Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural sciences
Yellowstone Lake in Change Litter Invertebrates and Fire Roads and Culture Bison Planning
Volume 4 Number2 Canyon Hotel, 1914
The Cultural Component
Ifa representative sample ofthe Ameri irony of the Yellowstone experience that laid out a century ago by a few foresightful can public were asked. "Who works in historically it has depended even more on engineers to whose esthetic sensitivities Yellowstone National Park?" it seems people the visitors never saw or heard of. we owe much of the pleasure of a park certain that the most common answer, At least half of the park's budget goes visit. They understood more than con perhaps the only answer, would be "rang to maintenance of the elaborate, historic, struction techniques; they understood ers." We like to think that if those asked and ever-aging infrastructure ofthe park: landscapes, and how to move people had seen Yellowstone Science, they'd also roads, trails, buildings, and all the other through them in a way that would make say "scientists," but even if they know conveniences that both facilitate and com the most of the experience. Through that both rangers and scientists work here, plicate our experience of the park's wild studies like Culpin's, and essay's like they quite literally don't know the half of setting. Sandeen's, we are reminded that Yellow it. While the ranger has always been an Through Eric Sandeen' s review essay stone is truly a cultural landscape as well important symbol of the national parks, ofa newly published history ofthe park's as an ecological one, and that something and admitting even that rangers play an road system (page 10), we are introduced as seemingly mundane as a strip ofpave amazing variety of roles in the parks to perhaps the single most important ele ment is in fact a powerful force in defin (from fire fighting to public education to ment in the average visitor experience ing our relationship with nature. emergency medicine), it is part of the here. Yellowstone's road system was PS Yellowstone Science A quarterly publication devoted to the natural and cultural sciences Volume4 Number2 Spring 1996 Table of Contents
Terrestrial Litter Invertebrate Communities 2 in Yellowstone Park To ecologists, litter means something other than roadside beer cans; litter is an essential if little-appreciated environment, rich in species and profound in its influences. by Tim A. Christiansen
Yellowstone Lake and Change 4 Yellowstone Lake is one of the most-researched of western Editor waters, and it continues to reveal the complexities of its life systems Paul Schullery as research continues. The question is, do we know enough yet to save its native species from the lake trout invasion? Art Director Interview with Bob Gresswell Renee Evanoff Associate Editor Sarah Broadbent Yellowstone Roads 10 News Editor From prehistory to potholes, the Yellowstone road system is a Sue Consolo Murphy study in many things, including esthetics, industrial tourism, and the advancing technology of construction. How we arrived at the Editorial Assistant present road system, and what we thought about it along the way, Mary Ann Franke are the subjects of an important new volume by National Park Printing Service historian Mary Shivers Culpin. Artcraft Inc. Review Essay by Eric Sandeen Bozeman, Montana 15 News and Notes On the cover: The Corkscrew World Heritage Committee calls Yellowstone endangered• Wolf bridge near Sylvan Pass in J913 news • Northern Yellowstone wildlife research • Brook trout invade captures the spirit of the more lei Soda Butte Creek • Bison planning • Anthropology conference surelypace in early park travel as it reveals changing esthetics in road design. See the review essay on :;~~-i~~-~;toh~:'s_'ql~~:c::,j;;:p'u~ijsh:ec(_4u~t~fi;';-i~li-~~~i~;:i~;i,Af{;_~J~ci¾;':,;~;:-,:a1{f~,~-H~~~~-~i, --:-f01,ld~Cti~_g _rO_rina}_-r_~se_~~h __,pi_:th_e;YellP:f~-t~_~e _aief};~cfito1?-~--c~frl!sP_?~9iiC,'sliO~ld·~-~--~(!lltif? Yellowstone's road history begin :th~;1,!,~i!~F,:: fell_r/wffo,lie _SCi€nc,e_,ff:eµ_o~_tO~lr: 9-~~ter fo! i~g~CS;<:I>. (:} .·--B_()x:.:1~_8,·.:YCi10Y1/St6~~ ning on page 10. NPS photo. : / · ,·,, , · , · ," '>Nat:iOnal-P,~ik/:WYi219.0.·' , " " , " · , ·
Above: Gillnetting may become i ~.fi~of,,{i;,Jisedikf;zz];t17"~iic(,;~~.~~l~~t¼,~~!l;y'n~tfJ.fJfi;if : :_, .:;-:'{-";JN;~t.fo~-~-f~k.:~er,yiC~:P~,li~y",_:~r:,,~~,:'yie~t?fth~_·Y~µ by Tim A. Christiansen Invertebrates comprise a major portion 3.65, whereas diversity in south-central of the fauna! density contained within Wyoming was 2.96, and2.73 in the south forest and sagebrush habitats. Generally. eastern corner of Wyoming. Diversity in vertebrates comprise less than 0.2 per sagebrush was 1.21 for Yellowstone Na cent of the fauna in most ecosystems. tional Park, as compared to a diversity of Invertebrate communities include spe 0.62 in south-central Wyoming. Thus, cies ofinsects, spiders, mites, millipedes, the park contains some ofthe higher litter pillbugs, centipedes, round worms, and invertebrate diversities found in either pseudoscorpions. Invertebrates comprise forest or sagebrush sites in Wyoming. a vast amount offauna species within the Habitat stage (that is, the plant litter environment, that complex habitat community's age since its last fire) and that covers the soil. Litter consists of habitat condition (such as the density of dead leaves, twigs, logs, fungus, bacteria, the trees or other vegetation) are impor small mammals, and many species of An older pine stand. These stands usu tant to the invertebrate community. For invertebrates. The litter helps to provide ally contained lower diversity oflitter est-floor invertebrate diversity was lower nutrients to the soil as well as provide invertebrates than younger-aged in tree stands that contained above-aver cover to hold moisture in the soil. stands. age densities of tree seedlings. Higher Invertebrates can directly and indirectly invertebrate diversity was found in influence many aspects of a forest and found in forest stands were different than middle-aged forest stands that contained sagebrush ecosystem. This influence in invertebrate species found in sagebrush higher than average densities of mature cludes almost every process (i.e., nutrient habitat. trees. Diversity was generally greater in cycling, decomposition, seed dispersal, Lodgepole pine stands in Yellowstone middle-aged stands (30- to 60-year old etc.) in forest and sagebrush ecosystems National Park contained a higher forest pine stands) than in stands that were older and every life stage of dominant and litter diversity than found in several other than 60 years. Noninsect diversity (i.e., subordinate species of forest and sage lodgepole pine forest sites located in mites, spiders, centipedes, and millipedes) brush vegetation. Without insects and Wyoming. We measured diversity by was higher than insect diversity in lodge other invertebrates, current patterns of using the Shannon-Wiener Diversity In pole pine stands. plant reproduction, growth, death, or dex, a commonly used measure of the Standing dead tree density influenced ganic material decomposition, and nutri diversity of a ecological setting. This invertebrate diversity. Tree stands that ent cycling would not exist. index seldom goes above 5.00, with an contained large amounts ofstanding dead Following the fires of 1988, my col average range of 1.50 to 4.50. Thus, an trees (such as those killed by fire, insects, leagues and Istudied insect communities index of 3.65 is an ecosystem that is or disease) contained lower invertebrate in burned and unburned forest sites and above average in terms of species num diversity than stands that had few stand sagebrush sites across the park. bers, and the density of those species is ing dead trees. Lodgepole pine stands A total of 134 litter invertebrate spe fairly high. A number below 1.50 (as is that contained high amounts of fallen cies were found in forest stands, and 60 found in many of the Yellowstone Na trees supported higher litter invertebrate invertebrate species in sagebrush habi tional Park sagebrush areas) indicates a density. tats. The majority of these species were low number of species. Preliminary analysis indicated that a mites (Acari) and springtails The Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index minimum criteria of habitat herbaceous (Collembolla). The majority of species in Yellowstone National Park averaged cover (which includes shrubs, trees, and 2 Yellowstone Science Renee Evanoff Above: A sagebrush site like that was used as a reference site in both the diver sity and the fire studies. A studied forest stand, adjacent to a A burned pine stand, representative of Below: A fire-disturbed sagebrush site, burned pine stand, the type used as a those used in the fire study. typical ofa site two years after the 1988 reference site for diversity and fire stud fires. ies. grasses), tree seedling density, litter, and with few shrubs supported fewer species number oflogs were necessary to support and contained lower litter invertebrate high densities of mites and springtails. density than areas with higher shrub den sities. What species were found, and where? What were the effects of fire? Mites and springtails comprised the majority of both species and density of Fire can influence litter invertebrate forest-floor and sagebrush-floor inverte communities in both forest stands and in brates. Mite density was significantly sagebrush habitats. Forest and sagebrush higher in forest stands that contained a litter habitats were severely damaged dur minimum of40 percentherbaceous cover, ing the 1988 fires. Diversity declined 63 the forest-floor and sagebrush litter in 10 pine seedlings per square meter, 45 percent in severely burned forest stands vertebrate communities in Yellowstone grams litter per square meter, and 14 logs and had only slightly increased two years Nftional Park. Yellowstone contains a per hectare. Springtail density was higher after the fire. Density declined 77 percent higher litter invertebrate biodiversity than in stands containing at least 50 percent in severely burned stands. Sagebrush in several other areas in Wyoming. Sage herbaceous cover, 10 pine seedlings, 50 vertebrate communities were almost brush habitats are as important as forest grams litter per square meter, and at least wiped out from the fire. Diversity de stands for the preservation and study of 12 logs per hectare. clined 90 percent, whereas density de invertebrate biodiversity within the park Millipedes are important litter decom clined 94 percent in severely burned system. posers in coniferous forests. These inver sagebrush areas. Neither invertebrate di Fires can, obviously, disrupt inverte tebrates were found in higher densities in versity nor invertebrate density in sage brate communities. A major question is stands containing at least 100 grams of brush areas had increased significantly how long before invertebrate communi litter per square meter. A large amount of two years after the fire. ties can be considered stable after amajor log debris was required to maintain mil The invertebrate predator:prey ratio fell disruption. Also, the role oflitterinverte lipede density. from 1:24 to 1:7.9 in burned forest stands brate communities is not well known in Ants are important in a forest ecosys as compared to unburned stands, whereas either forest or sa~ebrush systems. More tem. Ants help spread seeds, break up soil the ratio increased from 1:4.5 to 1:5.8 in information is necessary on both inverte crusts, and create pores in soils for better burned sagebrush areas as compared to brate habitat requirements and the role water penetration into the soil. Ant den unburned sagebrush areas. Thus, severe invertebrates play in ecosystems. sity was higher in pine stands that con fire events are a strong influence on for tained at least 70 grams oflitter per square est-floor and sagebrush litter invertebrate Tim Christiansen recently completed a meter. communities. post-doctoral fellowship in the Division Diversity and density of litter inverte of Forestry at West Virginia University. brates in sagebrush habitats increased What can we conclude about He is currently working on several tech with an increase in percent herbaceous Yellowstone's invertebrates? nical manuscripts based on the research cover. Sagebrush shrub density was im summarized in this article, as well as a portant for invertebrate diversity. Areas Several conclusions can be made about volume on the ants of Yellowstone. Spring 1996 3 Yellowstone Science Interview: Bob Gresswell Yellowstone Lake and Change - What can natural history tell us about the fate of the Yellowstone Cutthroat? Robert Gresswell has been studying YS: Of course the big issue these days and their population seems to be expand and working on Yellowstone Lake for with the Yellowstone cutthroat trout is ing quite rapidly. Perhaps the best that we more than 20 years, first as a fisheries the much-publicized illegal introduction might be able to do is maintain persistance biologist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife oflake trout in Yellowstone Lake. You've of Yellowstone cutthroat in the system. I Service, and more recently as an adjunct worked on Yellowstone Lake for more think that we have to try, and the sooner assistant professor at Oregon State Uni than 20 years now, and must be one of the that we get to work on it, the sooner we versity. A member of the special lake most widely published Yellowstone Lake begin to move, the better. trout workshop held early in I 995 to researchers now active. How would you YS: Do we know enough to do that well? deliberate on the lake trout crisis, Bob characterize what is going on there? BG: Even in the absence of better infor has published many important articles BG: Well, speaking as someone who mation we have to act while the lake trout and reports on the Yellowstone cutthroat tries to be an eternal optimist, it's hard to population is still expanding. At the same trout. This interview, conducted last Sep view that situation optimistically. The time, there are a lot of information gaps tember, provided us with an opportunity recent population modeling work we've that we' 11 need to work on, to improve our to invite Bob to expand on the ideas and done makes me even more ofa pessimist. ability to reduce lake trout numbers. information presented at that workshop, The results of this summer's [1995] sam YS: How much can we hope to reduce and more especially on the results ofhis pling and the angler catch suggest that the them? own recent research. lake trout are well established in the lake BG: First, it's important to acknowledge 4 Yellowstone Science Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri Lake Trout Salvelinus namaycush that there is no way that we' re going to be YS: The juvenile lake trout would com there will be substantial overlap of pre able to remove them completely. But pete with the juvenile cutthroat trout for ferred foods. with enough intervention, we might be zooplankton? The models are designed to predict able to stabilize the situation at a point BG: Right. But they might also compete consequences of certain scenarios, and where the lake trout population is low with the adult fish. when you ask the model to predict what and the cutthroat population can be main YS: How? will happen when the cutthroat trout get tained. BG: At this point we're not sure exactly this double whammy-ofcompetition at YS: Tell us more about the modeling that where these young lake trout are going to all ages, and from another species that you've been involved in. hang out in Yellowstone Lake. If they will eventually grow up and prey heavily BG: Our primary interest is the interac have more of a littoral existence, that is if on them-the model goes into some wild tion of the juvenile lake trout with both they live in shallow water and near the oscillations. the adult and juvenile cutthroat trout. shore, then they could become a direct YS: As you know, there are people who Our understanding of their food habits, competitor with the adult cutthroats. The are skeptical ofwildlife models. The criti based solely on the scientific literature, adult cutthroats don't eat many small cisms are usually aimed at the answers suggests to us that the lake trout might fish, and so the juvenile lake trout aren't that the models provide, because they're actually compete with both the juvenile going to provide them with a significant just predictions and aren't certain. But and the adult cutthroat trout. food source, but there is a possibility that what you're saying is that the model Spring 1996 5 you're using do~sn't give you definitive BG: I think that may actually be the worst answers; it suggests the places where you part about it. If the lake trout acts as a should look first for problems. generalist predator, and is able to prey on BG: Yes, it's called qualitative model all the other species, then it isn't depen ing. This is not a quantitative population dent upon the cutthroat. That means that model, the kind that we hear the most if cutthroat numbers go down, the lake about, where you put some numbers in trout just switches prey. Doing that, it can and you crunch them and you get some maintain itself at a higher level and higher numbers out. This type of analysis is density than it can if it's feeding just on Cutthroat trout(above) andlong-nosed totally dependent on the interaction that cutthroat trout. sucker from Yellowstone Lake. occurs among groups of organisms. YS: We know something about the natu YS: Can you summarize that in a non ral history of all those other fishes, in technical way? cluding the non-native ones. Can't we species. BG: Think of it this way. Organisms can predict anything about which ones the BG: The long-nosed sucker would cer act either positively or negatively on each lake trout is liable to favor right off? tainly be a prime candidate in the deeper other, or there is no interaction. In any BG: It's hard to say, because of the water during the summer. system, you have different levels ofinter thermal stratification issue. But the other thing that is very worri action, from the levels where the interac YS: Explain thermal stratification. some about this whole situation is that its tions are simple to those where they be BG: Well, the lake trout are very sensi effects don't just involve the different come more complex and less predictable, tive to temperature; they're rarely found fish species and how they will deal with which is what happens as you add preda at much above 60°F. Each year, the lake each other. When you talk to the people tors to the system. And so what we tend to stratifies, meaning that from top to bot who work in places where cutthroat were see in these ecological systems-and this tom there are three different temperature present and lake trout were introduced on is one ofthe things that we need to under zones. Thewarmerupperwaters are called top of them, the cutthroat virtually disap stand better in Yellowstone Lake-is that the epilimnion, the middle zone of rap peared-not completely in all cases, but one consequence of added predator-prey idly decreasing temperature is the ther statistically they might as well have been links is increased oscillations that slow mocline, and the bottom zone, called the gone. If that happens here in Yellow the recovery from disturbance. hypolimnion, is a broad deep area of stone, we can hardly imagine all the rami YS: Models concerned with system sta water ranging from 34° to 48 °F. After the fications. bility and its relationship to system com lake stratifies in early summer, lake trout YS: Imagine a few of them for us. plexity have been a hot topic among ecolo move down below the thermocline to the BG: Start with the vertebrates. What will gists for quite a while. How does this hyperlirnnion and stay there. But they do happen to the mammals that depend upon apply in Yellowstone Lake? make feeding forays up through the ther those fish? BG: Well, with loop analysis, you're not mocline and into the epilimnion and shore YS: Nothing good, it appears. The griz going to get a final prediction of how line areas looking for food. zly bears have spent the last 25 years many lake trout there will be, or at what The lake is usually only stratified from readjusting to feeding on the cutthroat level they're going to stabilize. What you mid-July through mid-September,· so spawners, and the trout have become a do is focus on whether the system is going you're talking about a 60- to 90-day pe significant food source. to be stable. If you can develop a set of riod during which the lake trout are dis BG: I think the effects on the avian scenarios, then you can ask the model to tinctly separated from the cutthroats that predators may be even greater. There is a experiment with different scenarios; by favor the warmer, shallower water. The whole community of birds that moves changing various aspects of the interac early-season angler harvest this year into the Yellowstone Lake area during tions you can watch how that system clearly showed that the lake trout were in the breeding season, and without the cut reacts. And that is why I say this compe the shallower water for a while between throat, reproductive success may plum tition between cutthroat trout and lake ice-out and the advent of thermal stratifi met. A really important thing that we trout is so important. New competition cation, and then justdisappeared from the have to realize is that the lake trout will changes things dramatically in the sys harvest as they moved down below the not replace or substitute for the cutthroat tem, and so we ought to know, or at least thermocline. Redside shiners and lake as prey for all these birds. not just be guessing, about what that will chubs hang around in the shallower la YS: We're already hearing casual talk mean in the long run. And that is where goon areas of the lake, and the juvenile about the lake trout as a "replacement" this model is very useful, because you lake trout might go after them there. Al for the cutthroat trout, from people who can learn a lot about the potential changes, though big lake trout don't usually enter don't know much about trout natural his and not have to wait 20 years. shallow water except during spawning, tory; they somehow think that one fish is YS: Of course there are more than cut the scientific literature suggests they will the same as another, but the differences throat trout and lake trout in the lake. Not if food is scarce. are profound in this case. We know that much has been said about what might YS: That leaves the long-nosed sucker, the lake trout won't be available to any of happen to the other fish species. another non-native, as a potential prey the birds except maybe the cormorant, 6 Yellowstone Science which dives very deep. Lake trout spawn back in subsequent years. That is how we data from the 1950s that support that in deep water during the late fall, so they know there is about one or two percent interpretation. The fish displayed a good won't replace the cutthroat trout spawn straying to different streams. On the other bit ofloyalty to an area of the lake, just as ing runs that the bears and other mam hand, we can't even be positive about that they did to their spawning stream. The mals feed on in the lake's tributary one or two percent. For all we know, the integrity ofthe individual subpopulations, streams. Lake trout aren't the same as true straying rate is closer to zero; just that is the extent to which they are de cutthroat trout, and they won't serve as an because they enter the stream doesn't voted to one area, seems highest in the ecosystem replacement species. mean they stay and successfully spawn. arms of the lake and in West Thumb. BG: I think it's really important to get For example, salmon do what's called We need to know more about that, and that message across. For one thing, the "proofing" a stream, which means they we now have some potential new tech fishermen will be quick to grasp what it might swim up the stream, kind of check niques for learning more. We've been means to the future of fishing. Those it out, and then swim back down and working with Jerry Smith at the Univer thousands of people who fish Yellow eventually end up in another stream to sity of Michigan on using the stone Lake now don't have the equip spawn. microchemistry of the otolith, a small ment to fish for lake trout, and probably YS: So, the subpopulations of cutthroat bone in the fish's head. Smith has discov aren't interested in trying. trout in Yellowstone Lake-are they iden ered that when the otolith is forming in YS: It's a completely different kind of tified solely through where they go to the fish, it develops a permanent chemi fishing. spawn, or do some of the spawners from cal "fingerprint" that can be identified So far, we've mostly been talking in several streams end up congregating in with the stream where the fish hatched. If generalities about how lake trout and one part ofthe lake and get identified also we can work out the technique, suddenly other species might interact. But you've as a subpopulation in that way? we have a situation where every fish we spent half your life studying the specifics BG: When we analyzed different spawn capture can be traced to its stream of ofthe life history of these cutthroat trout, ing runs and looked at the timing of the origin. and that natural history has a lot ofimpli spawning from location to location, cer YS: For more than half a century, Yel cations here. tain characteristics, such as the size and lowstone Lake was operated like a huge BG: We have found it useful to imagine aspect ofthe drainage, accounted for two trout factory. Millions of eggs and fish the cutthroat trout in Yellowstone Lake tltirds of the variation in when the fish were removed, and many other fish were as a complex metapopulation. moved into the stream to spawn. So that moved around in the lake and elsewhere YS: A what? would suggest that these fish are keying in the park. This raises the question of BG: A metapopulation is essentially a into hydrological characteristics ofa spe how much we have already altered these group of subpopulations that interact but cific drainage basin. We would expect subpopulations. Not only did we over are isolated enough in reproduction that something like that; it's intuitively sen harvest them for decades, we tinkered they develop distinct characteristics. sible. On the other hand, those same two with them genetically by scrambling the There is some genetic exchange between characteristics also explained about two spawn. Is there any way we can track that these subpopulations over time, and they thirds of the variation in the size of the and figure out how much change we might blink on and off as the habitat fish, and this was somewhat harder to caused? blinks on and off. understand. It's more complicated than BG: Intuitively it seems we may have YS: How do subpopulations appear? that. You see, when you talk about aspect lost components of the metapopulation BG: By adapting to the specific habitats in a more or less circular lake basin, that may never come back; the whole idea in spawning tributaries and different parts you're not only talking about the orienta of chaos theory is that where you get to of the lake. Because cutthroat trout return tion of the stream drainage, but also the depends on where you start, and Yellow to spawn in the same stream in which they location ofthe stream in the lake basin. It stone Lake has never before been like it is were born, over time members of the was obvious, however, that it wasn't di now, so how can we expect it to restore individual subpopulations must adapt to rectly related to stream size, the biggest itself completely to some past state? conditions in the specific tributary they fish were not found in the biggest streams Besides that, the environmental condi use for spawning. One study done on or vice versa. Hydrology is important, tions are always different. We now have homing behavior in Yellowstone Lake but so is the location of the stream along a new non-native predator-the lake took place in Amica Creek. About 25 the lakeshore. When we examined data trout-with great potential for changing percent of the fish that were marked re from the lake, we found that fish size things. And even before the lake trout got turned to Amica Creek to spawn. None differed from one place to another. Fur there, there were the othernon-native fish of them went anywhere else. It wasn't a ther analysis showed that size and growth introduced. For all we know, there was big study-only about 600 fish-but all were linked to differences in general pro once a Yellowstone cutthroat trout sub the spawners returned to Amica Creek. ductivity in different parts of the lake. population that lived in the shallow la Another kind of homing is adult hom So even when they're in the lake, it goons but they were excluded by all the ing, where we' re looking at repeat spawn appears that there are lake subpopula non-native minnows that we introduced ers. You mark them as they come into a tions of this meta population that kind of in the early 1900s. stream the first time and see if they come hang out together. There is some tagging But I also think there is tremendous Spring 1996 7 resilience in the metapopulation. When there when we were tagging fish during YS: The young cutthroats in the lake are you consider that we are now approach the spawning runs. We had more fish an important part ofthis story, because of ing 40 years since the hatchery was closed, coming out than we had going in, and their unusual vulnerability. For 10,000 and remember that the lake's powerful they weren't all just two-inchers making years or so, they didn't have to worry selective forces are based on things we their first trip down to the lake. We had much about being preyed upon by a big didn't affect much, such as hydrology sub-adult fish, 13 and 14 inches long, ger fish, and now suddenly they do, and and prey base and the lake's physical coming out ofPelican Creek in the spawn they're not prepared for it. Can you ex characteristics, it would seem that the ing season; these were fish that had never plain how that works? trout populations would sort themselves spawned. Those fish had probably been BG: In general, a month or two after they out. living in the creek several years, and were hatch in the tributary streams, the young YS: So even if the metapopulation and making their first trip out to the lake. We larval cutthroat trout leave the gravel and the subpopulations aren '!identical to what also saw fish going up into Pelican Creek move back to the lake. Once they enter they would have been if we hadn't inter that weren't mature. They showed no the lake, the majority of them move into fered so much the past 100 years, they're sign of being ready to spawn. Maybe open and deep water areas, where they still cranking along in a viable wild sys they were going up there just to prey on feed primarily on crustaceans and zoo tem? young cutthroat, or some other species. plankton. As they grow older and mature, BG: Something like that. One of the most unusual situations they need larger food items in order to YS: Back to the variations that the lake around the lake is what's happened at support this growth, so they begin to cutthroats display: you've stressed the Sedge Creek. Sedge Creek is a tributary move into the more productive littoral complexity of the system. Can you give that has been isolated from Yellowstone [shallow] zones of the lake. They still an example? Lake for about 8,000 years by a thermal feed on plankton, but aquatic insect lar BG: A really obvious one is the outlet area that acts as a barrier between the lake vae and adults become much more promi stream: the Yellowstone River itself. and the creek. Genetic studies ofthe trout nent in their diet. Those fish had to develop a mirror image in Sedge Creek show that it's like they all YS: At what size do the cutthroat trout of the spawning behavior of the fish that came out of a stamp mill. They're identi switch from eating zooplankton and start spawn in tributary streams, because adults cal, no genetic variation at all. The popu taking aquatic invertebrates? actually go downstream to spawn, and the lation geneticists would say that that's a BG: Somewherebetweenl3 andl4inches, young fry swim back upstream to get to prescription forextinction, because ifany which is why the 13-inch maximum size the lake. That's just the opposite of what random event threatened them, there regulation works on Yellowstone Lake. all the other cutthroat trout in Yellow would be no flexibility to deal with it and If they had picked 14 inches as the maxi stone Lake do; all the others go upstream they'd perish. Well, that may be true, but mum size limit, there would have been to spawn, and downstream to the lake. in the meantime they've been highly se too many fish harvested because there But I think that Pelican Creek and the lected for exactly the habitat they're in. would have been too many available. upper Yellowstone River probably pro One of the things that is interesting By the way, food habit studies have vide the most complex examples of all. about all of this is that even when you shown another interesting variation in When you look at the whole Yellowstone look at the Yellowstone cutthroat trout the lake's cutthroat trout populations. In Lake basin, with dozens of spawning across its whole range, there isn't much some of my research, we looked at the streams, you see everything from tiny genetic variability. For years people have percent of the littoral zone in various streams less than a kilometer long to big argued that "a Yellowstone cutthroat is a areas ofthe lake versus the size ofthe fish streams like Pelican Creek, to real rivers Yellowstone cutthroat is a Yellowstone in those areas. We found a positive rela like the Yellowstone above and below cutthroat." Yet there is a lot of variation tionship; the areas of the lake with differ the lake. The larger ones, like Pelican in their life history, depending upon what ent proportions ofshallow water had dif Creek, especially, and also the upper they have had to adapt to, including all ferent size of fish. Where the water tem Yellowstone, are so much more com the things we've talked about: hydrol peratures were higher and the water was plex. They have many tributaries of their ogy, food, chemistry, and so on. Yellow shallower, the fish were larger. People own, and large, diverse basins. For ex stone cutthroats just haven't been sepa had suspected that, and they attributed it ample, my guess is that there are fluvial rated from each other long enough to to angling pressure, but we demonstrated [river-dwelling] populations in the upper display the genetic variability measured that it wasn't due to angling pressure. It's Yellowstone that have very little contact by the most commonly used analytical just one of those interesting dimensions with YellowstoneLake,justlike there are techniques. of the lake ecosystem, that it doesn't trout in the river below the lake that never Westslope cutthroats, on the other hand, produce uniform-size trout everywhere. leave the river. There are probably all have a tremendous amount of genetic YS: Back on the subject ofthe lake trout, kinds of combinations of fish spending variability, possibly because during the this new method of tracing the cutthroat different versions of their life history in Pleistocene they were divided up into trout raises an interesting question. Could that upper Yellowstone River basin. small isolated pockets here and there. the chemical analysis of the otolith in the The same with Pelican Creek. We found That didn't happen to the Yellowstone lake trout in Yellowstone Lake tell us some incredibly complex things going on cutthroat. where they're from? 8 Yellowstone Science Cutthroat trout spawning at Clear Creek Bob Gresswell conducting analysis on cutthroat trout at the U.S. Fish and in the park. It is these massive move Wildlife Service laborat01y at Yellowstone Lake. ments oftrout into dozens ofYellowstone Lake tributaries that make thefishavail able and important to many species of predators. do better. On the other hand, regardless of our model predictions, it appears that if you go in and hit those mature lake trout hard in the lake, like with gillnetting, you can reduce their numbers and reproduction, and it will be good for the cutthroats. YS: So far, most talk about control ofthe lake trout has centered on a regular gillnetting program that will concentrate on lake trout. Now that we've had a second season to study the situation, do you see other things that might help with that reduction? Jeff Lutch and Rick Swanker pulling gillnets on Yellowstone Lake. Photos BG: The model suggests that we ought to courtesy of Fish and Wildlife Service, Yellowstone Fisheries Assistance think a little more seriously about food Office. habits of both species and determining where the lake trout are spawning and BG: Presumably, if you gave the analyst in all aspects, may be most vulnerable to ways to interrupt that spawning. It's not samples of all the waters in the region predation by the lake trout. On the other clear yet how we can do that, but I think from which the lake trout might have hand, things probably won't be as bad for that the first thing we need to do is find come, it could. cutthroat trout that live in tributary out what the adult lake trout are eating: YS: Considering all these things we streams of the lake: part of their lives are what species do they eat, and ~twhat time know about the various subpopulations going to be more protected because the of year. Then we need to find out where of cutthroats in Yellowstone Lake, can lake trout don't generally go into the they're spawning and when. you give us some examples of how those streams. All of the cutthroat trout will be YS: How do we find that out? variations will play out in the lake trout affected by predation to some extent, but BG: One technique would use what are situation? in subpopulations in places like the Yel called "Judas fish:" lake trout that you BG: The cutthroat trout that are focused lowstone River, Pelican Creek, Amica capture and attach radios to and release. on the lake throughout their life history, Creek, and Beaver Dam Creek, they may They'll lead you to the spawning areas. Spring 1996 9 Review Essay A History of Yellowstone's Roads by Eric Sandeen The History of the Construction of the Road System in Yellowstone by Mary Shivers Culpin. U.S. Dept. of Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain The History of the Construction of the Road System in Region, 1994, 530 pages. Yellowstone National Park, 1872-1966 Historic Resource Study Volume I The History ofthe Construction ofthe Road System in Yellowstone began as a By Mary Shivers Culpin response to the Federal Highway Administration's multi-decade construc tion project in Yellowstone National Park. This hefty volume was intended as a management tool for park personnel, even though it was commissioned only to meet the compliance needs of the National Historic Preservation Act. In that sense, this is an expansive document, which, through the scope of terrain that it sur veys and the detail of its point of view, attempts to create a basic resource for those interested in historic preservation, cultural and natural landscapes, ecology, and park development. In another sense, however, the volume retreats from a level of interest to which it does not feel that it can lay claim. Academic historians, Mary Shivers Culpin informs us, might be put off by the necessary repetition of a government re SELECTIONS from the DIVISION OF CULTURAL RESOURCES port. While her work will probably not be No~ Rocky Mounlaln Region required reading for seminars, I want to 1994 National Park Scrvke pay special attention in this review to ways in which her work connects with broader cultural concerns-a wider land ment of the road system from the creation (HAER) project (page 481), but these scape, if you will-especially at the end of the park to the implementation of the photographs and drawings are not in of the nineteenth century. I wish to sug Mission 66 program in the 1950s (aimed cluded in the volume. The volume does gest that the viewpoints of those of us in at upgrading park services and facilities). contain useful photographs of Yellow universities who look at cultural land She then returns to examine the history of stone, however, along with two historic scapes complement the day-to-day out particular road segments, paying particu maps. This is a government report and look of "practitioners" who are at work lar attention to the Grand Loop. Finally, shows clearly the template of those who "in the field." To play with a metaphor: she includes the nomination ofthe Grand commissioned the work. it is worth considering how we can create Loop as a National Historic District and Culpin is right: there is repetition here, something like an ecology of concern, surveys some management issues. His but there are also enough details in this using specific sites such as Yellowstone toric bridges were photographed and lengthy work to keep any park aficionado as common terrain. documented according to the ongoing occupied. Park administrative history, Culpin's work describes the develop- Historic American Engineering Record the placement and condition of roads and 10 Yellowstone Science as 1879), and the dual curses ofmud and dust clearly delineated the discomfort of travel from the invigorating promise of tourism. The focus during the early years had been on the construction ofthe roads themselves. Throngh the work of two men, Lieutenants Dan Kingman and Hiram Chittenden of the Army Corps of Engineers, attention was drawn to the view from the road, the presentation of the natural wonders of the nation's first national park to the eye of the tourist. In 1883, the Corps ofEngineers began supervising the construction ofroads and Lt. Kingman gradually reshaped the hu man landscape of Yellowstone. The roads, he concluded, "should have some thing of the solid, durable, and substan tial quality that usually characterized the Lt. Dan Kingman, United States Corps ofEngineers, early pioneer ofpark works constructed by the national gov roadbuilding esthetics, and Lt. R. C. Stivers, 9th Infantry, I 885. ernment" (page 26). The park should be protected from "mammoth hotels,,, "the race course," "the drinking saloon and trails, the function of the Army Corps of claimed in 1872. If the reader wishes to gambling table," and "the noise and smoke Engineers and other entities, and the explore the larger issue of the visual pre of the locomotive" so that it would be steady inundation of tourists are all dealt sentation of the park to visitors, Culpin long to the whole people (page 27). with in sufficient detail in Culpin' s work. assists by focusing our gaze onto the road His successor, Hiram Chittenden, con Since! am not an historian ofthe park, the system, the most obviously intrusive im tinued this good work over two tours of specifics of Culpin's account are beyond position of the human order within Yel duty in the park, extending into the early my criticism; I would merely note that lowstone. The road and trail system in part of this century. He supervised the what she says correlates well with the Yellowstone expanded very quickly-to clearing ofdead timber within 100 feet of standard accounts of the development of more than 100 miles by 1878-but these roadways, the placement of signs and Yellowstone. corridors through the wilderness were mileage posts on major roadways, the Of more general interest is her account used as passageways to what the first positioning of guardrails <(at the most of the development of a landscape es superintendent called "scenic and inter precarious points," and the alignment of thetic within the governmental agencies esting views." Ruts incised by heavy slopes and cuts. Thus he hoped that the responsible for opening this remarkable vehicles and then widened by wagons of roads would "themselves be made one of territory "for the benefit and enjoyment different wheel bases, tree stumps, atroad- the interesting features of this most inter of the people," as Congress had pro- side, vandalized signs (reported as early esting place" (page 49). He was also an Road Crews on Mt. Washburn, 1903. All photos courtesy Yellowstone Park Archives. Spring 1996 11 effective advocate of the construction budget, which, he informed his superiors, was intended for an area as large as the state of Connecticut. According to Culpin, Kingman and Chittenden influenced the following 1918 policy statement of Franklin Lane, the Secretary ofthe Interior, concerning con struction and improvements within the newly formed National Park System: In the construction ofroads, trails, buildings, and other improve ments, particular attention must be devoted always to the harmo nizing ofthese improvements with the landscape. This is a most im portant item in our program of development and requires the em Above: The Lamar River Bridge broken ployment oftrained engineers who either possess a knowledge ofland by overload, 1932. Below: Gardner River Bridge, 1917. scape architecture or have a proper appreciation ofthe aesthetic value of park lands. All improvements will be carried out in accordance with a preconceived plan devel oped with special reference to the preservation ofthe landscape, and comprehensive plans for future de velopment of the national parks on an adequate scale will be pre pared as funds are available for this purpose (page 87). This proclamation occurred at an im portant moment. Automobiles had be gun to enter the park in 1915 and were poised for a new invasion after the con clusion ofWorld War 1-visitorship rose from slightly more than 62,000 in 1919 to more than 100,000 during the 50th anni versary year of 1922. The race was on. At the same time, two important fig movement, which encouraged tourists to The automobile should revolu ures, Horace Albright, who became su pioneer the road between, say, Yellow tionize the park tour, just as it perintendent of the park in 1919, and stone and Crater Lake, promised more changed travel conditions every Stephen Mather, the first director of the road-weary families who would be ac where and turned into memories National Park Service, began to exert customed to viewing scenery at speed cherished methods of seeing and their enormous influence. These are well and would not tolerate traffic jams or the doing things. However, the old studied careers, which I will not attempt unseemly jostling of worn-out roadbeds. atmosphere of the Yellowstone is to rehearse here (Culpin, too, wisely leaves Mather looked down the road and saw still to be enjoyed, not perhaps on these extraordinary personalities off stage what was coming. Against the phalanx of the roads, certainly only a few and deals with them through their admin approaching headlights, his argument hundred yards distant, where the istrative decisions). focused on the preservation of a Yellow trails take their winding course Through Mather we can see the over stone experience that was anachronistic, through the forests (page 110). whelming impact that the automobile has that encouraged people to step out of the The view from the road, the necessary had on Yellowstone. The development twentieth century and, if not into the veneer of exurban detritus at roadside, of good road systems outside the parks forest primeval, then at least into a more the willful immersion into the primitive had by 1922 made the park roads seem relaxed tourism that predated the internal environment that lay beyond (if only substandard. The Park-to-Park Highway combustion engine: people could be coaxed away from the 12 Yellowstone Science road)-these basic themes of twentieth was during these years of extensive road Anglo-American inscription that begins century tourism were established early reconstruction and bridge building that in the 19th century. Thus we have the on. the National Park Service wrote stringent history of explorers, scientists, and pho Superintendent Albright improved the specifications for special landscape fea tographers, so well chronicled by such view from the road. Starting in 1919, tures such as masonry guardrails, wooden eminent historians as William Goetzmann ''.vista cuts" were made at roadside, to guardrails, and stone paving. The specifi and critiqued by cultural historians like further enhance the experience of the cations covered the materials, construc Peter B. Hales. The ecological literature windshield tourist (page llO). Shortly tion, and treatment of the features" (page regarding Yellowstone is also immense thereafter, he began tidying up the road 148). But during the early part of the and, in the terms that I am using, could be side. Through his chief of landscape en Depression, when times were notoriously read in individual historic contexts, as gineering, Daniel Hull, he ordered that tough, visitorship actually rose 5% (page projections of contemporaneous visions "any new barrow pits, sprinkling sta 143). Itis clear what Albright saw in this. of historical development and American tions, and telephone and electric service Parks would exert "a strong influence for destiny. lines should be placed in the least notice stabilization and good citizenship." "[l]n Yellowstone has been seen as valuable able positions. In the past, most of these a time of anxiety and restlessness, they cultural terrain. John B. Jackson, one of services had been placed in the 'easiest' were immensely useful to large numbers the most prominent proponents of cul location, without regard to the effect on of people" (page 143). For a student of tural landscape study, summarizes the their landscape" (page 113). He encour American culture, the value-laden words importance of Yellowstone with a state aged Stephen Mather to rule in 1921 that "citizenship," "anxiety,'' ''restlessness," ment and a question: "First it was the no new roads would be built in Yellow and "useful" beg for exploration from the mining lands which were officially rec stone, so that all resources could be di tourist's point of view. ognized as possessing distinct character rected to the existing system, but still, Another explosion of tourist interest istics oftheir own; then it was land suited appropriations for improvements lan detonated quickly after World War II: to irrigation, then forests, until much of guished and the roads began to deterio from about 350,000 visitors in 1946 to the American landscape became a com rate. more than 825,000 only a year later. By position not only of political units but of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. entered the 1953 the park was so overrun that Ber natural environments. And was it not this park in 1924. Already he was at work on nard DeVoto advocated closing Yellow new kind of definition of land that in his legendary acquisition of land assem stone because ofthe ''nationally disgrace spired the creation in 1872 of Yellow bly in the Tetons, south of Yellowstone. ful situation" regarding support and main stone National Park?''(American Space, His practiced vision, softened by the deli tenance (page 175). The Mission 66 pro page 27). For Roderick Nash this is not a cate historic recreation at Colonial cess initiated by the Park Service may rhetorical question. In Wilderness and Williamsburg and civilized by his dona have turned attention to the historically the American Mind he portrays Congress tions to the restoration ofVersailles, spot underfunded road system, but it also pro as forming the national park only after ted the most visible eyesore immediately: duced the transplanted superhighway in assurances that the terrain had no higher the stubble and fallen timber by the side terchange at the Old Faithful junction economic use. of the road. While he acquired the land with the Grand Loop. Culpin allows her Such debates over cultural and eco that would become the best viewing plat self an editorial comment against this nomic value-and the representation of form for Grand Teton National Monu disorienting concretemerry-go-round, the natural space as either a presence or an ment, he also contributed money to his park's most intrusive feature. absence-are extensive and endlessly new friend Albright for the removal of Even my brief overview of a massively fascinating. However, I would like to put trees and underbrush in Yellowstone (page detailed work indicates that the story of the articulation of Yellowstone as a cul 129). the roads is intertwined with the experi tural text into conversation with theories In 1926, responsibility for Yellowstone ence of the tourist, the development of a about what was occurriµg in vastly dif roads passed to the Bureau of Public reading of the landscape (both by the ferent locations in American culture. The Roads, a sign of the increasing national tourist and by park administrators), and point ofview that I am taking owes a debt concern for a highway network and, the construction of a relentlessly techno to Alan Trachtenberg's book, The Incor Albright complained, a sure indication logical culture surrounding the park. In poration of America, which draws to that construction costs would rise. Be other words, the park quickly became a gether phenomena from both West and tween that year and the beginning of cultural text, important both for what it East into astudy ofa consolidating Ameri World War IT, road traffic would increase said about nature and culture and for what can culture at the end of the nineteenth fivefold (page 152). it was seen to argue against-the urban, century. A fascinating subject, which bears fur or increasingly suburban, world of the Culpin's work gives us enough clues to ther investigation, is tourism within the vast majority oftourists who visited what see how such a larger realm might be park during the Great Depression. The one popular writer has called the last formed. Occasionally, one ofher sources New Deal story is more fantiliar and, in refuge. will make an explicit comparison to this all likelihood, more significant for the The text of Yellowstone has most fre broader world. For example, Lt. Kingman road system that Culpin is studying. "It quently been written according to the advocates a good road system and ex- Spring 1996 13 Cars lined up to be checked in at the East Entrance checking station, 1929. Left, a "house car" at Mammoth Hotel August 26, I 930. gressional committees concerning appro priations (and what is appropriate) may have interesting resonances in the history eludes road houses and race courses be We are thus encouraged to revisit the of the western park. cause he does not want "a sort of Coney subject of nineteenth-century road condi One more, equally broad, connection Island" (page 27) to invade the park. tions. Here is one eyewitness report: deserves exploration, although I have only Culpin takes pains to differentiate this Nearly all of the streets were dirt a small space to mention it here. This is landscape aesthetic from Central Park, roadways. Where these were im the figure of the engineer, which be another New York reference. The better proved they were rudely covered comes important in the park with the connection with the East may not be with gravel, from which, in dry Kingman/Chittenden duo and which through theories oflandscape gardening. weather, clouds ofdust arose with emerges as a new form of western hero in Frederick Law Olmstead or Andrew Jack the breezes or from the passing American popular culture (not to men son Downing had well-articulated sys vehicles, and many of the streets tion American legislative history in the tems of domesticated nature based on the were almost impassible in times western states) in the late nineteenth cen English garden. Yellowstone is not Kew of heavy rains. The few that were tury. Those interested in that topic could Gardens, or Central Park, for that matter. improved with a more durable turn to Cecilia Tichi' s Shifting Gears for The better connection may be through surface .... were paved with the an introduction. Those blazing a trail conceptions of tourism and leisure that roughest sort of cobble or other through this particular terrain will be re developed during the last quarter of the irregularly shaped stones, destruc warded with a new vista on the subject of nineteenth century, in which special tive alike to the vehicles which management, a work loaded with assump spaces were designated as compensatory traveled upon them, and to the tions about the value of nature and the realms to escape from an increasingly nerves of those by whom those function of technology to bring it to pro industrialized, alienating world. Yellow vehicles were occupied (quoted in ductive use. stone is the opposite of Coney Island, JohnReps,Monumental Washing Culpin's intent is that this volume be a perhaps, because they represent two varia ton, page 56). management tool. I would like to suggest tions on a common cultural theme. The author was commenting on Wash that the broad community who read works The better reference may not be the ington roads during the year ofthe found like Culpin' s consider ways in which stereotypical urban area of Manhattan, ing of Yellowstone, 1872. It is nonsensi linkages in the current day can be made but the federal city, Washington, D. C. cal to equate Washington with the Yel that parallel those I have suggested for Here again, Culpin's material leads the lowstone experience. But it is instructive, times past. Does the meaning of roads in way. In her Historic District Nomination I think, to compare development of a Yellowstone have anything to do with the for the Grand Loop, she points out that: landscape aesthetic in one national construction of a bridge/road to another Before the turn of the century, epitome area (Yellowstone) with the for national epitome area, Ellis Island, for there was no national road system mulation of a civic aesthetic in the fed example? Does the web that these Yel only road systems within states, eral Capitol as it approached its centen lowstone roads represent also connect and a few state-built public roads. nial year, 1900. Why not begin with public interests and private, local mean TheFederal Government had been roads, not just the surfaces themselves ing with national memory? All of us responsible for the roads in Wash and the technologically based experience travel these roads, and shouldn't all ofus ington, D. C., the roads to govern oftraversing them, butalso the view from talk about the view from this thorough ment posts (which in most cases that sometimes unstable platform and the fare? were no more than trails), roads on values that were to be learned from these military reservations, and for vistas? The development of the Mall, the Eric J. Sandeen building the road system in Yel removal ofa rail line from the front ofthe American Studies Program lowstoneNationalPark(page488). Capitol building, the debates within con- University of Wyoming 14 Yellowstone Science ence appeared to be related to the pres Alternative Fuel Tested for Risks as ence of secondary compounds, such as Bear Attractant terpenoids, which influence browsing of the forage plants by making the plants Almost all of less palatable to ungulates. Severe win Yellowstone's 3 million or ters tended to reduce the preference dif so annual visitors travel ferences of the ungulate browsers, which through the park in vehicles included elk as well as mule deer. powered by a conventional MSU graduate student Kristen Legg internal combustion engine presented a progress report on her study fueled with gasoline or die ofbighorn sheep in the Tom Miner-Point sel fuel. An estimated 7 .6 of Rocks area north and west of Yankee million gallons of these Jim Canyon. Her comparison of pellet fuels are used in the park, transects to similar transects run in 197 5 with potential effects on indicates an apparent shift from sheep plant and animal commu use to elk use ofsteep grassy upper slopes nities, including humans. '------_, in her study area. None of her radio Yellowstone's Mainte- collared animals moved into Yellowstone nance Division, in cooperation with the fuel, deer meat/dog food, biodiesel ex National Park; most moved from winter Montana Department of Natural Re haust, and diesel exhaust. Offive captive ranges in her study area northward into sources and Conservation and the U.S. grizzly bears and five captive black bears the Hyalite Basin area. During monitor Department of Energy's Pacific North tested, all displayed a "significant non ing flights, she and/or pilot Bill Chapman westand Alaska Regional Bioenergy Pro attraction response" (they were disinter also reported seeing as many as 60 non gram, is participating in a pilot project to ested) to ambient air, and a "significant native mountain goats in the Tom Miner evaluate the use of 100 percent rape ethyl attraction and investigation response" H yalite area. ester (biodiesel) as a low-pollution alter (they were interested and wanted to check native to diesel fuel in environmentally it out) to deer meat/dog food. All bears sensitive areas. Many visitors probably were indifferent to biodiesel fuel diesel saw the biodiesel pickup truck used last fuel, but many showed a "significant agi summer by Maintenance Foreman Jim tation/aggression response" to biodiesel Evanoff. exhaust and diesel exhaust. Grizzly bears Biodiesel is a vegetable oil derivative reacted more strongly to the exhaust than with several advantages over fossil fuels: did black bears. it is biodegradable (important in the case The investigators concluded that there ofoil spills), contains negligible levels of was "no statistical evidence that bears sulfur (unlike fossil fuels, which contrib were attracted to biodiesel fuel or biodiesel ute significantly to acid rain), emits fewer exhaust any more than they might be to hydrocarbons and particulates than fos diesel fuel and diesel fuel exhaust. They sil-based fuels, and is derived from re recommended, however, that both ex newable resources. perimentation and monitoring ofbiodiesel Gallatin National Forest staffreported However, the vegetable base of the vehicles continue. that fall horseback surveys and drive-by fuel causes concern in areas with wildlife counts were suggestive of a decline in that might be attracted to its odors, as Northern Yellowstone Wildlife moose numbers since the fires of 1988. both grizzly and black bears are quickly Working Group Research Reports Some moose are still being harvested by attracted to human foods and cooking hunters, but moose permits were reduced odors in Yellowstone. As a result of these At the autumn meeting ofthe Northern following 1988. concerns, tests were conducted using the Yellowstone Wildlife Working Group National Biological Service researcher park's experimental vehicle, to determine held in Gardiner, Montana, Montana State Peter Gogan, whose mule deer study on ifraw biodieselfuel or its emissions were University (MSU) Dr. Carl Wamboldt the Northern Range was previously re bear attractants.The tests, undertaken by reported on results of a multi-year study ported on in Yellowstone Science (Sum Yellowstone bear-management person of sagebrush and ungulate habitat selec mer 1993), reported that deer nel Mark Biel, Kerry Gunther, and Hopi tion. Although there are three subspecies _ radiocollared on the Northern Range out Hoekstra, took place at Washington State of big sage as well as black sage on the side of Yellowstone National Park sum University's captive bear facility in Pull Northern Range, mule deer preferred mered as far away as Shoshone Lake, man, Washington. As part of the tests, mountain big sage; the black sage was Bechler Meadows, Cooke City, and areas bears were exposed to ambient air and to least preferred, although it is high in southwest of West Yellowstone, Mon odor from raw biodiesel fuel, raw diesel protein and is highly digestible. Prefer- tana. Spring 1996 15 NEWSi.)n,otes Non-native Brook Trout Confirmed in trout were found in any of the tributaries Soda Butte Creek that were sampled (Woody, Republic, and Hayden creeks, and Guitar Lake); the Soda Butte Creek, which flows into brook trout were all in Soda Butte Creek Yellowstone Nationa!Parknearthe park's itself. The report suggests two possible Northeast Entrance, is frequently in the sources of origin for the brook trout. news because of the past effects of min They may have been intentionally intro ing activity in its headwaters and because duced by someone, or they may have of possible threats to this tributary of the entered the drainage during spring snow Lamar River from proposed mining ac melt runoff, when high water in the di tivity. A recently completed study of the vide area between Soda Butte Creek and headwaters of Soda Butte Creek, just the Clarks Fork might allow passage of outside the park, has added another worry fish. for those concerned with the fate of this The report also points out that another beautiful but troubled stream. The study non-native fish, westslope cutthroat trout revealed the presence of non-native brook (Oncorhynchus clarki lewisi), have re trout(Salvelinusfontinalis)in waterwhere cently been identified in Soda Butte Creek. native Yellowstone cutthroat trout This also is a troubling finding, because (Oncorhynchusclarki bouvieri) have long while the brook trout might outcompete been considered a species of special con the native Yellowstone cutthroat trout in cern by managers. The upper Soda Butte Creek site where non the Soda Butte Creek drainage or move native brook trout (below) were found. downstream into the Lamar River, the westslope cutthroat trout could interbreed with the native trout. Shuler recom mended additional monitoring and study to keep track of both of these incursions. Third Biennial Rocky Mountain Anthropological Conference, September 18-20, 1997 The Third Biennial Rocky Mountain Anthropological Conference will be held September 18-20, 1997, at the Holiday Inn in Bozeman, Montana. According to the conference organizers, 1'interested in dividuals are encouraged to organize fo rums as a possible alternative to sympo sia, to enable thoughtful, focused, and more open discussion of carefully delin eated themes/topics." Please contact the The study, "Soda Butte Drainage Re by the U.S. Forest Service and a "species organizers (below) for information about connaissance Fish Survey 1994," was of special concern" by the Montana De organizing a forum. The organizers en prepared by Gallatin National Forest Fish partment of Fish, Wildlife and Parks. courage the participation of individual eries Biologist Scot Shuler and published The status of the Yellowstone cutthroat researchers from all areas of anthropo in January 1995. It was a partnership trout has been in the news lately because logical study pertaining to the Rocky project of Shoshone and GallMin Na of the threat to the last remaining large Mountains, and researchers in related tional Forests, the Wyoming Game and populationofthem, in Yellowstone Lake, fields addressing issues of past environ Fish Department, the Montana Depart where lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) mental conditions are also welcome. The ment of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, and the have recently been discovered. deadline for symposium or forum pro U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Fisheries Though there have been occasional posals is March 15, 1997. Other dead Assistance Office in Yellowstone Na reports ofbrook trout in Soda Butte Creek lines and information will be announced. tional Park. for at least 20 years, including some in For more information, contact Ken Because genetically pure Yellowstone Yellowstone National Park, this study, Cannon, NPS Midwest Archeological cutthroat trout occupy only about eight which summarized recent electrofishing Center, Federa!Building,Room474, 100 percent of their historic range in the west, results, provides the first scientific con Centennial Mall North, Lincoln, NE they are designated a "sensitive species" firmation of their presence. No brook 68508-3873 or (402) 437-5392 ext. 139, 16 Yellowstone Science NEWS~:0-~o_,_e,______0J£~ FAX402-437-5098),email: ken_cannon trumpeter swans and four cygnets, and several intensive bison management and @nps.gov; orJack Fisher, Department of the birds were placed on the Call of the research activities. Under an Interim Sociology, Montana State University, Wild Ranch. As of February 1996, there Bison Management Operating Plan ap Bozeman, MT 59717 (406-994-5250, were 33 trumpeter swans (20 adults and proved in November 1995 park rangers FAX406-994-6879),email:isijf@msu. 13 cygnets) in Paradise Valley. assist with bison control outside the north oscs.montana.edu. and west boundaries when requested by Bison Research and Management the Montana Department of Livestock. Continue While Long-Range Plans This winter, cooperative activities in- Trumpeter Swans Killed are Prepared Yellowstone's bird biologist, Terry McEneaney. has been working coopera tively for several years with private land owners, organizations, and state wildlife managers to restore a population oftrum peter swans in the Paradise Valley of Montana. Swans have been purchased using donated monies and placed on pri vate lands with suitable habitat along the Yellowstone River south of Livingston, about 45 miles north of Yellowstone. Although the released birds have their wings clipped, restricting flight, the clipped birds have successfully nested, and their offspring augment the popula tion of wild trumpeter swans that now exists in the greater Yellc:,wstone area. On December 2, 1995, four swans (two wing clipped adults and two wild adults) were killed in Paradise Valley by a hunter. Although the birds have never been listed Efforts to reach agreement on a long eluded regular monitoring and reporting as threatened or endangered under the range plan to manage bison in and outside of bison outside park boundaries, hazing Endangered Species Act, they cannot be Yellowstone National Park continue, as bison back into the park, and shooting of legally hunted in the ecosystem. Bruce an interagency team stfi.ves to have a bison outside the park. Mary Meagher, of Reid ofLivingston, Montana, was appre draft plan and Environmental Impact the NBS Yellowstone Field Station, con hended and has yet to be tried on charges Statement (EIS) released for public com tinues to monitor bison numbers and of shooting the wild swans. However, ment in November 1996. In the past de movements parkwide as part ofher long Reid, who claimed to have mistaken the cade bison from Yellowstone have in term ecological studies. From aerial ob swans for snow geese, paid $2,500 resti creased in number, and some of the ani servations throughout this winter, she tution to the Trumpeter Swan Recovery mals have increasingly migrated, prima estimated the park's bison population at Fund for killing the two birds. Restitution rily in winter, outside park boundaries. between 3,500 and 4,000 animals. She monies were used to purchase two adult State and federal agency representatives believed that her highest winter count, of are addressing various issues, including 3,398 bison in December 1995, was not a public safety, property damage, and po good indication of bison numbers tential disease transmission from bison to parkwide, and more recent surveys were cattle. Concern over the length of time it even less reliable, due to bison breaking was taking to reach agreement prompted their social bonds and scattering geo the state of Montana to file a lawsuit graphically. As of March 23, her records against the federal agencies, including indicated that 355 bison had been re theNPS, in 1995. A final plan and EIS to moved outside the park's west boundary, guide the management of bison that mi and 20 bulls had been removed outside grate from the park into Montana is ex the north boundary; an additional bull pected by May 1, 1997, with a Record of was shot outside Gardiner, Montana, by a Decision issued by July 1, 1997, as out landowner concerned about the bison lined in a settlement agreement approved threatening his stock. Carcasses were Alice Siebecker by a federal court judge. donated to Native American tribes around Meanwhile, the park is involved in the region. Spring 1996 17 ~ A Draft Interim Bison Management interests and economic viability of the near Cooke City, Montana, including Plan and Environmental Assessment livestock industry in Wyoming, Mon impacts on water quality in the Yellow (EA), outlining operational plans for the tana, and Idaho. Toward this end, their stone River and its tributaries; associated. period until a longer-range program is in ntission is to facilitate the development impacts on aquatic invertebrates and fish place, was released for public comment and implementation of brucellosis man eries; groundwater quality; long-term al fromDecember20, 1995, to February 2, agement plans for elk and bison in the teration ofwildlife habitat; and increased 1996. The park received 260 comments GYA. The NPS representative on the road access; human use; and occupation on the proposed action, which called for executive committee ofthe GYIBC is Dr. of the area from the park's northeast capture of bison migrating outside the Dan Huff from the Intermountain Field entrance to Cody, Wyonting. The U.S. north and west boundaries. Bison cap Office in Denver. Representatives on the Forest Service and the Montana Depart tured on the northern boundary, at facili technical committee are Wayne Brewster ment ofEnvironmental Quality have been ties built at the NPS service area on from Yellowstone and Dr. RobertSchille_r working on an environmental impact Stephens Creek, would be sent to slaugh from Grand Teton National Park. The statement for several years; a draft plan is ter. Bison exiting the park in the Eagle GYIBC hopes to proceed with develop expected later this year. Creek-Bear Creek areas near Jardine, ment and implementation of program Montana would only be monitored. Bi matic plans to deal with the elimination In-park Training Focuses on Visitor son captured in the West Yellowstone of brucellosis in the GY A. Use Management area would be field-tested for brucellosis. TheNPS has comntitted approximately Those animals of either sex that showed $900,000 over fiscal years 1996-1998 About 80 persons attended seropositive results, along with from servicewide Natural Resource Pres Yellowstone's Tenth Annual Resource seronegative pregnant females, would be ervation Program (NRPP) funds for bi Management Workshop, heldJ anuary 24- sent to slaughter. Other animals captured son research and the building of capture 26, 1996, in Mammoth Hot Springs. This outside the west boundary would be re facilities to manage bison. Research em year's theme was "Visitor Use: Impacts leased. Public comments have been ana phasis will be focussed on these topical and Management." Guests included pro lyzed and a decision on the interim pro questions: I) the ecology of the brucella fessors Gary Machlis, Steven McCool, posal is expected by the end of April. organism in the wild, and a risk assess and Bob Manning, who talked of"Under A pilot study of the epidemiology and ment of its effects on wild ungulates, 2) standing the Visitor" and "Perspectives pathogenesis of brucellosis in wild bison testing new vaccines for biosafety and on Carrying Capacity"; Wayne Freimund was initiated last summer by the Animal efficacy in wild bison, and 3) bison ecol and Marilyn Hof, who have tested an and Plant Health Inspection Service ogy. More information about bison and NPS visitor use management process at (APHIS), the National Biological Ser brucellosis studies will be forthcoming in Arches National Park; and Dave vice (NBS), the Montana Department of future issues. Van Cleve, who described four case stud Fish, Wildlife and Parks (MDFWP), and ies in management of visitors and re the NPS. Researchers implanted vaginal World Heritage Committee Calls sources in the California state parks. The transmitters in ten radio-collared bison Yellowstone "Endangered" workshop, sponsored by Yellowstone's cows on the park's northern range. The Division of Resource Management Op transmitters were designed to indicate The World Heritage Committee, an erations and Visitor Protection, brings calving or abortion in pregnant females. international panel of conservationists together employees representing all park All ten cows appeared pregnant and none from countries that signed the World divisions as well as guest researchers and had calved as of April 2, 1996; however, Heritage Convention treaty in 1973, met managers from other parks, forests, state all but one of the transntitters had fallen in Yellowstone in September 1995. After agencies, and academia. out, indicating failure of this application touring the ecosystem and listening to of the vaginal transmitter technique. concerns expressed by various citizens More Wolves Released in Yellowstone Researchers plan to continue monitoring and organized groups, the Comntittee bison throughout the calving period in voted to add Yellowstone to a list of In early April 1996, 17 wolves-11 April and May, then take additional endangered natural and cultural sites that females and 6 males, ranging from 72 to samples from the cows and their calves. are "of universal value to mankind." Their 130 pounds in size and from nine months Researchers will then assess results ofthe decision was based on both ascertained to five years in age-were released into pilot study and deterntine future study and potential dangers. Among the gen Yellowstone to join wolves already roam plans. eral issues of concern were plans for the ing the ecosystem. The wolves, origi Numerous state and federal agencies New World Mine site near the park's nally from six different packs in British continue to participate in the Greater Yel northeastern comer, potential develop Columbia, had spent about ten weeks in lowstone Interagency Brucellosis Com ment of geothermal systems outside the acclimation pens prior to being released. mittee. Their stated goal is to protect and park, and growing numbers of park visi Six wolves from the same pack-two sustain the existing free-ranging elk and tors. males and four females-penned near bison populations in the Greater Yellow A special area of focus related to the Nez Perce Creek, in the Firehole River stone Area (GY A) and protect the public proposed gold, silver, and copper mine Valley in central Yellowstone, were freed 18 Yellowstone Science Rose Creek Pack, in the Lamar Valley, October 23, 1995. Volunteer Carrie Schaefer and park employees Scott Frazier (left), a Sioux-Crow, and John Potter, an Ojibwa, during a prayer ceremony Carol Tepper, Les Brunton, and Mark Biel taking where they sang moming songs ofwelcome for the arrival ofthe new wolves. a carcass to the Nez Perce wolves on Marchi. Park wrangler Wally Wines on horseback and Mike Phillips (left), John Cook( center), NPS lmennountain FieldArea director, and Dan Huff chiefpark ranger Dan Sholly on skis hauling a ( right), assistant field director for Natural Resources /Science, at the Rose Creek pen. wolfto the Rose Creek pen. Spring 1996 19 when biologists cut a hole in their pen on April 1. The next day, the female wolves had all exited the pen and moved east ward toward the Yellowstone River, while the males stayed put. Within several days, all the wolves had left the pen, but the females continued moving northeast and left the park; the males apparently lost their trail along the river and moved north. By April 23, the wolf pack was still scattered; the alpha female was located near Nye, Montana, and the female pups were east of Red Lodge, Montana. The alpha male and a male pup were located in Paradise Valley, north of Gardiner, Montana. Biologists were monitoring the situation, in the hope that the pair would reunite, and leaving open the possibility that capture efforts would be undertaken Rose Creekfemale leaving the crate upon arrival in Yellowstone. to bring the alpha female and others from her pack back into the park. A male, a female, and her three female flight on the afternoon ofApril 14, biolo last April. (McKittrick was found guilty pups had been penned at Rose Creek. An gists received a mortality signal from the of killing an endangered animal and sen opening was cut in their pen in April radio-collared female wolf, #36. She was tenced to six months incarceration and and-similar to what happened during spotted south of Old Faithful and ap ordered to pay $10,000 restitution if and the 1995 releases-the wolves took their peared to be dead; the male wolf was when he is able.) In December, #22, a time in vacating their temporary enclo located near the carcass of the female male pup from the Rose Creek Pack, was sure. By April 14, biologists confirmed wolf. On April 15, project biologists killed by a vehicle on the park's northeast that the newly-named Druid Peak pack searched the area and retrieved the car entrance road. had finally left the acclimation pen; they cass of wolf #36. A necropsy of the ani Four wolf mortalities have occurred were moving generally northward at last mal indicated that she was carrying six thus far in 1996. As mentioned earlier, report. pups, and had died of thermal burns. The #36 was found dead on April 14. On Since wolves released in 1995 have male wolf from the Blacktail pen was January 11, wolf #3, a yearling male established territories on the northern located in the south-central part of the from the Crystal Creek Pack, was spotted range, animals in two other pens were park. on a ranch at Dry Creek near Emigrant, transported to other parts of the park for Four wolves-an adult pair and a Montana. On January 12, Animal Dam release. Project biologists believed that younger male and female-from the Crys age Control (ADC) agents found a sheep relocating the wolves just prior to their tal Creek pen were moved to the northern carcass that had been killed by a wolf. release would accomplish the goals of end of the Firehole Valley on April 11. Based on the final rule for management soft release and decrease the likelihood The wolves, renamed the Chief Joseph ofreintroduced wolves and upon consul that these wolves would immediately Pack, were temporarily placed in the Nez tation with USFWS and NPS staff, ADC conflict with established packs in north Perce pen, which had been vacated on recaptured the wolf and returned him ern Yellowstone. Wolves mate from late April 3 by the pack of wolves held there temporarily to the Rose Creek pen. On February through early March, so the all winter. On April 15, the pack was January 25, #3 was released in Pelican release of all penned wolves was sched several miles west of the pen and had Valley, approximately 60 airline miles uled prior to the onset of denning activity apparently successfully killed an elk. By from Dry Creek. The wolf stayed in the that might occur, typically from late April April 23, the young male remained in the center of the park for a few days, but on to May. Firehole Valley, and the other wolves February 3, he was back at the ranch. The pair held on Blacktail Deer Pla were west of Hebgen Lake feeding on a Another sheep had been attacked, and the teau was released on a service road near moose. responsible agencies decided that, under Lone Star Geyser, southeast ofOld Faith The wolves released in 1996 augment the circumstances, the wolf's removal ful, on April 5, 1996. The wolves were the existing population that has roamed was the most plausible action to benefit located near the release site several times wild for the past year. Fourteen wolves the wolf recovery program. On February following theirrelease. Both wolves were were released in 1995, and nine pups 5, #3 was shot and killed by agents from located on April 13 near Old Faithful and were born to two packs. Wolf#10, a male ADC. Defenders of Wildlife planned to they seemed to be in good condition. originally penned at Rose Creek, was work with the landowners to compensate However, during a routine monitoring killed by ChadMcK.ittricknear Red Lodge them for their livestock loss. 20 Yellowstone Science NEWS011otes it.?~ Wolf#l2, a large adult male-but not came into view, York sighted in his rifle they establish territories. the alpha-from the Soda Butte Pack, and shot it. Upon inspecting the animal spent January exploring south along the he had shot, he believed it to be a wolf, Annual Report Available for 1994 Absaroka Mountains. On February 11, and found it to be ear-tagged. York the wolf was found dead approximately reported the killing that day, and both he 20 miles northwest of Pinedale, Wyo and his employer were "very cooperative ming. The carcass was shipped to the throughout the investigation" conducted YELLOWSTONE CENTER USFWS' s National Forensics Laboratory by the USFWS, and the Wyoming Game FOR RESOURCES in Ashland, Oregon, for further examina and Fish Department. tion; investigators disclosed that the: wolf The wolf mortalities are unfortunate had been shot. The USFWS has offered a but not unexpected; restoration of a wolf $2,000 reward for information leading to population in the ecosystem continues to the identification and conviction of the progress well. Three wolves from six person(s) responsible. Information can originally in the Crystal Creek Pack re be given anonymously. Anyone with in main generally in the Lamar and or Peli formation about the wolfs death may can valleys; winter visitors reported see contact Special Agent Roy Brown in ing them chase and feed on elk. Through Lander, Wyoming, at (307) 322-7607, out the winter, these wolves had also any other USFWS special agent, or any killed at least eight coyotes, according to law enforcement agent with the Wyo researchers. The Rose Creek Pack spends ming Game and Fish Department. most of its time in the Slough Creek ANNUALREPORT On March 30 biologists discovered Hellroaring areas. The alpha female and that #11, a subadult female who had dis her seven surviving pups were joined by persed from the Soda Butte Pack, had #8 (a young male formerly of the Crystal The Yellowstone Center for Resources been shot near Meeteetse, Wyoming. On Creek Pack) last autumn; he is now the has produced an annual report for its April 15, the U.S. Attorney's Office an alpha male. The Soda Butte Pack ranges activities in calendar year 1994. The 100- nounced that Jay M. York, an employee along the northern front of the Beartooth page document highlights efforts to study ofthe Deseret Ranch near Meeteetse, had Mountains and in upper Slough Creek in and protect natural and cultural resources pied guilty to illegally taking the endan and outside the park. Perhaps most excit through reports by various staff special gered wolf. Mr. York was fined $500. ing is the news that wolf #2, a male ists and interdisciplinary resource teams The incident occurred during calving sea formerly from the Crystal Creek Pack, established to focus on specific priority son on the ranch, when some 23 calves paired with #7, a female originally penned assignments. Highlights from 1994 in had already been lost to snow and cold at Rose Creek. They are the first natu clude the discovery of non-native lake weather conditions. Ranch managers rally-forming wolf pack in Yellowstone trout in Yellowstone Lake, the growth of were concerned about the number ofcoy in more than 60 years. The pair has been the park's cultural resource management otes they were seeing, and about the po observed mating, and could have a litter staff and program, discovery of Eocene tential for coyote depredation on the new of pups born this spring. Project biolo plant fossils during reconstruction of the born calves, so they decided to shoot any gists have decided to name this pack in East Entrance Road, and initiation ofwolf coyotes found in the calving pasture. York honor ofthe late biologist, Aldo Leopold, restoration to Yellowstone. Some copies had seen two coyotes in the pasture on who, in 1944, called for restoring wolves are still available by contacting the Yel morning of March 30 and stepped out of to Yellowstone. Other packs will be lowstone Center for Resources at (307) his trnck to shoot them. As a third animal named based on geographic areas once 344-2203. HEARTFELT THANKS to all the readers who have donated to support the printing of Yellowstone Science. Rising costs of paper and printing make it imperative that we try to become more cost-effective and self-sufficient in these times of budget-cutting. Readers still wishing to donate may send contributions to: The Yellowstone Association P.O. Box 117 - Yellowstone Science Yellowstone National Park, WY 82190 Spring 1996 21