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Motherhood Penalty JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES Volume 32, Number 2 ISSN 1946-8113 FALL 2020 IN THIS ISSUE The Effect of Underage Drinking and Socioeconomic Measures on Teen Live Birth Rates ……………………………….Amato and Stivender An Analysis of Cost Savings from Electronic Payments in Healthcare ………………………Krishnaswamy and Pashley The 2012 London Olympics and its Effect on the Sponsor Companies’ Stock Prices ….………………………….Farthing and Bacon Blockchain: An Empirical Review of Fortune 500 Website Posting and Usage ………………………………………….Case, King and Case Marketing the Lifestyle of Wine: Role of an Industry Publication ……………………………………………………..Samit Chakravorty Reduction of Preventable Readmissions Through A Pharmacist-Driven Transition of Care Program …………………………………………Greenhill, Posteraro and Dickerson Sustainability Development and Broiler Chickens in the United States …………………………………………………………..Chi and Lovett The Impact of Japanese Attitudes on Purchases of U.S. Fruits ……………………………………Gehrt and Ito The Motherhood Penalty ……………………….Pepping and Maniam Improving Price Transparency for Consumer Health Care Services …………………………………..House, Hunt and Umeh Observations Regarding Yield Curve Inversions ……………………………………………..Thomas Secrest. AHP Based Framework in Driving Intelligence from Social Media to Improve Organizational Performance: An Exploratory Study …………………………………………………Gebremikael, Szmerekovsky and Enyinda A REFEREED PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF BUSINESS AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES P.O. Box 502147, San Diego, CA 92150-2147: Tel 909-648-2120 Email: [email protected] http://www.asbbs.org ISSN: 1946-8113 Editor-in-Chief Wali I. Mondal National University Editorial Board Pani Chakrapani Gerald Calvasina University of Redlands University of Southern Utah Stacy Boyer-Davis Shamsul Chowdhury Northern Michigan University Roosevelt University William J. Kehoe Marybeth McCabe University of Virginia National University Moira A. Gunn Thomas Vogel University of San Francisco Canisius College Carol Sullivan Linda Whitten University of Texas Permian Basin Skyline College The Journal of Business and Behavioral Sciences is a publication of the American Society of Business and Behavioral Sciences (ASBBS). Papers published in the Journal went through a double-blind review process prior to acceptance for publication. The editors wish to thank anonymous referees for their contributions. The national annual meeting of ASBBS is usually held in Las Vegas in March of each year and the international meeting is usually held in June of each year. Due to the pandemic, there will be one virtual conference of ASBBS during March 5-7, 2021. Visit www.asbbs.org for information regarding ASBBS conferences and publications. JOURNAL OF BUSINESS AND BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES ISSN 1946-8113 Volume 32, Number 2, Fall 2020 TABLE OF CONTENTS The Effect of Underage Drinking and Socioeconomic Measures on Teen Live Birth Rates .Amato and Stivender………………………………………4 An Analysis of Cost Savings from Electronic Payments in Healthcare Krishnaswamy and Pashley………………………..18 The 2012 London Olympics and its Effect on the Sponsor Companies’ Stock Prices Farthing and Bacon……………………………….33 Blockchain: An Empirical Review of Fortune 500 Website Posting and Usage Case, King and Case………………………………..42 Marketing the Lifestyle of Wine: Role of an Industry Publication Samit Chakravorty………………………………..53 Reduction of Preventable Readmissions Through A Pharmacist-Driven Transition of Care Program Greenhill, Posteraro and Dickerson……………………………….73 Sustainability Development and Broiler Chickens in the United States Chi and Lovett…………………………………..83 The Impact of Japanese Attitudes on Purchases of U.S. Fruits Gehrt and Ito………………………………..97 The Motherhood Penalty Pepping and Maniam…………………………110 Improving Price Transparency for Consumer Health Care Services House, Hunt and Umeh……………………………………..126 Observations Regarding Yield Curve Inversions Thomas Secrest…………………………………………………..143 AHP Based Framework in Driving Intelligence from Social Media to Improve Organizational Performance: An Exploratory Study Gebremikael, Szmerekovsky and Enyinda………………………156 3 Journal of Business and Behavioral Sciences Volume 32, Number 2; Fall 2020 THE EFFECT OF UNDERAGE DRINKING AND SOCIOECONOMIC MEASURES ON TEEN LIVE BIRTH RATES Louis H. Amato Carol O. Stivender University of North Carolina - Charlotte ABSTRACT While U.S. teenage live birth rates remain the highest in the developed world, these rates have consistently fallen since 1991. The period of decline corresponds to significant demographic changes, targeted policies to reduce teenage pregnancy, changes in the income distribution and changes in the prevalence of underage drinking. Reasonable arguments can be made for each of these changes as important in reducing teenage live birth rates. We employ an unbalanced state level panel for the years 1991-2017 to investigate factors responsible for the decline. Our model explains slightly more than 80 percent of the reduction in teenage live birthrate. Among the major factors explaining the decline are reductions in underage drinking, increases in high school graduation rates, and increases in the Hispanic proportion of the population. Increases in median household income are positively associated with increased teenage birthrates, a seemingly counterintuitive result unless analyzed in light of Kearney and Levine (2012) findings regarding economic hopelessness among teenage mothers. Rising overall incomes appear to magnify lower income teenage women’s feelings of economic marginalization. Keywords: Teen birthrates, underage drinking, Hispanic. income INTRODUCTION Although US teenage pregnancy and live birth rates continue to rank among the highest in the developed world (Sedgh et al, 2015), recent trends indicate significant reductions in per capita teenage birth rates. Hamilton and Matthews (2015) report declining U.S. teen birth rates every year since 1991. Previous empirical research focuses on differences in teen birthrates across US states and countries (Kearney and Levine, 2012), socioeconomic determinants of teenage pregnancy and live birth rates (Kilebrew et al, 2014) and the societal impacts of teenagers giving birth (Huang et al, 2014). Prior models generally employ either teenage pregnancy rates or live birth rates as the dependent variable. Although arguments can be made for either of these measures, difficulties with teenage 4 Journal of Business and Behavioral Sciences pregnancy data related to large numbers of unreported miscarriages and abortions support live teenage birthrate as the superior measure. The existence of both state level and inter-temporal differences in attitudes toward abortion and general attitudes toward out of wedlock pregnancies suggest that these measurement errors could be systematic. This study employs a state level panel data set covering the period 1991-2017 to examine the importance of demographic, economic, and political factors for explaining variation in per capita live teenage birth rates. Special emphasis is given to explaining the U.S. decline in teenage live birth rates that began in 1990. Our model successfully explains 80.4 percent of the decline. LITERATURE REVIEW It is not surprising that economic circumstance is an important predictor of whether a teenage woman gives birth. Kearney and Levine (2012) cite low economic trajectory as the primary factor explaining teenage motherhood. Schaller (2011) finds that reductions in state level aggregate unemployment rates are associated with declining teenage pregnancy, a result that she attributes to rising opportunity costs from better employment opportunities. Colen et al (2006) conclude that improving labor market conditions lead to reductions in birth rates among black teenage women but find no comparable effect among white teenagers. Kearney and Levine (2015) report that over the period of their state level sample (1981- 2010), rising unemployment led to lower teenage birth rates. One explanation for Kearney and Levine’s finding focuses on the incentive to avoid sexual behaviors that risk pregnancy when weak labor market conditions diminish resources available for childcare. The 2015 Kearney and Levine finding appears to be at odds with their primary conclusion regarding low economic trajectory as the primary determinant of the decision to engage in behavior leading to teenage motherhood. These anomalies may relate to Kearney and Levine’s (2015) observations that teenagers appear to have made different choices during the period 1991-2010. Unemployment is not the only factor determining pregnancy among teenage women. Tomal (1999) analyzed grouped data in order to identify variables related to teenage birthrates. Using county level Illinois data, Tomal finds that average education, income and percentage of children living in poverty all influence teenage birth rates. Decker et al (2019) attribute neighborhood level differences in teenage birthrates to employment prospects, neighborhood interactions and educational opportunity. Quinlivan et al (2004) find various family attributes including parental divorce during early childhood, early childhood exposure to family violence, low family income and poor educational opportunities to explain differences in the prospects for young motherhood. Similarly, Woodward, Fergusson and Horwood (2001) report strong influences on teenage pregnancy from various family factors as well as the presence of deviant peer relations. Among the family factors identified by Woodward et al
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