich & N.Sorachat, 1980. List of plant names. Field Crop Division, Department of Agriculture, Bangkok. 306 pp. (in Thai). National Research Council., ,087, List of research projects in agriculture. 209 Ministry of Science, Technology and Energy, Bangkok. 1542pp .(i n Thai). Polprasid,P. 1989. Current status and future prospect of research, development and production of fruits in Thailand. Consultancy report submitted to the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok. 38 pp. Polrasid,P., T.Khaisuwan, A.Thipthanawattana & S.Nankhongnap, 1977. Tropical fruit germplasm resources center. Annual Report. Fruit Trees Section, Horticulture Division, Department of Agriculture, Bangkok. 56 pp. (in Thai). Ramyarangsi,S. 1985. Bamboo research in Thailand. Proceedings International Bamboo Workshop, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China, October 6-14, 1986. pp. 67-69. Smitinand,T., 1980. Thai plant names: botanical names - vernacular names. Funny Publishing Limited Partnership, Bangkok. 379 pp. VongkaluangJ., 1986. General descriptions of rattans. Proceedings Rattan Seminar, held at National Fresh Water Fishery Institute, Bangkok, November 13-14, 1986. pp. 55-72 (in Thai).

210 Plant Resources of Burma

San Maung

Forest Department, 76(A) Inya Road, Rangoon, Burma

1. Introduction

Burma is endowed with rich plant resources. The elevation of the land surface varies from sealevel along the coastal section to over 6,000 m with snow-capped mountains bordering India and China. The annual rainfall varies from as little as 400 mm in the dry zone of the centre of Burma to over 5,000 mm at some places in the coastal region. The temperature ranges from aminimu m of 4°C toa maximu m of 40°C.Th e varied conditions enable many types of forest rich in fauna and flora to exist. Scientific forestry in the country started in the year 1856 with the arrival of a German-trained forester, and due to his foresight and the controlled exploitation of the plant resources since that time, most of the state-controlled reserved forests are still intact. The forest policy, with general principles for recognition of protection forests, commercial forests, local supply forests and nature reserves, including national parks and sanctuaries, is strictly administered to this day. The economy of the country depends mainly upon the plant resources, and substantial quantities of commodities in both raw and finished forms are exported annually. There is still ample scope for research in the field of plant resources for further expansion and development.

2. Forest Resources

Burma is 67.7 million ha in area, of which 38.8 million ha or 57% are still covered with forests. Designation of reserved forests began in 1862. Ten million ha or 15% of the total land area are now already designated as state-owned reserved forests and the remaining 28.8 million ha are unclassified forests allowing some rights and privileges for the neighbouring villages. As a result of the varied topography, climatic and soil conditions, there are over 50 types of forest, from tidal and beach forests along the coast to alpine and montane forests up in the northern hilly regions. The types of forest may broadly be classified into: (1) tidal and beach forests, (2) mixed deciduous forest, (3) evergreen forest, and (4) temperate evergreen forest (alpine and montane forests).

2.1 Tidal and Beach Forests

In the tidal and beach forests, the type of plant species varies according to the local conditions of both soil and salinity of the water. Casuarina equisetifolia is found in pure patches on sandy beaches above

211 the high-tide level. Associated plant species are Calophyllum inophyllum, Eugenia sp., Erythrina indica. Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pandanus tectorius, and Pongamia glabra. On mud beds of tidal streams, Acanthus ilicifolius, Bruguiera caryophylloides, Ceriops roxburghiana, Kandelia rheedeii, and Phoenix paludosa are found. Nipa fruticans is abundant in some places. Further inland, Barringtonia acutangula, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Heritiera species are found. Pneumatophores are abundant. Freshwater swamps also occur with species of Calophyllum, Eugenia, Lagerstroemia and Mangifera. Dense undergrowth of canes is common. The tidal and beach forests occupy about 4% of the total forest area, and at present they are important mainly as source of fuel and tanning substances. A few valuable species are now also extracted from these forests.

2.2 Mixed Deciduous Forest

Deciduous forest is the home of teak and other valuable plant species, and is economically the most important in Burma. In some mixed forests, teak (Tectona grandis) occupies over 10% of the area. The annual allowed cut is around 350,000 tons. It is interesting to note that during the last 100 years over 30 million tons of teak have already been extracted but the reserved forests are still intact to this day, thanks to selective logging and proper management. Based upon the counts of young teak trees remaining after extraction, it is predicted that the same annual yield can be maintained until the year 2000. Plant species commonly mixed with teak are Cassia fistula, Lannea grandis, Pentacme siamensis, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Salmaliasp., Shorea oblongifolia, Spondias pinnata, Terminalia sp., Vitex peduncularis, and Xylia dolabriformis. Bamboo species, e.g. Bambusa polymorpha, Cephalostachyum pergracile, Dendrocalamus hamiltoni, Dendrocalamus strictus and Thyrsostachys oliveri are also found. On sandy and gravelly soils, Dipterocarpus tuberculatus occurs extensively in pure stands and sometimes mixed with Melanorrhoea usitata, Pentacme siamensis, Shorea oblongifolia, and Tectona grandis. In the dry zone in the central part of the country where rainfall is scanty and the soil is shallow, rocky or alkaline, a semi-desert type of forest occurs with conspicuous fleshy Euphorbia species, thorny Acacia mixed with Limonia acidissima, pure stands of Tectona hamiltoniana and Terminalia oliveri. The mixed deciduous forests account for about 44% and the thorny dry forest in the centre of Burma occupies about 10% of the total forest area. During the last 40 years Honey Locust Mesquite, Prosopis juliflora, has been introduced in the dry zone, and it has become a pest. Once it has a foothold it is difficult to eradicate, and as a thorny species it has become a nuisance to the farmers. It shows that restraint should be observed in the introduction of new species.

2.3 Evergreen Forest

This type of forest occurs in areas where the rainfall is over 3,000

212 mm, and is mostly found in the southern part of the country. It is characterized by the presence of a large number of giant evergreen trees, 50 m or more in height. The top canopy is almost entirely evergreen and unbroken. This is the most luxuriant type of forest found in Burma and is typical of the South-East Asian evergreen forest. The characteristic plant species in Burma are Artocarpus calophylla, Baccaureasapida, Cinnamomwn inumetum, Dipterocarpus alatus, D.griffithii, Eugenia grandis, Hopea odorata, Michelia champaca, Pentace burmanica, and Swintonia floribunda. The undergrowth comprises canes, bamboos and palms , such as Calamus erectus, C.latifolius, C.viminalis, Dendrocalamus giganteus, Gigantochloa macrostachya, Licuala peltata, and Salacca wallichiana. In drier areas where the rainfall is around 2,000 mm, a semi- evergreen forest is found comprising some deciduous species. In hilly areas where the climate is cooler, Castanopsis and Quercus species are abundant.

2.4 Alpine and Montane Forests

These temperate forests occur in the mountainous regions of northern Burma which are an extension of the main Himalaya range. Alpine forest is found from about 3,000 m altitude to 3,650 m, the limit of tree growth. Conifers are found here. Rhododendron occurs in abundance with R.arizelum in pure stands. This region is interesting botanically as it is the home of rare and beautiful flowering plants, including orchids. Temperate, tropical and semi-evergreen forests account for about 42% of the total forest area.

3. The Policy

A firm policy is essential for sustained production while conserving the ecosystems. The forest policy in Burma was formulated in 1894 and the general principles consisted of the recognition of 4 main classes of forest, i.e. protection forests, commercial forests, local supply forests, and nature reserves including sanctuaries and national parks. Basically, this classification is still maintained today, with slight modifications. The present guideline issued by the authorities concerned is to replace the logged areas with plantations. The concept of sustained-yield forestry has been replaced by the new concept of expanding-yield forestry, and degraded forests are replaced whenever possible with man-made forests, mostly planted with valuable species like teak, and 'padauk' (Pterocarpus macrocarpus). So far, 350,000 ha of man-made forests have already been established in the country and nearly half of them are teak plantations. When they reach maturity the allowable cut for teak alone will be trebled. Selective logging (exploitation of mature trees with a fixed girth limit only) is employed, and clear-cutting is not allowed whenever possible. The trees are clear-felled only in some places where the stand is poor and the establishment of man-made forest is absolutely necessary. For the protection of fauna and flora and for the perpetual production of plant resources, the present policy is to raise the level of

213 State-controlled reserved forests from 15% to about 25% in the near future. This includes the establishment of new national parks and sanctuaries, from the present level of 1% to about 5% of the total land area. For regreening activities and propagation of ornamental and valuable species, over 3 million plants of all sorts are distributed freely to the public and the State Organizations annually, mostly on Arbour Day. The extension services operating through the media have made people plant- conscious, and private plant nurseries are doing brisk business in the country.

4. Plant Resources

So far, over 8,570 different plant species have been classified and recorded in the country, and about 10% of them are estimated to be exotic species introduced by individuals and the State. Among the indigenous species, over 40% are shrubs and herbs. Approximately 2,300 tree species are found, besides 850 species of orchid, 455 species of grass, 108 species of bamboo and 27 species of cane. Of the total number of plant species only about 3,000 species have local names and their properties and uses are known. About 2,000 species are known for their medicinal value. Of the 2,300 tree species only a few are extracted for timber, and knowledge of properties and uses is limited to a mere 300 species. The above data show that there is still ample scope for research on the plant resources. In remote villages it is common to come across useful plant species from the nearby forest which are unknown to the public in other parts of the country although the same species also grow there. With thorough research it is likely that the properties and uses of many more plant species of value will be unearthed.

5. Conclusion

Most of the forests in the South-East Asian region are tropical forests and they are the home of thousands of animal and plant species. According to some authorities, the destruction of forests and other habitats is driving many plant and animal species, mostly insects, to extinction. FAO statistics show that nearly 2 million ha of forest are depleted annually in the South-East Asian region alone, mainly due to the slash and burn technique of shifting cultivation. It can easily be conceived that a substantial number of plant species has already been exterminated and that many more are endangered and vulnerable. To conserve fauna and flora, the present policy in Burma is to raise the level of state-controlled reserved forests from 15% to 25% of the total land area. This includes raising the land area for national parks and wildlife sanctuaries from 1% to 5%. In the exploitation of forest produce, clear-felling is not allowed, and selective logging of mature trees only is strictly adhered to. There are still unexplored areas to the present day where it is possible to find new species. There is still ample scope for research and

214 development. With a project like PROSEA and exchange of information, the overall knowledge of plant resources in the region will definitely improve in the near future.

215 SAPRIS: the PROSEA Information and Documentation System

L.P.A.Oyen1 & N.Wulijarni-Soetjipto2

PROSEA CountryOffic e Netherlands,Wageninge n Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen, Netherlands

PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

1. Introduction

This paper presents the objectives of the documentation and information programme of PROSEA and its present state of development. It will conclude with some thoughts on possible future developments.

2. Objectives of SAPRIS

SAPRIS is an abbreviation of South-East Asian Plant Resources Information System, and is the computer-based documentation and information management system of PROSEA. Part of the objectives of PROSEAca nb esummarize d as:improvin g accesst oexistin g knowledge on the useful plants of South-East Asia. From this, the objectives of SAPRIS have been derived: (1) to improve access to literature published in books and journals, poorly distributed outside South-East Asia, and of material only available in unpublished reports and papers, (2) to improve access to the world literature within South-East Asia. Most of the information on this literature is accessible through major libraries and on-line data banks, but access to these facilities is still limited in many parts of the region of interest to PROSEA, (3) to support editors and authors of the PROSEA handbook with easily accessible information on persons and institutions working on the plants of South-East Asia or in related fields, (4) to keep the texts of the PROSEA handbook in a form that guarantees their future accessibility on computer (this should also allow PROSEA to publish the handbook or selections from it in a different form), and (5) to keep information on the PROSEA species that has been compiled by authors or editors but that cannot be incorporated in the handbook available for future work.

3. Implementation of the Data Bases

3.1 General

SAPRIS currently consists of the following data bases:

216 (1)BASELIS T -a list of plant names, (2) PERSONYH - information on persons working in the same field as PROSEA, (3)ORGANY M - information on institutions relevant to PROSEA, (4) CATALOG -a data base of literature references on PROSEA plants, (5) PREPHASE • literature references on PROSEA plants from South-East Asia, (6) TEXTFILE -th e texts of the PROSEA handbook and additional information on the relevant plant species.

The data base programme Tnmagic' has been selected for the implementation of the data bases. The programme allows a great flexibility with texts and is available on personal computers and on larger computers. Although not the most user-friendly programme, all staff working in SAPRIS are using it without problems.

3.2 BASELIST

BASELIST is a data base of botanical names of useful plant species of South-East Asia. Some 6,200 plant species have been included in this data base. It has been compiled as a starting-point for the editors of the various volumes of the PROSEA handbook and for literature searches. The compilation is based on 4 publications, i.e. Heyne (1927), Burkill (1935, reprint 1966), Brown (1941-1943, reprint 1951-1957), and Reyes (1938). Approximately 67% of the botanical names in BASELIST have been checked by taxonomie specialists or by comparison with the nan>es in the 'Flora Malesiana'. The 'Basic list' presented at this symposium is extracted from BASELIST. It is planned to check all names, before a second version of the 'Basic list' is published. The structure of BASELIST is given in Table 1. Each record contains information on one plant species divided into 15 fields.

Table 1. Structure of BASELIST.

NO record number SP/1 correct botanical name SP/* synonyms FA family TY plant type SI siIvicultural importance BS original source of entry SL important sources of botanic information; name of specialist, who checked correctness of name OP original publication, in which correct name was published PU primary use (using commodity group codes) SU secondary uses (using derived commodity group codes) HU uses as stated by HEYNE (using primary and secondary use codes) BU uses as stated by BURKILL (using primary and secondary use codes) BR uses as stated by BROWN (using primary and secondary use codes) RU uses as stated by REYES (using primary and secondary use codes)

3.3 PERSONYM and ORGANYM

PERSONYM and ORGANYM have been set up to provide infor mation for PROSEA staff, especially for its editors and authors, on persons and institutions working on the same plant groups as PROSEA. One

217 of the areas where it can provide support is in the selection of authors for individual species. The information that will be compiled in these data bases will be of interest for scientists and others working in fields similar to that of PROSEA. Although several countries have their own directories, few cover the whole region. Details on the structure of the data bases are given in Table 2.

Table 2.Structur e ofPERSONY M and ORGANYM.

PERSONYM NO record number NA name AD address CP cooperation established(Y/N ) FU function IN interest PU major publications CO commodity groups onwhic h person isworkin g TA taxa onwhic h person isworkin g NTS additional information

ORGANYM NO record number LN local name of institute AN acronym EN name inEnglis h AD address HD head of institute PI parent institute AC activities PU publications CO commodity groups onwhic h institute isworkin g TA taxa onwhic h institute isworkin g NTS additional information

3.4 CATALOG and PREPHASE

A selection of bibliographic information on existing literature will be compiled in 2dat a bases:CATALO G and PREPHASE, which will later be merged into one data base, also called CATALOG. CATALOG includes references from a number of computerized data bases of recent literature, whereas PREPHASE comprises references from the regionally and nationally important literature from South-East Asia, and information on the older literature relevant to South-East Asia. This information is being collected for 2 purposes: (1) to give editors some idea of what information is available on the individual species (abstracts are of particular importance for this purpose and are being included in the data base), and (2) to provide authors with bibliographic information on the species on which they are going to write. This is considered an important service for the authors, as not all of them may have easy access to relevant publications from other parts of the world. The main sources of information for CATALOG are the large on-line data banks of agricultural and biological literature. These data banks contain information starting from about 1970. Manually searching the older abstract journals for information on some 6,200 species is beyond the capacity of PROSEA. It is also considered of less importance, because most

218 older literature can be traced through bibiliographies in more recent publications. If, however, difficulties are encountered for certain species, older abstract journals and bibliographies will be consulted. So far, 6 data bases have been selected to be searched for CATALOG, i.e.: (1) AGRALIN - containing references from the library of the Agricultural University and other institutes in Wageningen, (2) BIOSIS Previews - containing Biological Abstracts, (3) AGRIS - the FAO literature data bank, (4) CAB Abstracts - Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, (5) AGRICOLA - United States Department of Agriculture, and (6) TROPAG - Abstracts on Tropical Agriculture. These 6 data bases overlap to a certain extent, but each of them has a specific field of interest and together they provide a broad coverage of the relevant literature, including aspects of botany, plant production, chemistry and phytopharmacy, economics, as well as processing. Two searches will be done for each commodity group:on e using search- terms related to the commodity (e.g. dye-plants and tannin-plants for the commodity group 'Dye and tannin-producing plants'), the second one using the botanical name of the species in BASELIST. This will provide at least some information on most species. For those species, for which too many literature references are available, i.e. for the major cultivated crops, no information will be collected. The literature on this last group of plants is generally accessible and well known to the specialists concerned. For an intermediate group of species, only the literature references pertaining to South-East Asia are included in the data base. For about 70% of the botanical names in BASELIST, literature references are expected to be found in the data banks mentioned above, based on experience with 'Dye and tannin-producing plants'. If insufficient literature on a species is found in the on-line data banks or in PREPHASE, a second search may be carried out, using a different set of search terms (e.g. different synonyms of botanical names or vernacular names). PREPHASE is being built up by the Country Offices and the Regional Office of PROSEA in South-East Asia. The Country Officers are scanning information centres, libraries, institute collections and sometimes private collections. A first screening is made to select relevant references from periodicals, serials, books and proceedings of scientific meetings. Part of the information has to be translated into English and sometimes transcribed. As all of this has to be done manually, and as the information has to be gathered from various sources, it consitutes a major task for the Country Officers. Where data banks are available in the area, efforts will be made to incorporate the relevant information into PREPHASE. Contacts have been established with the Useful Plants of South-East Asia (UPSEA) data base and the Asia and Pacific Information Network on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (APINMAP), sponsored by UNESCO. As indicated above, authors will be given a selection from CATALOG with literature references on their taxon. At present, PROSEA cannot provide copies of articles or act as an intermediary between libraries and authors. The possibility may be considered in very exceptional cases only. The present staff of PROSEA is too small to provide such a service on a

219 more regular basis. The structure of CATALOG is presented in Table 3.

Table 3.Structur e of CATALOG.

NO record number TI title of publication AU name of author CS corporate author oraffiliatio n offirs t author SD bibliographic information DT document type LA language AV place where publication wasfoun d orwher e available TA botanic taxa CO commodity groups SU subjects ID keywords as used in original data base or source AB abstract

3.5 TEXTFILE

PROSEA will keep the texts of the handbook accessible on computer. Developments in the publishing industry are rapid and may allow much greater flexibility in the future than exists at present. As the project is expected to be working on the handbook for a number of years, such developments should be anticipated and their use should not be precluded prematurely. Two options to ensure this flexibility are being considered: (1) the first one involves the adoption of software, based on an electronic-publishing standard, possibly SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language); many text-editing programmes can already read codes created with SGML, (2) the second option is the use of hardware allowing the use of various forms of software; developments are taking place in the optical scanning of texts, which will make it possible to convert printed text into a computer-readable form and to subsequently edit the text using a word processor. TEXTFILE will further contain relevant information that cannot be published in the handbook because of limited space. PROSEA encourages authors to also supply information that could not be included in the main text, for inclusion in the TEXTFILE data base. An example of this kind of information is given in Annex 1.

4. Present Situation

The 'Basic list' which is presented at this symposium, has been extracted from the BASELIST data base in its present state. Work on CATALOG is progressing in step with the sequence of the planned volumes of the handbook. Computer searches have been completed for the following commodity groups: (1) 'Edible fruits and nuts', (2) 'Dye and tannin-producing plants', (3) 'Vegetables', (4) 'Bamboos', (5) 'Forages', and (6) 'Rattans'. PREPHASE is being developed by the PROSEA Country Offices, in cooperation with the Regional Office South-East Asia. As far as is compatible with the method of searching, priority is given to the same 220 commodity groups as for CATALOG. Progress with PREPHASE thus reflects the developments in the various offices. In Indonesia some 1,780 references have been collected, in Thailand about 900, in the Philippines some 950, in Malaysia about 120 references, and in Papua New Guinea the work has started only recently. The information on a single or a few commodity groups can be stored on a normal personal computer. In this way the information can already be used in the Country Offices. In Wageningen the information on all groups can be handled as one data base.Recen t developments in personal computers have made it possible to handle the entire data base while maintaining compatibility with standard personal computers in the Country Offices. It is expected that in the near future it will be feasible to enlarge the storage capacity of the computers in the Country Offices, so that they will also be able to use the whole data base. ORGANYM and PERSONYM will be developed per commodity group, in cooperation with the editors, but little work has been done so far. Part of the information which will be compiled in these 2 data bases can be derived from PREPHASE and CATALOG.

5. The Future

Work onbuildin g upCATALO G willcontinu e during thenex t few years. Literature searches will stay ahead of the work of the editors and authors. Gradually, more time will be allocated to the provision of information services. Building upth e CATALOG and PREPHASE data basesi ssee n asa once - off exercise for the production of the handbook. No plans have been developed to maintain CATALOG as an up-to-date data base on the useful plants of South-East Asia within the framework of PROSEA. It has been suggested, however, that the information contained in this data base is so valuable that it should not be allowed to gradually become obsolete. Suggestions to keep the data base up-to-date will be eagerly welcomed by PROSEA, but this should become a well-defined activity that does not distract from the main goal of PROSEA. CATALOG is being developed by PROSEA for use by editors and authors. Thoughts on how the information compiled in CATALOG can be made available to a wider public have been presented at this symposium in the paper on 'PROSEA and New Trends in Information Technology' (Schippers). ORGANYM and PERSONYM will be developed as required for the preparation of the PROSEA handbook. Asi sth ecas ewit hCATALOG , these2 data bases will be of wider interest, once they have been developed. PROSEA is interested in making the information available, but here too, this should become a well-planned activity that does not interfere with PROSEA's main task. TEXTFILE is the latest addition to the information system. Thoughts have not yet sufficiently crystallized for us to be able to present our views for the future. Two options are being considered: the adoption of standardized word-processing and electronic publishing software and the use of optical scanners, which can transfer printed text into a computer-

221 readable form. Both techniques are still in development, but are expected to become operational within a few years.

6. References

222 Annex 1. Example of information in TEXTFILE.

A. Text in Handbook

Boehmeria nivea (L.) Gaudich. Voy. Uranie, Bot.:499(1830). Urticaceae 2n=14 Synonyms Urtica nivea L. (1753), Boehmeria utilis Blume (1853). Vernacular names Ramie, China grass (En); ramie (Fr); Indonesia: rami, kelui, haramay; Malaysia.' rami, ramee, kelui; the Philippines: amirai, arimai, labnis; Cambodia: thmey; Laos: pan, po pan; Thailand: ka-moei, taan khamoi, po-bo. Origin and geographic distribution Ramie is indigenous in eastern Asia, from Japan, down to the eastern part of China and Malaysia. The plant has been cultivated in China for hundreds of years and is also grown in Japan and the Philippines. In most tropical countries and in southern USA it has been grown experimentally. Uses Ramie is used in a similar manner to flax and hemp. The fibre is used to make fishing-tackle, nets, strings, gas mantles, paper and cloth (grass cloth or Chinese linen). In textiles ramie is usually blended with polyester, wool, silk and cotton. The leaves, which are high in protein, have been used extensively for animal feeding. Production andinternationa l trade Annual world production doesno t exceed 130,000 t, and only a small proportion (7,000 t) enters international trade. The main producers are China, which is thought to produce about 100,000, Brazil 16,000 and the Philippines 3,000 t/year. Other countries producing small quantities of ramie include South Korea, Taiwan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Japan, Thailand, Cambodia and Columbia. China exports fibre to Japan and Europe. Although ramie has many excellent properties and diverse uses, it has failed to become a major world textile fibre, mainly because of the high cost of production. Most ramie plantings throughout the world consist of small family plots, with exceptions being plantation type estates in Florida (USA), Brazil and the Philippines.

B. Additional information

Vernacular names China: chu-ma; India: rhea, kankura; Indonesia: gambe; Japan: mao; Philippines: dami, hâsu, lipang aso, lapnis; Thailand: po paan, paan-daeng, paan ramee. Uses The carding waste of ramie, called noil, is often blended with cotton or stapled rayon and made into low-grade fabrics such as denims and dishcloths. The noil is also used in the manufacture of high-grade paper. Ramie fabrics 'breathe' well, they absorb and liberate moisture quickly. Production and international trade Production costs are high, because of the necessary frequent manuring, the difficulty of decorticating and degumming the fibre and the high requirements of manual labour. The production of ramie ribbons by hand-scraping is feasible only in countries with extremely low labour costs, since the daily production per person is usually only 1-2 kg.

223 Properties Ramie fibre is generally graded according to length, colour and cleanliness. Top grades are usually washed and sometimes brushed. No standard set of grades for ramie fibre exists, but several countries have their own standards. Other botanical information Cultivars of ramie are numerous and principally of Japanese origin, as that country was the first to start research on ramie in 1912. Saikeiseishin is the major cultivar planted commercially in the Philippines.

224 Discussion

Rahim S:. To overcome language problems in reading and translating publications of the PROSEA countries, Iwoul d suggest that PROSEA Offices exchange officers to learn each other languages and that the PROSEA Regional Office recruit translators from all member countries to work in the Regional Office.

E.Verheij: The Country Offices collect information on literature, expertise and institutions in their countries for incorporation in the PROSEA data bank and to assist authors and editors. With the publication of the first volume of the PROSEA handbook, the question arises whether the Country Offices -- incorporated in leading national institutions -- should also play a role in the dissemination of the published information to the primary producers in their countries.

P.CM.Jansen: I am deeply impressed by the large amount of work that has been done by all Country Offices in a relatively short time and I would like to congratulate and to thank all cooperating countries.

H.C.D. de Wit: If PROSEA has to refer to various herbaria will it use the official herbaria abbreviations? P.C.M.Jansen: Yes, PROSEA will use, if relevant, the official standard abbreviations for herbaria.

NM.Anishetty; PROSEA's effort is largelya ninformatio n and documentation exercise. How will such information be used, especially with regard to conservation and utilization of plant resources of South-East Asia? E.Westphal:PROSE A is not only an information and documentation exercise, but it critically evaluates the available information as well. The information will be available to people working in education, research, extension and commercial production. Based on the presented information, leaflets, brochures, etc. might be prepared (preferably in the language of a particular area) to suit specific target groups (e.g. farmers, extension officers in agriculture and forestry).

E.Boa: Is due consideration being given to the technological aspects of the project: the use of computers, the ease of telecommunications between the countries in South-East Asia? I think that PROSEA assumes too much computer knowledge and that workshops on the useo f hardware and software are needed. L.P.A.Oyen: In the present set-up only Country Officers need to use computers and handle our data bases. Requests from scientists are processed and handled by them.

H.C.D. de Wit: Is there any relation being laid between scientific names and vernacular names: various languages, various meanings, various spellings? L.P.A.Oyen: Vernacular names, properly documented, will be incorporated partly in the texts of the handbook and partly stored in the data base

225 TEXTFILE, which will contain both the text of the handbook plus additional information.

L.'t Mannetje: The efforts of the Country and Regional Offices in gathering and collating information are very impressive. However, is there not a danger that documentation will become an end in itself? How can you prevent becoming snowed under by lists of references, which may not be easily accessible, could cost a fortune to copy or to translate, only to find that the information is not very useful or outdated? L.P.A.Oyen: Country Officers make a first selection of papers and they always record where the paper is available. The contents of a paper are never known before it has been read.

L.'t Mannetje: How will the information gathered by the Country Offices be made available to editors and authors of commodity group volumes? How do different Country Offices correlate their efforts? L.P.A.Oyen: Editors are involved in compiling the list of names used as search terms for a commodity group. They will be given the result of the complete search sorted by species. They can pass on the results per species to the respective authors. J.S.Siemonsma. Country Offices send batches of records to the Regional Office South-East Asia, where they undergo final editing and incorporation in the data bank. Data bases in Wageningen and Bogor will be merged and be available at all PROSEA Offices.

226 Project Implementation 1991-1995

227

Proposais for Project Execution 1991-1995

H.C.van der Plas

Wageningen Agricultural University, Salverdaplein 10, 6701 DB Wageningen, Netherlands

1. Introduction

For a proper execution of the project activities during the period 1991-1995, not only must the priorities of the activities be clearly established, but the consequences for management and execution in terms of manpower and finances should also be indicated. There are 5 important aspects to be taken into consideration carefully, on which decisions have to be made: (1) scientific content and quality, (2) the documentation and information system, (3) organization and finances, (4) publication policy, and (5) project phasing. All activities have to be carried out within the framework of a firmly established international cooperation, in which South-East Asian scientists play an important and decisive role. PROSEA is a scientific undertaking and as such not limited by geographical boundaries, but the results of its endeavours should benefit the people of South-East Asia first and foremost. PROSEA is a long-term project. The proposals presented in this paper concern the period 1991-1995. Although it is appropriate to plan activities for a 5-year period of execution, it is realistic to take into account a total project period of about 10 years. This long-term perspective is implicit in most of what follows below. Within this framework some preparatory thinking has been carried out and various concrete suggestions were modelled after consultation with various officials in South-East Asia. Wageningen Agricultural University, as the institute that started the initiative for the PROSEA project, will present some proposals to facilitate the discussion in the 4 working groups.

2. Scientific Content and Quality

2.1 Arrangement of Species in Commodity Groups

The approach of arranging the basic units of PROSEA, the species or the genus, into commodity groups has now been widely accepted. In the 'Basic list' (Version 1) about 6,200 species are listed and divided into 39commodit y groups.Th eamalgamatio n ofsom esmalle rgroup s meanstha t 21 commodity groups are currently distinguished (Table 1). The distribution of species over the recognized commodity groups is also indicated in Table 1. Since PROSEA aims to deal with 5,000 plant resources, the distribution found in the 'Basic list' has been adjusted to that level, and is indicated as well. Classes of commodity groups can then be distinguished according to

229 Table 1. Distribution ofplan t species over 21commodit y groups.

Number of Numbero f Commodity group species in species adjusted 'Basic list' to5,00 0 intota l 1. Cereals 23 19 2. Plants mainly producing carbohydrates 94 76 3. Pulses 27 22 4. Vegetable oils andfat s 74 60 5. Edible fruits andnut s 414 335 6. Vegetables 238 192 7. Spices andcondiment s 112 91 8. Essential-oil plants 77 62 9. Stimulant plants 72 58 10. Medicinal andpoisonou s plants 1,350 1,091 11. Timber trees 1,517 1,226 12. Fibre plants 328 265 13. Forages 287 232 14.Dy ean dtannin-producin g plants 121 98 15. Rattans 170 137 16. Bamboos 58 47 17. Plants producing exudates 184 149 18. Auxiliary plants inagricultur e 166 134 and forestry 19. Ornamental plants 582 470 20. Lower plants 270 218 21. Miscellaneous plants 22 18

Total number of species 6,186 5,000 size (Table 2). Three very large groups (together totalling approximately 2,800 species) dominate: 'Medicinal and poisonous plants', 'Timber trees' and 'Ornamental plants'. Four large- to medium-sized groups, i.e. 'Edible fruits and nuts', 'Fibre plants', 'Forages' and 'Lower plants' account for about 1,050 species, whereas 4 medium- to small-sized groups, namely 'Vegetables', 'Rattans', 'Plants producing exudates', and 'Auxiliary plants in agriculture and forestry' comprise about 610 species. Six small groups are good for about 445 species: 'Plants mainly producing carbohydrates', 'Vegetable oils and fats', 'Spices and condiments', 'Essential-oil plants', 'Stimulant plants' and 'Dye and tannin-producing plants'. Three very small groups remain, i.e. 'Cereals', 'Pulses' and 'Bamboos', whereas 'Miscellaneous plants' account for about 20 species, but this number is surely greatly underestimated. The commodity-group approach facilitates a division into 21 subprojects, giving considerable flexibility in the execution of the project. The volume dealing with the 'Pulses' commodity group has been issued already, 2 volumes are at an advanced stage ('Edible fruits and nuts', 'Dye and tannin-producing plants'), 4 are in preparation ('Vegetables', 'Forages', 'Rattans', 'Bamboos'), and 5 are in the planning phase ('Cereals', 'Plants mainly producing carbohydrates', 'Essential-oil plants', 'Auxiliary plants in agriculture and forestry', 'Lower plants'). Tackling mainly medium- to small-sized commodity groups enables experience to be gained before the larger groups are tackled. This step wise approach is characteristic for PROSEA (see also the PROSEA publication umbrella in the paper by Westphal et al.).

230 Table 2. Commodity groups arranged according to size classes (number of species percommodit y group based ona total of 5,000).

State Number ofth e of Class Commodity group art* species Subtotal

very large Medicinalan d 1,09 1 > 1,000 poisonous plants Timber trees 1,22 6 2 ,317

large Ornamental plants 470 400-1,000 470

large tomediu m Edible fruits andnut s + 335 300-399 335

medi ur n Fibre plants 265 200-299 Forages + 232 Lower plants + 218 715

medium tosmal l Vegetables + 192 100-199 Rattans + 137 Plants producing exudates 149 Auxiliary plantsi n + 134 agriculture & forestry 612

small Plants mainly + 76 50-99 producing carbohydrates / Vegetables oils andfat s 60 Spices andcondiment s 91 Essential-oit plants + 62 Stimulant plants 58 Dye andtannin - + 98 producing plants 455

very smalI Cereals + 19 <5 0 Pulses issued 22 Bamboos + 47 Miscellaneous plants 18 106

Total 5 ,000

* Commodity groups indicated with + are in preparation or under consideration

2.2 Plant Species to be Considered

For several reasons (e.g. organization and finance) it is desirable to limit the number of plant species to be treated in the handbook to a provisional maximum of 5,000. Several valid reasons can be advanced for including many more plant species in the handbook, buton e overwhelming argument against this isth e time factor. Tomaintai n PROSEA's credibility the handbook should be available within areasonabl e time-perspective,sa y in about 10 years. In this context, the importance of the data bank is instrumental to the signalled problem. Information collected on plant species that at present are not to be dealt with in the handbook, can be stored in the data bases, e.g.fo r future use in new editions. Although the basic units of the PROSEA handbook are the plant species, closely related species within a genus might often be so similar 231 in other aspects as well that treatment on the genus level is more appropriate. Several examples are found in 'A selection' (e.g. Amaranthus, Coffea, Cryptocoryne, Rubus). It is recommended to adopt a flexible approach in this respect. The 'Basic list of species' is the starting point. Additions, corrections, etc. are considered per commodity group.

2.3 Method of Treatment

The textual treatment of species/genera in 'Pulses' and 'A selection' is based on strict authors' instructions with well-defined headings and text categories (1-5 printed pages). This framework of the species/genus treatment is applicable for all commodity groups, both for cultivated and wild plants. If possible, a line drawing should be included within the allocated number of pages. Some species receive tabular treatment only. Multipurpose plants receive their full treatment in the commodity group of their primary use. Secondary uses are indicated in tabular form in the relevant commodity-group volumes, and reference is made to the full treatment of the species in the commodity group of its primary use. For further details, see the system used in 'Pulses': e.g. winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) is sometimes used for its dry mature seeds, but its primary use is as a vegetable. Full treatment of this species is foreseen in 'Vegetables'.

2.4 Categories of Treatment

Assuming 5,000 plant species to be dealt with, it is proposed to give 3,500 (70%) a textual treatment varying from 1-5 pages, and 1,500 (30%) a tabular treatment only. It is crucial that the presented information be truly relevant. To ensure this, the documentation network of the PROSEA project should be able to collect up-to-date information which can be presented to authors and editors. This will be difficult for lesser-known species. In South- East Asia the Country Officers play a major role in the process of data collecting. Often, more relevant information is available than can be published in the handbook (e.g. vernacular names, synonyms, secondary uses, husbandry). This can be stored in the data bases. So, these data bases act as a kind of expansion tank for storing additional information, and are an important supplement to the volumes of the handbook.

2.5 Quality

Paramount for a project like PROSEA is that the result, i.e. the handbook, is of high scientific quality. The experience gained with the publications 'Pulses' and 'A selection' inevitably leads to the conclusion that the quality of the manuscripts submitted (about 110) varied considerably, requiring much editorial work. To guarantee quality and uniformity of the handbook, editorial work (editors, general editors) will remain very important, and in fact are a prerequisite for success.

232 3. Documentation and Information System

3.1 Components of the System

The data bank being developed by PROSEA will consist of 4 compo nents: (1) BASELIST, containing the basic list of names of the plant species to be considered for treatment in the handbook. (2) CATALOG and PREPHASE, being a data base of literature references collected from information centres and libraries in South-East Asia and from major on-line data banks. Searching and selection is done manually in South-East Asia; botanic names are the most important keywords for searching in the data banks. (3) ORGANYM and PERSONYM, listing information on institutions and persons working on subjects similar to those of PROSEA. (4) TEXTFILE, containing the texts of the handbook, with additional information.

3.2 Location and Exploitation of the Data Bank

The data bases are implemented on a personal computer with a large external memory, to ensure that all information will be available and easily accessible in the Regional and Country Offices of PROSEA. PROSEA has started to develop the data bases to provide services for its editors and authors, i.e. as an internal resource. Obviously, the data bank is a valuable resource for others working in similar fields. PROSEA is in favour of making the information more widely available, but organizational, financial and legal questions will have to be resolved before such a service can be implemented.

3.3 Equipment

The data bases are operational on personal computers. This facilitates the location of the data bases in several places without compatibility problems. The literature data base will be the largest one, reaching about 150 megabytes when literature on all the commodity groups has been incorporated. The other data bases will remain much smaller. The whole data bank can thus be accomodated on a personal computer with a large magnetic disk. The costs of these disks are decreasing rapidly. Optical and magneto-optical disks may become alternatives in the near future. The programme Tnmagic' has been selected to implement the data bases, because it provides great flexibility with texts.

3.4 Updating

The botanic names in BASELIST will be updated and editors of commodity groups will incorporate their views on additional species to be included in the final list. The literature data bases will be developed in line with the

233 execution of the different volumes of the handbook. When work on a commodity group starts, searches for that group are carried out. Manual searches in South-East Asia also concentrate on the commodity groups on which PROSEA is working. For as long as the data bases are internal resources, PROSEA doesno tinten d tokee pthe m up-to-date onceth ewor k on a commodity group has been completed. However, PROSEA recognizes the importance of keeping a data base on the literature of plant resources of South-East Asia up-to-date after completion. It should become a separate task, however, not interfering with the production of the handbook. Support from all cooperating countries or institutes is a prerequisite.

3.5 Information Supply and Copyrights

The possibility of enhancing the availability of the information compiled in the data bases has been indicated already. PROSEA will ensure that this is technically possible. However, if the information compiled byPROSE A isuse d byperson s not directly involved in PROSEA, the copyrights on the information become important. Although few precedents exist and jurisprudence is not fully clear, no major obstacles are anticipated to reaching legally and financially acceptable agreements with the holders of the copyrights. In short, all 'desiderata' mentioned are extra activities requiring additional funding and staff. The mandate must be well defined: is it only for the provision of bibliographic information or should it also include assistance in obtaining publications and/or supply of copies of publications as well?

3.6 Future Developments

The information compiled in the handbook provides an up-to-date account of the scientific knowledge on plant resources of South-East Asia. It presents a sound basis for the production of textbooks for students (forestry, agriculture, botany), manuals for the extension service, and extension material (leaflets, brochures), and also for general educational purposes and popularization of knowledge about plant resources and environment. Moreover, newdevelopment s in information presentation technology are taking place, allowing the combination of audio-visual and printed text. In this context, the technical information compiled by PROSEA may provide a good basis to develop teaching and extension aids that combine the audio, video and print techniques that will soon be available.

4. Organization and Finances

4.1 Structure and Organization

It is proposed to establish the 'PROSEA Foundation' per January 1, 1991. It will consist of the institutions currently participating in the project (Coordinating Institutions or National Boards). The PROSEA Foundation will be governed by a Board of Governors, composed of one

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235 representative from each National Board/Coordinating Institution. Representatives from Singapore and Brunei may be envisaged. The Board of Governors will be responsible for the general policy of the project, whereas the Executive Board, consisting of 2 members of the Board, will supervise the work of the PROSEA Bureau. The task of the PROSEA Bureau is to stimulate, coordinate and manage the work to fulfil the aims of the PROSEA project in agreement with the guidelines of the Boardo f Governors.A tpresen t the PROSEA Bureau iscompose d of aRegion al Coordinator South-East Asia and the Project leaders of Indonesia and the Netherlands. Each participating country has a Country Office supervised by a Project leader. Officers of the County Offices are staff members of the participating institution in that country. During their involvement in the PROSEA project they will work in close cooperation with the PROSEA Bureau. In South-East Asia the activities of the Country Offices are coordinated by the Regional Coordinator South-East Asia. The duty of the National Board or Coordinating Institution is to coordinate the work of the participating institutions within each country. For the organization of the proposed PROSEA Foundation, see Figure 1.

4.2 Manpower

For the period 1991-1995 (5 years) the following manpower for management, fund-raising, administration, documentation, writing, editing and publishing can be envisaged: (1) Country Offices South-East Asia: 10 country officers (2 per office), 5 secretaries (1 per office). In total, 15 collaborators. (2) Regional Office South-East Asia: 1 regional coordinator/agronomist, 1 forestry officer, 1 botanist, 1 documentalist, 1 secretary, 1 technical assistant, 2 illustrators, 1 herbarium officer, editorial staff (1 general editor (forestry), 1 secretary, 2 translators, e.g. for Bahasa Indonesia). In total, 13 collaborators. (3) Regional Office Europe: 1 coordinator, 1 financial coordinator, 1 forestry officer, 1 botanist, 1 agronomist/horticulturist, 2 documentants, 1 secretary, 1 illustrator, editorial staff (2 general editors (botany, agronomy), 1 in-house editor/publishing adviser, 1 secretary, 1 English corrector). In total, 14 collaborators. (4) Editors Commodity Groups: 34 editors (2 per commodity group). (5) Authors: several hundred (for about 2,000 species).

4.3 Finances and Financial Management

The following provisional budget for the period 1991-1995 can be established:

236 Personnel 1.1 South-East Asia Country Offices US$ 1,062,500 Regional Office US$ 2,375,000 1.2 Europe Country Officean d Regional Office US$2,925,00 0 us$ 6,362,500 2. Equipment andoperationa l costs us$ 200,000 3. Board/National Committees-Coordinating Institutions/ PROSEA Offices/Editorial Committee us$ 250,000 4. Training us$ 125,000 5. Workshops us$ 250,000 6. Documentation anddat a bank us$ 350,000 7. Fees (co-authors) and(associate ) editors for1 5volume s us$ 800,000 8. Initial costs volumes ofhandboo k (3,000 xUS $ 100) us$ 300,000 9. Contingencies us$ 862,500 Total costs areestimate da t us$ 9,500,000

The financial management of the project should be agreed upon by the Board of Governors.

4.4 Fund-Raising

A well-orchestrated effort should be started soon, to obtain funding for the activities foreseen for the period 1991-1995. Preliminary consultations have been carried out by the Netherlands PROSEA Board. Several approaches can be adopted simultaneously: (1) one approach is to cover the basic needs of the project in manpower etc. by funding through national agencies (ministries, universities, national foundations, national banks, etc.), (2) another approach is to cover the basic needs of the project in manpower etc. in South-East Asia by funding through international organizations (World Bank, Asian Development Bank, European Com munity,FAO ,UNESCO ,UNDP ,IUCN , Ford & Rockefeller Foundations, etc.), and (3) a third approach is to cover the costs of realization of the handbook by arranging for specific commodity groups to be 'adopted' by nation al or international agencies or organizations (banks, multinationals, certain international organizations like IUCN, national agencies for international cooperation like ACIAR in Australia, IDRC in Canada, Japanese agency for international cooperation, etc.). One should keep in mind that there will be always a direct relation between the available funds and the organizational structure. There is also an indirect relation between donors with their specific requirements about priorities and quality level on the one hand and the organizational structure on the other. For these reasons the ultimate organizational set up should be very flexible and adaptable to the given circumstances.

237 5. Publication Policy 5.1 Authors and Co-Authors An important priority for PROSEA is to promote contributions to the different volumes of the handbook by South-East Asian scientists. Collaboration of scientists from the region is a necessity, since it is a way of letting the project take root in the region, and of stimulating cooperation between institutions. Topresen ta high-qualit y product,PROSE A should promote worldwide collaboration as well, to ensure optimal use of potentially valuable expertise. Often, a joint authorship can combine existing expertise available in different geographical regions of the world. 5.2 Editorial Staff per Commodity Group

Since there are 21 commodity groups it is proposed to have separate editorial staff per commodity group. The staff will comprise the commodity-group editors (2), associate editors or readers, illustrator(s), an in-house editor, and the general editors. Each commodity group has its own (co-)authors (see Figure 2). The tasks of the editors of a commodity group will be: (1) to advise the Editorial Committee about the selection of species to be included in the group, (2) to advise the Editorial Committee about authors to be invited to write the text for the selected species, (3) to write an introductory chapter dealing with general aspects, and (4) to edit the whole manuscript in close cooperation with the Editorial Committee (which has the final responsibility for the volume).

Editors have been found for the following commodity groups: (1) Plants mainly producing carbohydrates (M.Flach & ?), (2) Pulses (L.J.G.van der Maesen & Sadikin Somaatmadja), (3) Edible fruits and nuts (E.W.M.Verheij & R.E.Coronel), (4) Vegetables (J.S.Siemonsma & ?), (5) Forages (L.'t Mannetje & R.M.Jones), (6) Dyean d tannin-producing plants(R.H.M.J.Lemmen s& N.W.Soetjipto) , (7) Rattans (J.Dransfield & N.Manokaran), (8) Bamboos (S.Dransfield & E.A.Widjaja), (9) Auxiliary plants in agriculture &forestry(L.J.G.va n der Maesen & ?), (10) Lower plants (W.F.Prud'homme van Reine & M.A.Rifai).

5.3 Editorial Committee The general editors guarantee the scientific quality and uniformity of treatment in the handbook, and are responsible for a regular flow of publications. Together with scientific advisers and publishing advisers they constitute the Editorial Committee. This Editorial Committee is responsible to the PROSEA Bureau (see Figure 2).

238 PROSEA BUREAU

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE

general editors scientific advisers publishing consultants

EDITORIAL STAFF PER COMMODITY GROUP

commodity group editors (2) associate editor(s) general editors illustrator(s) in-house editor

AUTHORS - CO-AUTHORS

Figure 2. Organization chart of Editorial staff per commodity group, (Co-)Authors, Editorial Committee and PROSEA Bureau.

239

1 To guarantee a smooth flow of manuscripts from (co-)authors through the editors and the general editors to the publisher, clear and detailed authors' instructions are necessary.

5.4 Fees for (Co-)Authors and (Associate) Editors

So far, (co-)authors and (associate) editors from South-East Asia have received a fee. It is recommended to continue this policy, except that editors from outside South-East Asia should receive an honorarium as well. A contract should besigne d between each (co-)author and the PROSEA Foundation, as well as between each editor and PROSEA.

5.5 Handbook Editions, Publisher(s) and Copyrights

The first publications of PROSEA are published by PUDOC, Wage ningen. This 'de luxe' English edition is too expensive for wide distribution in South-East Asia. PUDOC is preparing proposals to producea low-price English edition for South-East Asia, preferably with co- publishers in the respective member countries of PROSEA. If no publisher is interested in such a joint venture in a certain country, a national bookseller might be found to supply the books exclusively. Arrangements should be made on price and distribution and agreed on by contract. From preliminary discussions it appears that Indonesia is especially interested in a Bahasa Indonesia edition, whereas Malaysia and Thailand (and perhaps also the Philippines) are more in favour of an English edition. Copyrights are an important issue. It is proposed that (co-)authors and editors transfer their individual copyrights to the PROSEA Foundation. For the different English editions the copyrights of the PROSEA Foundation should be clearly recognized. For editions in the national languages (e.g. Bahasa Indonesia) the rights of the Foundation should be safeguarded.

6. Project Phasing and Publications

6.1 Project Phasing

The complexity of the project makes it realistic to phase the implementation stage in 2 periods of 5 years each. This step-wise approach is a basic ingredient for the execution of the project activities. The 'Proposal for a handbook' (1986) partly paved the way for the present preparatory phase. It is hoped that the publications 'Basic list of species and commodity grouping', 'A selection' and 'Pulses', together with the Proceedings of this symposium, will bring in sufficient funds to finance the first implementation phase 1991-1995. It is recommended to keep to the treatment of 5,000 plant species. This is still a formidable task. It is suggested that 3,500 species (70%) be dealt with textually, and 1,500 (30%) in tables. The length of the text categories and the number of species per text category may require further consideration. Another possibility might be to reduce the number of

240 commodity groups to be treated, for instance, to omit the largest groups, i.e. 'Timber trees', 'Medicinal and poisonous plants' and 'Ornamental plants', or to make a selection of species within those groups.

6.2 Schedule of Publications

The following schedule of publications is proposed for the period (1989-) 1991-1995:

1989: - Basic list of species and commodity grouping, Version 1 - A selection - PROSEA 1 - Pulses - Proceedings First PROSEA International Symposium 1990: - Basic list of species and commodity grouping, Version 2 - PROSEA 2 - Edible fruits and nuts PROSEA 3 Dye and tannin-producing plants 1991: - PROSEPROSEAA 4 -4 Bamboos PROSEA 5 Rattans PROSEA 6 Forages PROSEA 7 Cereals 1992: - PROSEPROSEAA 8 -8 Vegetables PROSEA 9 - Plants mainly producing carbohydrates PROSEA 10 - Auxiliary plants in agriculture and forestry 1993: - PROSEPROSEAA 1 11 -1 Lower plants PROSEA 12 Essential-oil plants PROSEA 13 Plants producing exudates 1994: - PROSEPROSEAA 1 41 -4 Vegetabl e oils and fats PROSEA 15 Fibre plants PROSEA 16 Stimulant plants 1995: - PROSEPROSEAA 1 71 -7 Spices PROSEA 18 Ornamental plants (Part 1)

Preparatory work on 'Ornamental plants', Part 2, 'Timber trees', Parts 1-2, 'Medicinal plants', Parts 1-2, and 'Miscellaneous plants' may start already in 1993/1994, leading to publication in the period 1996- 2000. In the second implementation phase (1996-2000) a second revised edition might be desirable of those commodity groups published first (e.g. 'Pulses', 'Edible fruits and nuts', 'Dye and tannin-producing plants').

6.3 Financial Consequences

Phasing the execution of the project in 2 periods has important consequences for the policy of fund-raising. It might be possible to obtain funding for the first period of execution. In this first period (1991-1995) the results should provide the reliable basis for financing the second period (1996-2000). The costs of the first implementation phase are estimated at about US$ 9,500,000; for the second phase it is assumed that approximately the same amount will be necessary. The total cost of the PROSEA project (199 1-

241 2000) will be approximately US$ 19,000,000. 7. Concluding Remarks

Paramount for anundertakin gsuc ha sPROSE Ai stha tth eend-product , i.e. the handbook, is of high scientific quality. Information gathering and documentation through the various data bases is essential for the production of the handbook. The data bank may play an important role in the future, after completion of the handbook. Thetechnica l information compiled byPROSE Ama yprovid ea basi sfo r developing teaching and extension aids. Ideally, it could combine the audio, video and printing techniques that will be soon available. Proposals have been presented for the structure, manpower and financing of the project. Proposals have been put forward for the collaboration of authors and editorial staff for the various volumes, and for the publishing of different editions. It is proposed to phase the project implementation in 2 stages, each of 5-year duration. The total costs are estimated at US$ 19,000,000.

Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges the support of P.CM.Jansen, L.P.A.Oyen, J.Vermeulen, W.P.M.Wolters and E.Westphal.

242 Reports Working Groups

1. Scientific Content and Quality

1.1 Considering that a species may rightfully belong to more than one commodity group, but recognizing the need to avoid duplication, it is recommended that theEditoria lCommitte edecide sint owhic h commodi ty group a species is placed, that the species is treated completely in this commodity group, but alsoincorporate d in commodity groups of secondary uses with a very brief description restricted to the particulars relevant for those commodity groups.

1.2 Noting that weeds do not form a commodity group, it is recommended not to publish a special volume on weeds.

1.3 Recognizing that the 'Basic list of species' is not yet complete, it is recommended that plant lists per commodity group be sent to the Country Officers, who will circulate the lists for improvements.

1.4 Noting that the 'Lower plants' form a natural group and that limited information may influence manuscript preparation for most species, it is recommended not to redistribute the species over other commodity groups, but to maintain the volume. '

1.5 Considering the lack of a market for a book on 'Miscellaneous plants', it is recommended to include species from this group in other commodity groups (if necessary using one of their secondary uses), and to use volume 21 as a supplement for updating.

1.6 Considering that sufficient information is often not available on all used species in a group (e.g. Calophyllum as timber), it is recommended that the genus treatment be used more frequently.

1.7 Recognizing the lack of data on, for instance, species from Papuasia, it is recommended that appendices be used extensively for listing plants on which little information is available.

1.8 Recognizing that the larger commodity groups will require special treatment, it is recommended to consider for the 'Timber trees' a general book on widespread species, and regional books (Papuasia, Malay Peninsula) on more localized species. For the 'Medicinal and poisonous plants', it is recommended only to include species whose active substances are known, or to distinguish a section 'Officially recognized' and a section 'Traditional' (see Herrill-Perry as an example).

1.9 To make the handbook attractive for readers, it is recommended to make more effort to bring a local flavour in the species treatments.

243 1.10 Recognizing that tabular treatment of species of minor importance would be very complicated and often incomplete, it is recommended to use brief textual treatments (as done in 'Pulses') instead of tables.

1.11 Considering the need to maintain the high scientific quality of the publications, the editors should remain in firm control. The Country Officers should communicate the names of scientists who can be co- opted as authors.

1.12 Noting that without herbarium documentation the handbook will lack value in the long term, it is strongly recommended to include references to herbarium specimens in the handbook.

1.13 Considering the need to make scientists in the region aware of what is expected in a species treatment, it is recommended to print the Author's Instructions in the Proceedings of the Symposium.

1.14 Given the abundance of vernacular names (Papua New Guinea has 700 distinct languages), it is recommended to restrict the number of names listed in the handbook to those accepted regionally (3 names per country), and to place the responsibility for the selection with the Country Officers.

2. Organization and Finances

2.1 Acknowledging the initiative of Wageningen Agricultural University in obtaining financial support from the Netherlands government which generously contributed an amount of 4.6 million Dutch guilders for the purposes of: (a) setting up the present structure of both Regional (Europe and South-East Asia) as well as Country Offices (Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines and Thailand), (b) documentation, (c) publication, and (d) consultation (this symposium) during the Preparatory Phase (1987-1990),

2.2 Considering that the basic PROSEA infrastructure has already been laid down in the region,

2.3 Concerned, however, that PROSEA itself has no legal 'entity' to seek funding for the next phase (1991-1995) from international donor agencies such as ADB, WB, EEC, FAO, UNDP, UNESCO and others,

2.4 Nevertheless aware of the existence of some international organizations like IUFRO, which have no legal entity yet receive money from donor agencies,

2.5 Stating that setting up a 'PROSEA Foundation' is one option to strengthen PROSEA's position in obtaining funds from international donors,

244 2.6 Desirous that PROSEA be established as a truly South-East Asian organization with its headquarters in South-East Asia,

2.7 Realizing the need and benefits of maintaining close relations with Wageningen Agricultural University and other scientific institutions in Europe, but not considering it necessary to set up a PROSEA Regional Office in Europe,

2.8 Expressing concern over the high estimated budget and manpower requirements, and therefore recognizing the potential of linkages with other existing programmes and institutions such as UNESCO, ESCAP, IPBGR, etc.,

2.9 Recognizing that the working group lacked the necessary expertise to discuss this issue in detail, that the establishment of an international organization, i.e. PROSEA International, is a complex issue, and recognizing the long period required to set up an international PROSEA,

2.10 The Working Group on Organization and Finances recommends the following: (a) Creation of aTas k Forcecompose d of amaximu m of 5member s with adequate membership from the region, to be appointed by the Multilateral Steering Committee. The Task Force will, within the next 6 months: (1) examine/study the possible ways of internationalizing PROSEA, (2)recommen d theappropriat e form of PROSEA International in terms of legal framework, organizational structure, manpower requirement, total funding requirement (indicating both the donor contribution and the counterpart contribution (in kind)), and (3) recommend steps to be taken to establish PROSEA International. (b) Actions be undertaken soon to approach potential donors such as EEC, WB, UNESCO, FAO, UNDP, etc. and local governments. (c) Requests be made to the Netherlands government and governments in South-East Asia to consider providing bridging funds during the interim period. (d) All editors and (co-)authors, irrespective of country of origin, be given a uniform fee.

3. Information and Documentation System

3.1 Acknowledging the proposals for project execution within the field of documentation and information, the following supplementary recommendations are made.

3.2 Recognizing the importance of having access to all available information, it is recommended to pay attention to acquiring information on current research as part of the data base.

245 3.3 Considering the general importance of the information underlying the PROSEA research, it is strongly recommended to make the data base accessible to the scientific community and to continue to maintain the data base, even for commodity groups that have been described and published. Attention should be given to training people to use this data base.

3.4 Noting that a number of information networks already exist in the region, it is recommended that the data base be made accessible via these networks and that the input be coordinated with other information centres.

3.5 Noting that there is a national and a regional library infrastructure in the region, it is recommended to use this structure for document delivery and only to borrow via FAO's AGLINES as a last resort.

3.6 Considering that in many instances paper quickly deteriorates and that sometimes only parts of the underlying information and/or the texts are needed, it is recommended to put the data base and text on CD-ROM.

4. Publication Policy

4.1 Considering the call for South-East Asian scientists to play an important role in PROSEA endeavours, it is hereby recommended that when nominating editors, associate editors, authors and co-authors, priority should be given to competent, available and willing scientists in South-East Asia.

4.2 Noting that the nomination of editors, associate editors, authors and co-authors is a difficult task, the PROSEA Regional Office is urged to prepare and make available a directory of South-East Asian scientists.

4.3 Considering the present inequality of honorariums for (co-)authors and (associate) editors, it is requested that equal treatment be accorded to those from and those not from South-East Asia.

4.4 Acknowledging that (co-)authors and (associate) editors are the primary contributors to the handbook, it is recommended that appropriate honorariums are accrued.

4.5 Considering the possibility that the handbook may be commercialized, thus generating revenue, it is recommended that such revenues be channelled back into the PROSEA Foundation.

4.6 Considering that it is possible that the handbook will be published in the national language of a participating country, it is recommended that the publication process be the responsibility of the

246 country concerned. 4.7 The proposal to negotiate the publication of a low-price version for South-East Asian countries is fully endorsed. 4.8 Recognizing that copyrights are an important issue, the proposal that (co-)authors and (associate) editors transfer their individual copyrights to the PROSEA Foundation, subject to an agreement signed by the parties concerned, is endorsed.

4.9 Noting that the proposed schedule of publication is tentative, it is hereby proposed that rescheduling isnecessary ,subjec t toth ePROSE A Foundation having the necessary funds, and the manuscripts for the appropriate commodity group being finalized.

4.10 Noting the importance and the urgent need for information on 3 commodity groups in South-East Asia, i.e. 'Timber trees', 'Medicinal and poisonous plants', and 'Ornamental plants', it is requested that these 3 groups be accorded higher priorities in the schedule of publication.

247 Poster Presentations

249

Oil-Producing Euphorbiaceae: Ricinus communis L. and Jatropha curcas L.

A.T.Aranez

Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines

Ricinus communis L. and Jatropha curcas L. are both sources of fixed oils (castor oil and curcas oil respectively) that have many industrial and medicinal uses. The industrial uses of both oils include: motor and diesel fuel; lubricant; the manufacture of soap and candles. Castor oil can be converted into sebacic acid for the manufacture of certain plastics, synthetic durable fabrics, nylon bristles, and synthetic lubricants for jet aircraft, and into a drying oil for the manufacture of quick-drying and water-resistant varnishes and enamels.Sulphonate d castor oil can be used for dyeing cotton fabrics. Castor oil may also be used in sticky fly-paper, typewriter ink and some cosmetics. The leaves are used in making 'katol', a mosquito killer, and for sprays against flies. The pulp from the stems can be made into paper. Medicinal uses of R.communis given in the 'Philippine National Formulary' are: (1) pounded leaves applied over breast stimulate milk secretion, (2) pounded leaves boiled in water are used for skin ulcers, and (3) pounded roasted seeds applied with oil are good for haemorrhoids. Based on a Pharmacognosy book, oil from the seeds is a cathartic, plasticizer in flexible collodion, and ricinoleic acid from the oil is an ingredient of medicinal jelly. Other uses of J.curcas are the following: (1) the latex has inhibiting properties against strains of watermelon mosaic virus, (2) constituents from leaves and twigs exhibit activity against P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia, and (3) it is a possible cardio-vascular drug. The 'Philippine National Formulary' cites the following uses of J.curcas: (1) decoction of leaves for cough, (2) fresh juice from stems for cuts and wounds, (3) warm leaves for sprain, and (4) oil for skin diseases. An assessment of the commercial potential of eight varieties of R.communis (five large-seeded and threesmall-seeded. )showe d that 'Bangkok Brown Spotted' is better than the others. However, other varieties studied also have good characters, such as relatively high oil content or spineless fruits. They were not considered as good commercial varieties since they either do not grow well, are late-maturing, or their fruits shatter. An intervarietal hybrid was produced by crossing 'Bangkok Brown Spotted' and 'Native Green'. This hybrid was early-flowering, had many non-shattering fruits with seeds of relatively high oil content, and could be propagated by stem cuttings to maintain its qualities. Plants with spineless capsules were isolated from the second generation of the cross between 'Native Green' and 'Indonesian' and also between 'Bangkok Brown Spotted' and 'Indonesian'. Seeds of the plants with spineless capsules produced plants with spineless fruits in the succeeding generations.

251 Mutation breeding was conducted using ethyl methanesulphonate on R.communis and gammaradiatio n onJ.curcas. InR.communis tricotyledonous plants with short stature and with many seeds were observed in the M2 generation. In J.curcas, Mj plants with some branches having entire leaves instead of the normal lobed ones were observed. In the M9 progeny, tricotyledonous plants, monocotyledonous plants, plants with twin stems, and plants with branches from the base of the stem or with entire leaves were observed. An inheritance study in R.communis showed that the genes responsible for the inheritance of fruit-spines are incompletely dominant to each other. There are possibly five pairs of polygenes involved in the inheritance of seed-weight in the varieties studied, and gene interactions are involved in the inheritance of the colour of stems, petioles and peduncles, and also in the inheritance of the presence and nature of bloom. Secondary association of meiotic chromosomes, a post-synaptic phenomenon involving homeologous (genetically equivalent) chromosomes, which is of widespread occurrence in polyploids, was observed in both species.

An Introduction to Fruit and Nut Trees in Papua New Guinea

R.A.Banka

PROSEA Country Office Papua New Guinea, PNG University of Technology, Private Mail Bag, Lae, Papua New Guinea

Traditional fruit and nut trees are widely harvested and cultivated in Papua New Guinea. In addition to the widely grown trees such as Artocarpus spp., Canarium spp., and Gnetum gnemon, the country also has a large number of local endemics which have edible fruits and nuts. These include species such as Gnetum costatum (widely consumed on the north coast of Madang Province), Barringtonia spp., Ficus spp., Pangium edule, and many others. Many of these species of fruits and nuts are part of the plant resources that form the basis of life for the majority of the country's population, especially the rural people living in traditional village societies. Whether the people are hunters, farmers or gatherers, fruit and nut species provide them with food, medicine and other necessities. During bad weather (especially on the islands), the indigenous people depend on fruits and nuts as the only source of food until the weather is clear enough to sail out to trade for food, or start fishing. Barringtonia spp., Inocarpus edule and Pandanus spp. are some of the most important species. Indirect uses include the use of inedible fruits and nuts as baits in traps for animals. Stimulants such as Areca catechu (betelnut) are chewed with Piper and

252 lime (obtained from the burning of sea-shells). Village people are earning reasonable cash income from betelnuts because of the demand from cities and towns, and have started cultivating the nuts with other fruits to sell them in the markets in urban areas. This is an important step in forestry development. There is now a need to properly collect, identify, and perhaps look at ways of cultivating some of the species. In this way the species can be conserved, especially during clearance for gardening and logging, whereas at present they are removed because of ignorance.

Study on Fast-Growing Nitrogen-Fixing Trees in Thailand

S.Chitnawasarn & S.Pattanavibul

Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (TISTR), 196 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

The Thailand Institute of Scientific and Technological Research (TISTR) has conducted research work on fast-growing nitrogen-fixing trees (FGNFT) since 1977. It started with Leucaena leucocephala, a fodder tree which has proved to be widely adapted to environmental conditions in Thailand, followed by Acacia auriculiformis and Acacia mangium. With financial support from BOSTID US-NAS, 77 provenances of 18 FGNFT species of Acacia, Albizia, Cassia, Eucalyptus and Leucaena were introduced and planted in provenance and selection trials at four different locations to evaluate their site adaptability. Growth performance in terms of dry biomass harvested (DBH), plant height and survival percentages, together with other desirable properties and characteristics such as phenotypic and genetic uniformity, fast growth and straightness of trunk, were the selection criteria. Acacia auriculiformis showed its promising drought and waterlogging tolerance, whereas A.mangium needs a well-drained soil. It grows faster on fertile soils. The advantage of A.mangium over A.auriculiformis is its straight trunk. Interspecific hybrids of both species were found in A.mangium populations in many trials. The hybrids' growth habit resembles that of A.mangium, but the leaf shape and size, form and colour of the inflorescence are similar to those of A.auriculiformis. The vigour of these hybrids is of great interest for further study. At 18 months of age, other FGNFT showing outstanding performance were Acacia aulacocarpa, A.crassicarpa, A.holosericea, A.leptocarpa, A.plectocarpa, Leucaena diversifolia (K156), L.leucocephala (K28), and a Leucaena hybrid (K743). However, selected provenances should be further investigated to confirm their long-term properties. Phenological and pollination studies of Acacia auriculiformis andA.mangium havebee ndon e toarriv ea t maximum seed production.

253 Genetic Resources of Pyrethrum {Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium) in Indonesia

A.Djisbar

Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3, Bogor 16111, Indonesia

Human life already strongly relies on the existence of insecticides, notably for improving production, quality and storage of crop products. In addition they are indispensable for preventing human diseases such as malaria, yellow fever and tsetse fever. Nowadays, many people, especially in the developed countries, are concerned about the harmful side-effects of synthetic insecticides on human health and the environment. More efforts are needed to find alternatives. Pyrethrum {Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium), which produces a natural insecticide, originated from Persia and was introduced into Europe in the 19th century. It belongs to the family Compositae. As a powder it was well-known for its efficacy against Aedes aegypti (yellow fever), Anopheles spp. (malaria), Antestia sp. (coffee bug), cockroaches, flies, fleas and other household insects. Pyrethrum is unique for many reasons. Firstly, it is highly toxic to insects, while at the same time being non toxic to warm-blooded animals. Secondly, it has a strong paralytic effect on insects, resulting in fast knock-down. In 1935thi s commodity was introduced from Kenya to the western parts of the Dieng Plateau in Central Java by aDutchma n named Albert Wienland. Because the plant is currently threatened with extinction, collection was carried out from January 12-18, 1989 at the Dieng Plateau covering the Districts of Wonosobo, Temanggung and Banjarnegara. The plant isn o longer cultivated; it grows naturally in the bush. Farmers on the Dieng Plateau are much more interested in growing vegetables such as tomatoes and cabbage than pyrethrum, for economic reasons. In all, 106 accessions were collected and planted on January 19, 1989, together with 4 other numbers (M219; THT4-1; THT4-2 and THT4-4), in the nursery and in the field of Manoko Experimental Station, Lembang, West Java. Up to March 1, 1989, of the 110 numbers only 'Sidoro 22' had died or disappeared. M219 had the tallest plants and 'Sikunang' the shortest, while the most and the fewest suckers were observed in 'Sikunang' and 'Prau' respectively. Three months after planting, mean plant height, number of suckers and number of leaves were 13.8 cm (CV=36%), 11.4 (CV=63%) and 40.3(CV=69% ) respectively. The data suggest that, because of large variation, Dieng pyrethrum germplasm is a promising base material for creating a better variety or clone.

254 PROSEA and IBPGR

J.M .M .Engels

IBPGR, c/o FAO Office, P.O.Box 3088, New Delhi 110 003, India

The International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) is a source of valuable information for the PROSEA project. In particular, the information synthesized by systematic collecting of germplasm (partly coordinated through the IBPGR Regional Committee for South-East Asia: RECSEA), and the reports of the collectors, are valuable sources of information. The reports of collecting missions list prominent diversity, species richness and accessions collected in each of the member countries. Of direct relevance to PROSEA is the information on the collecting of wild relatives and related taxa of genera such as Citrus, Dioscorea, Durio, Garcinia, Mangifera, Musa, Nephelium, Saccharum, Solatium, Vigna, forage legumes, etc. Reports of studies on genetic diversity and eco-geographical distribution of plant resources are available. Other relevant sources of information are the various publications on plant genetic resources published by IBPGR since J975 . Further, a continental Newsletter for Asia and the Pacific on Plant Genetic Resources, to be published thrice a year, will be an important vehicle for the exchange of information on germplasm issues. The recently revised IBPGR Regional Committee for South-East Asiai s the official coordinating body of IBPGR-supported plant genetic resources activities in the region, and closecooperatio n between PROSEA and RECSEA will be essential. Finally, the strategic research being initiated by IBPGR on topics such as genetic diversity and eco-geographical distribution of plant resources, represent relevant sources of information.

Uses of Traditional Vegetable Resources of Malaysia

Farah D.Ghani-Bauer

Botany Department, National University Malaysia (UKM), 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Traditional agriculture in Malaysia supported the cultivation of endemic plant species for food, fruits and vegetables. The number of species, including fungi, algae, herbs, grasses, climbers and trees, in the tropical rainforest is estimated at 9,000-10,000 species. From these, the local population has selected its vegetables. Vegetables in the form

255 of leaves, roots, seeds and fruits have always been an important component in the diet of the people. A country-wide survey revealed that a total of more than 80 species from 40-45 families have been utilized as a source of vegetables. These include 35-40 families of angiosperms, 1 family of gymnosperms and 5-8 families of ferns. Ferns such as Blechnum orientale, Helminthostachys sp., Nephrolepis acutifolia, and Stenochlaena palustris are harvested for their young unrolled fronds which are eaten either raw or half-cooked. They are rich in protein (20-40% on a dry weight basis), carbohydrates (30-50%), and also contain many essential minerals and vitamins. The flowers and leaves of aquatic plants such as Hydrocotyle asiatica and Limnocharis flava, the young shoots of Anacardium occidentale, Bouea macrophylla and Gnetum gnemon, to name but a few, are not only used as vegetables but also as a source of herbal medicines. There are numerous examples of fruit trees which are also a source of vegetables, e.g. Carica papaya, Eugenia sp., Ficus sp., Musa sp., and Parkia speciosa. Some of the vegetable species are also used as a source of spices, food flavouring and as aromatic herbs. This multipurpose usage of many tropical plants is highly beneficial and it should be fully exploited. Further collection and documentation of usage may reveal more species already in use. The nutritional value of the traditional vegetables is comparable or better than some of the introduced and widely consumed vegetables such as carrots, cabbage and lettuce. Furthermore, the common practice of utilizing many local vegetables raw, half-cooked or simply blanched, preserves more of the essential proteins, minerals and vitamins. The present-day population, however, is more interested in introduced subtropical and temperate vegetables. The traditional vegetables are not in demand, are facing genetic erosion, loss of species, or remain totally insignificant! This group of plants is now being collected for germplasm material, for research purposes and for re-educating the present-day population on its enormous potential.

Rattan Resources of the Philippines

E.S.Fernando

Department of Forest Biological Sciences, College of Forestry, University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines

The rattans (Palmae: Calamoideae) of the Philippines belong to four genera, i.e. Calamus, Daemonorops, Korthalsia, and Plectocomia. In all there are about 66 species, 71% are endemic. As elsewhere in South-East Asia where rattans occur, Calamus is the largest rattan genus in the

256 Philippines, with 45 species. There are 14 species in Daemonorops, 5 in Korthalsia, and 2 in Plectocomia. Altogether, they comprise nearly half of the entire Philippine palm flora. The Philippine rattans may be found from sea-level in mangrove forests (e.g. Calamus erinaceus) up to elevations of 2,000 m in upper montane or mossy forests (e.g. Calamus dimorphacanthus). The majority of the species occur in lowland to mid-elevation rainforests. They are, however, continuously threatened by excessive collection and habitat destruction. In certain areas wild stocks of many species have already been depleted. Thus far, about 37 species or more than half of the known species from the Philippines have been found in Mindanao, with 12 species strictly restricted there. On Luzon, the largest island in the archipelago, there are 31 species with only 5 species confined to the island. Palawan has 22 species, but only 4 are limited to the island; most of the species there also occur in Borneo. It is likely that with further floristic inventories of currently inaccessible and less-explored areas of the archipelago, many more species will be discovered.

Cultivated Mussaenda and Indigenous Species with Promising Ornamental Potential in Papua New Guinea ,

O.G.Gideon

National Herbarium, PNG Forest Research Institute, P.O.Box 314, Lae, Papua New Guinea

Mussaenda includes some of the most widely cultivated ornamental plants in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The genus comprises about 200 species, and is native to the Old World tropics. The generic name was adopted from the Sinhalese name 'Mussenda' for two Sri Lankan species. Mussaenda species derive their aesthetic value from the unusual development of one or more of the calyx lobes into large, colourful petaloid structures. In the majority of the species they are white or creamy-white, except for the African species M.erythrophylla K.Sch. & Thonn., which has crimson-red petaloid sepals. A few species (e.g. M.elegans) do not possess enlarged calyx lobes; however, this is compensated for by the enlargement of the corolla, thus making them equally attractive. Although almost all Mussaenda species may prove of equal ornamental value, only a very few species have been introduced into cultivation. The following species or cultivars have been introduced and are widely cultivated in Papua New Guinea: M.erythrophylla, M.flava, M.philippica var. aurorae and 1 or 2 cultivars with pinkish to reddish- pink petaloid sepals.

257 1-ult.vat.d Mussaenda and Indigenous hpecius with Horticultural Potential in Papua New Guinea

In Papua New Guinea some 20-24 species occur, many of which show promise as ornamentals and deserve wider horticultural attention. Although none of them has been intentionally introduced into cultivation, some of the widely distributed species (e.g. M.cylindrocarpa Burck, M.pilosissima (Engl.) Val., M.procera F.M. Bail., and M.scratchleyi Wernh.) are often adventitious in botanical and domestic gardens and have been readily accepted. The Papua New Guinean species occur naturally from sea-level to about 2,000 m elevation, occupying almost all ecological niches. Therefore a wide choice of species is available for trials anywhere. In some Papua New Guinean species, such asM.chrysotricha Val. andM.reinwardtiana Miq., the enlarged calyx lobes are more than twice the size of the leaves, making them highly conspicuous from a distance. The following is a preliminary list of Papua New Guinean species with promising horticultural potential, grouped according to broad altitudinal zones. Their habit and ecology are briefly outlined. (1) Lowlands (0-700 m): Mussaenda aestuarii K.Sch., with climbing habit, occurs in or at the edges of forest; M.chrysotricha Val., a climbing shrub, occurs also in forest edges; M.cylindrocarpa Burck, an erect shrub, occupies open spaces, with preference for limestone areas; M.procera F.M.Bail., an erect or scrambling shrub, occurs in rainforests and regrowth; M.reinwardtiana Miq., an erect or climbing shrub, occurs in the forest or in semi-shaded areas; M.scratchleyi Wernh., an erect shrub, occurs in open situations, river banks, etc.; M.whitei S.Moore, an erect or climbing shrub, occurs in savanna forests. (2) Medium altitudes (700-1,500 m): M.oblongipetala sp.nov. (in

258 prep.), with climbing habit, occurs in forest and shrub vegetations; M.pilosissima (Engl.) Val., with erect habit, prefers open situations such as grasslands; M.valetoniana sp.nov. (in edit.), an erect shrub, prefers open grassy areas. (3) High altitudes (1,500-2,800 m): M.oreadum Wernh., a scrambling shrub, occurs in open or semi-shade situations; M.valetoniana sp.nov. (in prep.), an erect shrub, occurs in open grassy valleys.

Traditional Vegetables of Papua New Guinea

A.M.Gurnah

Department of Agriculture, PNG University of Technology, Private Mail Bag, Lae, Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea has a whole range of climates, from equatorial to sub-alpine, which makes it possible to grow a large array of local traditional as well as introduced vegetables. Among the traditional vegetables in Papua New Guinea, 'some are cultivated intensively like aibika {Abelmoschus manihot) and pumpkin, while others are self-sown, like amaranth, or even weeds. Such plants come from a wide range of habitats including aquatic conditions, like 'kangkong' {Ipomoea aquatica). They range in size from small ferns to big trees. The most important cultivated vegetables are aibika {Abelmoschus manihot), the amaranths, locally called 'aupa' {Amaranthus spp.) and pumpkin tips {Cucurbita spp.). The 'pitpit' or inflorescences of two grasses {Saccharum edule and Setaria palmifolia) are also widely cultivated, although both are often collected from the wild. Other cultivated vegetables include Abroma angustum, Brassica juncea, Celosia argentea, Coleus scutellarioides, Commelina cyanea. Ficus spp., Ocimum basilicum, Oenanthe javanica, Riedelia carallina, Rungia klossii and some others. The natural vegetation provides a number of traditional vegetables such as some ferns (e.g. Asplenium affine), Abroma angustum, Albizia sp., Ascarina philippinensis, Astilbe sp., Astronia sp., Begonia sp., Beilshmiedia sp., Blumea riparia, Chloranthus sp., Coleus scutellarioides, Crotalaria linifolia, Desmodium microphyllum, Ficus spp., Piper spp. and many others. One thing is for sure, very little is known about the traditional vegetables, cultivated or wild, in Papua New Guinea. It is hoped that the work sponsored by PROSEA will change this. The importance, botany, distribution and cultivation of the major traditional vegetables are discussed in full by Gurnah (1989): Crops in Papua New Guinea (in press).

259 Salacca Germplasm for Potential Economie Use

G.GMambali1, J.P.Mogea2 & M.Yatazawc?

Salacca Breeding Lab, Jalan Area Domas 7, Baranangsiang Indah, Bogor 16710, Indonesia

Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

Biological Laboratories, Aichi Gakuin University, Nissin-cho, Aichi 470-01, Japan

An extensive survey in various places in South-East Asia (Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Madura and Bali) was made to assess the economic potential of Salacca germplasm. Five species of Salacca (S.zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss, S.sumatrana Becc, S.glabrescens Griff., S.wallichiana Mart., and S.affinis Griff.) were noticed to be already in cultivation. S.zalacca is, however, the only species known to be extensively cultivated. Plantations of S.zalacca var.zalacca are found in Sumatra, Java, Madura, Borneo (Tarakan), and Celebes, whereas those of S.zalacca var.amboinensis (Becc.) Mogea are mostly found in East Bali, although the latter variety is also cultivated in Ambon and on a few islands east of Bali. The total cultivated area of both varieties is estimated to be no less than 5,000 ha. S.sumatrana and S.glabrescens are 2 Salacca species locally under intensive cultivation. The former occurs in North Sumatra, particularly in the vicinity of Padangsidempuan, whereas the latter is cultivated in Peninsular Malaysia (Trengganu). S.wallichiana and S.affinis represent Salacca species which are cultivated in a semi-wild condition. The former is sporadically cultivated in southern Thailand and in the eastern part of Peninsular Malaysia, whereas the latter is cultivated in Central Borneo. One natural hybrid between S.wallichiana and S.glabrescens, locally called 'sala', was observed to be cultivated in Thailand (Chanthaburi) for its highly esteemed fruit. It was also noticed that 'salak' plantations in Peninsular Malaysia (Trengganu) entirely consist of S.glabrescens, not S.zalacca, as was frequently reported. Although the horticultural merits of many interspecific hybrids in Salacca have not been fully assessed, it appears that genetic disharmony may become a limiting factor in the utilization of the hybrids. The existing intraspecific variants appear to offer a greater potential for fruit quality improvement. Two other natural hybrids, i.e. S.vermicularis x S.affinis and S.vermicularis x S.magnifica were detected during the survey.

260 1

Wild Durio Germplasm for Improving Fruit Quality and Performance of Durio zibethinus

G.G.Hambali1, M.Yatazawa2 & A.T.Sunarto3

Salacca Breeding Lab, Jalan Area Domas 7, Baranangsiang Indah, Bogor 16710, Indonesia

Biological Laboratories, Aichi Gakuin University, Nissin-cho, Aichi 470-01, Japan

Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

Interspecific hybridization between Durio zibethinus Murr, and two wild species of Durio (D.graveolens Becc. and D.oxleyanus Griff.) was carried out in an attempt to probe into the possibility of utilizing the extensive wild germplasm of Durio in the improvement of fruit quality and performance of D.zibethinus. / Four hybrid seedlings were obtained in the crosses between D.zibethinus and D.graveolens, whereas no fruit set was observed in the crosses between D.zibethinus and D.oxleyanus, and between D.oxleyanus and D.graveolens. Although one natural hybrid cultivar is known to be already widely distributed in nurseries around Jakarta and Bogor, no fruit set was obtained in the limited crosses between D.zibethinus (5 cultivars) and D.kutejensis Becc. (4 cultivars). The hybrid seedlings will be maintained for further evaluation, and similar crosses will be conducted in the future to secure more hybrid seedlings. The existing natural hybrids show several unusual characters not seen in our cultivated durian. Their merits for the improvement of fruit quality and performance of D.zibethinus need to be fully assessed. Their utilization in a hybridization programme may considerably reduce the time span required in the breeding of this perennial crop.

261 Ecophysiological Study and Post-Harvest Handling of Mangosteen Fruits (Garcinia mangostana L.)

S.S.Harjadi, A.Hidayat & M.Argasasmita

Laboratory of Horticulture, Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia

An experiment aimed to ascertain the effect of environmental growth conditions on mangosteen trees and their fruiting behaviour, was conducted at Jonggol Experimental Station from October 1987 until February 1988. In total, 160 ten-year-old trees were observed; weed occurrence, land slope, shade and proximity to the road were noted as well as the vegetative and reproductive growth of the trees. The results showed that shade from nearby wayside trees tends to decrease the plant height, lessens canopy density and delays fruiting. Land slope and the occurrence of weeds also decrease the trees' height and their fruit-bearing. Heavy rainfall during the stage of rapid fruit development tends to increase fruit diameter, whereas drought not only decreases fruit diameter, but also causes fruit damage resulting in inferior fruit quality (Table 1). A second experiment, on post-harvest behaviour, was conducted in February 1989, using 711 fruits harvested at 6 picking stages, i.e. (1) green, with only a few red patches, (2) green, with red colour on a quarter of the pericarp, (3) even red colour, only a quarter being green, (4) purplish red, (5) blackish red-purple, and (6) black-purple. Fruits were stored at room temperature (23-29°C) and 79-96% RH. Physical and chemical observations were made. The results showed that the longest

Table 1. Fruit diameter at different picking dates in relation to rainfall.

No.of Precedi Fruit diameter(cm ) Harvest ng rainfalI* S(n-1) dates fruits observed days mm max. average

Nov.198 8 53 29 865 5 4.2 0.43 Dec.198 8 30 44 1,150 5 4.4 0.56 Jan.198 9 17 50 1,181 6 5.1 0.84

* rainfall over preceding 3-month period. shelf-life (9 days) was obtained at the green picking stage when uniform purple patches cover about a quarter of the fruit pericarp. Picking before this stage halts colour development and leads to shrivelling of the pericarp, resulting in inferior quality. Picking at later stages gives rise to a hard pericarp, which is difficult to open. This is often accompanied by brown arils. There were only slight changes in total acids, pH and total soluble solids. However, it is important to note the changes in taste. The fruits picked too early become rather sour, due to an increase in acids and soluble solids, whereas fruits which are too ripe

262 become bland in taste, due to the decrease of acids and soluble solids. Another experiment studied the effect of fruit-drop at harvesting. Observations on 150 fruits at 3 ripening stages showed that mangosteen fruits are very sensitive to mechanical force, which causes pericarp latex to enter the aril, resulting in unacceptable, inferior quality. Most sensitive are fruits at the purple stage.

Aspects of Fruit Development in the Sugar Palm (Arenga pinnata Merr.)

E.B.Hidajat, H.T.Pramesti & T.Adiastuti

Biology Department, Bandung Institute of Technology, Jalan Ganesha 10, Bandung 40132, Indonesia

The sugar palm is a monoecious tree with pistillate inflorescences emerging first at the distal end of the tree after the apical meristem has ceased functioning. It is then followed by staminate inflorescences in basipetal sequence. Almost all parts of the tree are used by local people including its endosperm which is consumed as a favourite delicacy. It takes about 36 months for the fruit to ripen. In each locule of the tricarpellate and trilocular fruit a hemi-anatropous ovule is found but not all of them mature into a seed. In a sample of 104 fruits only 10% contained 3 seeds, 36%containe d 2 seeds, and 50%containe d one seed only. Placentation of two of the three ovules is on one side, whereas the third is on the opposite side. During its ontogeny, the micropyle of the ovule, which was originally located in a lateral-basal position, changes to a lateral-distal position due to differential growth. This growth and the difference in placentation causes the micropyle to be found at the distal right or left side of the mature seed. The micropyle is the site of the germination pore. In a small experiment conducted to see whether the site of the micropyle has a bearing on seed germination, it was found that seeds with the micropyle at the right-hand side show a higher percentage of germination than those with the micropyle at the left-hand side. This finding was not supported statistically, however, perhaps because of the small size of the sample. The initially free nuclear endosperm starts to form cells about 22 months after fertilization. Cellularization of the endosperm is completed in the following months and afterwards cell-wall thickening occurs, resulting in very hard endosperm tissue. Knowledge about the time of cellular endosperm formation is useful to determine harvest time to suit the consumer, a softer endosperm occurring at an earlier date. The fruit-wall consists of three layers. The outermost layer, the exocarp, is made up of the outer epidermis, a collenchyma layer beneath, followed by several cell layers of sclereids and a parenchyma zone containing many sclerenchyma-sheathed vascular bundles as well as sclerenchyma strands. The mesocarp is a thick fleshy parenchymatous layer

263 with many slime cells each containing a raphide bundle and other cells filled with a tanniniferous substance. The endocarp consists of the radially elongated locular epidermis cells which become filled with numerous globular crystals. During the later part of fruit growth, the locular epidermis adheres closely to the outer cell layers of the seed. The endocarp as well as the tissue adhering to it later undergo sclerification of the cell-walls and form tanniniferous substances resulting in a dark and hard cover of the seed. In the micropyle region of the seed-cover, a circular area is delimited by a slight dip at its circumference. This area, part of the germination plug, is pushed upwards during germination. The embryonal tissue beneath forms the spongy outer haustorium which is thought to have a function in water absorption. It is followed by growth of the long, procumbent cotyledonar petiole which brings the plumula and radicula portion, situated at its distal end, towards an appropriate position for further growth of the seedling. When the correct position is reached, vertical growth of the embryo proper occurs in the plumula at the site of the leaves and in the radicula which forms adventitious roots. Meanwhile, the portion of the cotyledon inside the seed, which is in contact with the endosperm, undergoes enlargement of its cells and forms the inner haustorium. It presumably absorbs nutritious substances from the endosperm. The latter tissue decreases accordingly until the inner haustorium tissue fills the entire seed. This occurs at the time the second leaf is formed. Seed germination may be facilitated by scarifying the seed-cover in the region of the micropyle with a file and placing it on moist paper in a Petri dish at a temperature of 28-30°C. Seeds pretreated by immersing them in water after scarification showed a higher percentage of germination. After elongation of the cotyledonar petiole, however, seeds must be placed in the soil to enable the plumula-radicular axis to grow further in vertical direction penetrating the soil. This stage could not be initiated when the cotyledonar petiole lies procumbent on the solid bottom of the Petri dish.

Genetic Resources of Fruit Trees in Malaysia

S.Idris & R.Aman

Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Serdang, Selangor, P.O.Box 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

More than 100 fruit tree species are found in Malaysia. Most of them are indigenous, some others are introduced species which have been growing well. The fruit trees can be classified into cultivated and wild species. The cultivated ones can further be divided into major and minor groups. These fruit tree species show either a seasonal or non-seasonal flowering

264 and fruiting pattern. Sixteen species have been identified as major fruit trees based on their quality, economic value and export potential. Among these are banana (Musa sapientum), papaya (Carica papaya), pineapple (Ananas comosus), star fruit (Averrhoa carambola), durian (Durio zibethinus), mango (Mangifera indica) and rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum). These major fruit tree species have many clones or cultivars which differ in fruit quality, yield as well as resistance against pests and diseases. The minor fruit tree species are not grown widely, due to their long juvenile period, irregular bearing habit, and highly seasonal or low fruit quality (thin mesocarp, big-seeded, sour taste). These parameters, however, can be improved through selection and breeding. A few fruit tree species such as 'cerapu' (Garcinia prainiana), 'pulasan' (Nephelium mutabile), 'kuini' (Mangifera odorata), 'kundang' (Bouea macrophylla), 'salak' (Salacca zalacca), 'jambu bol' (Eugenia malaccensis), 'jambu air' (Eugenia aquea) and 'mata kucing' (Dimocarpus longan ssp.malesianus) have been found to have some potential as a source of new fruits. The wild fruit tree species can serve as genetic resources, especially for breeding resistance t^ pests and diseases. Furthermore, the wild species can probably provide some other desirable characteristics, such as tolerance to a wide range of soil conditions, climatic adaptability and resistance to soil-borne diseases and pests whefi used as rootstocks for the propagation of the cultivated fruit tree species.

Some Plants of South and South-East Asia Used in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus 1 2 % A.H.M.Jayasuriya , A.S.B.Wijekoon & H.M.Senandheera National Herbarium, Department of Agriculture, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Ayurvedic Department, Municipal Council, Kandy, Sri Lanka

Over one hundred South and South-East Asian plants, mainly angiosperms, are mentioned in the literature as being used in the treatment of Diabetes Mellitus. Some of these plants are well-known for their anti-diabetic effects and are popularly used in traditional medicine in various forms of preparation. Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae),

265 Osbeckia octandra (Melastomataceae), Pterocarpus marsupium (Fabaceae), Salacia reticulata (Hippocrateaceae) and Syzygium cumini (Myrtaceae) are some of the plants used in Ayurvedic medicine for this purpose. There is clinical and biochemical evidence that some of these plants possess oral and parenteral hypoglycaemic activity. Much research has been performed on the efficacy of the fruit juice of Momordica charantia on non-insulin dependent diabetics and on normal laboratory animals. Further investigations have thrown some light on possible mechanisms and also indicated some toxicological effects of Momordica in laboratory animals. Meanwhile, the supposed effectiveness of certain plants, e.g. Mimosa pudica (Mimosaceae), against diabetes has proved to be insignificant. However, during some recent investigations, some plants which are less widely used in the treatment of diabetes, have been found to possess a marked ability to lower the blood sugar and improve glucose tolerance in laboratory animals. For instance, Asteracantha longifolia (Acanthaceae), a well-known medicinal plant although not generally used in the treatment of diabetes, could now be regarded as an effective anti-diabetic plant. The taxonomie nomenclature and classification of these plants have been updated, their global distribution and their levels of occurrence in Sri Lanka have been assessed. Over one hundred species with presumed anti-diabetic effects, scattered in about 48 families, have been recorded. Cucurbitaceae, Caesalpiniaceae, Fabaceae, Menispermaceae, Mimosaceae, Moraceae and Rubiaceae contain several such species each. There is no apparent phylogenetic relationship among these groups, and hence any genetic homology among the anti-diabetic ingredients is improbable.

266 This compilation is expected to serve as basic information for future investigations on identification, pharmacology, toxicology and chemistry of these supposedly anti-diabetic plants. Intensive screening of this large number of plants in the future, will probably reveal at least a few plants with acceptable hypoglycaemic potency and minimum toxicological effects. Therefore, this information is deemed a precursor of future scientific research on the efficacy of these plants and their products against this disease. In spite of great advances in its treatment, Diabetes Mellitus is still associated with a high morbidity and mortality.

Rattans of Papua New Guinea

R.J.Johns

Forestry Department, PNG University of Technology, Private Mail Bag,Lae , Papua New Guinea

Three described genera of rattans occur in Papuasia. One genus, Daemonorops, has only been collected in the Aru Islands where it is represented by a single species. The widespread genus Korthalsia is represented by 2 species. The largest genus in Papuasia is Calamus which includes some 100species , many undescribed. In addition to Calamus, there is possibly an undescribed genus in Papuasia. Calamus is characterized by the inflorescence which arises in an axillary position, is adnate to the leaf-sheath of the following leaf, then branches out, either opposite the petiole, or at right angles to the petiole or the following leaf. The undescribed genus has the inflorescence arising in an axillary position but it ascends the stem inside the leaf-sheaths of at least four leaves and then branches from the axil of the leaf. At no stage is it fused to the leaf-sheath of the leaf where it branches. Further studies are required to clarify the status of these distinctive specimens. Material has been collected of at least three species. One species is widespread in the Madang and Morobe Provinces, a second hasbee n collected only inWes t New Britain. The other species is known only from herbarium material. The genus Calamus iseconomicall y themos t important inPapuasia .Th e last revision of the genus, including material from Papuasia, was published in 'Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta', by O.Beccari in 1908 (The species of Calamus), anda supplemen t published in 1913.Som e 40 Papuasian species were included in this revision. Beccari also published a subsequent paper (Botanische Jahrbücher für Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie 58: 441-462, 1923)i n which he described five species of Calamus, based on the collections of Ledermann on the Sepik expedition. M.Burret published several papers which included descriptions of species of Calamus from Papuasia.Thes epaper swer epublishe d between 1928 and 1942 in 'Notizblatt des Kgl. Botanischen Gartens und Museum zu

267 Berlin'. Burret included material collected by Kajewski and Brass in the Solomon Islands. The Brass collections from the Archbold Expeditions, prior to 1938, and the collections particularly of M.Clemens and C.E.Carr were also enumerated. Some earlier collections from Irian Jaya were also discussed. No taxonomie studies of Calamus in Papuasia have been made since the publications of Burret. Since 1940 Papuasia, and particularly Papua New Guinea, has seen a tremendous expansion in plant collecting. Several Archbold Expeditions, the Botany Division of the National Department of Forests, and the numerous field studies conducted by staff of the CSIRO from Australia have contributed many collections of rattans. Collections of some 40 undescribed species are included in this material. The present study of the rattans of Papua New Guinea (which will include materials from Irian Jaya and the Solomon Islands) is being funded by IDRC. Its main objectives are to prepare field guides for the identification of the species in Papuasia. These will be based mainly on field characters such as the characteristics of the leaf-sheath, presence of flagellum or cirrus, leaf characters, etc. Their production will enable the identification of the major commercial species of Calamus in the field. Material for testing of cane properties is being collected together with the herbarium material.

Litsea cubeba Pers.: Potential and Prospects

S.Koerniati

Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3, Bogor 16111, Indonesia

There are good prospects for increasing the diversity of essential oils in Indonesia, allowing import substitution or even export. One of these new essential oils is Litsea cubeba oil. Litsea cubeba Pers. belongs to the Lauraceae. It can be found in hilly areas and grows well at altitudes from 700 to 2,300 m. Plants grow as a shrub-tree or small tree, 5 to 15 m high and 6 to 20 cm in trunk diameter. In Indonesia, this species is found in Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan. This plant is not only used for producing oil, but also for many other purposes such as medicine, furniture, handicraft, and for land conservation (Heyne, 1927). The fruit-skin, seed, leaf, and bark can be distilled to produce oils. The main purpose of this oil is as a source of citral. Citral can be used either on its own or as a source of derivatives. By processing, citral yields a group of chemicals known as the ionones which possess a violet-like fragrance. This fragrance is used for perfume. Further processing yields various vitamins, such as vitamin A and vitamin E.

268 In Indonesia, two kinds of Litsea oil are commonly produced, 'trawas' from West Java and 'krangean' from Central Java. These oils are not only different in their chemical contents, but also in their physical properties. Both 'trawas' and 'krangean' have a lower citral content than the oil of Litsea from China, called 'may-chang'. 'Trawas' and 'krangean' contain 9.9% and 10.2% of citral respectively, while 'may-chang' oil contains about 75% of citral. The lowest quality oil is produced from uncultivated plants. Most of the raw material is harvested from wild plants. There has been little research on processing methods and identification of chemical and physical characters of the oil. Moreover, research to develop the crop in terms of productivity or quality has not been carried out yet. Litsea cubeba has started to replace traditional lemongrass as a source of citral. Its advantage is its lower price. The main markets for the oil are the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, but there are opportunities for expansion. China is the only exporting country. In view of its features and prospects, this species merits more research and development. Research should focus on exploration and conservation, evaluation and utilization.

Mangoes 1 2 A.J.G.H.Kostermans & J.M.Bompard PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

2IBPGR, FAO, Via délie Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy

The common mango (Mangifera indica L.)originate d in Assam, Burma and Central Thailand, but now occurs in all tropical and subtropical areas of the world with a suitable climate. The fruits have become an important product of commerce, especially in India, Philippines and Florida (USA). In South-East Asia the centres of cultivation are areas with a wet tropical climate and a pronounced dry season. The crop fails when it rains during flowering. Recently it has been introduced into New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago. Surprisingly, little or nothing is known about other species of Mangifera, although numerous types, quite different from the common mango, appear regularly in local markets and some are already exported from Sabah andSarawa k toSingapor e and Hongkong (e.g.M.caesia, M.odorata and M.pajang).

269 In 1949 (Lloydia 12:73-136), a partial monograph on Mangifera was published by Mukherji, followed in 1978 by a more elaborate, but less successful one for the Malesian area by Ding Hou (Flora Malesiana 8:423- 440). Mangoes have often attracted the attention of field botanists because they are giant, unbuttressed trees with immense boles, towering over other trees. However, this growth habit is also the reason why Mangifera is under-represented in most herbaria. Many species flower only with intervals of years and fruits are difficult to obtain, as monkeys, squirrels, fruitbats and hornbills eat them when still immature, and the seeds on the ground are an easy prey for termites. Nevertheless, many species are not rare at all, even gregarious in some areas, and man has accumulated them around his dwellings. Results of research conducted by the authors for many years will soon be published in the form of a book with many coloured photographs. The results are really surprising. For Java 3 new species with marketable fruits are described. The fruits of M.lalijiwa are even sold in supermarkets. The problem of the identity of 'binglu', discovered 100 years ago in West Java, has been solved (M.caesia), and also that of the small, black mangoes, mentioned by Rumphius in 1741 (M.griffithii and M.parvifolia). M.gedebe, with its remarkable flat, disc-like fruit, appears to be distributed from Burma to New Guinea (described under several scientific names). M.bullata, close to M.foetida, is superior and does not have the offensive smell. M.rigida has fruit without a single fibre and with glossy ivory-coloured stones.

270 Of the 65 species that can be distinguished now, no less than 24 are new to science. Many are of commercial importance. M.casturi, a black- skinned mango from Borneo, can compete with the best varieties of the common mango and produces fruit in aperpetuall y humid climate. M.pajang is already exported from Sabah and Sarawak toSingapor e and Hongkong and fetches a good price. The sweet cultivars of M.caesia, called 'wani' in Bali or 'wanji' in Kalimantan, are superior to M.kemanga of West Java. M.odorata can be harvested early, it ripens slowly and is easily transported and stored. M.orophila is a mountain species and promising for more temperate areas. M.pentandra is already grown on an extensive scale in parts of the Malay Peninsula. M.parvifolia, M.paludosa and M.griffithii are promising for marshy soils since they can stand long periods of inundation. M.quadrifida has a sweet cultivar with a black, very tasty fruit. There are also species for drier zones. Botanical marvels are M.rufocostata which can grow 50 m tall, and the small, black-skinned mangoes generally known as 'rawah-rawah', of which one species has fruit like a black plum. The research work is not yet finished. Four of the 6 mango species of the Moluccas, mentioned by Rumphius in 1741, are still unknown. Sumatra is poorly explored and so are numerous other islands of Indonesia. It is very likely that among the newly discovered species, some are not attacked by anthracnosis. Others will give better and continuous crops, and the growing area can be greatly expanded. The time has come to protect the species against extinction. Under the overall support of the Foundation for Useful Plants of Indonesia and UNESCO,contribution s wereals oreceive d from IBPGR,WWF , and the Dutch, British and French Governments.

Fatty-Oil Plants in the Flora of Vietnam 1 2 La Dinh Moi & Nguyen Tien Ban Department of Plant Resources,Centre of Ecology andBiologica l Resources, NCRS, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

Department of Botany, Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, NCRS, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

In the flora of Vietnam, there are about 570 fatty oil species which belong to 350 genera and 100 families. The principal fatty oil plant families are: Fabaceae (52 spp.), Euphorbiaceae (41), Cucurbitaceae (22), Lauraceae (14), Malvaceae (14), Rosaceae (14), Brassicaceae (12), Meliaceae (10) and Sapindaceae (10). However, only about 100 species are studied and exploited.

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Owing to the variety in topography and climate, tropical oil plants as well as subtropical and temperate species can be found in Vietnam. The tropical oil plants Cocos nucifera and Anacardium occidentale are very well adapted to the climatic conditions of the southern provinces and plain areas, while many other oil plants are only adapted to highlands and midlands (500-600 m above sealevel): Aleurites montana, Camellia oleifera, Carya tonkinensis, Cleidiocarpon cavalieri, Eberhardtia aurata, and E.tonkinensis. In highland regions (above 1,000 m) with cool summers, many oil plants from the temperate zones can be cultivated: Aleurites fordii, Brassica campestris, Cannabis sativa, Helianthus annuus, and Juglans regia. In the widespread 'terra' in the northern mountains, there are many high-yielding oil plants: Aesculus assamica, Aleurites moluccana, Hodgsonia macrocarpa, Litsea glutinosa, Sapium discolor, S.sebiferum, and Trichosanthes sp.. Cleidiocarpon laurinum only remains in some highland regions with a cool and humid climate (Hoang Lien Son). The array of oil plants is large and rich, but up to now only a few are cultivated and exploited in Vietnam: Aleurites fordii, A.montana, Anacardium occidentale, Arachis hypogaea, Camellia oleifera, Cocos nucifera, and Glycine max.

Essential-Oil Plants in the Flora of Vietnam 1 2 La Dinh Moi & Nguyen Tien Ban Department of Plant Resources,Centre of Ecology andBiologica l Resources, NCRS, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

Department of Botany, Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, NCRS, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

In the flora of Vietnam, there are about 550 species of higher plants containing essential oils (about 5.5% of the total number of species), belonging to 300 genera and 95 families. Fewer than 100 species have been studied and exploited. The principal families with essential-oil plants are the Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Pinaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae, and Zingiberaceae. Many of them are exploited in wild or semi- wild state with reasonable annual yields. Coniferous species distributed in mountainous regions are Cupressus torulosa and Fokienia hodginsii. Their stems and roots (particularly the latter) yield essential oils. Therefore, these species now only occur in restricted areas of the provinces of Hoang Lien Son, Lang Son, Son La, Lai Chau, and it is necessary to protect them. Illicium verum gives a high annual yield of oil with a high percentage of aneton. It grows wild or planted in Lang Son, Quang Ninh and

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Lai Chau. Cinnamomum cassia has various ecological forms which differ largely in content and quality of the volatile oils. It is found spontaneously or in man-made forests in the mountainous regions of the northern provinces (Hoang Lien Son,Quan g Ninh)an do f thecentra l provinces (Thanh Hoa, Nghe Tinh, Quang Nam-Da Nang). Melaleuca leucadendra is commonly found in many regions over a wide range of ecological conditions. It is found in the northern arid mountain areas (Bac Thai, Quang Ninh), in the acid, salty littoral regions of central Vietnam (Binh Tri Thien) and even in the vast alum-lands (Dong Thap, Long An). Recently, interest in the large-scale production of aromatic plants has been increasing in Vietnam, in order to meet domestic demand and for export. Various forms of Asiatic mints {Mentha arvensis) are acclimatized and cultivated. A numbero f speciesfro m thegener aOcimum and Cymbopogon are being studied as candidates for cultivation to meet the demand for eugenol, methyl chavicol, citral and citronellal. Vétiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) grows wild in most provinces from the North to the South, but its cultivation and exploitation have only developed recently. Various species of Citrus are exploited for their volatile oils: flowers of Citrus maxima, fruit skins of C.aurantium and C.medica, but not yet from leaves. Although aromatic plants are abundant and polymorphic, they are little studied and exploited: an urgent topic for Vietnamese botanists.

An Attempt to Inventorize and Document the Collections of Wild Edible Fruit Tree Species in Sabah, Malaysia

A.Latiff1 & K.M.Salleh2

Department of Botany, National University Malaysia (UKM), 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Department of Biology, National University Malaysia (UKM), Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia

Malaysia is blessed with c. 12,000 species of seed plants, and wild fruit tree species form one of the major components. As in most other areas, the exploitation of fruit tree species is confined to a very narrow genetic variability. Therefore, the study of the agronomic potential and genetic resources of wild, local edible fruit tree species of Sabah has been one of the most important topics of systematic botany in the last few years. The taxonomie composition within families and the number of existing collections in Sabah herbaria in particular, and Malaysian

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herbaria in general, are well below expectation. It is evident that Sabah contains many wild plant species with edible fruits in the remaining forests, many of which are still considered as unexploited resources. Many of the taxa have been recorded by Meijer (1969) and the distribution and abundance of those at Ulu Dusun and Sungai Milian have been studied (Tiong, 1979; Phillipps, 1983). It is estimated that well over 240 species in 153 genera and 71 families of Sabah plants bear edible fruits which are considered palatable to humans. Among the important species are members of Anacardiaceae (Bouea, Mangifera, Semecarpus), Bombacaceae (Durio), Burseraceae (Canarium), Euphorbiaceae (Baccaurea, Bridelia, Drypetes, Elateriospermum,), Fagaceae (Castanopsis, Quercus), Flacourtiaceae (Flacourtia, Pangium), Gnetaceae (Gnetum), Guttiferae (Garcinia), Leguminosae (Cinometra, Dialium, Parkia, Whitfordiodendron), Meliaceae (Aglaia, Lansium, Sandoricum), Moraceae (Artocarpus, Ficus), Myrtaceae (Eugenia, Rhodomyrtus), Palmae (Borassus, Nypa, Salacca), Pandanaceae (Pandanus), Passifloraceae (Passiflora), Rhamnaceae (Zizyphus), Sapindaceae (Dimocarpus, Nephelium, Pometia) and Sterculiaceae (Scaphium) and many other lesser-known taxa. A total of 12,847 herbarium collections were computerized and analysed to document the distribution of collections per taxon. The number of herbarium specimens so far collected and deposited in Sabah herbaria ranges from a single specimen for Mangifera decandra to a total of 43 specimens for Durio acutifolius and as many as 110specimen s for Mangifera aqueus and Garcinia bancana. Some species of the genera Baccaurea, Dimocarpus, Pometia, Scaphium and most legumes are extremely underrepresented. Exploration in interior Sabah for fruit tree resources must be done in the near future and collection of either herbarium specimens or life plants for germplasm must form part of the extensive programme for conservation, exploitation, systematic evaluation and utilization. These efforts are critical now, because more and more forested land is being cleared for development.

Vegetation Maps, Ecological Policy, and the Search for Useful Plants

Y.Laumonier, U.R.Djailany & G.Miction

BIOTROP, Jalan Raya Tajur Km.6, P.O.Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia

Compilation of information on useful plant resources should also include data on the present status and extent of the vegetation in the region. Not much attention has been paid yet in South-East Asia to the role of classifying and mapping vegetation for ecological regionalization. Vegetation maps are tools for analysing the natural environment and the relationships between it and the various phytocenoses. They are extremely

274 important in the scientific analysis of the site, and can contribute in a very effective way to the proposals for various landscape management schemes, since they also give information on the dynamics and evolution of vegetation types and landscapes. Ecological vegetation maps and related surveys developed at BIOTROP provide this information. Moreover, this kind of map implies detailed studies on classification, typification and ecology of the vegetation in the field. In this respect, maps of Sumatra have provided improvements in classifications of vegetation types in South-East Asia, particularly for the equatorial area. The search for hierarchical criteria during the classification process emphasized research on some important macro- environmental factors, mainly bioclimates (real effect of dry season on vegetation types), soil types and geology-geomorphology. Refinement of the altitudinal zonation classes was a very important result for conservation policies. Other associated field surveys include structural description of the vegetation types and ecological studies for various plant communities to provide detailed information on habitats. Extensive floristic inventories supplement knowledge of floristic sectors and phytogeography of the area. Lastly, these surveys are also associated with ethnobotanical studies of forest and plant-related human activities like recording collection strategies and 'in situ' management of alternative forest products by the local population, or integration and utilization of forest plants in agricultural systems. Special emphasis has been given to man- made forest and traditional agroforestry systems, and to the extent and ecological importance of trees in the rural environment.

275 These efforts on vegetation mapping and related studies have helped define ecological guidelines for conservation and promotion of plant resources in global land-use policies. In conjunction with an extensive herbarium collection as well as detailed field work on the structure, floristics, dynamics and ecology of the natural vegetation and land-use patterns, the maps strengthen research on eco-floristic zones. Many areas in the region are still botanically under-explored. Ecological vegetation maps will facilitate the identification of regions of interest for further plant collection and ethnobotanical studies to update the data bank of useful plants. At present, the methodology is being developed to cover more areas in South-East Asia, and at the same time trials on larger-scale vegetation maps are being conducted for sites selected from the previous survey.

Amorphophallus in South-East Asia

Li Hen

Kunming Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan, China

Amorpho phallus is economically the most important genus of the Araceae. So far 134specie s have been recorded world-wide, with South-East Asia, tropical Africa and Australia being the main areas of distribution. In South-East Asia 97 species are found. As one of the centres of diversity of this genus, South China, the Indo-Chinese Peninsula and the Malaysian Peninsula present 60 species. As early as 2,000 years ago, the ancestors of South-East Asian people used Amorpho phallus corms to make food and the inflorescences to treat human diseases. In ancient China, the book 'Useful Medicine Records', written by Tao Hong-jin in the Liang Dynasty (about 1,500 years ago), is the first reference recording the use of Amorpho phallus. In another Chinese publication, 'Zhengzhen's Agriculture Encyclopedia', Amorpho- phallus was described as one of the most important food plants during famine years.I nth eMin gDynasty , thefamou s book'Compendiu m of Materia Medica' described its cultivation methods. The ethnic groups in South-East Asia such as Han, Yo, Yi, Dai, Lao, and Malay have their own traditional methods for the use and maintenance of Amorphophallus resources in their localities. Their experiences and techniques were subsequently introduced into Japan and other countries. In the 1930's, the cultivation of Amorphophallus became very popular in Japan. Research was focused on the biological characteristics, growth, development and pollination of Amorphophallus wanabayashi. Therefore, 'konjac' is now popular in Japan and there are about 300 processing plants. Since 1980, research and development of Amorphophallus has expanded rapidly in China and many raw materials and processed products

276 are being exported to international markets. Thecompositio n of thecor m includes40-80 %glucomannons , 18 kindso f amino acids, and some unsaturated fatty acids. The fibres of glucomannons stimulate the intestine walls and promote peristalsis, which results in better digestion and elimination of some poisons from human intestines. Since glucomannons have coagulating, solidifying and lubricating characteristics, industrial applications include the use as food additive, bonding agent, and dyeing material. As a food, 'konjac' is characterized by abundant fibres, low energy value, but good taste, so it is used to lower weight, blood pressure and blood fat, and prevent intestinal cancer. In addition, it is also used to treat heart disease, cerebral haemorrhages and diabetes. The most important 'konjac' products are noodles, bread, cakes,jam , and champagne.

'Useful Plants of South-East Asia' Project

MAB Committee Indonesia

c/o LIPI, Jalan Gatot Subroto 10, Jakarta 12790, Indonesia

The 'Useful Plants of South-East Asia' Project is a project within the framework of the UNESCO-MAB (Man and Biosphere) Programme. It was initiated in 1982 and implemented by the SEAMEORegiona l Center for Tropical Biology (BIOTROP) until 1988an d is now beingcarrie d outb yMA B Indonesia. The project was originated in order both to assist in the development of an information base that could be used in designing development strategies in the region in the future, and to enable a wider appreciation of environmental values to be realized. Currently about 12,000 pages of 4,000 items of information have been gathered, covering about 8,000 species. Publications on Mangifera and 'Multipurpose Tree Species of Local Importance' are forthcoming. Several agencies (including the Ford Foundation, IBPGR, WWF) have lent their support.

277 Pigeonpea and its Wild Relatives

L.J.G.van der Maesen

Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 8010, 6700 ED Wageningen, Netherlands

The wild relatives of pigeonpea, Cajanus cajan (L.) Millspaugh, have traditionally been classified in the genus Atylosia. Research on their morphology, cytology and chemotaxonomy and the results of hybridization indicate that it is more logical to group the species in Atylosia together with the pigeonpea in Cajanus, which can no longer be considered a monotypic genus. Cajanus DC. (1813) has priority over Atylosia W.& A. (1834). The merger was formally announced in the monograph 'Cajanus DC. and Atylosia W.& A.(Leguminosae)', Wageningen Agricultural University Papers 85-4, published February 25, 1986. The regionally important drought-resistant pigeonpea belongs to a genus of 32 species, 17 of which are from the Indian subcontinent (where pigeonpea presumably originated), and 13 are endemics of North Australia. Three new species have been described from Australia: C.aromaticus, C.crassicaulis, and C.viscidus. Some species have potential for breeding in pigeonpea; quite a few, but not all, are cross-compatible with C.cajan. Cajanus scarabaeoides is the most widely spread wild relative, produces fertile hybrids spontaneously (Guam, Réunion, Atylosia cajanoides), and is enlarging its habitat by spreading to African and Caribbean coasts. It has a variety pedunculatus in North Australia. Cantharospermum is an old generic synonym for Cajanus, and the Indo- Chinese genus Endomallus with two (synonymous) species isnothin g else but Cajanus goensis (=Atylosia barbata). Atylosia burmanica is now reduced to a variety of Cajanus erassus. The trifoliolate Cajaninae (a subtribe within the tribe Phaseoleae of the family Leguminosae) with bushy or climbing habit, pods with linear depressions between the seeds and more than 2 seeds per pod, thus belong in one genus. Direction of the depressions on the pod valves is not strictly oblique for Cajanus, nor strictly at a right angle for Atylosia. The presence of a seed strophiole in several pigeonpea genotypes has obscured this major character that traditionally separated Cajanus from Atylosia. All Cajanus species investigated so far have a chromosome number of 2n=22, a number common in Phaseoleae. Various degrees of homology have been established. Several wild Cajanus species, whether bushy or with climbing habit, produce fertile hybrids when crossed with pigeonpea. The presence or absence of a seed strophiole is governed by two genes, one with inhibitory action. The absence of canavanine and homology in seed protein profiles between several species is another reason for merging of the two former genera Atylosia and Cajanus. As some species have not yet been collected in the wild, efforts have to continue to make these available. Many regions in South-East Asia have

278 not yet been comprehensively covered for cultivated genotypes.

Performance of 'Verano Stylo' under Thailand Conditions

C.Manidool

Department of Livestock Development, Phyathai Road, Bangkok 10400, Thailand

'Verano stylo' (Stylosanthes hamatd) was first introduced from Australia in 1971. Tests have proven that it is well-adapted to local conditions, particularly in the north-east where soils are poor and rainfall is limited. Its most valuable features are its capability to survive a long dry period, its resistance to moderately heavy grazing, good acceptance by ruminants and geese, easy establishment on communal grazing land, good seed production, and its tolerance to anthracnose disease which badly damaged 'Townsville stylo'. It combines well with guinea grass, provided defoliation is moderately frequent. It does not require Rhizobium inoculation. Normally it is biennial but it exhibits a perennial habit if frequently cut. Average dry matter yields are 9.3 to 12.5 tons/ha, containing up to 14.6% protein with 48% digestibility (intake of 562 g/head/day for sheep). Seed yields on small farms are from 357-500 kg/ha. As many as 358 tons of seed were produced in 1988 using contract schemes involving 3,230 small farmers who received an amount of US$ 113.2 per family as supplementary income from the sale of seeds.

APINMAP and PROSEA

P.J.O.Medina

APINMAP Network Center, AIBA/SEARCA, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines

The Asian Pacific Information Network on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (APINMAP) is aspecialize d information network operating within the framework of the UNESCO-supported Regional Network for the Exchangeo f Information and Experiences in Science and Technology in Asia and the Pacific (ASTINFO). It is a voluntary cooperative programme for countries in the Asian and Pacific region, whose objective is to promote information exchange in the field of medicinal and aromatic plants.

279 It is continually establishing necessary linkages with regional and international organizations working in similar or related fields to ensure optimal utilization of existing resources and to avoid duplication or overlapping of research activities. The following countries currently participate in the Network: Australia, People's Republic of China, India, Republic of Korea, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Interest has recently been expressed by Malaysia and Indonesia and is currently under discussion. APINMAP is currently providing the following products and services: (1) bibliographic data base on medicinal and aromatic plants, (2) referral data base of information sources, research institutions, research projects, and experts, (3) factual data bases of selected ailments that medicinal and aromatic plants in the region can cure or prevent; this will contain the physical description of the plants, their ethnomedical uses (extraction, plant preparation), scientific data such as extraction, percentage of active compounds, percentage of other compounds, biological activity, and geographical distribution. The unique feature of APINMAP is that it has access to sources of information on medicinal and aromatic plants that are not covered by other international data bases. An example is contributions of APINMAP's national node in China, one of the richest sources of information on this subject. Cooperation between APINMAPan d PROSEA willcertainl y enhance the ability of nationals in the Asian and Pacific region to access information on medicinal and aromatic plants.

Traditional Rattan Cultivation in Kedang Pahu River Area, Regency of Kutai, East Kalimantan

P.Matius & S.Sutedjo

Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, P.O.Box 13, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Rattan canes are the most important forest product after timber in East Kalimantan. Although often regarded as a minor forest product, rattans play an important role in local trade and manufacturing and their importance for the national labour and industry sectors has even increased recently, since the export of raw and semi-finished canes was banned in November 1988. A field study was carried out in the most important rattan-producing area in East Kalimantan, the Kedang Pahu River area, which includes the subdistricts of Muara Pahu, Muara Lawa, Damai and Bentian Besar. The local population traditionally cultivates a number of rattan species. As many as 29 species were identified, which are utilized locally, or

280 are traded to manufacturers of rattan furniture, mats and other goods for export. Some of the rattan species are traditionally planted in secondary forests or in shifting cultivation areas, whereas several others are collected in the forests. 'Rotan sega' (Calamus caesius Bl.) and 'rotan jahab' (C.trachycoleus Becc.) have the largest cultivation area and can be regarded as more or less domesticated species. Other frequently cultivated species are 'rotan jepung' (Daemonorops crinita BI.?), 'rotan pelas' (Calamus pinnicillatus Roxb.?), 'rotan manau' (C.manan Miq.) and 'rotan seletup' (C.optimus Becc.?). 'Rotan sega', 'rotan pelas' and 'rotan seletup' are more commonly cultivated on dryland, usually following shifting cultivation as an additional activity. Rattan cultivation in shifting cultivation areas is one of the best examples of agroforestry practices, and one option to intensify shifting cultivation systems by introducing a regularly managed fallow phase after the rice crop. 'Rotan jahab' is usually cultivated along the river banks of Kedang Pahu and its tributaries such as Jelau, Lawa and Nyuatan rivers, which periodically flood the land. 'Rotan jepung' is cultivated in swamps or along the banks of small rivers, and 'rotan manau' is sporadically cultivated in 'lembo' (traditional local fruit gardens), also as a fruit tree.

Wild Bananas of Indonesia

R.E.Nasution

Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 18, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

The importance of wild bananas in plant breeding is well acknowledged. Plant breeders use them as donors of valuable genes for the improvement of cultivated bananas. This study is based upon the results of observations on the specimens housed at the Herbarium Bogoriense, Indonesia, the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens, Singapore, and the Rijksherbarium, Leiden, the Netherlands, and on botanical expeditions to various sites in Indonesia. Musa celebica Warb, is confined to Central and South Sulawesi. It is of medium size, with brown blotched pseudostems. The inflorescence is pendulous. Fruits are biseriate, with blunt tip, tapering towards the pedicel. The male bud is broadly ovate, convolute, and yellow in colour. M.lolodensis Cheesmann belongs to the section Australimusa. It is confined to Halmahera and Irian Jaya. The inflorescence is pendulous. Fruits are biseriate, with blunt tip, tapering towards the pedicel. The male bud is ovate, convolute, and white to orange in colour. It is usually called 'self-peeling' banana because the fruit-skin splits from the apex

281 to the base at maturity. M.salaccensis Zoll, belongs to the section Callimusa. It is confined to Sumatra and Java. A small and short banana, up to 2.5 m high. The inflorescence is erect with beautiful pink-violet bracts. Fruits are in one row, 4-6 per hand. The seeds are turbinate with ring-like furrows halfway. M.acuminata Colla var.acuminata is a wild, seeded banana from the Moluccas and Irian Jaya. It is medium-sized. The basal flowers are hermaphrodite, with either yellowish or purplish bracts. M.acuminata Colla \ar.cerifera (Back.) Nasution is a wild, seeded banana from the south-east of West and Central Java. It forms a big clump with tall pseudostems. The fruit-skin is hairy. M.acuminata Colla var.halabanensis (Meijer) Nasution. Also a wild, seeded banana confined to West Sumatra. It forms a big clump with tall pseudostems and is intensively brown-blotched. The staminodes are as long as the style. Seeds are small, globular in shape. M.acuminata Colla var.malaccensis (Ridl.) Nasution. A wild, seeded banana confined to the eastern part of Sumatra and West Java. It has big and tall, brown-blotched pseudostems. Seeds are angular rounded flat. M.acuminata Colla var.rutilifes (Back.) Nasution. Another wild,

282 seeded banana confined to East Java. It is medium-sized and slightly brown-blotched. The male bud is broadly ovate with coarcoid tip. M.acuminata Colla var.sumatrana (Becc.) Nasution. A wild, seeded banana from West Sumatra. It forms a big clump with tall pseudostems, which are intensively brown-blotched. The basal flowers are hermaphrodite. Seeds are rounded flat with sharp margins. M.acuminata Colla var.zebrina (V.Houtte) Nasution. A wild, seeded banana from Java. It is medium-sized with brown-blotched leaves. It is sometimes cultivated as an ornamental.

Flora of Vietnam: Medicinal Plant Resources

Nguyen Tien Ban

Department of Botany, Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, NCSR, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

For a long time, herbs have been used in Vietnam as folk remedies. Species such as Cyperus rotundus, Artemisia vulgaris, Adenosma éaeruleum and Leonurus artemisia grow everywhere, and Vietnamese know them as medicinal herbs. Abutilon indicum, Achyranthes aspera, Centella asiatica, Imperata cylindrica, and Plantago asiatica are other common plants that are among the ingredients of an extremely valuable traditional medicine (used for gall-stones). According to preliminary data, over 1,000 species are of medicinal usage in Vietnam. They belong to approximately 200 families. The most important families are: Fabaceae (45 species), Asteraceae (40), Euphorbiaceae (35), Lamiaceae (25),Apiacea e (20),Moracea e (18), Rutaceae (18), Polygonaceae (17), Rubiaceae (16), Araceae (15), Araliaceae (15), Menispermaceae (15), Poaceae (15), Solanaceae (15), Verbenaceae (15), Zingiberaceae (15), Lauraceae (12), and Malvaceae (12). Nowadays, plants are also used as raw materials to provide chemical compounds for semi-synthetization of medicaments. Many plants contain alkaloids, particularly the important groups of quinolin and isoquinolin (above all the protoberberin group). For example: (1) berberin can be extracted from many plants of the families Memispermaceae (Coscinium fenestratum, Cyclea barbata, Tinospora crispa), Berberidaceae (Berberis wallichiana, Mahonia nepalensis, Podophyllum tonkinense), Ranunculaceae (Coptis chinensis, Thalictrum foliolosum), and Rutaceae (Zanthoxylum avicennae, Z.nitidum), (2) palmatin from Fibraurea tinctoria and Tinospora crispa (Menispermaceae), Coptis chinensis, and Coptis sp. (Ranunculaceae), (3) hyndarin from Stephania glabra or S.rotunda (Menispermaceae). The steroid group is very common: (1) solasonin can be obtained from e.g. Solanum dulcamara, S.torvum, and S.verbascifolium (Solanaceae), and (2) diosgenin from Costus speciosus (Costaceae), Tacca chantrieri,

283 T.plantaginea (Taccaceae) and Tribulus terrestris (Zygophyllaceae). Some glycosides can be extracted from various plants of the family Apocynaceae (e.g. Cerberaodollam, Nerium oleander, Strophantus spp., and Thevetia peruviana). Many other important chemical compounds can befoun d in the flora of Vietnam.

Plant Resources of Vietnam

i i 9 j Nguyen Tien Ban , Nguyen Tien Hiep , Phan Ke Loc & La Dinh Moi Department of Botany, Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, NCSR, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

Department of Botany, University of Hanoi, Thuong Dinh, Dong Da, Hanoi, Vietnam

Department of Plant Resources,Centre of Ecology andBiologica l Resources, NCSR, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

Of the 8,000 known species of higher vascular plants in Vietnam (after full investigation the number of species of the flora of Vietnam may be 12,000) over 2,500 species are of economic importance. Many species belong tosevera lcommodit y groups.Th eeconomi c species can be grouped as: (1) 7 cereals, (2) 14 root and tuber plants (most significant are species of the genus Dioscorea), (3) 6 pulses, (4) over 40 vegetable oils, (5) 70 edible fruits and nuts (including important wild species such as Allospondias lakonensis, Bouea oppositifolia, Dracontomelum duperreanum (Anacardiaceae), Baccaurea ramif lor a, B.sylvestris, Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiaçeae), and Dialium cochinchinensis (Fabaceae), (6) over 150 vegetables and spices (significant species are Crassocephalum crepidioides, Emilia sonchifolia, Gnaphalium affine, G.indicum, Gynura procumbens (Asteraceae), Nasturtium officinale (Brassicaceae), Myosoton aquaticum (Caryophyllaceae) Chenopodium album, Spinacea oleracea (Chenopodiaceae), Melientha suavis (Opiliaceae), Oxalis corniculata (Oxalidaceae), Peperomia pellucida. Piper lolot (Piperaceae), Portulaca oleracea, Talinum paniculatum (Portulacaceae), Houttuynia cordata (Souraraceae), and Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum (Verbenaceae)), (7) about 100 essential-oil plants, (8) 25 plants used for beverages, (9) 8 plants used for chewing, (10) over 1,000 medicinal plants, (11) over 500 timber trees (valuable woods are Cupressus torulosa, Fokienia hodginsii (Cupressaceae), Dacrydium pierrei, Podocarpus imbricatus (Podocarpaceae), Markhamia indica (Bignoniaceae), Anisoptera spp., Dipterocarpus spp., Hopea spp., Shorea spp., Vatica odorata

284 (Dipterocarpaceae), Diospyros mun (Ebenaceae), Afzelia xylocarpa, Cassia siamea, Dalbergia spp., Erythrophleum fordii, Peltophorum spp., Pterocarpus spp., Sindora spp. (Fabaceae), Castanopsis spp., Lithocarpus spp., Quercus spp. (Fagaceae), Altingia spp., Rhodolea championi (Hamameliaceae), Lagerstroemia spp. (Lythraceae), Chukrasia tabularis, Disoxylon spp. (Meliaceae), Madhuca spp., Manilkara spp. (Sapotaceae), and Burretiodendron tonkinensis (Tiliaceae), (12) 35 fibre plants, (13) 40 feed plants, (14) about 30 dye-producing plants, (15) 90 species rich in tannins, (16) about 20 resin and balsam-producing plants, (17) over 10 rattans, (18) about 30 bamboos, (19) 5 plants producing aromatic resin or aromatic woods, (20) 15 plants used for making baskets, mats and wickerwork, (21) 15 plants used for packing and thatching, and (22) over 250 ornamental plants. Many species are used either for fuel, forage or for green manure. Some fungi and algae are used extensively. Some species such as Aquilaria agallocha and Pinus krempfii are vulnerable due to over-exploitation.

285 Towards the Utilization of Rosaceae in the Flora of Vietnam

Nguyen Tien Hiep

Department of Botany, Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, NCSR, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

At present, 140 species of Rosaceae are known in the flora of Vietnam. As many as 125specie s grow wild, while 15ar e cultivated. Nearly 65 species are of economic significance. They belong to three subfamilies: Maloideae, Rosoideae and Prunoideae. Their uses fall into 5 main groups. (1) 20 species of the genera Fragaria, Malus, Prunus, Pyrus (cultivated) and Rubus (wild) yield edible fruits, which can be eaten fresh, preserved or used for making beverages. (2) 13 species are cultivated for their beautiful flowers and forms such as Prunus cerasoides, P.persica, P.salicina, Prunus sp. ('hoa mai'), Pyracantha crenulata, Pyrus pashia and some Rosa species. They are cultivated from mountainous regions to the lowland plains. Generally, Prunus persica is cultivated for its edible fruits in the mountainous provinces of North Vietnam(La iChau , Hoang LienSon ,H aTuyen , CaoBang , Lang Son). In the plains, it does not bear fruit, but young trees are used as stock for grafting varieties of ornamental peach, e.g. Prunus persica var. duplex, var. camelliaeflora and var. dianthiflora. (3) 23 species such as Agrimonia pilosa, Docynia indica, Eriobotrya japonica, Malus doumeri, Prunus mume, P.persica, Rosa laevigata and R.multiflora are medicinal plants. Almost all of them are utilized as tonic alcohols, beverages and liquor to promote digestion, for cough, asthma, and asthenia and as a source of vitamin C. In addition, there are 54 species of the genus Rubus, whose leaves are used to make tea against flatulence and stomach ache. (4) About 17 species yield timber used generally in construction and in making household utensils, e.g. Eriobotrya poilanei, E.serrata, Prunus arborea, P.ceylanica, P.wallichii, and Rhaphiolepis indica. They grow rapidly and regenerate very well. Therefore, they are suitable for forestation. (5) Some species such as Prunus persica, Pyrus pashia and Rosa multiflora are used as stock for grafting fruit trees and ornamentals. These species can serve as rootstock for pear, roses and ornamental peach. Beside the common species mentioned above, certain other species such as Docynia indica, Malus doumeri and Rosa tonkinensis also have potential as stock for grafting. Many species have multiple uses, such as Docynia indica, Eriobotrya japonica, Prunus mume, P.persica and P.salicina. They are fruit trees, but are also medicinal and ornamental trees.

286 Potential of Some Neglected and Under-Exploited Fruit Tree Species

M.N.Normah1, B.Krishnapillay2 & H.F.Chin1

Botany Department, National University Malaysia (UKM), 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Agronomy &Horticultur e Dept.,Universit y of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.), jackfruit {Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.) and 'cempedak' (A.integer Merr.) are among the many tropical fruit tree species of promising economic value which remain under-exploited in Malaysia. Mangosteen, which is considered as one of the finest fruits in the world, is in great demand for the export market. The fruit is best eaten fresh. However, it can also be preserved. The mangosteen rind is rich in tannin and was traditionally used as an 'astringent' to treat dysentery, as well as being used as a mordant in textile dyeing to fix'the colour black. Unfortunately for such a delicious fruit, mangosteen is hard to raise. Propagation is usually by seeds which are produced seasonally and in limited amount. The development of the plant is slow after germination and it takes 8-15 years before a tree bears fruit. There is almost no variation among the seedlings because the seeds are produced apomictically. Jackfruit is a native of India, but has been cultivated for centuries in South-East Asia. The fruit is large, weighing about 10-30 kg. The cream-coloured pulp is eaten raw, boiled or fried when the fruit is ripe, cooked as a vegetable or in soups. The pulp contains seeds that are eaten either grilled or boiled. 'Cempedak' is the most important Artocarpus of Peninsular Malaysia. There are cultivated as well as wild forms. The immature fruits are used in soups, the fresh pulp of the ripe fruits is eaten raw, and the seeds are edible after cooking. Both jackfruit and 'cempedak' are highly nutritious and they are a very valuable carbohydrate source. The seed also has plenty of carbohydrates, as well as a fairly high protein content. The pulp of these Artocarpus fruits is highly suitable for canning. These tree species are also valuable for their timber which is used for musical instruments, furniture and cabinet-work. Mangosteen, jackfruit and 'cempedak' are planted locally but not on a large-scale basis for commercial purposes. However, large-scale plantation and commercialization of these fruit tree species have recently received priority status under the National Agricultural Policy. Hence, large amounts of planting materials are needed. Research on propagation, cultivation, conservation and genetic improvement is necessary. The seeds of these fruit species are included in

287 the group of recalcitrant seeds. These seeds are short-lived and at present there is no method available for their long-term storage. A new technique of conservation using cryogenic storage has been employed. While cryopreservation work on mangosteen and 'cempedak' is still being carried out, work on jackfruit showed that the survival of excised embryos after cryoprotectant treatment, followed by partial desiccation and storage in liquid nitrogen for one month, was about 60%. Plants regenerated from cryopreserved embryos have been successfully raised 'in vitro' and subsequently transferred into polybags, and at present the survival rate is about 50%. This preliminary study shows the potential for long-term conservation of these fruit species.

Biology and Ecology of Asystasia intrusa Bl.

S.B.Othman

Department of Biology, University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

The genus Asystasia belongs to the family Acanthaceae, which has 36 genera and over 160 species in Peninsular Malaysia. Asystasia intrusa Bl. has been observed in Johore since c.1950. Now it has been recorded in the central, southern and western parts of the state. A survey made in 1982 by the Department of Agriculture confirmed the presence of A.intrusa in almost all states of Peninsular Malaysia. The aggressiveness of the species makes it a noxious plant in plantations of rubber, oilpalm, cocoa and pineapple. It is also present in open spaces. Although A.intrusa has been described as a weed, it is also known to be useful as a vegetable, as cattle feed and as a source of nectar for honey bees. Morphologically, A.intrusa is strongly branched. The pale-green leaves grow in pairs on the stem. Flowers appear at the bottom of the flowering stalk, last a few days, then drop off, after which more appear above them. A plant may have up to 11 opened flowers, but this is rare. An average of 5 opened flowers per plant has been observed. The mean number of nodes is 140+6 per plant. The number of seeds averages 507+30 per plant. Plant densities of A.intrusa are in the order of 1.5 million plants per hectare.

288 Bamboos in the Philippines

J.V.Pancho

Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines, Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines

The earliest account of bamboos in the Philippines was made by Blanco (1837) when he described 6 species all under the genus Bambus. Merrill (1918) interpreted and published Blanco's species of Bambus: they belong to other genera such as Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, and Schizostachyum. Elmer (1915) described one species of Philippine bamboo. Gamble (1910, 1913) described many species sent by Merrill, but because he was familiar only with the Indian bamboos, some of his interpretations were wrong. Brown and Fischer (1920) summarized the bamboos of the Philippines and reported 8 genera and 30 species, 17 of which were erect and the rest climbing. The most recent published enumeration on Philippine bamboos is that of Merrill (1923) which includes 8 genera, 24 species and one variety. Synonyms, ecology, distribution, and local names are included. This is a very useful work, though the nomenclature needs to be updated. ' The latter work paved the way for the study of Bumarlong and Tamulang (1980) which listed 11 genera and 54 species (including superfluous synonyms, and species not present in the country). Some species included in their list but not in Merrill's (1923) have now been described and illustrated. At present, the account of Philippine bamboos comprises a total of 10 genera and 37 species, with one variety and one cultivar.

Azolla pinnata R.Br, as a Potential Source of Nitrogen in Lowland Rice Environment

S.Partohardjono

Bogor Research Institute for Food Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3A, Bogor, Indonesia

Azolla is an aquatic fern distributed in both tropical and temperate regions. This fern lives in symbiosis with a blue-green alga, Anabaena azollae Strasb. Azolla belongs to the order Salviniales and the monotypic family Azollaceae. There are six species of Azolla which are grouped into Euazolla and Rhizosperma, based on their frond morphology and reproductive features. Euazolla includes four species native to the New

289 World, i.e. A.caroliniana Willdenow, A.filiculoides Lamarck, A.mexicana Presl, and A.microphylla Kaulfuss. Rhyzosperma includes two species native to the Old World (Asia and Africa), i.e. A.nilotica Decaisne, and A.pinnata R.Brown. Azolla pinnata leaves are formed on secondary and tertiary ramifications of the main rhizomes, as a triangular-shaped frond. Adventitious roots, which have root-hairs, are found along the rhizomes. Azolla leaves consist of a thick chlorophylous dorsal lobe with cavities containing nitrogen-fixing Anabaena azollae and a thin ventral lobe which provides the buoyancy of the fern. This water-fern grows well under good water conditions, a temperature below35°C ,an d agoo dsuppl y of phosphate,calcium ,magnesium , and micro elements, and is free from pests and diseases. However, it does not tolerate high light intensity. Azolla reproduces vegetatively through fragmentation of the older ramifications, or sexually by forming spores under unfavourable conditions. Azolla pinnata is widely distributed in South and South-East Asia. The symbiosis of Azolla pinnata and Anabaena azollae fixes nitrogen from the atmosphere. Azolla contains 4-5% N on a dry weight or 0.2-0.3% N on a fresh weight basis. In the tropics about 60-70% of this nitrogen is released as ammonia within six weeks after Azolla incorporation in the soil. Under favourable conditions of temperature, light and nutrient supply, this water-fern may double its biomass within 3-4 days. Research results indicate that about 20 t/ha biomass can be obtained from open surface water fully covered with Azolla. In paddy fields this fern fixes as much as 120 kg nitrogen per hectare within 106 days. When it is intercropped with lowland rice, it produces 40-50 t/ha biomass in a period of about 80 days (4-5 times of inoculation and harvesting). Azolla green manuring increases the rice plant height and panicle number per hill and rice yield is 30 to 40% higher than in unfertilized plots.

Fleagrass, a Traditional Cultivated Plant in the Yunnan Tropics, China

Pei Sheng-ji & Shen Peiqiong

Kunming Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan, China

Fleagrass belongs to the genus Adenosma R.Br, of the Scrophulariaceae. The genus comprises 15 species distributed from Indo Malaysia to Australia (Willis, 1973), none of them observed in cultivation. Three species are recorded as Chinese herbal medicine (Adenosma glutinosum (L.) Druce, A.indianum (Lour.) Merr. and A. retusilobum Tsoong & Chin). Fleagrass (A.buchneroides Bonati) occurs naturally in Vietnam where

290 it is used as aromatic material (Bonati, 1913). However, this species has been brought into cultivation by Hani people in the Xishuangbanna area, but it is unknown when and how. Botanically, fleagrass is a perennial herb with erect, angular stem and many branches, 40-45 cm tall. Leaves are paired, blade 1.2 x 2 cm, ovate-oblong. Flowers are yellow, appearing in terminal spikes, blooming from October to November. Fruits are oblong capsules, dehiscent into 4 locules when mature, straw-coloured. Seeds are tiny, ovate, numerous, maturing in December. The living plant spreads a fresh fragrance when rubbed, and strong fragrance when dry. Hani farmers cultivate fleagrass every year in intercropping with upland rice. Fleagrass seeds are planted together with the rice seeds in April (beginning of the rainy season), but in different planting holes. Fleagrass grows more slowly than rice, and the rice foliage negatively influences its growth. The rice is harvested in October, while the fleagrass is still flowering. One to two months later the fleagrass is harvested and taken home for family use. Hani villagers in Xishuangbanna use dried fleagrass in three ways: (1) insecticide: fleagrass is put in bundles in their rooms or spread on beds to repel fleas or other insects, (2) decoration and perfume in various ways depending on age, sex and tribal identity. Elders of the Akha tribe wear fleagrass in small bundles in their ears. Women of' the Aini tribe attach fleagrass to their hats, because it spreads a pleasant smell, (3) herbal medicine: fleagrass is used to make a potion to comfort the body. The use and cultivation of fleagrass by Hani people in the Xishuangbanna area indicates again that traditional agriculture not only produces products for the most basic needs but also products for cultural uses. In a previous report, Pei (1986) indicated that more than 28 such plant species are commonly used in the Xishuangbanna area. The selection, domestication and utilization of fleagrass reflects direct interactions between the people and their humid tropical mountain environment. As a plant resource, fleagrass has been woven into Hani's culture and plays the multiple role of insecticide, herbal medicine and cultural symbol. As many as 26 different constituents of fleagrass essential oil have been identified. It appears that the fresh fragrance derives from phenol aldehyde, terpenes and certain other volatile compounds. This means that fleagrass essential oil can be used as a natural resource for industrial purposes. Thymol, which makes up 52.4% of the fleagrass oil, can be used as a volatile deodorizer; some other compounds may have potential for making repellants for fleas and mosquitos. Its anti-virus properties are being tested at the Kunming Institute of Botany. Once fleagrass oil becomes a commercial product, fleagrass will become an industrial crop and may play an important role in making traditional agriculture more productive in the area.

291 Tannin-Bearing Angiosperm Species in the Flora of Vietnam

Phan Ke Loc & Nguyen Tien Hiep

Department of Botany, University of Hanoi, Thuong Dinh, Dong Da, Hanoi, Vietnam

Department of Botany, Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, NCSR, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

In Vietnam, tannins are used mainly in the leather industry. Because of a lack of raw materials and factories which produce tannins, the country has to import annually at least 1,000 tons of concentrated extract of natural tannins as well as syntannins from other countries. This paper presents some results of a study on the distribution of tannins in angiosperms, in order to identify the species which are richest in tannins. Different parts of nearly 1,600 species (about 20% of the total number of angiosperm species known so far) have been investigated by the authors with the gelatin method. Tannins occur rarely in annual species (13 out of the 218 species investigated) and also in perennial herbaceous species (71 out of 284) independent of their phylogeny. The perennial herb richest in tannins is Dioscorea cirrhosa (16-30% in the tubers). Tannins occur mainly in woody life-forms (76% of the species investigated), especially in tree species. In the class Magnoliopsida the percentage of tannnin-bearing species is very high in the subclasses Hamamelididae, Dilleniidae and Rosidae (72, 72 and 67% respectively), which contain almost all of the 90 species richest in tannins (over 12-15%). Most of the species in the first subclass belong to the family Fagaceae, such as Castanea mollissima (8-11% in stem wood), Lithocarpus annamensis (12-18% in stem bark), L.bacgiangensis (17-30% in stem bark, 14-19% in leaves), and L.hemisphaericus (13-17% in stem bark). In the second subclass they belong mainly to the families Dipterocarpaceae (e.g. Hopea odorata, 12-19% in stem bark, 10% in stem wood), Clusiaceae (Calophyltum inophyllum, 12-19% in stem bark), Euphorbiaceae {Phyllanthus emblica, 17-20% in stem bark, 30-35%i n unripe fruits) and Sapotaceae (Madhuca pasquieri, 12% in stem bark). More than half of the species richest in tannins belong to the subclass Rosidae, especially to the families Fabaceae (Adenanthera pavonina, 14% in stem bark; Cassia fistula, 9-17% in stem bark; Erythrophleum fordii, 17% in stem bark; Leucaena leucocephala, 14-21% in stem bark; Peltophorum dasyrrhachis, 12% in stem bark; Pithecellobium clypearia, 15% in stem bark, up to 12% in leaves; Sindora siamensis, 23- 24% in stem bark), Combretaceae (Anogeissus acuminata, 8-26% in leaves; Lumnitzera racemosa, 12%i n stem bark; Terminalia alata, 30-40% in fruits; T.corticosa, 20% in stem bark; T.myriocarpa, 18-24% in stem bark; T.nigrovenulosa, 17% in stem bark), Rhizophoraceae (many species rich in

292 tannins, such as Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Ceriops tagal, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculata), Meliaceae (Aglaia rubescens, 11-23 % in stem bark, 12-28% in leaves; Xylocarpus granatum, 28-30% in stem bark) and some others. Although 78% of the species investigated in the most primitive subclass Magnoliidae are tannin-bearing, only 5% of them are rich in tannins. Tannins are rare in the most advanced subclasses, the Lamiidae and Asteridae (about 20% of the investigated species contain tannins, but none of them is rich in tannins). In the class Liliopsida, there are only a few tannin-bearing species with very low content, except for the family Arecaceae of the subclass Arecidae, in which all species contain tannins. Stem bark of Rhizophora apiculata and certain other mangrove trees like R.stylosa, Bruguiera spp., Ceriops spp., Kandelia candel, Xylocarpus granatum, stem bark of Terminalia nigrovenulosa, Erythrophleum fordii and some others, and tubers of Dioscorea cirrhosa are exploited extensively (about 60,000 tons/year). Therefore these sources are rapidly diminishing. Certain other trees may be used as alternative sources such as Careya sphaerica, Casuarina equiseti'folia, Lagerstroemia calyculata, Phyllanthus emblica, and Terminalia alata. Many other native species, rich in tannins, such as Adenanthera pavonina, Aglaia rubescens, Anogeissus acuminata. Cassia fistula, Hopea odorata, Lithocarpus bacgiangensis, Peltophorum dasyrrhachis, Pithecellobium clypearia, and Sindora siamensis are not used due to their scattered distribution. Many of them might be grown in plantations for tannins as a secondary product.

Plant Resources of the Dry Deciduous Dipterocarp Forest of Vietnam 1 2 Phan Ke Loc & Nguyen Tien Hiep Department of Botany, University of Hanoi, Thuong Dinh, Dong Da, Hanoi, Vietnam

Department of Botany, Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, NCSR, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam

Dry deciduous dipterocarp forest is an original edapho-anthropogenic type of forest in Vietnam. It is found mainly in low-lying areas at elevations of 10-600 m with a rather long dry season (often more than 5 dry months) and on degraded skeletal or shallow rocky soils. Edaphic conditions and regular forest fire are the main reasons preventing re- establishment of the dense semi-evergreen seasonal forest or the dense evergreen hemi-sclerophyllous seasonal forest. This type of forest is located mainly in Gialai-Kontum province (Ba River's valley) and Daclac province (Easup plain) with areas of about

293 250,000 and 110,000 ha respectively. In neighbouring provinces like Nghiabinh,Phukhanh , Thuanhai,Lamdong ,Dongnai ,Songb ean dTayninh , it occurs in smaller areas. Beside the 200 species known to grow in these forests, there are over 100 other species found at their borders with other types of forest such as evergreen hemi-sclerophyllous seasonal forest, dense semi-evergreen seasonal forest, and gallery forest. The 4 main oligo-dominant or mono-dominant communities consisto f Dipterocar pus obtusifolius, D.tuberculatus, Shorea siamensis or the combination of Dipterocarpus tuberculatus and Shorea obtusa. The forest has only one tree storey. Timber is the major product, with a total standing volume of about 20 million m . About 15%o f the area is rich forest (standing volume over 130 m /ha), 25%i s medium forest (85-130 m /ha) and 60%i s poor forest (under 85 m /ha). The average amount of exploited timber is 300-500 thousand m per year over the last decade. The best timber is obtained from Shorea obtusa and the worst from Dipterocarpus tuberculatus. Because of the increase in pepper plantations, the demand for support poles has suddenly increased over the last 5 years. Tens of thousands of poles are cut every year. Shorea obtusa is most suitable because it is hardly affected by termites. Hundreds of thousands of stères of fuel wood are collected annually, mainly by rural inhabitants. Some small bamboo species of the genus Oxy tenanther a constitute the natural undergrowth in communities dominated by Dipterocarpus obtusifolius. There are more bamboos in neighbouring gallery forests. They are used extensively by local people as a substitute for timber in temporary constructions and as raw materials for numerous articles of daily use. Damar is collected from natural wounds of Shorea obtusa and S. siamensis. Production varies greatly from year to year with a maximum of up to 200 tons. 'Yang' oil is obtained from Dipterocarpus inlricatus by tapping. Production amounts to some dozens of tons per year. Over 20 medicinal species are known from these forests. The most valuable ones are Hibiscus sagittifolius and Kaempferia spp. Their tubers are exploited on a commercial scale: some hundreds of tons per year. Nearly 40 species provide food products, mostly for rural inhabitants. Some species like Melientha suavis, Curcuma spp. and Aganonerion polymorphum are useful additional vegetables by the end of the dry season. Only young shoots of bamboos have commercial value. At least 100 tons of preserved bamboo shoots enter the markets each year. Stem bark of Terminalia alata may be used as a tanning material. Over 10 species of the family Orchidaceae are known, such as Pomatocalpa sp. and Renanthera spp., which may be used as breeding material. After being burnt by the end of February, many grasses such as Arundinaria pusilla, Arundinella setosa, Imperata cylindrica. and Vetiveria zizanioides reproduce very fast and by the end of March form valuable forage for big mammals, especially for wild oxen and elephants. At present, Arundinaria pusilla plays the most important role. Some species such as Shorea obtusa and S.siamensis are important plants for wild bees. They provide not only food, but also materials (gums, resins) for their hives.

294 Almost all of the above-mentioned resources have been severely depleted due to over-exploitation and deforestation taking place at an increasing rate. They now need to be managed more rationally than ever.

The Starch from Sago Palms (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.)

CPhengklai

Royal Forestry Department, 61 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Starch is one of the basic nutritional requirements for human beings. The world population consumes a large amount of starchy foods daily. Cereals, potatoes and cassava are the prime sources of carbohydrate foods. However, during periods of famine, foods from lesser-known sources can play a significant role as instant food supply, and sago palm is a good example. Sago palm is considered fast growing, and plant height can reach 10m with 30-60 cm trunk diameter. The lower trunk is ringed with leaf-scars while the upper part is usually covered with semi-persistent leaf-sheaths. Leaves are pinnate, 5-7 m long, comprising about 100 pairs of leaflets. The leaflets are 0.5 to 1.6 m long and 3 to 6 cm wide, often with small spines along the margins. The midrib is woody. Inflorescences have a rusty colour with a terminal panicle up to 5 m in height and width. Each flower has 3 pistils and 6 stamens. Fruits are globose, about 2.5 to 4.5 cm in diameter, covered with yellowish brown shining scales. For flour extraction: (1) select a flowering plant, young and old plants are known to yield less flour, (2) cut the trunk into pieces about 1 m long, (3) remove the hard bark, then place the trunk on a plastic sheet or mat, (4) rub with a nail-board to obtain particles like saw-dust, (5) put the particles in a cloth sack, then immerse in water, and squeeze with both hands, (6) the flour will pass through the cloth, (7) the sediment can be sun-dried or kiln-dried and will be ready for use. Sago palms can yield flour up to 10% of the trunk fresh weight. The flour can be made into sweets, cakes, noodles and pancakes. Young trunk- piths and pith refuse are usually used as animal feed. Trunk-barks are strong enough for walls and ceilings of cottages. The leaves are considered more durable than nipa palm leaves for thatching.

295 Improvement of Salacca spp. in Thailand

P.Polprasid & S.Salakphetch

Department of Agriculture, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900, Thailand

Out of 14 species of the genus Salacca, only 2 are important cultivated species in ASEAN member countries. These are Salacca zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss, which is the economic fruit of Indonesia, and Salacca wallichiana Mart, of Thailand. Besides being a high value fruit crop, the 2 species possess many good horticultural characteristics. The production of Salacca spp. has become more and more popular in Thailand, and there is a need for superior palms for future expansion. The authors initiated a Salacca improvement project through collection and hybridization of the Salacca spp. Some characteristics of the species collected are described below. 'Rakam' (S.wallichiana Mart.) is a densely clustered, low palm with semi-spreading stem and very thorny petioles. Thorny fruits are borne on a long cluster of 2-4 bunches. The young, black fruits turn red when ripe. There are 2-3 segments in a fruit. The soft, thin and juicy flesh covers the big stone seed. The flesh of unripe fruits is sour and becomes sweet and aromatic when ripe. The palm is normally found in the hot and humid lowlands of eastern and southern Thailand. Fruits are harvested in the rainy season. It is a dioecious plant. 'Salak' (S.zalacca (Gaertn.) Voss) is native to Indonesia and is extensively cultivated in Sumatra, Java and Bali. It is a very densely clustered, low palm. It is a dioecious species. The fruits are covered with a soft, spiny, dark-brown skin. The spines usually fall off during transportation. The flesh is white to pink, thick, loose (seed free), sweet and sometimes astringent. There are 2-3 segments in a fruit. The palm is propagated by seed and vegetatively by suckers. The first fruiting of 'salak' introduced into Thailand was recorded in the year 1980. 'Sala' (Salacca sp. cultivar 'Naen Wong') is in many ways like 'rakam' except for the following characteristics. The fruit is oblong, has only one segment, is dark-brown when young, turns brown when ripe like 'salak', and is covered with long, soft spines. The flesh is firm, thick, and juicy. The taste is sweet and aromatic. It is believed that 'sala' is a superior clone of 'rakam'. It was commercially grown around Bangkok but has now become rare due to crop erosion in the area. 'Sakam' (Salacca sp.). The name is a merger of 'sala' and 'rakam'. 'Sakam' is a thornless palm, not yet described by any taxonomist. It probably arose as a mutation of either 'rakam' or 'sala' somewhere in Chanthaburi, the eastern province of Thailand. The area planted with 'sakam' is very limited in spite of its thornless character. This is due to its inferior fruit quality and low productivity compared with 'sala'. 'Som Lumphi' (Eleiodoxa conferta (Griff.) Burr.) is found in a wild state in many provinces of southern Thailand. The villagers gather the

296 fruits from the forest and sell them in the local markets. The fruits are of poor quality. The most interesting character of this palm is the thornless fruit. Collection of Salacca has been carried out since 1975. Crossings were made on January 4, 1985.Th e objective was to produce Salacca palms with: (1) thornless petioles, (2) soft fruit-spines, (3) thick flesh (either seed free or not free), (4) sweet and aromatic taste, and (5) high yield. The reciprocal crosses of 'sakam' and 'salak' suggested that there is cytoplasmic incompatibility when 'sakam' is the female parent. Among the crosses performed, only 'sala' x 'sakam' produced almost 50% thornless seedlings. The palms are expected to bear fruits in about 2 years from now.

Van Overeem's Unpublished Icônes of Indonesian Edible Fungi

M.A.Rif ai

Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122, Indonesia

Casper van Overeem (1893-1927) was the first mycologist appointed as a staff member of the Herbarium Bogoriense in 1921.Durin g his very brief stay in Java, cut short by his untimely death in 1927, he made critical analyses of almost all tropical fungi that he came across. Assisted by an able local draughtsman (A.Hamzah) employed by 's Lands Plantentuin, he prepared thousands of drawings of these fungi, which are now kept in the Herbarium Bogoriense. In preparing these illustrations Van Overeem used all kinds of media available, i.e. pencil, oil, water-colour, pastel, so that the results are an excellent rendering of the objects depicted, with wonderful likeness to the fungi in their natural habitats. The drawings are not only artistically of a high standard but are also scientifically accurate. Among the objects studied by Van Overeem, edible fungi are very well represented. If one relates these illustrations with the account of useful fungi published in 'De Nuttige Planten van Nederlandsch Indië' of K.Heyne, it soon becomes apparent that, in preparing the technical descriptions of the mushrooms used by Indonesians, the observations recorded in the drawings have been fully utilized by Van Overeem. It is a real blow to tropical mycology that very few indeed of these painstakingly prepared illustrations were published, especially because Van Overeem's view, system of classification, and methods of analysis were unsurpassed and far ahead of his time. On the occasion of the First PROSEA International Symposium a selection of these beautiful drawings of Indonesian edible fungi were exhibited to show the fungi as seen by an exceptional artistic mycologist. A number of what may be referred to as rare tropical fungal phenomena were also presented. To this group belong curiosities such as

297 the edible plant disease (Synchytrium psophocarpi on the winged bean) the termite-nest-loving agaric (Termitomyces eurrhizus), the woody vegetables (Lentinus sajor-caju and the polypores Laetiporus miniatus and Polvporus udus), the trembling white jelly (Tremella fuciformis) and the 'edible puffballs (the Gnetum mycorrhizal symbiont Scleroderma sinnamariense as well as the widely spread Calvatia cacavu). Illustrations of several edible species which are more familiar to many people were also exhibited including the common Boletus subtomentosus, Pleurotus anas (which is the wild relative of the cultivated Pleurotus ostreatus), the inky cap Coprinus macrorrhizus, Oudemansiella canarii as well as the ubiquitous rice-straw mushroom (Vohariella volvacea).

298 Indigenous Fruit Trees of Kalimantan in Traditional Culture

B.Seibert

GTZ-German Forestry Group, Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, P.O.Box 227, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

Agroforestry practices play a traditional role in the land-use systems of Kalimantan. The traditional systems are highly diversified and hence similar to the home gardens in Java, but they usually comprise more species, especially forest species. Indigenous and endemic tree species are in use for food, household needs, firewood, and for cash income. Some of the most important tree families, comprising food-producing and food-bearing genera and species, are presented in order to illustrate the great diversity of useful tree species which occur in Kalimantan. Mangifera (Anacardiaceae) occurs with wide diversity in Kalimantan, and at least 16 of the 24 Mangifera species described for Indonesia occur here in the forests, on riverbanks and in swamps. Some of them are endemic, many are edible and sold in the local markets. Durio zibethinus, the most famous member of the genus Durio (Bombacaceae), is supposed to originate from Borneo and has about 18 relatives here, 14 of them endemic. Three of the local species, beside durian itself, are edible and appreciated in the local markets. Besides, there are several rare edible durians which are called 'mandong', probably varieties or hybrids. Other species with non-edible fruits can be found in the forests, and some of them are appreciated for their valuable timber. In the family Euphorbiaceae, there is a large genus of 60 to 100 species with at least 20 fruit-bearing members, which are little known outside Malesia: Baccaurea. About 26 species, 6 of them endemic, can be found in Borneo, and the fruits of some of them are consumed and also traded locally. Among the 50 members of the genus Artocarpus (Moraceae), there are 2 which are important staple food sources in many tropical countries: the breadfruit and the jackfruit. Originating from Asia, this genus occurs in Borneo with about 20 indigenous species, 6 of them endemic, some have edible fruits. The Sapindaceae is also a very important tree family. Many subspecies and/or varieties of Dimocarpus longan, the 'longan', are used and propagated under different vernacular names, and several other species of Dimocarpus occur in Borneo. Their taxonomy is not very clear, since only 5 species and subspecies are described for Borneo, 2 of them endemic. Borneo is the centre of diversity of the genus Nephelium (Sapindaceae). The genus comprises 22 species, 16 of which occur in Borneo, 8 are endemic. Varieties of N.lappaceum are usually included in the species, but propagated like separate species. Besides, there are fruit-bearing members of the families Apocynaceae, Burseraceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Guttiferae, Leguminosae, Meliaceae and Palmae worth mentioning and indigenous to Borneo. The list may illustrate

299 the importance and the potential of this island as a genetic resource for food-producing tree species.

The Role of Rattan Palm in the Development of Sustainable Forest in Indonesia

T.Silitonga1 & R.Effendi2

Forest Products Research and Development Centre, Jalan Meranti 6, Pasir Jaya, Bogor, Indonesia

Forest Research and Development Centre, Jalan Gunung Batu, P.O.Box 66, Bogor, Indonesia

Rattan is one of the important forest products in Indonesia, which has long been known as a leading rattan producing and exporting country. In 1980 Indonesia accounted for about 73.8% of the world production. The number of recorded rattan species in the country amounts to 306 species belonging to 8 genera, scattered over 9.5 million hectares of Indonesian forests. An estimation of the potential rattan production is 573,890 tons per year. The depletion of tropical forests in Indonesia is advancing at an alarming rate and consequently the potential of rattan palm is endangered. For instance, canes of Calamus manan are already difficult to collect from natural forests. To overcome this problem, rattan plantations must be encouraged. Recently, the Ministry of Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia embarked on a rattan plantation programme to meet the future needs of the rattan industry which has grown considerably in the last few years. Besides, the programme also aims to create more job opportunities for people living in or near the forest. It is estimated that nowadays about 100,000 people are engaged in rattan cultivation, collection, processing and trade. The rattan species widely cultivated are commercial species such as Calamus caesius, C.inops, C.manan, C.trachycoleus, Daemonorops melanochaetes and D.robustus. The main rattan cultivation areas are Kalimantan (Dedahup, Sampit, Banjarmasin, Berau, Kutai), West Java, West Sumatra, North Sulawesi and South-East Sulawesi. In Dedahup, the rattan cultivated area reached 12,000 hectares in 1984, in West Java 1,000 hectares. The extent of rattan plantation in these 2 areas as well as in other areas is expected to grow, in line with increasing demand. Areas used for rattan plantations are secondary forest, rubber plantations, non productive areas and man-made forest. In line with its important role in increasing land and forest productivity, as a foreign currency earner, in providing job

300 opportunities, and as an export commodity, much research should be directed towards rattan production. The Agency for Forestry Research and Development has established research cooperation with IDRC, Canada in the fields of rattan silviculture, botany, living collections, harvesting, processing methods and economics. Technical papers and research results have been published in local as well as in international journals.

Gliricidia Leaves as Ruminant Feed

S.Silitonga-Sitorus

Research Institute for Animal Production, P.O.Box 210, Bogor 16001, Indonesia

Most of the farmers in Indonesia are smallholders and have limited agricultural land areas, which are usually not used specifically for forage production. Native grass is the main forage offered to ruminants, even though the nutritive value is low. Consequently the animals' growth rate is low. Improvement in performance of these animals can be achieved by providing a more nutritious feed which supplements the grass diet. The supplementary feed should be inexpensive and readily available to local farmers. For most small farmers in Indonesia, giving concentrate supplement is not economically feasible. Foliage of tree legumes such as Gliricidia can be produced by farmers

301 at minimal costs. It grows well in small plots along fences or roadsides in the dry as well as the wet season. The major beneficial effects of feeding Gliricidia leaves are associated with their high crude protein content (more than 20%), mineral (calcium and phosphorus) content and digestibility. The harvesting interval affects the chemical composition of the forage. With increasing harvesting interval the crude protein and calcium contents decrease, while fibre content increases. Consumption of grass supplemented with Gliricidia leaves increases animal daily weight gain and there are no harmful effects when fed in large quantities for a long period of time. When fed to sheep 'ad libidum', fresh Gliricidia leaves increased average daily weight gain by 80 g and wilted leaves by 111 g. Cattle consuming napier grass with tapioca waste, supplemented with 4 kg/day of Gliricidia leaves, showed increased daily weight gain of 363 g.

Arenga pinnata Merr. as Multipurpose Palm for Forestry Buffer-Zones

W.Smits

Tropenbos, P.O.Box 220, Balikpapan, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

A multitude of products of local importance can be harvested from the sugar palm. Besides local products this palm also yields some export products like palm sugar, palm fibres, sago and sweetmeats. Since the palm thrives well under a wide range of ecological conditions on almost any type of soil, needs little maintenance and has no fatal diseases, it seems excellently suited to be used in the establishment of buffer-zones. It is suggested that local shifting cultivators be involved in reforestation or forest maintenance, while providing them with good quality planting stock of Arenga pinnata. In this way they could earn their living during the first 10-15 years from their wages in the forestry sector, while the palms could be planted on their abandoned fields and be left to grow for the same period. After this period when labour opportunities in the forestry sector, especially in the establishment of timber estates, start decreasing, the harvesting of the sugar palms will provide an alternative source of income. It is hoped that the presence of the valuable sugar palms will withhold the shifting cultivators from new slash and burn practices on these planted sites during the time they are involved in the forestry sector. Harvesting of sugar palm is very labour- intensive but provides a reasonably high income. A zone of sugar palms around production forest or nature reserves would also provide a clear boundary and reduce the risk of fire spreading from shifting cultivation fields to the forest.

302 The use of this palm might also be worthwhile in heavily damaged catchment areas and on sites prone to erosion, because of its extremely strong and dense root system. Locally this palm has already been used specially for this purpose (see photo). In East Kalimantan sugar palm planting is now supported by the state forestry enterprise P.T.INHUTANI I. This company provides plants to stabilize landslides along the Balikpapan-Samarinda road and is planting sugar palms around its timber estates in Sesayap, Longnah and near Balikpapan.

SEAWIC Contributions to the Management of the Economic Plants of South-East Asia

S.S.Soedojo, S.S.Tjitrosoedirdjo & R.C.Umaly

BIOTROP, Jalan Raya Tajur Km.6, P.O.Box 17, Bogor, Indonesia

Information pertaining to weeds and related subjects is a basic component of weed research and agricultural development. A scientist may

303 spend hours, days, and even months in looking for information that could help solve his particular problems or meet his particular needs. The South-East Asian Weed Information Center (SEAWIC)atBIOTROPhopesto meet the demand for a single source of packaged, selected information in the region, and help identify gaps in information so that new research can be done to fill them. SEAWIC, a specialized information centre on weed science, provides information services on the biology (including identification, distribution, ecology), management, utilization and control of weeds significant to the region. It also covers information on weed interference, herbicides, and related subjects. The Center's data base of documents consists of published articles, books, and unpublished research/project/travel reports, dissertations, theses and other studies. These are indexed and abstracted (when no abstract is available). Retrieval is done with computers, using the title, author, subject, and keyword fields or combinations of these. The Center also has a herbarium of South-East Asian weeds. Data concerning these specimens are entered and stored in a computer. At present, SEAWIC is developing a computerized system for identification of South-East Asian weeds. SEAWIC publishes a quarterly newsletter (WEEDwatcher), illustrated Weed Leaflets, and Annotated Bibliographies. It provides literature searches and selective dissemination of information (SDI), question/answer and identification services. Scientists can ask for photocopies of articles and computer-generated bibliographies and can avail themselves of SEAWIC's other services. On the other hand, SEAWIC solicits direct contributions (articles, books, and studies) from scientists, who are both producers and users of information.

Reproductive Biology of Malaysian Fruit Tree Species and their Wild Relatives

E.Soepadmo

Department of Botany, University of Malaya (UM), 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

There are about 200 known species of trees producing edible fruits in Peninsular Malaysia belonging mainly to the families: Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Bombacaceae, Clusiaceae (Guttiferae), Euphorbiaceae, Flacourtiaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Oxalidaceae and Sapindaceae. Of these not more than 40 species are already cultivated in villages, orchards and research stations, while the remainder are still growing wild or semi-wild in secondary and primary forests at a very low density. In the lowland dipterocarp forests, for example, the average densities per hectare of these wild fruit tree species are as follows:

304 Artocarpus (3 spp.) = 0.9, Baccaurea (7 spp.) = 7.0, Bouea (1 sp.) = 1.6, Durio (2 spp.) = 0.4, Garcinia (10 spp.) = 3.4, Lansium (2 spp.) = 3.7, Mangifera (9 spp.) = 2.6, Nephelium (4 spp.) = 3.7, Sandoricum (1 sp.) = 0.9, and Xerospermum (2 spp.) = 13.6 trees/ha. Flowering of the wild fruit tree species is either aseasonal and intermittent throughout the year (e.g. species of Artocarpus), or strongly seasonal occurring once or twice a year (e.g. species of Baccaurea, Durio, Garcinia, Mangifera, and Xerospermum), or once at intervals of 1-2 years (e.g. species of Bouea, Lansium, and Nephelium). At community level the majority of the above fruit tree species are either dioecious (e.g. species of Baccaurea, Garcinia), or effectively unisexual, since though the flowers are hermaphrodite and the trees are either monoecious or polygamous they are either self-incompatible, protandrous or protogynous (e.g. species of Artocarpus, Averrhoa, Durio, Eugenia, Mangifera, Nephelium, Parkia, Sandoricum, and Xerospermum). Most species of Garcinia and Lansium have been proved embryologically to be agamospermous, and cytologically as showing a high degree of polyploidy. In most species, pollination (if required) is mediated by biotic agents such as bees (Apis, Trigona, Xylocopa) and thrips (Thrips and Megalurothrips) in Averrhoa, Baccaurea,Eugenia, Mangifera, Nephelium, Sandoricum and Xerospermum, or by nectarivorous batsi nArtocarpus, Durio, and Parkia. Likewise, fruit and seed dispersal in most species is also mediated by biotic agents. The diaspores are either fleshy/ berries, drupes, or woody capsules with arillate seeds. Most seeds are recalcitrant and, under forest conditions, lose their viability in less than 10 weeks. The brief summary on the reproductive biology of the fruit tree species given above clearly indicates that our knowledge on this very important subject is rather meagre at best. In addition, the growth and agronomic requirements as well as the environmental factors affecting the flowering of most fruit tree species in the region are also largely unknown. This lack of basic biological knowledge has in one way or another hindered the progress in our effort to fully utilize and exploit the economic potentials of most native plant genetic resources, especially fruit tree species. Thus it is earnestly hoped that the PROSEA project will seriously address this basic shortcoming so that the potentially useful plant resources of the region could be fruitfully conserved, developed and exploited on a sustained yield basis. Let us act now before it is too late.

Loss of Ornamental Plant Resources in East Java

L.Soetopo

Agronomy Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University, Jalan M.J.Haryono 163, Malang 65145, Indonesia

The potential of ornamental plant resources in East Java needs to be

305 developed wisely. Many plant species, e.g. orchids, Adiantum spp., Caladium spp., Ceropteris spp., and Nephrolepis spp., grow wild in the forests of Mount Ijen, Argapura, Bromo,Semeru , Arjuna, Kelud, and Lawu. The introduction of new plant species and varieties has enriched the germplasm resources, and in recent years many hybrids and new types have been created, for example, in orchids and ferns. Prigen, Lawang and Punten arebecomin g animportan t market-place for ornamental plants in East Java. However, the kinds of plant available are strongly influenced by consumers' demand and interest. Many species gradually disappear from the market, and nobody is interested in growing them. Ornamental plants like Helicönia, Helichrysum and others, are hardly to be found nowadays in Punten where they used to be abundant. The growing interest in new plant species, e.g. ferns, or new methods of cultivation, e.g. 'bonsai', is also stimulating people to seek these plants in their natural habitat in the forests. To prevent the loss of ornamental plant resources, government regulations are necessary, and scientists, farmers and collectors should coordinate activities. The botanical gardens in Purwodadi could serve as a nursery for protected plant species. Scientists could use this material for the creation of new types to meet consumer demand.

Kaempferia galanga L. in Central Java and West Sumatra

Sudiarto

Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3, Bogor 16111, Indonesia

Introduction Kaempferia galanga L. (Zingiberaceae, 2n=54) occurs naturally and is cultivated throughout South-East Asia and as far as India and China (Darlington & Wylie, 1955; Perry, 1980). In Indonesia this species is cultivated mainly in two areas: Boyolali in Central Java and West Pasaman in West Sumatra. Vernacular names Aceh: ceuko; Batak: kaciwer; Minangkabau: cakue; Indonesia, Melayu, Java: kencur; Sunda: cikur; Bali: cekuh; Makassar: cakuru; Minahasa: sikum; Ternate: bataka; Irian: ukap (Anon., 1977), English: East-Indian galanggale (Ochse, 1931). Uses The use of the rhizome of this species is widespread. In Indonesia the rhizomes are highly valued by Javanese women who employ them in many traditional medicines which are moderately warming. It is used especially externally to treat abdominal pain, also as an embrocation or suderific (to increase sweating) to treat swellings and muscular rheumatism, and also internally as a health drink. The leaves are used for 'lalab' (fresh vegetable), particularly by the Sundanese. Economic and production data Estimated planted areas in both Boyolali (at Nogosari) and West Pasaman are about 1,000 ha, producing at

306 least 10,000 tons of fresh rhizomes annually in recent years. Another production area is at Cileungsi near Bogor in West Java. The plant is usually employed as a garden or rainfed field crop and grown as a valuable cash crop. No reliable statistics exist and since there are no export figures, it seems that the total production is for domestic consumption. Properties The rhizome contains 2.4 - 3.9% essential oil and its reported constituents are cinnamic aldehyde, methyl-p-cumaric acid, cinnamic acid ethyl ester, and pentadecane (Perry, 1980). Description Small, perennial, stemless herb, rhizomes subterraneous, crowded, copiously branched. Short leaves, lying more or less flat on the ground. Roots robust, locally swollen, often tuberiferous, yellowish white. Root-tubers ovoid or globose, 1-1.5 cm diameter, two-coloured inside, margin 0.15-0.2 cm thick, glassy yellowish brown, heart white, Inflorescence terminal between the leaves, 4-12 or more flowered. Flowers almost white or with a light violet labellum, rather regular, faintly odorous. Ecology The plant can grow on various soil types, from heavy vertisol to latosol and andosol soils, having clay, loam to silt-loam textures. It thrives best at elevations of 150-1,000 m. Annual rainfall 2,000-4,000 mm with rainfall types A, B and C (Schmidt & Ferguson). Waterlogging is harmful. Environmental conditions in Boyolali, Central Java, are vertisol and latosol soils, 150-400 m altitude, and rainfall type C; in West Pasaman soils are commonly andosol, and rainfall type is A. Propagation Propagation is by rhizome cuttings, 2.5-4 cm long, 5-12 g in weight and preferably with at least 3-5 sprouting buds. Husbandry Cuttings are planted in gardens or fields in 7.5-10 cm deep furrows (in Central Java) or in separate planting holes, 5-7.5 cm deep, 3-5 cm diameter (in West Pasaman). Plant spacing is 10-15 cm in Central Java and 25-60 cm in West Pasaman. In both areas the plants are usually grown with peanut and paddy, sometimes with other food crops as intercrop, and in West Pasaman also as an intercrop in young rubber stands. Planting time is usually in the rainy season. In Central Java and also in other regions of Java, manure is commonly used at the rate of 10- 30 tons/ha, but never in West Sumatra. Broad-leafed varieties or clones are usually planted in both areas. However, they might be different genetically. Diseases and pests Rhizome soft rot of K.galanga caused by Pythium sp. has been reported in Central Java (Megawati, 1981). The disease is particularly prevalent under bad drainage conditions. Insects attacking the leaves are Kerana sp. and Udapes sp. (Anon., 1977). Harvesting The plant can be harvested 6-24 months after planting. Harvesting at 6 months, at 10-12 months and also at 15-18 months is done in Central Java. In West Pasaman harvesting is usually at 18-24 months. Fresh rhizome yields in Java vary from 6-15 tons/ha, while in West Pasaman yields of 12-20 tons/ha are achieved. Literature (1) Anonymous, 1977. Materia medika Indonesia. Departe- men Kesehatan, Jakarta, 1,169pp .(2 )Megawati,M. , 1981.Pengusahaa n jamu P.T. Air Mancur, Wonogiri, Surakarta, dan budidaya tanaman kencur (Kaempferia galanga L.), 105 pp. (3) Ochse,J.J., 1931. Vegetables of the

307 Dutch East-Indies. Archipel Drukkerij, Bogor, 1005 pp. (4) Perry,L.M., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and South-East Asia: attributed properties and uses. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, 620 pp.

Importance of Non-Traditional Commercial Timbers for the Wood Industry in Indonesia

B.Supraptono

Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, P.O.Box 13, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

According to data from the Forest Research and Development Centre, Bogor, out of an estimated 4,000 tropical rainforest timber species, about 90% are still unknown with regard to their characteristics as well as their potential uses. The rest (about 400 species) have economic value for the wood industry. About 260 species are classified as commercial timbers, while about 140 are so-called 'lesser-known species'. The decrease of commercial timber resources will lead to a shortage of wood as raw material. To meet the future demand it is necessary both to utilize lesser-known species, and to establish new plantations with indigenous and exotic species. The utilization of mixed timbers, at present not well accepted from the commercial point of view, is an effort to avoid the over-exploitation of forest resources. The standing stock of 48 of the 140 lesser-known species is very high, varying from 0.4 - 200 million m . The most abundant species are 'kempas' (Koompassia malaccemis) with 189 million m , 'ulin' (Eusideroxylon zwageri) with 55 million m , 'bitangur' (Calophyllum spp.) with 55 million irr , 'balau' (Sfwrea spp.) with 66 million m , 'merawan' (Hopea spp.) with 52 million m , and 'mersawa' (Anisoptera costata) with 61 million m . The variation among these lesser-known species in their stock volume per ha is obviously very high, varying from 1.2 - 30.0 m /ha. Among the 65 principal lesser-known species, there are 39 with a volume of less than 5 m /ha. However, 'kedondong hutan' (Spondias pinnata) has 29.5 m , and 'sawo kecik' (Manilkara kauki) 12J m . According to the results of 360 sample surveys in 18 provinces of Indonesia, covering a total area of 26.6 million ha, the total standing stock is 3,554 million m , of which 1,650 million m or 46.5% are classified as commercial timbers; 525.3 million m or 14.7% belong to 48 major lesser-known species. The decrease of natural wood sources has led to measures for the future supply of wood in Indonesia, known as HTI ('Hutan Tanaman Industri', i.e. Timber Estate Programme). This programme is carried out in Kalimantan and in other large islands. The target of HTI is to afforest 6.2 million ha with fast-growing species of both indigenous and exotic

308 •3 origin, and to obtain an annual production of 93 million m of wood. This target can be achieved if planted trees are well maintained throughout the life of the plantation. The most important HTI species are Acacia mangium, Albizia falcataria, Eucalyptus deglupta, E.urophylla, Gonystylus bancana, 'meranti' (Shorea spp.), Peronema canescens, Pinus caribaea, P.merkusii, and Swietenia macrophylla.

Bamboo and Rattan Resources

S.Thammincha & I.Vongkaluang

Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, 50 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10903, Thailand

Over 75 genera and 1,250 species of bamboos occur in the world, and about 14 million ha of the earth's surface are covered with bamboo forests, mainly in South and South-East Asia and the Far East. There are 12 genera and about 600 species of rattans and most of them occur in South-East Asia. Rattans can be considered as one of the most important commercial group of plant species in the tropics. Rattan manufacturing provides good job opportunities and better income for all parties concerned. Bamboo has been called 'the poor man's timber', 'the miracle grass' and 'a cradle to coffin timber'. In South, South-East and Far-East Asia bamboos are used for housing, construction, scaffolding, piping, ladders, mats, blinds, tool handles, toys, musical instruments, furniture, handicrafts, containers, cooking vessels, pulp and paper, food, fodder and fuel wood. Bamboos are also becoming popular in other parts of the world for similar reasons and additional ones such as the use as ornamental plant. In parts of India and China they are used for rehabilitating degraded and mined lands. Bamboos bind the soil and prevent soil erosion and loss, and they grow very vigorously on a variety of soils of poor fertility. The fast growth rate of bamboos is well-known and many varieties suitable for semi-arid as well as humid conditions are available. In socio-economic terms, bamboo forests contribute enormously to national and individual wealth. This group of plants is said to house tens of millions of people in Bangladesh, India, Burma, Thailand, the Philippines and Indonesia. Rattans in South-East Asia are rated as the most important non-timber product. Yet, until recently the plants received little attention from all but a dedicated cohort of enthusiasts. The situation has now changed dramatically. Almost all of the countries in the region have taken steps to protect their resources by banning exports of raw materials, setting regulations on harvesting, and conserving their wild gene pool. This

309 turnabout is not surprising, for the rattans have so much to give to the local communities. In socio-economic terms, rattans continue to be part and parcel of the rural industries of South-East Asia. Rattans support labour-intensive manufacturing activities requiring a per capita worker investment of less than US$ 2,000, while contributing to a world trade of not less than US$ 2 billion per year. Rattan products are fashion-proof and have become extremely popular as furniture in affluent countries. In some parts of the Philippines, Indonesia and Thailand, whole villages are dependent on rattans for hard cash and in addition some 100,000 workers in the region earn their living in rattan-based furniture industries.

Main Sources of Information on Indo-Chinese Plant Resources

J.E.Vidal

Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, 16, Rue Buffon, F-75005 Paris, France

Although the various Indo-Chinese Floras mention the uses of the plants described, the main sources of information on utilization are publications specially oriented towards economic botany or ethnobotany. The most important are the following: Indo-China: (1) General: Crevost, Lemarié & Pételot (1917-1941), 'Catalogue des produits de l'Indochine', 6 volumes; identifications and nomenclature need to be revised, (2) Medicinal plants: Pételot (1952 - 1954), 'Plantes médicinales du Cambodge, du Laos et du Vietnam', 4 volumes, (3) Timber trees: Maurand (1943), 'L'Indochine forestière', in which 52 trees of economic importance are dealt with and many other forest products are mentioned. Cambodia: (1) General: (a) Ito (1969), 'Economic plants of Cambodia', a compilation of 477 useful plants, (b) Martin (1971), 'Introduction à 1'ethnobotanique du Cambodge', a scientific work based on herbaria and ethno-linguistic investigations dealing with about 700 species, (c) Vidal (1967,1971), ethnobotanical contributions on about 400 species, (2) Medicinal plants: (a) Menaut (1930), 'Matière médicale cambodgienne', a basic work on the traditional Cambodian pharmacopoeia but unfortunately not based on herbaria and hence with some doubtful identifications, (b) Douk (1966), a compilation of medicinal plants, (3) Timber trees and Forest Products: Béjaud & Conrard (1932), 'Essences forestières du Cambodge', 1 volume for the text (mimeographed), 3 volumes for plates reproducing directly the specimens. Laos: (1) General: (a) Malpuech (1924), 'Le Laos économique', in which the most interesting plants of economic value are dealt with but not always with their Latin names, (b) Vidal (1962) 'Noms vernaculaires de plantes du Laos', a dictionary of about 2,500 names based on plant collections and ethno-linguistic investigations, (c) Vidal (1963), 'Les

310 plantes utiles du Laos' (cryptogams, gymnosperms and monocots), (2) Medicinal plants: (a) Spire (1907), 'Les Laotiens, coutumes et pratiques médicales', in which many plants are cited but most of them are unidentified, (b) Sassady (1962), a thesis on traditional medicine, (3) Timber trees: Paquet et al. (1971), 'Quelques arbres importants du Laos', in which about 100 species are described and illustrated by photographs. Vietnam: (1) General: Phan Kê Lôc (1969), 'Useful plants of North Vietnam' (in Vietnamese), (2) Medicinal plants: Dô Tât Lo'i (1986), 'Medicinal plants and drugs of Vietnam' (in Vietnamese), an important compilation of 1,250 pages and 738 figures, (3) Timber trees: Institute of Forest Inventories (1971-1983), 'Forest trees of Vietnam' (in Vietnamese), 6 volumes describing about 600 species. The references to these main contributions and to several others including those on the ethnobotany of various ethnic minorities can be found in three Indo-Chinese Bibliographies: Pételot (1955), Vidal (1972), and Vidal et al. (1988).

The Genus Abelmoschus

J.H.Vredebregt

IBPGR, c/o P.O.Box 001, B 1860 Meise, Belgium

Abelmoschus is a small genus in the Malvaceae. Van Borssum Waalkes (1966) distinguished 6 species for the PROSEA area. In West Africa, the work of Siemonsma (1982) led to the distinction of a new species, A.caillei, a plant possibly also useful for South-East Asia. From the Indian subcontinent, A.tuberculatus was described. This brings the number of species to 8. The genus comprises 3 tropical lowland vegetables. Two are fruit vegetables {A.esculentus and A.caillei), well-known under the name 'okra'. IBPGR collected more than 3,000 accessions of them on the African continent. The third cultivated Abelmoschus is A.manihot ssp. manihot, a leafy vegetable from the South-West Pacific region (Philippines, East Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands). 60 years ago Bakhuizen van den Brink Sr. collected about 12 quite different traditional cultivars calling them 'formae'. In reality the diversity of this species exceeds that number enormously, as recent explorations have proved. In Africa, where the centre of diversity of A.esculentus and A.caillei is situated, only one wild relative (A.ficulneus) occurs. In Asia and the Pacific area A.ficulneus is reported from India, Sri Lanka and the PROSEA area up toPor t Moresby (Papua New Guinea) together with all the other wild relatives of the Abelmoschus vegetables. Of those, A.angulosus is threatened by the rapidly extending tea plantations of Sri Lanka and South India. From South-East Asia recent information about wild

311 Abelmoschus is very rare. This means a real risk for the conservation of the Abelmoschus genepool. Hardly any information on wild Abelmoschus in Java has appeared during the last 50 years. In the same period the growth of the population has been formidable.

South-East Asian Plants Used in Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine

Y.C.Wee

Botany Department, National University of Singapore, Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 0511

There are more than a thousand items of plant, animal and mineral origin commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine in China as well as outside China (mainly Taiwan, Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia). Of these, about 900 are of plant origin, coming from 37 species of pteridophytes (12 families), 13 species of gymnosperms (7 families), 145

312 species of monocotyledons (20 families) and 705 species of dicotyledons (122 families). Based on an inventory of a major company in Singapore importing Chinese medicinal products, there are about 500 items of plant, animal and mineral products regularly brought into Singapore from China for use by local herbalists. These products are dispensed by trained herbalists in various combinations for a wide array of ailments. Although western-type medicine is readily available at reasonable cost, there is still a large group of older Singaporeans of Chinese origin who still prefer traditional herbal medicine. About 60% of the commonly used plant products are of temperate origin. The remaining 40% (352 species) can be found in South-East Asia, growing wild or cultivated as ornamentals. These include 13 species of pteridophytes, 5specie s of gymnosperms, 67 species of monocotyledons and 267 species of dicotyledons. There is thus the possibility of making use of those plants available in the region for use in herbal preparations rather than importing them from China. The following table gives the number of families, genera and species of plants used in traditional Chinese medicine that are found in South- East Asia.

Families Genera Species

Pteridophytes 6 8 13 Gymnosperms 4 5 5 Angiosperms monocotyledons 16 63 67 dicotyledons 83 218 267 Total 109 294 352

Potential of Dimocarpus longan in Sarawak

K.C.Wong & I.Yusof

University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), Campus Bintulu, P.O.Box 396, 97008 Bintulu, Sarawak, Malaysia

The species Dimocarpus longan hasbee n reported byLeenhout s (Blumea 19,1971; 21,1973) to show its greatest diversity in Borneo. He estimated that about 30-40 local races exist, thus postulated the centre of diversity for this species to be in this part of the world. Studies on this species were started by the University of Agriculture Malaysia in 1986. Investigations were aimed at collecting, documenting and evaluating all genetic materials of this and related species. In particular, it was observed that a subspecies showed great potential for commercialization. This paper summarizes some of the results of studies on this subspecies.

313 The taxon D.longan ssp. malesianus var. malesianus exhibits great variability in vegetative, floral, fruit and tree-form characteristics. It has been estimated that 30-40 local races of this taxon are in existence in Borneo. In Sarawak the races could be grouped into 3 broad groups, based on their vegetative and fruit characteristics as well as their vernacular names, i.e. 'isau', 'sau' and 'kakus'. Analysis of the arilloid revealed that 'isau' contained higher levels of brix, vitamin C, calcium, and iron than the other groups. 'Isau' was found growing in particular on alluvial soils belonging to the Seduau series, on Kapit and Merit soils as well as the Kapit/Merit association along the Rajang River stretching from Kanowit (3rd Division) to Song, Kapit and Belaga (7th Division). It was found growing wild in Ramudu, Padaleh, Long Lanau and other places in the Bareo valley (4th Division). A taxonomie description of the taxon D.longan ssp. malesianus var. malesianus has been published by Wong et al. (1988). Studies on propagation showed that 'isau' seeds, when stored under normal ambient conditions, lost their viability very quickly. To maintain seed viability for a longer period, it was necessary to maintain the seed moisture level above 31% and to treat them with 0.05% Benomyl. Seeds treated with 0.05% Benomyl and stored in sealed polyethylene bags in an air-conditioned room attemperature s between 14-23°Can daverag e humidity of 77%,maintaine d an average germination of 73.3%fo r more than 24 days. Vegetative propagation was successfully carried out by marcotting. However, it took about 2-3 months for the marcot to root. Green budding on root-stocks of a diameter of 2.5 cm gave about 30% success. It took 14-16 months for the seedling stocks to reach this buddable size. Slow and uneven sprouting of buds from bud patches partly contributed to the poor budding success. Studies were carried out on post-harvest storage of 'isau' fruit to overcome the fast browning of the pericarp and rotting of the fruit after harvest. Methods of harvesting (fruits harvested with and without stalks), treatment of fruit with Benomyl and VaporGard anti-transpirant, usage of different packing materials, and storage under various conditions were some of the factors investigated. Storage of fruit with and without stalks did not influence pericarp browning and fruit rotting. Whereas untreated fruits turned brown within 24 hours after harvesting, fruits treated with unheated Benomyl at 0.05% and stored in air-tight containers or sealed polyethylene bags, remained fresh for as long as 5 days when kept under ambient conditions. Under refrigeration, even longer storage was possible with the same treatments. Treating the fruit with VaporGard anti- transpirant at 2.5% gave an undesirable greasy appearance which tended to darken the colour.

314 Economic Ferns of the Philippines

P.M.Zamora

Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City, Philippines

This paper is an attempt to present a review of the available information on the 54 economically important species of ferns from the Philippines related to the objectives of the PROSEA Project. The 54 species fall into several categories, thus: (1) edible ferns, (2) handicraft ferns, (3) medicinal ferns, (4) ornamental ferns, (5) ferns for building materials, (6) ferns as organic fertilizers, (7) ferns as a source of non-nuclear fuel, (8) ferns for biological pest control, (9) ferns for bio-geochemical prospecting, and (10) ferns as pernicious weeds. Ferns used as human food include Acrostichum aureum, Ampelopteris proliféra, Angiopteris palmiformis, Blechnum egregium, B.orientale, Ceratopteris thalictroides, Cyathea contaminons and other species, Diplazium esculentum, Helminthostachys zeylanica, Lygodium circinnatum and other species (L.auriculatum, L.flexuosum, L.japonicum, L.microphyllum), Nephrolepis hirsutula, Pleocnemia irregularis and other species (P.brongniartii, P.macrodonta), Pteris mutilata and Stenochlaena palustris. In most cases, the new or young fronds, i.e. just uncoiling fiddleheads, are used. Ferns used for handicraft manufacture include Amphineuron terminons, Dicranopteris linearis, Lygodium circinnatum and other species, Nephrolepis hirsutula, Stenochlaena palustris, Cyathea spp. Stems (Cyathea, Amphineuron, Stenochlaena) and leaf stalks or rachises (Nephrolepis, Lygodium, Dicranopteris) are used. Ferns used for medicinal purposes include Acrostichum aureum, Adiantum cappilus-veneris, A.caudatum, A.flabellulatum, A.philippense, Asplenium nidus, A.polyodon, Blechnum orientale, Ceratopteris thalictroides, Cibotium barometz, Cyathea contaminons, Dicranopteris linearis, Diplazium esculentum, Drynaria quercifolia, Helminthostachys zeylanica, Lygodium circinnatum, L.flexuosum, Nephrolepis cordifolia, Oleandra pistillaris, Ophioglossum reticulatum, Phymatopteris hastata, Phymatosorus scolopendria, Pteris mutilata, P.semipinnata, P.vittata, Pyrrosia adnascens, P.piloselloides and Sphenomeris chinensis. Various parts are used. Ferns used for ornamental purposes include Acrostichum aureum, Angiopteris palmiformis, Asplenium musifolium, A.nidus, Cyathea contaminons, Davallia solida, Drynaria quercifolia, Marsilea crenata, Nephrolepis cordifolia, Ophioglossum pendulum, Pityrogramma calomelanos, Platycerium coronarium, P.grande and Pteris tripartita. Weed ferns include Azolla pinnata, Ceratopteris thalictroides, Christella dentata, C.parasitica, Marsilea crenata, Nephrolepis hirsutula, Pteridium aquilinum and Sphaerostephanos unitus. Other uses. Stems of Dicranopteris linearis are woven for partition

315 walls, traps at fishing stakes, chair and stool seats, caps and pouches. Trunks of Cyatheaspp . are used for house posts; root masses from trunks are fashioned like pots and used for potting orchids. Root masses at the base of Aspleniumnidus are also used for potting orchids. Cut crowns of Cibotiumbarometz are used as table decors. Azolla pinnata is reportedly used for controlling mosquitoes and weeds by blocking the water surface and for feeding poultry, swine and ducks. Other introduced species of Azolla (A.caroliniana, A.filiculoides, A.mexicana) are now extensively used as green manure, especially for rice.

316 Participants

317

PARTICIPANTS

Aalpol,R.J.P.(Mr) Staff PUDOC, WAU PUDOC, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 4, 6700 AA Wageningen Netherlands Aarts-v.d.Bergh,M.H.(Mrs) Staff PROSEA PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia,Herbariu m Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Altoveros,N.(Mr) PROSEA Country Officer Philippines PROSEA Country Office Philippines, PCARRD, Los Bafios, Laguna 4031 Philippines Anishetty,N.M.(Mr) Agricultural Officer - Genetic Resources FAO Plant Production and Protection Division, Via délie Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome Italy Aranez,A.T.(Mrs) Staff UP Diliman Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City Philippines Atmosoedaryo,S.(Mr) / P.O.Box 3, JKWB, Senayan, Jakarta Indonesia Atmowidjojo,M.(Ms) Head Bureau Science and Technology Cooperation Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jalan Gatot Subroto 10, Jakarta 12950 Indonesia Banka,R.A.(Mr) PROSEA Country Officer Papua New Guinea PROSEA Country Office PNG, PNG University of Technology, Forestry Department, Private Mail Bag, Lae Papua New Guinea Batoro,J.(Mr) Staff Brawijaya University BiologyDepartment , Brawijaya University, JalanM.J.Haryon o 169,Malan g 65145 Indonesia Boa,E.(Mr) Adviser RISMC Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3, Bogor 16111 Indonesia Bompard,J.M.(Mr) Staff USTL Laboratoire de Botanique, USTL, 163 Rue Broussonet, 34000 Montpellier France Boonklinkajorn,P.(Mr) Staff TISTR/PROSEA Projectleader Thailand TISTR, 196 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Budihardjo,C.U.(Ms) Division Head PDH/LIPI Centre for Scientific Documentation and Information, PDII/LIPI, Jalan Gatot Subroto 10, P.O.Box 269/JKSMG/88, Jakarta 12790 Indonesia

319 Buijsen,J.R.M.(Ms) Staff Rijksherbarium Rijksherbarium, P.O.Box 9514, 2300 RA Leiden Netherlands Cabangbang.R.(Mr) Staff UPLB Department of Agronomy, University of the Philippines Los Bafios, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines Chiew,K.(Mr) Staff Rakyat Berjaya Sdn. Bhd. Rakyat Berjaya Sdn. Bhd., P.O.Box 11623, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia Chitnawasarn,S.(Mr) Staff TISTR TISTR, 196 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Coronel,R.E.(Mr) Staff IPB Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines Los Bafios, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines Crombach,C.E.M.J.(Mr) Staff WAU Press and Public Relations Office, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 9101, 6700 HB Wageningen Netherlands Danimihardja,S.(Mr) PROSEA Country Officer Indonesia PROSEA Country Office Indonesia, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Dardjat,R.(Mrs) Sub-Division Head PDII/LIPI Sub-Division of Extension & Consultation of Technological Literature, PDII/LIPI, Jalan Cisitu, Sangkuriang, Bandung Indonesia Darnaedi,D.(Mr) Staff CRDB Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, Bogor 16122 Indonesia De Foresta,H.(Mr) Staff ORSTOM ORSTOM, c/o Jalan Sanggabuana 12, Bogor Indonesia Djisbar,A.(Mr) Staff RISMC Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3, Bogor 16111 Indonesia Dransfield,J.(Mr) Staff Herbarium, Kew Gardens Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE United Kingdom Dransfield,S.(Mrs) Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AE United Kingdom Duriyaprapan,S.(Mr) PROSEA Country Officer Thailand PROSEA Country Office Thailand, TISTR, 196Phahonyothi n Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand

320 Effendi,R.(Mr) Staff FRDC Forest Research and Development Centre, Jalan Gunung Batu, P.O.Box 66, Bogor Indonesia Elouard,C.(Ms) Postgraduate - Laboratoire UPS Laboratoire Botanique et Forestier, UPS, 39 Allées J.Guesole, 3100 Toulouse France Engels,J.M.M.(Mr) IBPGR Coordinator South and South-East Asia c/o FAO Office, P.O.Box 3088, New Delhi 110.003 India Engle,L.M.(Ms) Staff IBPGR IBPGR Office, Institute of Plant Breeding, University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines Farah D.Ghani-Bauer (Mrs) Staff UKM Botany Department, National University Malaysia (UKM), 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Malaysia Faridah Hanum Ibrahim (Mrs) Staff UPM Faculty of Forestry, University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor Malaysia /• Fernando,E.S.(Mr) Staff College of Forestry College of Forestry, University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines Flach,M.(Mr) Professor WAU Department of Tropical CropScience ,Wageninge nAgricultura l University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Fundter,J.M.(Mr) Staff WAU/Staff PROSEA Department of Forest Technique and Forest Products, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 342, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Gideon,O.G.(Mr) Staff National Herbarium National Herbarium PNG, Forest Research Institute, P.O.Box 314, Lae Papua New Guinea Gonzal,L.R.(Mrs) Staff VISCA National Abaca Research Centre, Visayas State College of Agriculture, Baybay, Leyte 6521-A Philippines Graaf,N.R.de (Mr) Staff WAU/Staff PROSEA Department of Forestry, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 342, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Green,J.H.(Mr) Staff CEC Representation Indonesia CEC Representation, P.O.Box 55 JKPDS, Jakarta 10220 Indonesia

321 Gurnah,A.(Mr) Staff UNITECH Agriculture Department, PNGUniversit y of Technology, Private MailBag , Lae Papua New Guinea Hadiwigeno,S.(Mr) Head AARD Agency for Agricultural Research and Development, Jalan Ragunan 29, Pasarminggu, Jakarta 12520 Indonesia Halim,H.(Ms) Staff Lambung Mangkurat University Faculty of Agriculture, Lambung Mangkurat University, P.O.Box 28, Banjarbaru, Kalimantan Indonesia Hambali,G.G.(Mr) Salacca Breeding Lab, Jalan Area Domas 7, Baranangsiang Indah, Bogor 16710 Indonesia Harjadi,S.S.(Mrs) Staff IPB Department of Agronomy, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Bogor Indonesia Hidajat,E.B.(Mrs) Staff ITB Biology Department, Institute of Technology Bandung, Jalan Ganesha 10, Bandung 40132 Indonesia Hildebrand,J.W.(Mr) Staff WAU/Staff PROSEA Department of Forest Management, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 342, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Idris,S.(Mrs) Staff MARDI Malaysian Agric.Research and Development Institute, Serdang, Selangor, P.O.Box 12301, 50774 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Jansen,P.C.M.(Mr) Staff PROSEA/Staff WAU PROSEA Country Office Netherlands,Wageninge n Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Jayasuriya,A.H.M.(Mr) Staff National Herbarium National Herbarium, Department of Agriculture, P.O. Box 15, Peradeniya Sri Lanka Johns,R.J.(Mr) Professor UNITECH/PROSEA Projectleader PNG ForestryDepartment ,PN GUniversit y of Technology,Privat eMai l Bag,La e Papua New Guinea Jones,R.M.(Mr) Staff CSIRO CSIRO Division of Tropical Crops and Pastures, 306 Carmody Road, St.Lucia, 4067 Queensland Australia Kadarsan,S.(Mr) Director CRDB/PROSEA Projectleader Indonesia Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 18, P.O.Box 110, Bogor 16122 Indonesia

322 Kadri,W.(Mr) Head AFRD Agency for Forestry Research and Development, Manggala Wanabakti, Jalan Gatot Subroto, Senayan, Jakarta Indonesia Kalkman,C.(Mr) Director Rijksherbarium Rijksherbarium, P.O.Box 9514, 2300 RA Leiden Netherlands Kampempool,S.(Mr) Governor TISTR TISTR, 196 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Koerniati,S.(Mrs) Staff RISMC Research Institute for Spice and Medicinal Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3, Bogor 16111 Indonesia Kortenhorst,L.(Mr) Sector Specialist Development Cooperation Royal Netherlands Embassy, Jalan H.R.Rasuna Said Kav.S-3, Kuningan, Jakarta 12950 Indonesia Kostermans,A.J.G.H.(Mr) Consultant PROSEA PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia,Herbariu m Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Lantinga,E.A.(Mr) Staff WAU Department of Field Cropsan d Grassland Science,Wageninge n Agricultural University, Haarweg 333, 6709 RZ Wageningen Netherlands Latiff,A.M.(Mr) Staff UKM Facultyo f Life Sciences,Nationa l University Malaysia (UKM),4360 0 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Malaysia Lemmens,R.H.M.J.(Mr) Staff PROSEA/Staff WAU PROSEA Country Office Netherlands,Wageninge n Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Lesmy Tipot (Ms) PROSEA Country Officer Malaysia PROSEA Country Office Malaysia, FRIM, Jalan FRI,Kepong, K.B. 201, 52109 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Li Hen (Mrs) Professor Kunming Institute of Botany Kunming Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan P.R.China Limberg,G.(Mr) Staff PROSEA PROSEA Countr y Office Netherlands,Wageninge n Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Linser,L.(Mrs) c/o HIID, P.O.Box 2707, Jakarta Indonesia

323 Maesen,L.J.G.van der (Mr) Professor WAU Department of Plant Taxonomy, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 8010, 6700 ED Wageningen Netherlands Manidool,C.(Mr) Staff Department of Livestock Development Department of Livestock Development, Phyathai Road, Bangkok 10400 Thailand Mannetje.L.'t (Mr) Professor WAU Department of Field Cropsan d Grassland Science,Wageninge n Agricultural University, Haarweg 333, 6709 RZ Wageningen Netherlands Manokaran,N.(Mr) Staff FRIM Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Jalan FRI, Kepong, K.B. 201, 52109 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Manurung,R.(Ms) Staff Agricultural Research Centre Agricultural Research Centre, Semonggok, P.O. Box 977,9372 0 Kuching, Sarawak Malaysia Medina,P.J.O.(Ms) Staff AIBA/SEARCA AIBA/SEARCA, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines Michon,G.(Mrs) Staff SEAMEO-BIOTROP BIOTROP, Jalan Raya Tajur Km.6, P.O.Box 17, Bogor Indonesia MogeaJ.P.(Mr) Staff CRDB Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Mohd.Shariff,M.K.(Mr) Staff UPM Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor Malaysia Naito,A.(Mr) Staff ATA-378/CRIFC Central Research Institute for Food Crops,Jala n Merdeka 99, Bogor 16111 Indonesia Nasution,R.E.(Mr) Staff CRDB Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 18, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Nguyen Tien Ban (Mr) Staff CEBR Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi Vietnam Nguyen Tien Hiep (Mr) Staff CEBR Centre of Ecology and Biological Resources, Nghia Do, Tu Liem, Hanoi Vietnam Normah,M.N.(Mrs) Staff UKM Botany Department, National University Malaysia (UKM), 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Malaysia

324 Nugroho,J.H.(Mr) Staff PT Great Giant Pineapple Coy PT Great Giant Pineapple Coy, Jalan Tenggiri 47, Telukbetung, Bandar Lampung Indonesia Null,W.S.(Mr) Staff IBPGR IBPGR, c/o 7109 62nd Avenue, Ct,W,#A, Tacoma, WA 98467 USA Ong Chye Lye (Mr) Staff Rakyat Berjaya Sdn. Bhd. Rakyat Berjaya Sdn. Bhd., P.O.Box 795, 91008 Tawan, Sabah Malaysia Oosterlee,C.C.(Mr) Chairman PROSEA Curatorium Netherlands PROSEA Country Office Netherlands, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Othman,S.B.(Mr) Staff UPM Department of Biology, University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor Malaysia Othman Yaacob (Mr) Staff UPM Department of Soil Science, University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor Malaysia Otto,W.M.(Mr) Jagersveld 2, 8222 JB Lelystad Netherlands Oyen,L.P.A.(Mr) Staff PROSEA PROSEACountr y Office Netherlands,Wageninge n Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands PanchoJ.V.(Mr) Professor UP Los Banos Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Banos, College, Laguna 4031 Philippines Partohardjono,S.(Mr) Staff BORIF Bogor Research Institute for Food Crops, Jalan Cimanggu 3A, Bogor Indonesia Pattanavibul,S.(Mr) Staff TISTR TISTR, 196 Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Pei Sheng-ji (Mr) Professor Kunming Institute of Botany Kunming Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Kunming, Yunnan P.R.China Phengklai,C.(Mr) Staff Royal Forest Department Herbarium, Royal Forest Departmental Phahonyothin Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Plas,H.C.van der (Mr) Rector Magnificus WAU Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 9101, 6700 HB Wageningen Netherlands

325 Polprasid,P.(Mr) Staff Department of Agriculture Department of Agriculture, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Rahim,S.(Mr) Head Research and Development Division Forest Research Centre, Forestry Department, P.O.Box 311, 90007 Sandakan, Sabah Malaysia Ranitz,C.W.M.de (Mr) Staff WAU Office for International Relations, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 9101, 6700 HB Wageningen Netherlands Rifai,M.A.(Mr) Staff CRDB Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Riswan,S.(Mr) Head Botany Division CRDB Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Rosario,B.P.del (Mrs) Director PDO/PROSEA Projectleader Philippines Planning and Development Office, PCARRD, Los Banos, Laguna 4031 Philippines Rudjiman (Mr) Staff Gadjah Mada University Faculty of Forestry, Gadjah Mada University, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta Indonesia Rugayah (Mrs) Staff CRDB Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Rulkens,T.(Mr) Staff MARIF/ATA 272 Malang Research Institute for Food Crops, P.O.Box 66, Malang Indonesia RynjaJ.M.G.(Ms) Staff PROSEA PROSEACountr y Office Netherlands,Wageninge n Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Salleh Mohd.Nor (Mr) Director-General FRIM Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Jalan FRI, Kepong, K.B. 201, 52109 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Samadikun,S.(Mr) Chairman LIPI Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jalan Gatot Subroto 10, Jakarta 12950 Indonesia Samsoedin,I.(Mr) Staff FRDC Forest Research and Development Centre, Jalan Gunung Batu, P.O.Box 66, Bogor Indonesia

326 San Maung (Mr) Deputy Director-General Forest Department Forest Department, 76 (A) Inya Road, Rangoon Burma Sastrapradja,D.S.(Mr) Vice-Chairman LIPI Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jalan Gatot Subroto 10, Jakarta 12950 Indonesia Satjapradja,0.(Mr) Director FRDC Forest Research and Development Centre, Jalan Gunung Batu, P.O.Box 66, Bogor Indonesia Schenk,P.K.(Mr) Director Agricultural Education Directorate Agricultural Education, Ministry of Agriculture, P.O.Box 20401, 2500 EK Den Haag Netherlands Schippers,J.M.(Mr) Director PUDOC and Central Library WAU PUDOC, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 4, 6700 AA Wageningen Netherlands Schuiling,D.L.(Mr) Staff Sago Palm Project WOTRO/WAU P.O.Box 203, Ambon 97001 Indonesia Seibert,B.(Mr) Staff German Forestry Group, GTZ / Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, P.O.Box 13, Samarinda, East Kalimantan Indonesia Siemonsma,J.S.(Mr) Staff PROSEA PROSEA Regional Office South-East Asia,Herbariu m Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Silitonga-Sitorus,S.(Mrs) Staff RIAP Small Ruminant-CRSP, Research Institute for Animal Production, P.O.Box 210, Bogor 16001 Indonesia Smits,W.(Mr) Staff Tropenbos P.O.Box 220, Balikpapan, East Kalimantan Indonesia Soedargo,S.(Mr) Staff Bureau Science and Technology Cooperation Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jalan Gatot Subroto 10, Jakarta 12950 Indonesia Soedojo,S.S.(Mrs) Staff SEAMEO-BIOTROP BIOTROP, Jalan Raya Tajur Km.6, P.O. Box 17, Bogor Indonesia Soegiarto,A.(Mr) Deputy-Chairman Natural Sciences LIPI Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Jalan Gatot Subroto 10, Jakarta 12950 Indonesia

327 Soepadmo,E.(Mr) Professor University of Malaya Department of Botany, University of Malaya, 59100 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia Soetopo,L.(Ms) Staff Brawijaya University Agronomy Department, Brawijaya University, Jalan M.J.Haryono 163, Malang 65145 Indonesia Somaatmadja,S.(Mr) Staff CRIFC Central Research Institute for Food Crops, Jalan Merdeka 99, Bogor Indonesia Spiegel,E.van (Mr) Director-General Science Policy Ministry of Education and Science, Europaweg 4,P.O.Bo x 25000,2700 LZ Zoetermeer Netherlands Stoney,C.(Ms) Staff Ford Foundation Ford Foundation, P.O.Box 2030, Jakarta 10001 Indonesia Sudiarto (Mr) Staff RISMC Research Institute for Spice & Medicinal Crops, Jalan Cimanggu No. 3, Bogor 16111 Indonesia Sudjoko,S.(Mr) Staff LEHRI Lembang Horticultural Research Institute, Jalan Tangkuban Parahu 517, Lembang, Bandung 40391 Indonesia Sumarno (Mr) Director MARIF Malang Research Institute for Food Crops, P.O.Box 66, Malang Indonesia Supardi,H.(Mr) Staff Lambung Mangkurat University Faculty of Agriculture, Lambung Mangkurat University, P.O.Box 28, Banjarbaru, Kalimantan Indonesia Supraptono,B.(Mr) Staff Mulawarman University Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, P.O.Box 13, Samarinda, East Kalimantan Indonesia Sutarno,H.(Mr) PROSEA Country Officer Indonesia PROSEA Country Office Indonesia, Herbarium Bogoriense, P.O.Box 234, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Sutedjo (Mr) Staff Mulawarman University Forestry Faculty, Mulawarman University, P.O.Box 13, Samarinda, East Kalimantan Indonesia Thammincha,S.(Mr) Staff Kasetsart University Department of Forest Management, KasetsartUniversity , 50Phahonyothi n Road, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10903 Thailand

328 Timmerman,A.J.(Mr) Agricultural Counsellor Royal Netherlands Embassy, Jalan H.R.Rasuna Said Kav.S-3, Kuningan, Jakarta 12950 Indonesia Tjitrosoedirdjo,S.S.(Mrs) Staff SEAMEO-BIOTROP BIOTROP, Jalan Raya Tajur Km.6, P.O. Box 17, Bogor Indonesia Tjitrosoepomo,G.(Mr) Bulaksumur G-10, Yogyakarta Indonesia Torrijos,D.E.(Ms) Staff UNESCO UNESCO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 24/1 Soi59 ,Sukhumvi t Road, Bangkok 10110 Thailand Valmayor,R.V.(Mr) Executive Director PCARRD PCARRD, Los Banos, Laguna 4031 Philippines Verheij,E.(Mr) Staff PROSEA PROSEA Countr y Office Netherlands,Wageninge n Agricultural University , P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands / Vidal,J.E.(Mr) Staff 'Laboratoire de Phanérogamie' Laboratoire de Phanérogamie, 16, Rue Buffon, F-75005 Paris France Visser,M.B.H.(Mr) Staff NUFFIC/UNIBRAW NUFFIC/UNIBRAW, P.O.Box 176, Malang Indonesia Vongkaluang,I.(Mr) Staff Kasetsart University Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bang Khen, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Vredebregt,J.(Mr) IBPGR, c/o P.O.Box 001, B 1860 Meise Belgium Wee,Y.C.(Mr) Staff NUS Botany Department, National University of Singapore, Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 0511 Singapore Westphal,E.(Mr) Staff PROSEA/Staff WAU PROSEACountr y Office Netherlands, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Widjaja,E.A.(Ms) Staff CRDB Herbarium Bogoriense, Centre for Research and Development in Biology, Jalan Juanda 22-24, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Winarso,L.L.(Mrs) Staff SEAMEO-BIOTROP BIOTROP, Jalan Raya Tajur Km.6, P.O. Box 17, Bogor Indonesia

329 Wit,H.C.D.de (Mr) Doorwerthsestraat 10, 6866 NH Heelsum Netherlands Wolters,W.(Mr) Staff PROSEA/Staff WAU PROSEACountr y Office Netherlands, Wageningen Agricultural University, P.O.Box 341, 6700 AH Wageningen Netherlands Wong,K.C.(Mr) Staff UPM University of Agriculture Malaysia (UPM), Bintulu Campus, P.O.Box 396, 97008 Bintulu, Sarawak Malaysia Wong.W.W.W.(Mr) Staff Agriculture Department Agriculture Department, Menara Khidmat, Jalan Belia, 88632 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia Wulijarni-Soetjipto,N.(Mrs) Staff PROSEA PROSEARegiona lOffic e South-East Asia,Herbariu m Bogoriense,P.O.Bo x 234, Bogor 16122 Indonesia Yatazawa,M.(Mr) Professor Aichi Gakuin University Biological Laboratories, Aichi Gakuin University, Nisshin-cho, Aichi 470-01 Japan Zamora,P.M.(Mr) Professor UP Diliman Institute of Biology, College of Science, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1101 Quezon City Philippines

330 Instructions for Authors

331 INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS

GENERAL REMARKS a. As the number of plant resources to be treated is about 5,000, the length of papers is limited to 5, 3, 2 or 1 printed pages (including illustration), depending on the importance of the crop. One printed page of text corresponds with about 2 typed A4-pages. Please use only the enclosed typescript sheets or a similar format. b. Select the most practical, scientific or commercial data (see also other PROSEA publications). If more relevant information is available than can be accomodated, please write this information on a separate typescript sheet, calling it Data Base Sheet, using the same text section numbers. This information will be stored in a computerized data base which will become operational later. For texts on the Data Base Sheet please be as critical and concise as for the handbook treatment. c. Please indicate clearly on each typescript sheet whether it is a Manuscript Page or a Data Base Sheet by deletion of what is inapplicable. The typescript sheet has 37 lines of 75 characters each. The text section can be filled in the narrow vertical column on the left side. / d. PROSEA covers the following area: Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. Relevant data from tropical Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam may be included. e. All texts in English. Spelling: The Concise Oxford Dictionary of current English, 7th or later edition. f. Use the same numbering of text sections as in these instructions. g. Data given should be written out. No tables. Indent new paragraphs, h. Refer in the text to the plant by its English vernacular name or, if there is none, by the taxonomie name, e.g. V. grandifolia for Voacanga grandifolia (Miq.) Rolfe, i. Avoid specialist terms. The work is intended for extension workers, teachers and students, j. For indications such as North, South, etc. do not use abbreviations and indicate clearly whether it should be North or northern etc. k. Avoid the use of circa, about, approximately, etc. Mention the range if relevant. 1. If possible, provide (original) illustrations - line drawings of habit and black-and-white photographs. Original line drawings should be made at 12 x 16.8 cm (width x height). For publication illustrations will be reduced by 40% to 7.2 x 10 cm. If original illustrations can not be provided, please include clear photocopies with all data about the source. m. Where appropriate draw attention to the need for more information (as well as to available information).

333 REMARKS FOR PAPERS DESCRIBING A GENUS

Replace heading 5 Synonyms by:

5 Major species and synonyms Mention the major species of the genus with scientific name, author and original publication, and cite for each species at maximum 3 synonyms with author and year of publication. More synonyms can be stored in the data base. Original publications and years of publication can be left for the PROSEA taxonomist if not known.

General: always indicate the species concerned if information is not applicable to the entire genus. Under heading 11 Description start with a genus description, followed by major distinctive characteristics of the species mentioned under 5.

REMARKS FOR PAPERS LIMITED TO 1 PRINTED PAGE

Replace headings 11 Description, IIA Wood characteristics, 12Growt h and development and 13 Other botanical information by the heading:

11-13 Botany For the information follow the same sequence as for headings 11,12 and 13, selecting the major data you want to mention.

Replace headings 15Propagatio n and planting, 16Husbandr y or (for timber trees) Management, 17 Diseases and pests, 18 Harvesting, 19 Yield and 20 Handling after harvest by the heading:

15-20 Agronomy or (for timber trees) Forestry For the information follow the same sequence as for headings 15, 16, 17, 18, 19 and 20, selecting the major data you want to mention.

Replace headings 21 Genetic resources and 22 Breeding by heading:

21-22 Genetic resources and breeding For the information follow the same sequence as for headings 21 and 22, selecting the major data you want to mention.

INSTRUCTIONS PER TEXT SECTION

1 Scientific name with author

2 Cite the original publication of the correct name. Can be left for

334 PROSEA taxonomists if not known.

3 Family name

4 2n= (for species), x= (for genera)

5 Synonyms Mention the most common ones, up to 3, and cite author with year of publication. Preferably those synonyms should be chosen which may cause confusion in the interpretation of older literature. List further synonyms on the data base sheet.

6 Vernacular names Mention at the most 3 names per entry. (En), (Am), (Fr) are English, American and French names respectively. For South-East Asia, select per country the most widely known and used names, if possible with language and region between parentheses behind the name.Mor e names on the data base sheet. ..., ..., ... (En). ..., ..., ... (Am). ..., ..., ... (Fr). Brunei: ... (language, region), ... ( ), ... ( ). Indonesia: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Malaysia: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Papua New Guinea: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Philippines: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Singapore: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Burma: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Cambodia: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Laos: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Thailand: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ). Vietnam: ... ( ), ... ( ), ... ( ).

7 Origin and geographic distribution Treat in the order: origin, distribution over the world; distribution within South-East Asia. To achieve a uniform spelling, consult the Times Atlas (1982) and the map in the PROSEA publications.

8 Uses Describe all major and secondary uses in the PROSEA area briefly. If the plant is more prominent outside South-East Asia, also indicate the uses in the area(s) of major importance.

9 Production and international trade If possible, use only representative data of the 1980s, with averages of the last 5 years. Mention world production (t/year), world area under cultivation (ha) and world price (US$/t). Mention per country of the region total area cultivated (ha), total production (t/year), local consumption (t/year), amount exported (t/year), ratio production by smallholders and by estates.

335 10 Properties State edible portion as fraction of whole fruit. Give composition in g per 100 g fresh or dry edible portion, in particular for important nutritive components (mean values or range of values) such as: water, protein, fat, carbohydrates, fibre, ash, energy value (kJ/100 g). Draw attention to properties relevant to keeping quality or processing characteristics (e.g. pectine content). Aromatic substances may also be mentioned. Include properties of other plant parts used where important (e.g. wood characteristics of fruit trees). Mention seed weight if seed is used for propagation.

11 Description Use the following sequence for the morphological description: habit; root; stem; branch; leaf; inflorescence; pedicel; flower; calyx; corolla; androecium; gynoecium; fruit; seed; seedling. Be concise, but indicate range of variation of parts used.

IIA Wood characteristics (for timber trees only) Give data, for instance, on colour, volumic mass, durability and anatomy.

12 Growth and development Describe the sequence of germination, vegetative growth, generative development (flower initiation, flowering, pollination, fruiting, maturation) or tuber development, with emphasis on turning points in the developmental path. For perennial plants add: phenological cycle, longevity (plant, leaves), functioning of shoots (dimorphism, alternate flowering/fruiting).

13 Other botanical information For cultivated plants: cultivars, cultivar groups or other subclassifications (each with their distinctive characteristics and nomenclature). For wild plants: subclassifications with characteristics and nomenclature.

14 Ecology State climatic factors such as daylength, photosynthetically active irradiance (W/m2), temperature (°C), water requirement (mm/year, distribution), relative humidity (as decimal), altitude (m). Mention favourable soil types; indicate physical and chemical limitations. For wild plants indicate the type of vegetation (if possible also in UNESCO classification).

15 Propagation and planting Mentionrequirement s for dormancy-breaking, methodso f propagation, sowing, seed-bed preparation and maintenance, selection of material to be planted; mention plant spacing and cropping system (e.g. sole cropping, intercropping, smallholders or estate farming).

336 16 Husbandry or (for timber trees:) Management Mention weeding, staking, pruning, irrigation, organic and chemical fertilizers, green manure, mulching, mechanization, crop rotations.

17 Diseases and pests Treat the most serious diseases and pests and indicate control measures. Scientific names of causal agents of diseases and pests can be mentioned without author names.

18 Harvesting Mention time or period of harvesting and harvesting methods.

19 Yield Give average yield (and range) (t/ha) in South-East Asia and compare with world data.

20 Handling after harvest Treat transport, storage, packing and processing in relation to the destination of the products.

21 Genetic resources , Mention existing germplasm collections.

22 Breeding Mention main breeding objectives; mention characteristics sought in available wild relatives.

23 Prospects Indicate expected developments for the future with reasons why. If prospects are good, recommend research priorities related to major constraints.

24 Literature List literature alphabetically by author and year as in other PROSEA publications and start a new line for every new reference. Do not use abbreviations for book titles, periodicals, names of publishers. Present complete information about authors, editors, titles, edition, volumes, year of publication, publisher, place and country of publishing, first and last page number, total number of pages for books. Surnames with Van, Van de, De, etc. in alphabetical order of the prefix. Mention general reference works separately (will be cited elsewhere in the book). From other sources, select for citation in the handbook: 10 (for paper of 5 pages); 6 (for paper of 3 pages); 4 (for paper of 1 or 2 pages). Remaining relevant sources can be recorded in the data base.

25 Name and full adress of the author of the paper.

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