Inside the Romanian Communist Party Apparatus

CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Professor Marsha Siefert Iordachi Constantin Professor Supervisor:

An Anatomy of the Institution of Censorship in the the Censorship 1960s in theof Institution of An Anatomy Inside the Romanian Communist Party Apparatus: the Communist Romanian Party Inside In partial fulfillment of the r the of fulfillment partial In Central European University

History Department History Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Andru Chiorean Chiorean Andru Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2009 By

equirements f equirements

or the degree of degree the or

CEU eTD Collection Author. the of permission written the without made be not may instructions such form must madepage inof a made. such copies part Further any accordance copies Library. from mayin lodged be Details librarian. Central the the This European obtained in either or full process, any by Copies Author. the with rests thesis this of text the in Copyright

part, may be made only in accordance with the instructions given by the Author and and Author by the given instructions the with inaccordance only maymade be part, 2

with with CEU eTD Collection The thesis links censorshipwith theideology of the regime by the on emphasis special places it such, mechanisms institutional pointofview. It establish aims to activity and suggests thedegree ofits effectiveness. a center between concept of “ examine thesis This

state secret state and to provide an insight into the everyday activities of the censorship institution. As As institution. censorship the of activities everyday the into insight an provide to and nd periphery provides nd periphery s

” the censorship operating in communist Romania in the from 1960s an

in justifying thecensoring activity. Finally, theexamination of the

further evidenceconcerning thedynamicsof the institution personas of the censors, their background and their training. training. their and background their censors, the of personas Abstract the legal framework which set up the censorship censorship the up set which framework legal the 3

highlighting

theimportance of the

relation relation ’ s CEU eTD Collection I. Institutional and legal framework of Communist Censorship in Romania: Historical Overview Introduction Table Contents of

II. Establishing the Mechanism the Establishing II. in the Mechanism of Censhorship of Mechanism the in Center Control: Extending III. Bibliography Conclusions

2. Initial Stages of Communist Censorship 1.The Phases of the Communist Regime Communist the of Phases 1.The 3. Towards a Legal Framework of Censorship Framework Towards3. aLegal 1. Shaping Forms of A of Forms Shaping 1. 3. 1. 2. Integrating the Local Censor Local the Integrating 2. 2.

Safeguarding the StateSafeguarding Secret Setup Administrative The Actor: Key the Censor an ...... uthority

...... - Periphery Relations Periphery

......

...... d his Educational Activity ......

......

...... 4

......

17 17 24 21 46 46 42 36 31 46 31 53 57 61 5

CEU eTD Collection Introduction

2 1 and Censorship, Mc 4 (New Vol. Library. Karl Marx York: Graw feature of all enduring human communities (even those communities those (even communities human enduring all of feature While censorship. regulative and censorship constituent bureaucratic control, or denouncing the irrationality of official censorship. official of irrationality denouncingthe or control, bureaucratic mode of Asiatic of the analysis the regarding in aspects censored being published works his Moreover communism. criticizing in arguments main the of one as speech free of theme the used tradition political liberal ideology, Marxist of name in the up set were regimes t men”.more institutions powerfulbad are institution, than is and a of cen “the cure radical that contended censorship Prusian words, likewords, Jansen SueCurrie sugge the but questionable is mind”. of administration “arbitrary the the of regimes totalitarian or communist to

Ibid. Karl Marx. ”Remarks on the Latest Prussian Censorship Instructions” in Karl Marx. Press of Freedom On he censorship is the opposite of opposite the is he censorship communist communist

In 1842 the twenty five years old Karl Marx being Marx Karl old years five twenty the 1842 In censorship was not not was censorship diatribes, Marx’s the from also visible But, disciples found necessary to ex found to necessary disciples

intensity or specificity of it, the rules and conventions. In other other In conventions. and rules the it, of specificity or intensity

2 consequently and unnatural is expression, free

Height of ir of Height sted, th 5 20

purgate Marx, in Soviet Russia parts of his of his in Russia Marx, parts Soviet purgate th

e distinction e century. ony, over the years, when communist whenyears, communist the over ony, -Hill Book Company, 1974), 98, 108. Not sorship is its abolition” for “it “it for abolition” its is sorship

constitutive censorship is a

the existence of ce of existence the in might be might an active battle against against battle active an 1

For the young Marx, only only

made between made between

characteristic which offer offer which nsorship

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Press, 1991), 7 1991), Press, 4 3 censor”. implications of the term, a term, the of implications censorship countriesin which acquired censorship an officialstatus. the of one Romania was Communist institutionalized. practice was this however, cases, in all Not censorship. of rgence eme witnessedthe Europe Eastern control, Soviet under War, World Second the After propaganda. complemented case often in excelled century twentieth the of regimes which made censorship moreconsiderably technologies control and communications of emergence the witnessed century twentieth censorship. of includes self forward. uneq and antithetical of two existence the implies which of reflection task arecent not severity. time and inspace, vary which of censorship cannons specific (Similar ACC’s were set up also for Hungary and Bulgaria). Article 16 Article Bulgaria). and Hungary for also up set were ACC’s (Similar Soviet. entirely Allied establishedan It Nations. and United of government the the governments byConvention Romanian signed the of zero” “ground The of guarantees legislative

Oxford English Dictionary. http://dictionary.oed.com Last. entry: March 14, 2009. Sue Curry Jansen, While censorship has been intrinsic to human communities of all times, the the times, all of communities human to intrinsic been has censorship While Speaking about censorship about Speaking 4

Censorship can take several forms, being either explicit or implicit. The latter latter implicit. The or explicit either being forms, several take Censorshipcan Obviously, this definition drawsattention to the officialact of prohibitions - corresponds to “officialcorresponds to and supervision” to - 8. censorship, a practice bycensorship, which the

Censorship: The Knot that Binds Knowledge and Power (Oxford:Oxford University

the freedom of the pres freedom of the the

. According to the the to According . exhaustive definition of censorship is difficult to set set to difficult is censorship of definition exhaustive

Rom , analyzing it, Control the Arm the was censorship communist anian 6

the application of censorship, which in their their in which censorship, of application the Commission Commission efficient. The authoritarian and totalitarian totalitarian and The authoritarian efficient.

) and revealingits pejorative meaning is censored subject internalizes the norms norms internalizes the subject censored , , regulativeis censorship by shaped the the term lish Eng Dictionary,Oxford term the

ual instances. ual (ACC) the the “office or function ofa

which in reality was was reality in which

Given the broad broad the Given istice istice

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the of the consisted new strategy The censorship. of abolition institution untilit existed 1977when was officially a b supervisi the as well as books for all printpublishing the Repub People’s the of Ministers of Council the beside department functional a as rendered Ficeac in his book Ficeac inhis book by exploredinfirst censorship Bogdan fieldRomania. The1989 Communist was of device than mistake ofmeans decrees Undergoing inname Bucharest. with asimilar designated institution central the to subordinated Printings and Press of the Department Print incensorshipRomania, having a dir as of 5 book The authority. the actingagainst agent andsubversive dangerous most the communis totalitarian the for is that book correspondence s telephone and postal movies, theatres, publications, Man] (Bucuresti:Nemira, Man] 1999).

ookshops gdan Ficeac,Bogdan Cenzura Comunista si Formarea Omului Nou [The Communist Censorship and the New the convention signed in September 1944 officially sanctioned the introduction of of introduction the sanctioned officially 1944 September in signed convention the ed Materials ed lic of Romania. Among its responsibilities its Among Romania. of lic Research into censorship u censorship into Research s and suffering and s

and and the regulations regulations the

censorship did not automatically result in in result automatically not did censorship also came under vigilant control. vigilant under came also of of

and decisions, government with self was created within the Ministry of Arts and Information and was was and andInformation Arts of Ministry the within created was Cenzura comunistă Cenzura public libraries. Each region, and later, each county had its own its own had each county later, and Each region, libraries. public

the consequences seemed to have a been to seemed consequences the

ed materials ed imposed by

of the booksho the of nder communists has developed sporadically since ndersince developed has sporadically communists

ect result the establishment of establishment the result ect , newspapers, magazines, posters, the printing of of printing the posters, magazines, newspapers, , și formarea omului nou omului formarea și the central agencies central the t regime, free (thinking)knowledge represents regime, t 7

replacement of the strict law enforced strict of the replacement

only reconfigurationsslight this contro

one could mention: the authorization of of authorization the mention: could one

The Department of the Press and the the and Press the of The Department ps, of of ps, –cens bolished. But the institutional institutional the But bolished. ervices, antiquari .

orship. The fear The of orship. the .

abolition abolition de facto The main thesi main The

an and second hand muchmore efficient official and private private and official

A llied control over over control llied

s of the the of s making by by of of l

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7 6 Enciclopedică,2000). up started beginswhich librariescleansing theintellectual public life. of It the with from public the Caravia’s work Cenzura (documente) comunista restrictions Works archives utilizing states – Romania. from archives national the of policies the from deriving restrictions the of Noteworthyis thefact that the author isnot fa becoming. institutional its and censorship of stage incipient the on concentrates O do W Forbidden Censored Thinking, Paul Caravia, chaotic. But he came But chaotic. vo a collecti edited Mocanu Radu books. andauthors censored censored with lists of is acollection book entire the Actually incomplete. remains ownplayed. study undertaken onRomanianis censorship communism, downplayed. Co the of basis. daily a on to telling most be might that directives those documents

BogdanFiceac, Cenzura comunistă si formarea omului nou (Bucure ne has to define the institutional mechanism and the ideolo the and mechanism institutional the define to has ne Paul Caravia,Paul

because convince lume not does in order to generate a coherent image of the censorship practices censorship image of the acoherent generate into order archival

immediately after the after immediately The thesis intends to fill the gap gap the fill to intends thesis The mmunist Dictatorship in Romania, considered to be the most comprehensive comprehensive be most the to considered in Romania, Dictatorship mmunist -

research unfortunately the lists of books given as evidence evidence as given books of lists the unfortunately research began to appear beganlainonly to

Gandirea interzisa. Scrieri cenzurate. Romania 1945-1989

c Gandirea interzisa. Scrieri cenzurate. Romania 1945- Romania cenzurate. Scrieri interzisa. Gandirea Even in the Final Report of the Presidential Commission for the Study Study the for Commission Presidential the of Report Final the in Even

omprises the list of list the omprises up first with the idea to extract from the censorship normative normative censorship fromidea extract the with the to first

WorldWar fac Due t thatthe II. to the which which editing criteria lack of any the , (The Communist Censors Communist (The , and not the entire archival materials due to state state to due materials archival entire not the and rit

ings. Romania 1945- the authors and their wor their and authors the te 1990s. Relevant in Relevant 1990s. are the books te of this respect by addressing the mechanismsby addressing the institution. of the 8

miliar with the primary sources as a result as aresult sources primary with the miliar

ști: Nemira, ști: 1999). the the on of 102 documents but the the but 102documents on of gical motivation which set it it set which motivation gical 1989) wayfunctione censorship ks which 6 hip ).

author wasauthor unable to or Radu Mocanu, Raduor Mocanu, .

Accordingly (Bucure

makes the book book the makes were banned banned were 1989 by Caravia by Caravia t: Editura ști: (The (The

the d 7

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process of censoring? What were leadingthe internal mechanisms to the inquiry. this of continuation natural a as emerges Printings and of Press Department the within deployed activity censorship the of The examination issue. research of the understanding opinioninfor the proper our first willtask be draw a to shorthistoryin of censorship Communist Romania, essential official reports, reports, official basicallybyshapedimposed by compulsory readings the mustideologicallyindividual be was Hisbackground revisited. cultural oriented, ? institution the of life everyday areas emphasiz branch, its daily activities and its relations its and activities daily its branch, departments? county the and collect and studies of scarcity The research. historical Romanian what To decrease? internal documents of number the Did ideological relaxation? an really establishing typologies. contrary the on of the centralization the about information willreveal perspective restrictions in restrictions happened, whichthis for reasons some are There compulsory. is stacks the

institution of censorship is called “T is called institution censorship of

e Whichisfrom of the point view of a censorship period of?Was relaxation there are xtent didfollow censorship the politicalline? ions this confirms documents of As have I previously emphasized e all these aspects e all these a key point in this thesis. thesis. this in point key a

accessing specific , or official official or

about l about

The dailylife activities of the censors and their rankin particular

ocal specificities of censorship bulletins .

In trying to r to trying In hich were the relationships between the central institution institution central the between relationships the hich were archival archival The image of the censor agent as a low cultured as alow cultured agent censor the image of The will will censor image of the of the The reconstruction . What were the were What assertion. Ther assertion. he Com he fonds. The archival fond archival The fonds.

ev with the center. This exercise in comparative in comparative This exercise center. the with 9 my theme has not not has theme my

eal it I will focus will I it eal m ittee for Press and Printings” and it is is it and Printings” and Press for ittee

internal instructions regulating the the regulating instructions internal efore the recourse to the archival archival the to recourse the efore

which will prove will which central structures: decisions, decisions, structures: central

on the analysis of analysis the on found fertile in ground

volumes representing representing volumes

censoring process or, or, process censoring gathering the the gathering

namely the useful for for useful

files of of files a local a local

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the Soviet pattern, which at the very beginning provided the archetype. the provided which verybeginning the at pattern, Soviet the the aspects many in But being poorly treated. case Romanian the models censorship, of Union on Soviet held in held

The NationalArchives ofRomania logic behind the functioning 10 . Secondary literature contains mainly books books contains mainly literature . Secondary of Romanianof censorship similar was to

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University Press, 1999). Press, University 10 9 8 of Culturalof Regulations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 4. 1998), 43. German Union. in with Soviet War and Coldrelation the during currency academic and popular gained They for scrutinizing used Germany. beingfirst beginning 1950s, of initially trends dealing with ce Soviet Russia, she concluded that totalitarian regimes aim to break down civil society in in society civil breakdown to aim regimes totalitarian that she concluded Russia, Soviet totalitarianism The aut states. Communist totalitarian immoral. su the through power own of enemy primary the tradition, andauthoritarian opposes regimes remembering

Ruth Gavison, “Incitement and the Limits of Law,” in Robert C. Post, Censoring andSilencing: Practices

See Michael Halberstam, Totalitarianism and Modern Halberstam, Conception Politicsof Michael See Michael Geyer and Sheila Fitzpatrick (eds.) Fitzpatrick Sheila and Geyer Michael The terms “totalitarian” and “totalitarianism” were coined in the 1920s and and in 1920s the coined were “totalitarianism” and “totalitarian” The terms main see two I large and By is scarce. literature the censorship In approaching The first influe first The

- and totalitarian of a peculiarity as censorship regards approach academic Liberal referred to fascist Italy. to referred American philosopher American 8

This pattern isThis bymajority pattern examining of the works used

personal personal in their analyses of censorship.

(Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute for the History of Art and the Humanities, nsorship,liberal a o ntial scholarly study on totalitarianism was provided by by provided was totalitarianism on study scholarly ntial experiences

ppression of expression deemed of expression ppression

free speech is the speech free Hannah Arendt. After analyzing Nazi Germanyand 9

They entered in academic debate in late 1940s and and 1940s inlate in academic debate entered They it it Theoretical Models Theoretical , or Western scholars who are using using are who scholars Western or , to freedom of expression of freedom to , Beyond Totalitarianism. Stalinism andNazism Compared ne andne a post

11 hors are either émigré scholars émigré either hors are

government’s attempt to perpetuate its - modernist one. modernist

subversive, dangerous or or dangerous subversive, . According. the to

(New Haven: Yale Yale Haven: (New

10 censorship in in censorship

theories of of theories

liberal liberal artists the the

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1966), 21- 13 12 11 Totalitarianism in Perspective: Three Views (New Three inPerspective: Praeger York, 1969),, Totalitarianism 126. Barber, Benjamin Curtis, coordination. centra a and monopoly, weapons population,monopoly a communicationsin hands the party of the government and of the of classes selected less arbitrary or more against but regime the of enemies o small percentage of arelatively andconsisting “theman, led dictator” by one typically asingle party of society, aspects vital all covering doctrine body of of official an a of terms 1956 In zinski. Brze theyZbigniew defined and Friedrich Joachim be easily used to serve the state’s interest: interest: serve state’s the beto used easily lonely, atomi create to order society and consti thereby society particular the ruled elite of whatever inhands couldbe but the by party, the exercised be necessarily not need monopoly control this that emphasized he Second ones”. monopoly control w

f the total population (up to 10 percent), a terroristic police directed not only against the the onlyagainst not directed a police terroristic percent), 10 to (up f population total the Hannah (San Diego: Arendt, TheOrigins ofTotalitarianism Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979), 476. Carl Friedrich, “The Evolving Theory Practice and of Totalitarian Regimes”, in Carl Friedrich, Michael Carl Friedrich, ZbigniewBrzezinski, Totalitari

The most The In 1969, 22.

six 12 desperate experiences of man of experiences desperate of not belonging to the destroys privatelife aswell. It basesitself loneliness, on on the experience form a as of government domination is new intotalitarian that But it is not content capacities. political with their thismen, isolation isolating and destroying,is,by without life, that destroying of thewithout publicrealm “ - Totalitarian government, like existnot could certainly alltyrannies, Totalitarian government, point “syndrome or pattern of interrelated traits”: an ideology consisting ideology consisting an traits”: interrelated pattern of or “syndrome point

d reevaluate Friedrich

his model became widespreadof interpretation uential paradigm in defining in paradigm uential infl as extended to embrace “all organizations, including economic economic including “all organizations, embrace to extended as tuted its regime. tuted

zed individuals with no private space for their own, who can can who own, their for space private no with individuals zed

world all,is at which among the most radical and lly directed economy through through economy directed lly the theoryby adding two modifications. First, the 13

. an Dictatorship andAutocracy 12 ”

advanced advanced was totalitarianism among scholars. scholars. among

totalitarianism in in totalitarianism (New Praeger, York: bureaucratic bureaucratic by C by

arl arl , a , a CEU eTD Collection

Movements and Political Religion, 16 15 14 following the death of the dictator”. the of death the following mightregime embark of ona course detotalitarianizing by change total curbing terror atotalitarian that possibility the for provision no made “it because applicability its it was formulated words, Tucker’s Inin Robert time. suspect. academically andas aresult, War discourse Cold of the aproduct but nothingelse was the that posited theory the against attack common most The historians. among mostly critiques, substantial with met also totalitarianism of theory police. of apparatus means of persuasion the authority,monopoly a ( double it absolute confers which ideology an with armed regime party a single encompassing e of freedom of implicit (and democracy of enemy as an acted totalitarianism Aron for Also policy. atotalitarian constitutes what explain to attempt Aron’s and its reaction is a mixture of “covert hostility and passive acceptance of force of acceptance passive and hostility “covert of mixture is a its reaction and state the of likevictim a depicted simply is itself, which society of transformation the and“soc “state” in of perspective terms the that fire considering under totalitarianism They put others). Arch and Getty Cohen, Stephan Fitzpatrick, (Sheila historians social of school the by formulated was totalitarianism

Raymond Aron, Democracy and Totalitarianism ( Robe Peter Peter rt C. rt Tucker (ed.), Grieder, “In Defenseof Totalitarianism TheoryTool as a ofHistorical Scholarship,” Totalitarian Even if extensively used during the Cold War, mostly by political scientists, the the scientists, political by mostly War, Cold the during used extensively if Even French Raymond is sociologist to similar definition Brzezinski’s Friedrich’s and 15

Moreover, being essentially static it cannot underline changes of the regimes underline regimes the cannot changesit of beingstaticMoreover, essentially 14 Stalinism: EssaysHistorical in Reinterpretation

), and a terror ideology rooted andboth ain terror ), and the repre

3- 4 (2007): 566. the monopoly of the means of force and the monopoly of monopoly of andforce the means of of the monopoly the 16

New York: Praeger, 1965), 213. 13 Another iety” cannot devote sufficient attention to to attention sufficient devote iety” cannot

objection against the theory of of theory the against objection specific period and then lost lost and then period specific a for

(New York: Norton, 1977), viii. concept of totalitarianism of totalitarianism concept

xpression) xpression) ssive

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18 17 forces: censorious bydifferent employing whichmanifest than object, an aprocess rather mechanisms of shouldlight. In production be bring her to formulation is censorship redefinition emp object considering itinto a position ofcompletely subordination to theinstitution. Her a censored of the into reification censorship complexityof of the escape appreciations to enforced upon conceptio conventional the that argument Burton, Michael concentrate oninstitutional acts of prohibition ofarguably inunderstanding the conventional which approaches detriment censorship of could b actually “censorship” term the what of question simple majeure d also byJansen’s SueCurryis reiterate andpractices regime. totalitarian by actionof the the

Annette Kuhn, Cinema, Censorship and Sexuality, 1909 Stalinism,” on “New Perspectives Fitzpatrick Sheila

Annette KuhnAnnette argues stressing the involvement of different discoursesinvolvement the stressing censorship on This perspective post The

e analyzed. ”. 17

So, the society is reduced t is So, society reduced the process embodying complex and often contradictory rel contradictory often and embodyingcomplex process discourse shifting constantly is of an within array institutional but produced institutions and activities, “

Censorship is not re is not Censorship a subject who is always approached as uncensored is who approached alwayssubject -

modernism system of interpretation departures from the apparently from apparently the departures interpretation of system modernism Holquist, hasizes that censorship always involving repression and that that and repression involving always censorship that hasizes

In In defining

Annette KuhnAnnette

that modelsthat institutional which examine prohibition serve the term, the recent scholarship stands for a for stands scholarship recent the term, the ducible to a circumscribed and predefined set of of a circumscribed andset predefined ducible to o aninert which object is shapedmanipulated and nfocuses censorship of s, practices and apparatuses. and practices s,

14 or Sue Currie Jansen Currie Sue or Russian Review, .

The opinionsThe authors of -1925 (London, .

She puts forward an alternative an alternative forward puts She

4 (1986): 359. means, means, New York: Routledge, 1988), 4. .

coagulate around the the around coagulate and how censorship censorship how and

ations of power external constraints external

It is an ongoing ongoing is an It such as Richa as such more more subtle subtle ”. 18 rd rd

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Pantheon, 1980), 102. Associ 21 20 19 Press, 1991), 222. al restrictions are attenuated. are al restrictions person internal the which through necessity of examination scholarship which presents cen is. is t such as censorship the against or for The The expression censorship may be free the with linked definitions the than conseque perspective, from asociological censorship of definition limited field the to work much of Michel owes whole Foucault who suggested thefrom escaping the techn as a censorship of the characterization Holquist

Sue Currie Jansen, Censorship: The Knot that Binds Knowledge and Power (Oxford: Oxford University Michael Holquist, “Corrupt Originals: The Paradox of Censorship,” Publications of Modern Language Michel Foucault, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews Foucault, and OtherWritings, 1972-1977Michel

One can only discriminate among its more and less repressive effects”. less repressive andmore its among One only discriminate can French sociologist Pierre Bourdie Pierre sociologist French ation iques and tactics domination of In fact, fact, Inthe definition of a productive as censorship also is censorship Constitutive ’s .

1 (1994): 16.

Moreover he argues for a need of explicit restrictions imposed by authorities by authorities imposed restrictions explicit needof a for argues he Moreover

view or or

of the State instituti It includes both overt and covert proscriptions and prescriptions”. and proscriptions covert and overt both includes It authority. of systems other or religious, economic, by political, secured are thro messages andimages, other information, ideas, of dissemination prohibit “all proscriptions socially prescriptions structured or inhibit which or

standing against the repressive institutions is simple a is institutions repressive the against standing Foucault’s ,

the the ugh a society’s channels of communication whether these obstructions obstructions these whether communication of channels ugh asociety’s

unavoidable desire of those who are eager are who those desire of

networks networks

sorship’s constitutive nature constitutive sorship’s ons, and to anc to and ons,

and that the the that and of di . 21 . repressive therefore imposedand n censorship as a structural structural a as censorship of role the regards also u - highli

speech theory. Jansen’s definition comprises: definition Jansen’s theory. speech o assume a freedom that no one has. Censorship Censorship has. one no freedom that assumea o an overstatement It isnot overstatement an sciplinary power and practices. discursive power sciplinary 15 ghted by Michael Holquist. He argues that argues He Holquist. by Michael ghted hor the hor legislation highlighting the freedom of of freedom the highlighting legislation

to control cultural

analysis of power on the study of of study the on power of analysis

force dispersed in society as a a as insociety dispersed force

hasits genealogyin the to say that any recent any say recent that to

ntly much broader broader much ntly activity may be the may beactivity the makeshift:

19 (New York: York: (New

“To be be “To

In In

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22 theory. theory. a refute to authority necessary the having not does study case single a impossible, more exact more ca image process censorial of the incomplete legal the from analysis the Conducting o perception soften the their to so seek approaches In doing censorship. perceptionrelation of conventional with duringyears,reiterated last in have the in point a own disputable positioning their hand one the On framework.

Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power

InRomanian assume onlylegal I censorship accounting the

to ref to

expressions his all on form their impose which and internalized has he that expression wa ina is, he because becensor his own even to have not does he this case say:in to authorized is he objectively from what say apart nothingto has “Censorship is never quite as perfect or as invisible as when each agent agent each when as invisible as or perfect as never quite is “Censorship y, censored once and for all, through the forms of perception and and forms of perception the all,for andthrough once y, censored ute one of the two above theories by drawing on Romanian case it is is it case Romanian on by drawing above theories two the of one ute finit byintegratingas censorship unyielding a complex debate. ” 22

, the recent scholarship debates about censorship, which which censorship, about debates scholarship recent the , - institutional point of view entails a risk. Only an an Only risk. a entails view of point institutional

(Oxford: Polity Press, 1991). 16 n emerge from such an approach. To be be To approach. an such from n emerge

- institutional institutional CEU eTD Collection 1.

(Bucuresti: doilea razboi mondial. Documente [Romania 23 under the authority of the Soviet Union. Soviet the of authority the under established was Commission Control Allied an of peace, conference planned the Until Gheorghe Gheorghiu Gheorghe having inRomania, in prison were who of those group the Ana Pauker, Luca and Vasile around coagulating fromof exile, those in The group party. the coexisted centers separ Three politics. Romanian the scene of first the entered RCP Union, Soviet in Romania. rule Communist the of imposition for basis as served handed be to were criminals War null. conc Award Vienna the and Union Soviet the of favor were Northern and Agreement Bessarabia signed 1944. on12September c a of installation the for in actions the participating RCP, the of inleadership the shared and from Moscow Bucharest to returned Ana Pauker and Luca Vasile 1944 November In regime. Antonescu’s Ion Marshal under illegality in living but imprisoned being The Phases of the CommunistRegime Phases The

ommunist govern.August Between 1944and Marchhad 1945Romania governs: three Seefor the condition of the armistic Romania’s position after August 23, 1944, was established by the Armistice Armistice by established the was 1944, August 23, after Romania’s position

In spiteitsinsignificant number ofmembers of having but the support of the

Cens I. ArhiveleStatului, 1994), 310-315. Institutional and legal framework of Communist orship in Romania: Historical Over - Dej as incontestable leader, and the group of those communists not communists of those and group the leader, incontestable as Dej

e Marin Mocanu (ed.), Romania (ed.), Mocanu e Marin

– - over and Fascist 23 the Great Martyr of the World War II. Documents] Documents] II. War World of the Martyr Great the 17

In practic In

erning Transylvania was declared erning declared Transylvania was e, the article of this Convention Convention this of article the e, - type organizations dissolved. type organizations dissolved. - marele sacrificat al celui de

view

lostin the ate ate al -al

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University of California Press), 107-110. 1965 26 25 http://www.presidency.ro/static/ordine/RAPORT_FINAL_ 24 Presidential Commission for Analyze of Communist Dictatorship in Romania], Communists entered the road for complete domination. the Propaganda), and Communications, Affairs, Internal ministers (Justice, important most holding the political authority, With increased an ed. install was Communists, of theFront Ploughmen’s( leader the Groza, leadby Petru government Union, the from Soviet the help substantial potential existence or alternative centers of political power”. of political centers alternative or existence potential and,values, structures behaviors …perceived as comprisingo of destruction or alteration decisive “a namely “breakthrough”, ita marked Jowitt, interval 1944 the to as corresponding perceived generally through collectivization in the realm of agriculture; the annihi the agriculture; of in realm the collectivization through farms imposing collective andthe ownership private of the abolishment economy, the heavy of in realm industrya of the nationalizationimposing and development of transfo aradical meant model. That Soviet the transplanting by proletariat of the dictatorship the construct to aim was the Stalinism” “unbound 6 (December scu Rade of Nicolae 4 (November of Sanatescu government second – 23 (August Sanatescu Constantin of government first the in establishing the new order were associated by some authors with the lack of a social social lack withof a the by authors some associated were new order the inestablishing realm. cultural and intellectual the

Vladimir Vladimir Kenneth Jowitt, Revolutionary Breakthroughs and National Development. The Case of Romania, 1944 - Raportul Comisiei Prezidentiale pentru Analiza D (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), 7. The first period of the political evolution of the Romani the of evolution political the of period first The Tismaneanu, Tismaneanu, Stalinism for all Seasons. P A

Frontul Plugarilor

– The violent methods employed by the Communists Communists the by employed methods violent The

February 28 1945). February 18 ictaturii din Comuniste Romania [The Report of the olitical History of Romanian Communism (Berkeley:

), a party being under the control of the of the control the beingunder aparty ), – CPADCR.pdf December 2 1944), and December 21944), the government - 1958. In the terms of Kenneth Kenneth In1958. the terms of , 38(last, accessed May 252009). 24 rmation in all domains: the the all domains: inrmation

r contributing to the actual an Communism regime is is regime Communism an At March 6, 1945 with At March1945with 6, lation of the creativity of the lation November 21944), the 25

In this period of of period In this

in in

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Publishers,1989, 34. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1985), 68-69. 30 29 28 27 modus operandi specific to the Stalinist logic. Stalinist the to specific modus operandi ethnic no was there In reality Party. of the wing indigenous national, the of as one victory Michel Shafir called “simulated change”. “simulated called Michel Shafir what institutionalized leader leadership” Romanian the “collective introducing the de prevent to and moment Georgescu) Teohari Luca, (Vasile Ana Pauker of authority the behind coagulated group the “confused and traumatized”, and “confused leaders Romanian made personality of cult and crimes Stalin’s of denunciation Uni Soviet the of Party Communist of Congress Twentieth Although wasprocess the foreign gradual. The the Soviet policy. opposition to the with later, come will regime Communist the of evolution in the point turning The But GheorghiuEurope. - rivals. his of elimination the starting period to the major questions ofnational unity and sovereignty. Party’ of the consequence adirect legitimacy, base and and his loyaltyproving in front of Sovi

Ibid., 144. 178. Tismaneanu, Michael Sha Michael Mary Ellen Fisher, Nicolae Ceausescu. Study A in Leadership Political

connotation, being nothing more than an internal struggle within the party, a a party, the within struggle internal an than more nothing being connotation, After Stalin’s death in March 1953, a period a relaxation characterized Eastern Eastern characterized a relaxation aperiod in 1953, March death Stalin’s After By actively participating at the suppression of the Hungarian uprising from 1956 from Hungarian 1956 the theuprising suppression of at By actively participating By- 1952Gheorghiu

fir, fir, under the pretext of deviationism pretext under the Romania. Politics, Economics andSociety. Political Stagnation andSimulated Change

Dej’s Romania did not unde not did Romania Dej’s -

Stalinization. By miming the “New Course” and and “New Course” the miming By Stalinization. Dej acquired a position in the Party which allowed him him allowed which Party the in a position acquired Dej 29

Gheorghiu- With Stalin’s approval,With- Gheorghiu Stalin’s et Union, Gheorghiu Union,- et 30

Dej had the ability to recover from the the from recover to ability the had Dej 28

. Gheorghiu. - rtake a process of de aprocess rtake s opposition in the interwar interwar the in opposition s on with Nikita Khrushchev’s Khrushchev’s Nikita with on Dej was rewarded, in 1958, in 1958, rewarded, Dej was Dej tried to promote this 27

(Boulder: Lynne Rienner Dej, Dej, - Stalinization. Stalinization. elimina formally ted ted

CEU eTD Collection

33 32 31 industrialization.” abandonher progr to and materials remain of raw a supplier her to a supranational planning supervise COCECOMintended plan,the to was to According (COMECOM). Assistance In the the In democracy. socialist of a defender image of impose in power byatmosphere 1965, Nicolae a tryingpersonal Ceausescu came to to histo the between division the reiterated which Labor” of Division International the for “Principles entitled a document adopted in applied plan, Khruschev’s Ro the Nevertheless, Bloc. Soviet in the favor aunique from Romania, troops military of Soviet retreat unexpected with an attended attended was moment this Following independence policyof Romanian the affirmed imposed from but la but and pride national especially

Raportul Comisiei…, 84. Tismaneanu, 179. Tismaneanu, Deletant, Dennis ry, with the communists seeking to accumulate internal legitimacy. In this this In legitimacy. internal accumulate to seeking communists ry, with the changed changed situation 1971 the after andespecially ter The event that put Romania in direct conflict with Soviet Union was the the was Union Soviet with conflict direct in Romania put that event The The

t o this imagine, culminating culminating imagine, this o Romanian communists’ answer to answer communists’ Romanian Romania under Communist Rule

the the 32

Kremlin by Kremlin Romania rejected the plan, but shortly, in 1962, COMECOM COMECOM in shortly,but 1962, the plan, Romania rejected

economy, which “if accepted by Romania would have obliged haveby obliged would Romania “if accepted which economy,

period of rediscovery of the “national values” and national national and values” “national of the of rediscovery period autonomy in an attempt to gain the support to of people. the attempt an in autonomy August 1961 keeping industrialized andnorth agrarian south. the resist to tried leader manian with the condemnation of Czechoslovak Czechoslovak of condemnation the with

20 (Bucuresti: Academia Civica, 1998), 142 tight to concepts as industrialization and by the by

this was the Declaration from 1964 that that 1964 from Declaration the was this - non and - his (1965 ofrule stage first

Co dramatically uncil for Economical Mutual Mutual Economical for uncil interference in internal affairs. ininternalinterference affairs. .

de 33 - am of rapid

Stalinization Stalinization

invasion, invasion, 71) 71) 31 he he

CEU eTD Collection 2.

35 34 Historiography under disctatorship] IntroductoryHistorical sketch] (Craiova, Aius, 2000), 62. occupied an important role important an occupied and of Germany, allies former the between severe most the among Romania was i Organized Russian General Kissleff underVallachia Russian put introduced was were control censure and asevere principalities of Moldavia and the which in comparablemoment period that of to 1831a basic thefirst post- theatres, movies, postal and telephone s telephone and movies, postal theatres, Romania,having as a dir September 1944, reality Nations United Convention in Eastern Europe after Second World War War World Second after Europe inEastern foreign power. and by formalized a introduced was

Initial Stages of Communist Censorship toriografia .Is romana subînchis dictatura Alexandru Zub, Orizont Adrian Marino, “

Soviet ruleSoviet was underfull Soviet control The The Alth A fter the Second World WarWorld Second the fter h brutal in its in brutal h oug n "Zero moment" of communist censorship in Romania was the was the in Romania censorship ofmoment" communist "Zero signed between the Romanian government and go the Romanianbetween government signed the war years, a years, war of political seizure Communist the of process the Convention The . Cenzura Romania.în Schita istorica introductiva ,” officially sanctioned the introduction of censor of introduction the sanctioned officially 16 Article

vast institutions being established to control institutions information. vast It was a . ect result the establishment of establishment the result ect type type 34 in the Soviet regionalstrategy in Soviet the

Commo

purpose (Ias of military censorship military of i, Institutul European, 1999), 17. establishes Allied Control Commission, Control Allied establishes , n to both these periods was the fact that censorship that fact was the periods both these n to

s Romania Romania . Following. the signing of the Convention on 12

occupation zones zones occupation the in policy Soviet means, and ervices, 21 . “conquests” its consolidate aim to hadthe

strong S astrong under entered

also also correspondence private and official

was introduced operatingintroduced under was

A . llied control over publications, publications, over control llied

The Romanian Romanian The Horizon. [Broken [The censorship in Romania. power, censorship in in censorship power, vernments of the the of vernments oviet tutelage. tutelage. oviet

Armistice Armistice which in which ship in under under

the the In In 35

CEU eTD Collection

36 România, Pointing out Pointing and actions ofthe censorship control. vigilant came under 6 March 1945 Gheorghe Radescu was overthrown, and replaced with a Communist a Communist with replaced and overthrown, was Radescu Gheorghe 1945 March 6 with theCommunists, aim the of to remove purposes who have propaga on adopted Ministers, the the Ministers, t in which fascism, Follow against Prime against Headquarter communists. not were who those all from participation couldban public decree the system, Justitia operations. withdraw leaders with union bytrade Communist many blackmailed were because of papers, them by the other p and on censorshi through hand one responsefrom the opposition attacks to the Communist official

ebn Rădulescu Şerban ing the Marxist

Under the Communists a Communists the Under On

The instauration of the instauration [The (The (The of of al

October October

National Liberal Party National 27 September 1944prohibit27 September Communist campaign background of. campaign In onthe 1945, early apolitical Communist March March on Finally, rights. salary of

Justice - new chief beingnew chief Minister Gheorghe Minister Zoner, Daniela Buşe, Beatrice Marinescu, Marinescu, Beatrice Buşe, Daniela -Zoner, ted urn was urn 20, 1944, censorship 1944, 20, blished by the Peasantry Party, Peasantry the by published ),

the the fascist ideas. fascist - Leninist thesis according to which which to according thesis Leninist hip, the D censors on rules

nothing else than a than else nothing To

In the years to come this Article 16 Article yearscome this In the to censors. talitarian Communism in Romania] Colonel Gheorghe Marinescu Marinescu Gheorghe Colonel ttacks andttacks helpfrom with Russia, determinant Soviet on

Ra , came under attack under came , 36

descu

In fact it was fact In ed from participation in in participation from ed was placed placed was , newspapers newspapers , 22 stage in the development of the of the in development the stage 1, 1,

under the control of the Council the of control the under ecree of the Council of Ministers Council Ministers of the ecree of print 1945 the two newspapers cease cease newspapers two 1945 the

Instaurarea totalitarismului comunist în their opponents opponents their ambiguous ambiguous . The aim was to . The aim to was . This aim was fulfilled was aim This .

of the main opposition parties, main parties, the opposition of and and ers’ refusal to produce these these produce to refusal ers’ Nazism was was Nazism

(Bucureşti: from the Romanian Army Army Romanian the from Viitoru wo the press those persons those press the decree uld

l ), Cavallioti, 1995), (The Future guide and justify justify guide and from public l public from species of of species a but issued prevent prevent capitalis

for the the for on the the on ) ,

any any ife 21. the the

of of t .

CEU eTD Collection

36, nr.5, p. 838. 38 37 Bucureşti,1945. the Soviet Union. Soviet the character Hitlerist publicat of from circulation withdrawal "immediate reproductions and graphs, videos, disks, medals and badges, metal badges,medals videos,andreproductions disks, and graphs, communist the by could damage relations with t prime organize and contro and organize reorganized, isIt in very telling that on March1946the Ministry this respect of 5, Propaganda was was seen as "offensive" the with compliance of was that of war state a of existence by the easier somewhat justified Aug 1917 to Propaganda to enemy to example was enacted censorship in Besides, remainall to 1947. belligerent until countries,for

Publicaţii scoase până în 1 august 1945august 1 în pânăscoase Publicaţii Byron Prince, “Governmental censorship in war - minister. Petru Petru minister. Until ed and acquired new political functions. functions. new political acquired and ed reorganiz was censorship war, the After

States, being justified justified being United States, the

propaganda propaganda

the phones. bymonitoringmailcarried out and the an an

periodicals and books since January 1 1 since books January and periodicals of list a up draw to mission the with

ust 23, 1944 containing, fascist, 1944containing, 23, ust

the end of the Second W Second of the end the ing turn important " which can deteri can which elements containing or 37 - l all the press, radio, fi l radio, press, all the dominated government, o

For this purpose a committee was established by the Ministry of of by Ministry the was established acommittee thisFor purpose into the Ministry of Information of Ministry the into who who Groza

component ofwar would

’s he Soviet Union. Union. Soviet he

government government Armistice Convention Armistice information; internal to have access not (Issues published until 1945 August 1), orld War, the existence of censorship of existence the War, orld -time” lm, being lm, 23 by t by

operations intensified. censorship

chauvinist wo reasons. Firstly to become "immun to Firstly reasons. wo , n in

May The American Political Science Review

also the coordinator of propaganda propaganda ofcoordinator the also .

under which Romania continue Romania which under ( , racist racist , 1945 a royal decree1945 ions and periodicals the orate with the power to manage, manage, to power with the . The . 38

In other words censorship passages passages or ideas

preva Following pressures Following pressures

good r good Ministerul Propagandei, , withfascist a iling second elations with with elations

justification justification

, plastic could be could be decided ly, which which

, vol. vol. , the the e d " -

CEU eTD Collection 3.

42 41 40 39 PMR i Party, of Political Education). Soon after Final 1950, January and resulted into period to Ministry ofArt and Information and later to the Council of Ministers. p this Directorate of Press and Printing Materials and subordinated as a functional department department functional as a subordinated and Materials Printing and of Press Directorate General the into it was transformed Shortly Materials. Printings and of Press Direction Relationships USSR. with forWriters’ T RomanianRomanianAssociation and The Union, The Cinematography, for Committee The Republic, Popular of Romanian The Academy Information, and Arts of Ministry Education, of Ministry by the decrees PMR’s of the c besides which Agitation) and Propaganda of Section of " acknowledgedbut existence the Constantinescu PP leader, its of Information, abroad. and country the in Ideologically, DGPT was subordinated to theția Sec be considered. has to censorship and DGPT of place the situation compound In this subordina double the institutions: the of situation

Toward Ibid. Fond MinistryMures, VII, of Branch Information, file Romania, of Archives National The Nicoleta Ionescu Nicoleta The Section of Propaganda and Agitation was innitially called

ly, its final denomination The Direction of Propaganda and Agitation of the Central Committee of Romanian Workers Party). Party). Workers Romanian of Committee Central of the Agitation and of Propaganda Direction (The

eriod after war." the after eriod n 1948February,n denomination the was in changed Direc At the very beginning, in the Ministry of Art and Information had been s been had Information and Art of Ministry the in beginning, very the At the for particularity poignant same has the Romania regime, communist As every s

a Legal Framework of Censorship of Framework Legal a -Gură.

Stalinizarea Rom

was coined at once with the reor the with once at coined was 40 42 39 Sec

the congress which marked the unification ofRCP with Social Politically, the institution was subordinated for a short time time short a for subordinated was institution the Politically, Explaining ț ia Agita ia âniei. provisions and regulationsprovisions and țieși Propaganda

the functioning and organization of the Ministry Ministry the of organization and functioning the (Bucu 24 re - Iasi, denied the existence of censorship, censorship, of existence deniedthe Iasi, ști : PublishingAll House, 2001), 232. tion, both to the party and to the state. .

ganization of Romanian Workers Partyfrom Sec ensorship oversaw the pursuance pursuance the oversaw ensorship

ț a e Propagandă de ia Propagandă

ția de Educațiețiade Politică in the the in i Agitație și media necessary in in media necessary i gtțe C al CC a Agitație și ightening the ightening the 7.

(The Section Section (The

Democrat -Democrat 41 et up a upa et

(The (The CEU eTD Collection

up ANIC), Fond Comitetul pentru Pres file 5 no. 23from May decree 1949, 46 45 44 43 democratic character. democratic ideas also but byfight against the the bourgeoisliterature, and publicmaterials anti with the class struggle and of principle the of the work of press ministers, servicesbelonging to and departments, public services. coordinated Ministers; of Council the for releases press official the composed deposits; large number of people. number large ante evaluation and monitoring of system complex for a langu mystification common a is it fact In materials”. printing and publication, press, the of “the control years: future in the libraries, public antiquarians, bookstores, for activity of condition the art regularized or objects; books and newspaper andof export import the films, and books, of distribution the authorized country; in and Bucharest in printed books the progr magazines, newspapers, materials, any printings authorized Romania, of Republic Popular the of Bulletin Official the edited attribution: following had the (DGTP) Materials Printing and Press of Directorate General the 218/1949, no. Decree to the Council ofMinisters of the Popular Republic of Romania. archetype for the post the for archetype out, pointed well become will phrase which by is a replaced “censorship” The word language.

Françoise Thom, Newspeak: Thom, the Language of SovietFrançoise Communism. Arhivele Nationale Istorice Centrale ale Romaniei [The National Historical Archives of Romania] (follow Ibid., decree 218 Buletinul Oficial al Republicii Populare Române \ 1949, The intensification of censorship was ideologically justifiedby The intensification of was censorship ideologically Ideological

serve

justifications prime as aprime 45 - war Romanianwar censorship.

In comparison In comparison T 214, art. 2. he Department for Literature and the Press, Glavlit and played , Press, the Literature for the he Department

vehicle vehicle

apart ă

ș i Tipărituri i , Soviet censorship was that which represented the the which represented was that censorship , Soviet for for to to fight against legionaries, racist, and chauvinistic chauvinistic and racist, legionaries, against fight ideology. age which age

(The (The the previou the 25

The Committee for Press and Print and Press for Committee (The O fficial Bulletin of Popular Republic of Romania),

Soviet censorship took 46 , as ,

and and s years there is a shift in official in official shift is a there years s (London

French author Françoise Thom author French post

: : Claridge Press, 1989), publication 43

Accordi

the the and newspaper and newspaper s the f the , including a a including , ams, posters, ams, posters, ings Materials), Materials), ings introduction ngly to the the to ngly orm ofa - known 44 42.

CEU eTD Collection

49 48 47 Soviet press can press “corrupted” ally semantic aconcept was freedom in view censorship on leaders’ until"temporary"lasted June The Soviet 1990. In other words, the press forces aMarxistRussia on rebuilding for andas aprecondition events, are concerned concerned are institutional respo role. main Together with the other states organs, namely Militia and Prosecution, they were were they Prosecution, and Militia namely organs, states other the with Together A of Ministry Interior, of Ministry of documents secret the checkwere didnot DGPT that sectors only The as well. theatres over DGPT of control the extended new regulations The exhibitions. and museum in libra houses, printing brochures, books, of the content the periodicals, magazines, newspapers, over control same: the large be materials Theinsupposed to widespreadby attributions publicsphere. remained and content the political control andto also secret state defendingthe for its authority using Materials Printings and of Press Directorate 273 no. Decision Thereby,

ANIC, ANIC, 36. Kenez, Peter Michael S. Fox, “ Fox, S. Michael their concepts of freedom of the press and press the freedom of of concepts their

Studies . The. hadfor press him play to a pro the in the aspects some reconfigure decidedto Ministers When of Council the Fond CTT, file 5/1949, 14. not be neutral, it it neutral, be not 47

6 (1992):

Lenin with with

Glavlit, nsibilities censorship of

of of goals the 1405 regarded censorship as atemporary censorship regarded measure in the revolu .

Censorship and the Problem Cult ofParty Policy in

out all the criticisms, but criticisms, the all filterout not does can only only can

from establish serve the interests of either the capitalist or socialist or capitalist the of either interests the serve

23 February 1954s rmyForces, and Ministry ofForeign Affairs. ries, radio stations, and materials to be exhibited be exhibited to materials and stations, radio ries, ing it 26 -

socialism. social operated accor operated

of all propagandistic materials and printed printed and materials propagandistic all of circulation of

role in the in role in the the in 48

capitalist system, ding tipulated

develop books. For Lenin to Leninist distinctions. distinctions. Leninist to

prevent

ural Affairs ural ment of socialism that the General General the that

basis s those which s those had its had roots because the the because . But. the , 1922- tionary tionary ,

press press 28” 49 .

CEU eTD Collection

53 52 51 50 to encourage initiative” in the masses. The law defined the freedom the law defined The inmasses. initiative” the encourage to ideas “valuable spreading by sphere in propaganda the function also can role secondary pressinstrument as both an of propaganda and a platform as for public its expression; sanction. the double could The relapse fines. from 1949 stipulated sanctionsuch fromas prison six months years two to and severe authorized not inbooks import byDGPT. to Romania print”, or t on have to not meant sanction the under come and the necessary conditions have been created for them to be able to express, through through express, to able be them to for created been have conditions necessary the and citizens, all to guaranteed is right The Constitution. the in enshrined right fundamental activity.” unabatedly promote to progress and progressiveideas in allfields oflife and of social Roman the of implementation the cease for without “fight to upon Law called the introduction, its In 1974. 28, onMarch Press the of Law the adoptionof censorship the was communist of inhistory moment the A debate chapter. second in the censorship institut the of life everyday the and regulations internal these discuss will I norms. regulation internal fact, in stagnation; institutional an mean responsible. those sanctioning materials” inadequate of “removal the following

ANIC, ANIC, Ibid. Buletinul Oficial Ibid.

ian Communist Party policy, of the lofty principles of socialist ethics and equity, equity, and ethics socialist of principles lofty the of policy, Party Communist ian P Fond CTT The law was divided into eight chapters. The first chapter explains t chapter The first intoeight chapters. law was divided The rior to year 1974 no official laws on censorship had been issued. This did not not issued. haddid year This beenlaws rior 1974noofficial to oncensorship 53

(Official Bulletin), no. 48 from April 1974, law no. 3, my translation. ,

file 20, 187.

27 52

he printed materialhe printed for “good the stamp s

were preferred to official official to preferred were 51

The Decree no. 291 no. The Decree

of the press as “a “a as press of the

he role of the the of role he ion of of ion 50

To To CEU eTD Collection

58 57 56 55 54 Cultura si Educatie Education Cultureand for Socialist Council The the by expression and publicinformation.” of means graphic, recorded visual, imprintedand used designed or audible or as press, radio, television, editorialworks, live performances, of films domains the and in other policy form of state and Party of imposing the to activity entire its through “ following: as Material and Press Printings for Committee established newly the of the 1975defined role 30, fromMay 53 no. RomaniaSocialist Republic of and Printings Materials authorization for editing newspapers, magazines, or other periodicals. or other magazines, editingfor newspapers, authorization o law, with conformity in registration, the unpublishable; were law, with conformity fromprevention spreading andmaterials publication printedthose of in which, Comitetuladopted: was censorship pentru Pres (1965 power to came Ceausescu reg masslegal and and publicorganizations, All other must be such entities. publication events.” international and domestic all in informed an ofinterest generalin matters opinions press, their the being abolished in 1977.

Buletinul Oficial Ibid. Ibid. See See Ibid. istered with the DGTP. withistered the Buletinul Oficial Buletinul

The last institutional reconfiguration took place in 1975, ten years after Nicolae Nicolae years after place inten 1975, took reconfiguration institutional last The state, political, to granted is publish to right the that made clear three Chapter But this reorganization was for short lived, the Committee for Press and Printings and Press Printings for Committee lived, the short for was thisBut reorganization (Official Bulletin), 51no. from May 1975, law 52.no.

(Official Bulletin), no. 57from July 1977, law no. 472. ). The organization, part of the central government apparatus, had the hadthe apparatus, government central of the part The organization, ). ). The first article from the Decree of the State Council of of Council State the of Decree the from article first The ). 58 55

To a considerable extent its responsibilities were taken over over taken were its responsibilities extent aconsiderable To

- 1989). A new denominationfor institution the of 56

The third article underlined the new tasks: tasks: new the article The third underlined 28 a

și T și 54

ipa rituri d of a public character, to be be to ofd apublic character,

(

Consiliul Socialist pentru pentru Consiliul Socialist ( The Com

mittee for Press Press mittee for to contribute f the f the CEU eTD Collection

Dearborn Publishers, 200 61 60 59 support anditsthe state policies. to laws, all designed the to conformed journalists and writers that it ensured Basically, editors aissuing proscribingalso to agency, Council Romania. Theperformances was within for all as andwell films, as books records imported all ideological of censorship past: namely,past: mutual censorship”. ef more is that censorship form of a he erected hand, other the on censorship’; of ‘abolition his with West the blinded he hand, one the On stone. the words of Romanian dissident Paul Goma,“Ceuasescu killed two birds with one individuals and in their collective committees for what appeared. Most of the old censors old Most ofcensors the for appeared. what committees in collective and their individuals jour and authors, editors, Publishers, artists.” natu human of opinion high means a such no byhad party the that it was clear however, time, same the At hadmutualeverythingimbibed; couldcensors. theysurveillance professionals replace condi were people rule, of totalitarian decades three after that ‘sure’ was level, party the one At movement. exert “guidehouses and intended and to the publishing itssame predecessor as was powers old system where at least you knew where youwere.” you least knew where at old where system

Paul Goma, Goma, Paul Ibid. Adrian Marino, “Romania” in Derek Jones (ed.), Censorship: aWorld Encyclopedia (ed.), Jones Derek in “Romania” Marino, Adrian

control over their output.” their over control

Adrian Marino regarded the abolishment of the censorship as “an entirely cynical cynical entirely “an as censorship the of abolishment the regarded Marino Adrian from cens as atransition moment the perceived Many of print and audiovisual media lists of unacceptable news and feature topics. topics. feature and news unacceptable of lists media audiovisual and of print De facto the problem of censorship was transferred from bureaucrat to “creative “creative to bureaucrat from was transferred censorship of problem the facto De

”

The Rumanian labyrinth Rumanian The tioned to be self be to tioned 1), vol. III, 2046-2047. re; left to police themselves, people would beg for a return to the the to areturn for beg people would police left themselves, re; to

60 ”

The Council was further responsible for political and and political for responsible further was Council The in

- Index on Censorship6 (1978):, 42. censors, checking everything they wrote against against wrote they everything checking censors,

29 nalists were to be responsible both as as both responsible be to were nalists 61

fective than any other in the the in other any than fective orship to self In orship to censorship.

(London: Fitzroy Fitzroy (London: CEU eTD Collection

duplication of its mechanisms. its of duplication o abolishment claimed The media. the throughout up set councils managing newinto the relocated and by system the absorbed were counties. an strictly with attributions, control large with institution a into prerogatives propagandistic large with instrument from a transformed gradually was censorship consolidation the regime, of ta of to censorship, task primary with made concomitant was That “new order”. the against considered data any other or books of expurgated been had libraries public All the existed. already had that work destroying on activity their focused communists in sense that the retrospective often was censorship war, the years after first In the be drawn. can conclusions some Scrutinizing legalframework of the RomanianWorld censorship War the after II,

d precisely internal regulation, with branches in all the regions and and regions the all in branches with regulation, internal precisely d ke over the public space by silencing the other voices. With the With voices. the by silencing the other ke the publicspace over

30 f censorship meant in reality a CEU eTD Collection II. II.

printing houses the tasks of the censorship multiplied accordingly. accordingly. multiplied censorship tasks of the the houses printing increasing number of literarydaily newspapers, magazines, publishing houses or limitednumbernewspap daily of a its to activity devoted mainly censorship takeover communist the yearsfirst after the in from the If 1950s. of different those significantlybeginning were theand 1970s of the politica The confront. to had they challenges the and circumstances of combination from apeculiar methods derived Their power. to be published. cannot from what credibili party the affecting without be published can what dissociate to and andideology practice apply party the calledto are who censors the human resources, componentimportant authority: censorship ofmost the a highlights thethe participants,

ANIC, ANIC, 1. Establishing Mechanism the

Administrative Setup Administrative This phrase, quoted from a speech delivered at a DGTP closed meeting by on meeting closed aDGTP at delivered speech from a quoted This phrase,

Fond CPT ThehadCommunistno blueprint Party Romanian for censorship it when came above all our the censor must be committed to the policy of our party”. to policy our the must of be committed censor the above all our and horizon, cultural refreshed and enriched constantly a knowledge, correspondingly political and ideologi a spiritinCommunist requires of“The the censorship work , file, 1/1967, 15, my translation.

ers issued only in a few towns, later, along with the later, along few the with in towns, issued a only ers

l and technical conditions of the late 1960s 1960s late the of conditions technical l and callevel, abroad sphere of general

ty and legitimacy legitimacy and ty 62 e of of e

CEU eTD Collection

64 63 Printings Materials ( Materials Printings materialsin good conditions - other. each among differences significant with some but services five encompassed DGTP of mechanism exploration of the dynamics ofits internal organization.At its verybeginning the character. monthly anwith conferences even or organizing ideologicalRepublic Romania, of Popular of the Bulletin issuing Official the commerce, antiquarian the regulating publications, diverse of prices the setting in role active playedan DGTP Languages, of distribution the controlling and ministers central the for necessary documents the translating languages, foreign in publications the Publication in Foreign Languages ( c the enter to eligible materials printings the authorizing ( Materials - Bucharest outside houses printing the of activity Presa si Locala Publicatii Periodice Publications Periodical and Counties from the Press the for Service by the was completed activity Its RADOR. agency press the and newspapers, daily whichBucharest surveyed the activity the press of activity allinstitutions, of the public documents for differentdocumentsministers its through Service of from translating Apart institutions. state or other to devoted activity bureaucratic a also encompassed DGTP years of existence first in its that stress to important

Ibid., file 5/1949, 79. Ibid. The best insight into how censorship adjusted its pri its adjusted censorship how into insight best The

64 Controlul PreseiPublicatiilor si

In 1949, the principalbranch the Service was Serviciul pentru Presei Evidenta si Tipariturilor Strainatate din

, the Service for the Evidence of Foreign Press and and Foreign Press of for Evidence the Service , the Serviciul Publicatii Limbi in pentru Straine ) -

concerned with the local press activity and the the and activity local press with the concerned 32 ) -

Romanian magazinesRomanian abroad. publication o publication , the Control of Press and Printings Printings and Press of Control the , ountry ountry orities isby orities provided an

f and the printing press Publication in Foreign - , and the Service of

( for the Press in in Press the for Serviciul pentru pentru Serviciul ) - 63

editing editing

It is is It ) -

CEU eTD Collection

65 assumed as chief of the censorship, hisknowle censorship, the of chief as assumed Sub the of control the under were censorship of branches local leaders of sub All managers. bydeputy assisted two director general of the composed administration the inviting to its sessions employees from the local branches of branches local the from employees sessions its to inviting of practice the institutionalized and periodically met Council The violation. its and discipline work the issues regarding to on, carried control of forms the employees, the political the institution, the of activity the concerning decrees official of diverse application from the issues, internal of large spectrum a debated sub the chiefs of the managers and deputy two the director, general of DG employees from exclusively up The Council set was directorates. sub the and between administration the mediator as a Administration of Council Committee. of Central Section and Propaganda Agitation of chief the the issues to institutional Gheorghiu- in Targu the imprisonment of years several spent who Adler) name Döme real his (on period interwar untilfrom was 1973, an Hungarian old Transyl generalIosif director: led Ardeleanu, who institution fromthe its in establishment 1949 chairas the of whom they appointed person of the by profile is the revealed censorship communist the which importance The Secretariat. and Personnel for Direction the in transformed they were 1973, after andControl;

Tismaneanu and Vasile, and Tismaneanu The institution was based on a vertical structure of subordination. At the top was was top the At subordination. of structure vertical a on based was institution The Within this heterogeneous structure, a paramount role was assigned to the the to assigned was role aparamount structure, heterogeneous this Within Dej. As general director of censorship, Ar of censorship, director As Dej. general

It isinteresting note despite to that, position hisimportant and prerogatives - Jiu political prisoners’ camp together with the virtual leader of RCP, leadervirtual RCP, Jiu of camp prisoners’ the political with together - directorates were directly subordinated to directly were subordinated directorates

84-85.

33 dge of Romanian was rather poor. was rather of Romanian dge vania communist militant from the the from militant communist vania deleanu report was supposed to on s attached to theinstitution of

DGPT.

- the general director. The The generalthe director. - directorate of Instruction Instruction of directorate ideo

logical of preparing - PT, namely the directorates. It It directorates. - Education Education 65

- CEU eTD Collection

http://www.asymetria.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=711 2009). Revue Revue Roumaine de Culture, Critique Imagination, et 67 66 houses. publishing of chiefs the all and Youth, Communist of Union the Interior, of Ministry the Defense, of National Ministry the (CESE), Culture Socialist and of Education membe external number of employees and peoplefrom outside of DGPT were alsoincluded. The sub of chiefs of Admini end”. of the beginning the means this… intangible and secret otherwise its attributions, judges and comments institution the outside from someone “when that arguing context, directorate”, general of the activity the which decides organ be “a deliberative to intended was which Administration Western patterns: “Comrades, an inadequate practice has developed, that of seeking only only of seeking that has developed, practice inadequate an “Comrades, patterns: Western to culture Romanian the relate to sought who those against full dogmatism of attack sp all in play should Party the role dominant the highlighting regime, the of coordinates ideological new the established July from The speech Culture. Socialist and of Education Committee of the establishment so the by furthermore and as to Julythe theses) referred from(hereafter July 1971 speech Ceausescu’s byfamous created the consider context the into take should explanation comprehensive

ANIC, ANIC, Liliana Corobca, “Declinul Cenzurii Comuniste” [The Downhill of Communist Cen

Some author newCouncilfor of a floor in the 1973opened DGPT The of reorganization

Fond CPT I regard this regard I stration was considerably enlarged, its considerably stration was membersenlarged, All attaining45people. the - directories gained membershipindirectories gained new ina the organized council;addition, rs comprised editors of newspapers, representatives from the Committee Committee from the representatives newspapers, of editors comprised rs , file, 5/1971, 60. s account the extinction of the DGPT primarily with this political political this with primarily DGPT the of extinction the s account - - “mini called

approach as simplistic rather and A ambiguous. more

c doubledbyExecutivenew an The Bureau. Council ultural revolution” from November 1971 and the from revolution”1971and the ultural November 34 heres of society. The thesis also launched an an launched also thesis The of society. heres

(last accessed on accessed (last

sorship], March (2009):

Asymetria. Asymetria. May, 28 CEU eTD Collection

70 69 68 marxist Room], file 127/1971, vol. II, 149. Workers] (Bucuresti: Editura Politica, 1971), 205. Improvement published with the approval of the Committee for Education and Socialist Culture. Socialist and Education for Committee the of approval the with published nevertheless was from DGPT received authorization an which not did abook Culture: same The text. the published and advices lecturer’s pass over the to from decided which Iasi organ party’s local of refusal facedthe publication, from ban atext tryingto who, lecturer a DGPT expounded by internal deba nomenklatura party the to assigned was role increasing an and authority with apowerful invested applyingnew the dire Marxist the of instruction direct the under existence, of social as areflection it develops alone, formitselfby not does conscience M former a Constantinescu, Miron As life. of social sectors important all of ideologization the consecrated 1971 towards what is produced abroad… We ar abroad… is what produced towards institutions which doubled of favor in authority its of part losing gradually DGPT the with institutions, state other and DGPT the between interplay of the context the be regarded has to Romania way of these examples, foreign.” is that all

Nicolae Ceausescu, Propuneri de masuri Ceausescu, pentru imbunatatireaNicolae activitatii politico-ideologice, de educare ANIC ANIC, ANIC, - leninista amembrilorpartid, de atuturoroamenilor 6-9iulie muncii, 1971 , The Plenum Meeting of the Central Committee of RCP from November 3 from November of RCP Committee Central the of Meeting The Plenum

Fond CPT Fond CCal PCR –

of Politico in guarding ideological conformity. These new poles of power were also also were power of poles new These conformity. ideological inguarding , file, 1/1972, 139. 68

-Ideological

situation occurred in the Committee for Education and Socialist Socialist and Education for inCommittee the occurred situation

ctives, the Committee for Education and Socialist Culture was was Culture Socialist and Education for Committee the ctives, Cancelarie

I argue that the dissolution of institutional censorship in in institutional censorship of argue that the dissolution I its prerogatives. its tes within the DGPT. It is probative in this sense the case of case in of the It sense is this DGPT. probative the within tes

inistry Education, unquestioningly of it: “The put socialist

Activity, of Marxist

[Central Committee of Romanian Communist Party –

e against the prostration (

35 - Leninist class.” vanguard working -Leninist Education of Party Members, of allthe ploconire ) in front of Proposals for for [Proposals Common 69 70

For For By By - 5, 5,

CEU eTD Collection

71 overstepping them. overstepping also had to consult the Sub DGPT’s branch. Thelocal censors were denominated commissioners ( regio the with and Sub the with touch permanent in be to were duties chief. direct the under of authority the acted he concerned, Sub the to subordinated was he education, political his improving For subordination. institutional witha double censor facedthe professionalduties two These whichbelonged. he to sub of the it to administration the present hadheto material printed the reading hand, after other the On by RCP. issued the political documents the Bu lecturers. activity as ofor they the censors, were by defined institutional language, the the As IosifArdeleanu pointed out: - “political permane to demanded was he hand one the On duties. professional main two had publication, for proposed materials of printed reading the with commissioned person the lecturer, The

Ibid., 2.

The Key Actor Key The file 1/1966, 23-40. The local branches were administered by a chief of the collective whose main main whose collective of the a chief by administered were branches local The Structurally, the entireitself of system entrenched censorship infigure the and - Sub The - - political his for care ntly directorate of Instruction and Control; asfar ashis dailycurrent is professional growing” of the censors evidently played the most important role. role. important most the played evidently censors the of growing” professional t not all the lecturers were at the same level and had the same attributions. had attributions. same levelthe and at same were the lecturers all not t the directorate of Instruction and Control, as the one responsiblefor the nal organ of the RCP which had to be informed about the activity of beinformedthe activityof had to about RCP ofnal organ which the 71

his his and Censor the :

- directorate of Instruction and Controlin the problems

ideological development and gainto knowledge of all 36 Educati - directorate of Instruction and Control onal Activity - directorate or local bra local or directorate ) and imputerniciti and )

sues were were sues nch nch CEU eTD Collection

74 73 72

qualification encompassed two layers: the professional education, and the politico the and education, professional the layers: two encompassed qualification of process him. The “qualify” guide to experienced and censor authorityunder an of the was placed new the passes, censor of DGTP internal regulations the with acquaintance RCP. of organs central local or with the collaboration in Personnel of by Service made the verification sub of chief the to presented were conclusions the Afterwards, Control. and of Instruction directorate and discussionsupervise were a assessed general during knowledge hiswhichin politico pass an examination had to for this position all tasksproficiently. the The qualities were unequivocally defined: solve could who censor “perfect” of a formation the qualities, censor the of shaping the

Ibid., 317. Ibid., Ibid., - Sub of task main the words other In file 78/1967, 194. f ile 84/1966, 2, my translation.

After employment, the process of institutional integration began. Once the the Once began. integration institutional of process the employment, After aspirant the beginning very the At censor? as a employed be couldsomeone How

- directorate or branch interested in employment. This process finished with a a with finished This process in employment. interested branch or directorate knowledgeable is not devoted to the party.” devoted the to is not knowledgeable even who if person, neutral apolitical with inwork comparison qualitative better make a itswill policy and the to party to person devoted … capacity professional the to refer only “We cannot 1) 3) 2) 4) 74

- A political ofknowledge. general spectrum A divers improvement. its with concern firmness, militancy, vigilance, high atten high vigilance, militancy, firmness, In his activity and in his he must relationships prove ideological The knowing of all the internal dispositions and working methods. working and dispositions internal the all of knowing The

ideological level according to the tasks and a tasksand the to level according ideological

37 dire

ctorate of Instruction and Control was 72 tion and discipline.

- ideological training It is sure that a - Sub the by d 73

constant constant

- CEU eTD Collection

77 76 75 sciences guidesmentor inhisthe per disciple censor, of the in culture general the filling gaps the For by RCP. the conducted education of the study of politicalmaterials with ideological content and enrollmentinto a form of politico of The phase mistakes. political numerous comprising for banned materials printed reading - sub by the made interventions had dividecensor to hisbetween time studying toge the Sub the had which they period, in trial the consisted difference The only as well. branches inlocal working for selected those for lines same followedthe process The elsewhere. be enough or transferred hadto job good acensor for was aspirant I article dogmatic famous novel Mitrea Cocor Mihail Sadoveanu’s Literature”, About “Lenin education. culture general and ideological the beginning of the 1950’s the recruitment of a censor acensor of of recruitment the 1950’s of the beginning the independence, Romania’snational exceptionaland history, forth. so changed. Essentialbecame books focusing on such themes as the gaining of Romanian amo to ideological shift the and to due on, inbibliographicalmandatoryfor theSciences) 1950s. censors references were Stiintele Sociale

Ibid. Ibid., Ibid.

file 14/1950, 3-9. But findingBut suitablefor persons such key At required positions sustained efforts. ch direct candidate’s the months, of three period atrial After - . directorate of Instruction and Control before being positioned in the new jobs. jobs. new the in positioned being before Control and Instruction of directorate 76 -

ideological preparation took place inparall took ideological preparation Naturally, the books studiedNaturally,books themirrored the ideology. Titles official such as

(Against the Bourgeois Cosmopolitism and Objectivism in Social Social in Objectivism and Cosmopolitism Bourgeois the (Against

mpotriva Cosmopolitismuluimpotriva

directorate or local branch to which he was assigned, and and assigned, he whichwas to branch local or directorate forming readings from history, literature, art, or 75 38

In the phase of professional education, the the education, professional of phase the In re nationalist ideology, the requirements requirements the ideology, nationalist re el with the first one, and consisted consisted and one, first the with el s i Obiectivismului Burghez i Burghez Obiectivismului i ther with his mentor the the mentor his with ther ten took the form of a a of form the took ten

to spend in Bucharest at at Bucharest in spend to

or Leonte Rautu’s Rautu’s Leonte or ief decidedif the 77

Later Later n CEU eTD Collection

80 79 78 manager ofmanager DGTP. “right def the and RWP the within power for battles internal The proletariat. “bourgeoisideas” or beingideological origins” justified the dictatorship through of the “cosmopolite relatives”, inadequate “has elements”, with dangerous “hadrelationships co Western all visited reason this for lit and awagon on “worked they were: and July 1953twentyfive being persons from removed DGTP. Theinvoked reasons 1952 between in period the connotations, political certain had transfers These properly. transfer meant expelling from institution and the movement to an another one another an to movement the and institution from expelling meant transfer other state institutions state other five only ininstitution. themsurviving of the to from DGTP “transferred” were lectors all the almost year 1967, to the Prior view”. of point professional and from political aslater “improper evaluated body of employees, isin acase point: employees DGTP of one by sent the note a tone of urgent and secreatful The action. conspiratorial a new collective. The recruitment was based on young high young wason based The recruitment a new collective.

Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., - f file 14/1951, 21. file 1/1967, 26. wing deviation” also provoked removals,beingwingalongvictims provoked one deputy also the deviation” ile 21/1952,ile 18, my translation.

Otherwise, in the first years after the establishment, DGTP had a heterogeneous heterogeneous hada DGTP establishment, the years after first in the Otherwise, In the period after 1950, DGTP embarked on a complex operation of constructing constructing of operation embarked acomplex DGTP on 1950, after period In the specificity of work. our political of acourse for Bucuresti will we to whom guide cadres necessary the found hardly we many obstacles Facing inin and Jugoslavia. area this air both the on are which stations radio control of the for censors recruit to inorder to small (a Jimbolia to Committee Regional Timisoara Onfrom with travelled November 111951I an activist together

- ideological preparation. We did not reveal to them the the them reveal to not We did preparation. ideological

39 - schoo l and graduates even 79 wn near Timisoara) wn near Timisoara)

In institutional the the institutional In ending of the the ending of

considered considered untries”, untries”, - CEU eTD Collection

88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 number of 251 Socio Academy for Literature Gheorghiu and Philosophy, departments History, of Stefan pursuing in courses higher andeducation, 47 had only high lectors personnel comprised 311 of scheme the of RCP. local organs and ofcentral support with the andon was carried students, years. final in the 3 and were graduates them 32of 1970, and 1967 between employed lectors undergraduate studies. have requiredto were alllectors stipulated, regulation internal an on, Since then 1967. studies. “Stefan Gheorghiu.” Academy, leading Party’s at party or schools andin go teach different to chose part another this, Besides transferred. were and unfit professionally were institution the left who of those aconsiderable amount ways.in First, two bemay explained This decrease 44 was period mentioned the in employed in perce the this 1967 clearly: show internal The statistics lectors. of the the core and 1955constituted betweenjoinedinstitution 1950 Those who the

Ibid., Ibid., 44. Ibid., Ibid., Ibid., Ibid. Ibid., Ibid., file 1/1967, 44. From a total number of 264 lectors, 191graduated numberfrom alectors, From university, ofa 18 total themwere 264

Throughout Throughout around fluctuated the the 1960s, number If inlectors 400. of the 1964 - 88 file 78/1967, 125. file 1/1967, 39. file 34/1974, 80. file 1/1967, 27. file 1/1970, 261. Political Education were the m the were Education Political 86

Majors in liberal arts prevailed in the censors’ intellectual formation. The The formation. intellectual censors’ in the prevailed arts liberal in Majors

The process of profession The process 83

The politics of recruitment changed accordingly. From 35 From 35 changedaccordingly. recruitment of The politics

alization of the body of lectors was accelerated after after was accelerated lectors body of the of alization ost popular. ost 82 40 , while, for year the from 1974was 39 a total

67 the number decreased to 256.in 1967the number decreased to

- school or gymnasium ntage of the lectors lectors of the ntage 84 81

CEU eTD Collection

91 90 89 Georgescu (from the Institute of Historical and Socio and Historical of Institute the (from Georgescu m prominent were lecturers The RCP. of politics external and internal the or movement workers international the of history the RCP, of history the as such topics around coagulated The ofconferences these themes of DGTP. by administration the organized directorate and local branches (whose responsibilities also integrated task). the integrated also responsibilities localbranches (whose and directorate institution. in method favored a was circle of debating organization the comprehension better a For difficulty. level of previoissuedbyRCP, or documents diverse regulation, internal administrative updated the of reading consisted former The study. individualand collective components:study had employee two politico of as part censor, every for mandatory was courses ideological and political diverse jobs. their secured institution the in spent years “great politico their but casessuch were there 10 1970, In lectors elementary persisted. with studies of university cases Even studies. without shortly, since its attribution its since shortly, was set lectors for

Ibid, 262. Ibid. Ibid., embers of RCP as Andrei Stefan (member of the Central Committee of RCP) or Titus Titus or of RCP) Committee Central of the (member Andrei Stefan as RCP of embers , 12. , file 78/1967, 10. A distinct practice of professional education was participation to conferen to participation was education professional of practice A distinct completionof from the graduate university, not did or if regardless did But they still were lectors of number total 25% of the around efforts, of these In spite For stimulating the study, a commission for establishing a general bibliography bibliography general a establishing for commission a study, the stimulating For - ideological e ideological

up during the period 1970- period up during the

ducation. The complete politico complete The ducation. us interventions made upon texts considered to have a high high have considered upon texts to a interventionsmade us s

were overlapping with the attribution of the chief of sub of chief of the attribution the with overlapping were 41 89 1971.

- - 91 Political Studies). Political ideological education of a DGTP’s DGTP’s a of education ideological

- The commission was abolished abolished was commission The ideological exper ideological 90

ience” and the

ces ces - CEU eTD Collection

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 133. 93 92 published could prejudice state interest”. state prejudice could published defined as “prevention f vaguely which was secret state of notion the through justified was materials printed over t person for this. this. for person perfecthe t be to was trained censor then the discourse, political official of the infavor be prohibited needto discourses alternative all and itself propagating of asystem requires ideology an from outside those for andteachers theinstitution who entered in contact with them. If instructors ideologically for their students were They andteachers: both students time schools: political ambiguous and defbroad an whichledto beby regulated director, general to the was supposed secret state

ANIC, ANIC, 3. Peter Kenez, The Birth Propagandaof State. Kenez, Soviet Methods Mass of Peter Mobilization, 1917

Safeguarding the State Secret State the Safeguarding The principle of “state secret” legitimized the activity of the DGTP. The control The control DGTP. the of activity the legitimized secret” “state of The principle

The case of the DGPT’s lectors presents a particularity. They were at the same same the at were They aparticularity. presents lectors DGPT’s of the The case

Ken Peter historian The Fond CTT, expected to express themselves. to expected w in language a taught schools The question. any answer to correct one only and was one there that assumed which “ With their catechism With their

file 12/1965, 121. rom publication of all dates, objectives, and products which once which once andproducts objectives, of all dates, publication rom inition.

ez explained the logic of the political education and and education political logicof the the ez explained - like method they transmitted a way of thinking, a way thinking, of likemethod they transmitted 93 42

” The DGTP’s attribution of defending the the defending of attribution DGTP’s The 92

hich Party activists were were activists hich Party -1929

CEU eTD Collection

The Red Pencil. Artists, Scholars, and Censors in the USSR 97 96 95 94 were in fact almost impossible to prove. to impossible almost fact in were language,Aesopianirony w far and even prohibiting censorship as Soviet as went model. Well Soviet from the borrowed pattern D a so keep to was role “the problems oflife” party and “social cultural problems”. andindustrialpattern and development, production the emphasized only problems of Soviet lled reca DGTP given to secret state keeping the about Instructions War II. World movie the about appreciation “do secret: state of the definition the ambiguity of the asserts disposals the of scrutiny The close culture. industry to from ranging Documentary the andcreated secret state defending about billsince the beginning of which 1968, proves that the process o the drafted law, of the text inthe preparing activated whichvigorously new.DGTP, not law were of the andproject debates the Romania, “closing” of in political the decisive y ina issued law was if the issued. Even was Secret State the Law of the industrialyear production the of 1969” the numbers about publishnot absolute “do lives or abroad” who Romanian person any publish Romania “do not informationthat about Persian carpets”, produces

ANIC, ANIC, Ibid., file 18/1951, 76. Ibid., file 4/1969, 115. Boris Zaks, “Censorship at the Editorial Desk” Mariannain Tax Cho GTP invention.GTP wasin It used institutions allin following censorship Europe, Eastern a After 1965, DGTP made efforts to systematize the general director’s regulation regulation director’s general systematize the to made efforts DGTP 1965, After The same ambiguity dominated the notion of state secret in the first decade after after decade infirst the secret of state notion the dominated The ambiguity same publicationfrom alldomains, prohibitionThe of disposals comprised DGTP Fond

CTT, file 1/1970, 68-69.

- called “Notebook of Internal Disposals”. The method was not a a not was method The Disposals”. of Internal called“Notebook

Reconstituirea

43 , “do publish not ,

(director Lucian Pintilie)”. Lucian (director - known for its strictness in this respect, respect, in this strictness its for known

(Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 163.

not publish information about the fact fact the about information publish not 97 ldin ldin and Maurice Friedberg (eds.), -

Regulation Service whose whose Service Regulation Finally,in 1971 December by any means favorable 96 f re

ear considered considered ear - Stalinization Stalinization

hich hich CEU eTD Collection

99 98 Five- Yearly reports, Reports, Quarterly Reports, Monthly organizatio Communist the of element indispensable an is It everything. about Reports write to trained “are lectors words: Zinoviev Alexander quoting and dream the DGTP required intervention. Pact Warsaw by ofinvasion Czechoslovakia the condemning before 1968andemergedfamous August balcony speeches Ceausescu’s even of 101 100 f someone with adiscussion or house aprinting made to control the ina text, made intervention every For censor. of a work practical of the center the was at in acted who those for than press the with dealt who those for relevant more was notebook the formulation, unattainable until of in the abolishment DGTP Indeed, 1977. due itsto standardized information prohibited from publication”. and dates of categories the all encompass which to be document “asole desiredto in seen lawThe of impact be itsthe can status. of only more alegal nothing than consecration was secret state the law of the DGTP for activity, in daily its secret state of principles Functioning a as technical in economic, the of state secrets constitute documentsinformation which radio, could press,through television, or

Ibid., See Ibid., file 1/1968.

Aleksander Zinoviev, Homo Sovieticus Zinoviev, Aleksander Ibid., There is no better way to describe the effective methods of work of a lector than than lector of a of work methods effective describethe way to better no is There file 1/1971, 101. For DGTP, the law of the state secret did not produce any mutations. The law law The mutations. any produce not did secret state the of law the DGTP, For file 1/1972, 123. the reopening of discussions regarding the “Notebook the of reopening “Notebook regardingof discussions the Internal Disposals”

of an all to ensure its own secrets of service and to prevent from publication from publication prevent to and ofits service secrets own ensure to

closed institution never opened to the public and already using the using the the publicand already to neverinstitution opened closed

other sectors sectors of DGTP. other

- comprehensive “Notebook “Notebook of Internalcomprehensive Disposal” remained

(Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1982), 14. 1982), Press, Monthly Atlantic (Boston: - scientific, military, and politic domains. politic and military, scientific, 100

But the discussion did not come an to end yearly Reports”. roma publishing

98 101

n of work.

The report The report 99

CEU eTD Collection

103 102 view as a whole andview ascontinuity. awhole a having for by be a single person must controlled newspaper magazine, every book, radio banishingpostponing program. or or a The TV which governed principle was that retrainin the article, an of elimination decidedthe lector the inwhich cases were interventions The words. misused or be wrong to considered translation redaction, of in process the errors small by determined was category former The interventions. observatio twofold: were prerogatives The censor’s approval. for sent material the accepting or inrejecting decision his explain hadto lector the institution, outside the sent reports the case of In the internal use. for reports and institution lector. of the helps documentation virtual the report writingthe that was practice of this account The official areport. write to was required lector the house, DGTP the of definition the of limits the Within apred than more “ the safeguarded it that DGTP of claim The inadvance. well verified and recorded were transmissions disproporti itsin’ highest, the censorship propaganda presence was the probably this framework. T institution.

Ibid., file 1/1965, 53. ANIC, Basically there were two main categories of reports: reports to be sent ou be sent reports to of reports: maincategories two were there Basically ’ s least demanding tasks. tasks. demanding least s The stability of the above presented structures attest structures presented above the of The stability Fond CTT, file 18/1974, 67. onatelylow. T he emergence of television represents t represents television of he emergence etermined set of standard expression and figures defined as undesirable. andas offiguresset undesirable. standard defined expression etermined Even if the degree to which television television which to degree the if Even state secret state

television why reason he

”

103 should be reevaluated, shouldbe reevaluated,

“ 45 state secret state he single new he new single did did ” the the , safeguarding it was one of the it of wasthe one safeguarding , present present “ state secret state contributed s

102 important thematurity of the challenges

”

s activity was was s activity the to g of a book or or book a g of being nothing nothing being

addi

was that was that tside the tside the ns and and ns official tion to

CEU eTD Collection in the Mechanism of Censhorship of Mechanism the in 1. 1. ContrExtending III.

104 Constitution introduced the Soviet model of administrative organization, based on on based organization, model administrative of Soviet the introduced Constitution The branches. local the of number the determined In comparison magazines. literary and newspapers reading housescontrollingverifying the country and which the printing printings entered to division specialized internal maintain not could branch local a employees, of number reduced Due the to lectors. nine ( collective of chief the the asub exactlyas more institution, incentral oflines the as case the same exactly the followed branches local the of organization internal The secret. were activities all their institution, mother the in As cas the Materials. Printed and of Press Directorate General the to subordinated authorizations for newspapers, magazines, religious publications and books. and publications religious magazines, newspapers, for authorizations no they did Directorate Bucharest’s Shaping Shaping

ANIC, ANIC, organs exclusive and direct as functioned censorship of branches local The The The Having at its base the system of ve of system the base its at Having Fond CTT, territorial Forms of A of Forms

file 45/1964, 86. - - country the of reorganization then and organization administrative directorate uthority seful colectivului seful ol: Center

s and consequently a lector had diverse attributions, from from attributions, haddiverse lector a consequently s and

t have among their attributions the releases of of releases the attributions their among have t - rtical subordination, a local branch was led by subordination, rtical Periphery Relations 46 ) who subordinated usually between four and and four between usually subordinated who )

1952 Romanian Popular Republic’s 1952 Romanian Republic’s Popular

to the censors from from censors the to

104

e of of e CEU eTD Collection

109 108 107 106 105 with them in reading reading in them with In surveillance. and interaction of type authoritarian an on based were andperiphery center politico supervise wasinstructor The called the to itsinstructors. andControl Instructing and Th branches. local the Sub 1968 the was 18 splitinto regions; regions ( branches. doubled. Accordingly, 40lectors from almost were sent Bucharest setto up the new i conditions the in system the within resources human its of redistribution the was it as authority its extending not was problem the DGTP for say, to Needless doubled. than more number their afterwards implemented”. directly decisions are state and Party where the to place the units, basic the be to closer will leadership central isthe that … result positive essential centralized more a was aim the Politically, Bucharest. city capital region, the plus counties 39 with them replacing regions, the administrative last The

ANIC, ANIC, Quoted in Mary Ellen Fisher, op. 2. no Law 1968, February from Monitory) Monitorul Oficial Official (The Monitorul Oficial (The Official Monitory) from May 1952, Decree 18. no. Consti of 18 the Article See time, however, this type of explicit authority turned into a latent authority. authority. alatent into turned authority of thisexplicit type however, time, There was a permanent communication between the central administration and and administration central the between communication was apermanent There Within this framework the present chapter assumes that the relationships between between relationships the that assumes chapter present the framework this Within - Fond CTT ideological education of the censors from the local branches, to work together work to together localbranches, from the censors the of ideological education regiune 109

- directorate of In of directorate ) and districts ( districts and ) , file 1/1968, 39 diverse printed materials and to verify the relationships between between verify relationships the materialsto and printed diverse - - Sub the through maintained was connection e territorial reorganization, which took place in place 1968, which took reorganization, territorial 105 tution in n which the number of daily newspaper and magazines almost almost magazines and newspaper of daily number n the which

in their 1956, number w -47. cit., struction and Control subordinated 18 local branches, branches, local 18 subordinated Control and struction ). In accordance with the Constitution, Romania Romania Constitution, the with accordance In district). Monitorul Oficial (The Official Monitory) from September 1952.

113.

47 administration. As Ceausescu stated: “The “The stated: As Ceausescu administration. as reduced 16and to 150districts.

directorate of of directorate 108

So, if until if until So,

abolished abolished 107 106

CEU eTD Collection

112 111 110 Established also somewhere at the beginning of the institution, the post the institution, the of beginning the at somewhere also Established institution. a of the old frommethod, relictimes the an obsolete considered it was very was not complex: DGTP by offered The explanation 1965. after disgrace fellinto lector local of every decision for center by the gave k feedbac the on based the local censors. branch. local the of chief magliterary on work could professionalism be ahighlevel at to of considered Only those acensor. of top dailyactivity of the the at put was press the of reading the branches local the In every activity. for a report teren) ( in territory the inspections of method the of correspondence, method to andconsidered Directorate the made at interventions containing lists the were in respect this important discussions during conducted Butmeetings most in professional the Bucharest. contai directives DGTP. of branches the and RCP of organs local the receiving the second approval. In the year 1965 this method was abolished too. I argue I yearabolishedmethod was too. receivingsecond 1965this In approval. the the for Bucuresti to sent prior were stations local radio recordings publications of or all the precisely, More center. by the conducted control second a shows, clearly name its to inform and control.to

File 1/1966,60. File 4/1967,89. ANIC, , and the method of post of method the and , Even if it was an old practice (established in 1951) the method of correspondence ofmethod correspondence the in 1951) (established practice if it old was an Even the through pursued control the was authority explicit of form common most The s as authoritarian as the method ofmethod post as the smethods wa as authoritarian above of the None Fond CTT, file 28/1968, 13-14.

ning the restrictionfor publication, or reports with abstracts about

be models for the regional lectors. lectors. regional the for models be

111 To inform meant sending to local branches the latest internal internal latest the branches local to sending meant inform To

All the reports constituted meansfor instructors to control - dy indicated, censors had to fill in in fill had censors to indicated, As already control. have I

48 azines, and in most of the cases that was the was the cases ofin the that andmost azines, 110

In essence, his task was twofold: twofold: was task his essence, In - control was, as deplasarea pe deplasarea pe 112

- control. CEU eTD Collection

115 114 113 operation. Ideology and Control detected only ten mistakes in performing the post mistakesin the performing only ControlIdeology ten anddetected - Sub the of control annual the revoked been had method the before trust of consequence natural a as came control second of the abolishment the RCP, of organs and by DGTP organized courses intensivelectors indoctrination.Afterthrough political the professionalizing the of experien lackedwork of them Many establishment. after decade first in the heterogeneous very was employees body of DGTP’s chapter, in previous the discussed have As I relaxation. ideological an sign of number of low from the also transparently This result by controlled DGTP. sectors in the any of Administration of DGTP confirmed: andGheorghiu a Dej’s death, the - Gheorghe after climate as aconsequencepolitical of the not happened that this An exception still persisted. Considered to be “problematic”, the literary magazines were were magazines literary the be “problematic”, to Considered still persisted. An exception contrast to theold method ofsen (in well as territory the to sent automatically were center by the issued dispositions institutions. DGTP the Sub the inspections, means 8 only instance, of by For territory. inspection onthe remained the

File 1/1965,59. File 78/1966,136. File 48/1964,226.

“It is a positive aspect that during the year 1967 no big political mistakes occurred bigmistakes occurred no during political year that is the 1967 aspect “It a positive At the middle of the 1960’s, the local branches won a relative independence. All All independence. arelative localbranches won the middle 1960’s, ofAt the the center of express authority the the to whichmethod continued The single - directorate of Instruction and Controlcould compris 113

sanctions given to the censors” the to given sanctions

e year 1967a report e of the Councilth of during activity the analyzing In

115

ding memos) and the daily ding press their was alone. duty ce and had a low level of culture and political andpolitical level culture lowhad of anda ce bolishment of the second control did not constitute a a constitute not did control second the of bolishment ing the new institutional establishment. One year year One establishment. institutional new the ing 114 49

e all the 18 localities with with localities 18 all the e directorate of of directorate - control control CEU eTD Collection

36/1965, 4. 119 118 117 116 meetings between the lectors and their instructors from the Sub from the instructors and their lectors the between meetings of periodical wasused that method the instructor, and lector between contact of the atext. of mistakes structural the perceiving from him prevent could experience lackof his importantly, most process; redaction that was instructors Bucuresti. from instructor the with in parallel lector local the by discussed changes ( changes undertaken inwork the lectors local the integrating and accustoming for film, a or performance theatre a viewing Party, Communist the of History the of Museum the to visits programs instituti for debating urgent third one was andof the directorate and Control, Instruction by Sub the made branches local in situation the concerning report the for was reserved pro political in introduced current were lectors the dayfirst of acounsel, the During professional. and political character: a double had counsels These days. three for lasted usually ( counsels called were they language institutional In Control. and localmagazines. in the reading parallel of the and controls only periodical of consisting one, latent a into turned structure central the of authority explicit the won, is over decision

File 1/1966,225. File 1/1966,94. File 28/1966,60.

See for instance the program of the counsel from April 22,23,24, 1965 in ANIC, Fond CTT, ANIC, in 1965 22,23,24, April from counsel ofthe program the instance for See 1965 the methods of latent control diversified. Following the line line the Following diversified. control latent methods of the year 1965 the After

onal issues and for final discussions. final for and issues onal

about the parallel reading of the literary and socio and literary the of reading parallel the about schimburi de experienta) by thosefrom the centralinstitution. blems (issues of external politics, of socialist economy etc), the second day day second the etc), economy of socialist politics, of external blems (issues Amethod derivingfrom that of counsels was experience organizing

sues concerning the daily press (the most important part of the work) work) of part the important most (the press daily the concerning sues

my translation. local lector would not be able to grasp the mistakes derived from from derived mistakes the grasp to able be not would lector local

50 117

It can be considered that once the right of of right the once that considered be can It 119 118

Other counsels included in counselsOther included their - directorate of Instruction of Instruction directorate consf 116 atuiri)

The fear of of fear The , and and ,

file file - - CEU eTD Collection

120 between Romania and the USSR. USSR. the and Romania between issues contentious and sensitive most of the one Bessarabia, of problem the reference, indirectly reopened Ceausescu period, in Partyinterwar of the he did not agree with a text containing allusions about Bessarabia and its belonging to Bessarabia agreeits withabout containingbelonging andhenot a text to allusions did st in responsible being “not for sanction a branchfromlocal got one Acensor 1965. after were tolerated in only justified 1964 Romania: from Party Communist over the Comintern the of domination interwar of the aspects t tried and RCP of History a of publication a for called He practices. discursive in currents the enter will heroes historical the to and values national the appeal to for now Ceausescu’s From on, shift. ideological a major inaugurated C RCP Ninth The Bucuresti. outside issued magazines political Orwellian one. Orwellian an as resemble to meetings professional the of atmosphere the made sometimes

op. cit., 95. op.cit., Fisher, inMary Quoted Allen Demonizing the politics of the Comintern and trying to re to trying and Comintern the of politics the Demonizing

I employ this example to point out that political and ideological constraints constraints ideological and political that out point to example this employ I

that period” that from party documents other and congresses of the decisions the critically that of movement workers’ and communist international in the phenomena negative of certain effect the well as opportunistic, sectarian, andforeign the to working class people, and our as were which leadership its in elements by certain exercised influence the operate, it had to conditionsremember which under the difficult

”In evaluating party activity during the years of illegality, we must must illegality, we years of the during activity party ”In evaluating For instance, the interventions of the censors which could have been been have could which censors the of interventions the instance, For 120

udying political the of documents because PCR” 51

, even if he made no clear madeif clear he even no , o emphasize the negative negative the emphasize o time. We must analyze analyze must We time. ongress held in 1965 - evaluate the position position evaluate the

CEU eTD Collection

124 123 122 121 authority of the above mentioned mentioned above the of authority the employed DGTP issues, historical other in sometimes and RCP the of history the to ( Politics Social determined the DGTP to start cooperation with sense inthis mistakes ideological The of fear committing too. by DGTP carried the control of activity the in reflected was movement workers’ the of history the and RCP of were calledto: were publication ofan articlesubsuming the same al Romania. Cluj branch in the role of teacher for the lectors fromlectors consider for Iasi, the in of role branch teacher the Cluj the with was organized The project method. new with the experimented which ones first the were branches Iasi and Cluj The branches. local two between experience of exchange did not change. change. not did havebeen the sign of apolitical relaxation,in reality, at thelevel of censorship things boldness

Quoted File 25/1966,79. File 22/1964,83. File 64/1966,54. sciences social the Congress, RCP Ninth same the of directives the Following The obsession with the literary magazines determined a new met a new magazines determined literary with the The obsession Albeit Ceausescu stand up for the “free manifestation of creators’ individuality, individuality, of creators’ manifestation “free the for up stand Ceausescu Albeit

in ANIC, Fond CTT,37/1966, file 151. and innovative spirit, discarding of any rigidity, and bluntness ofvalues” could 121

country’s …“ past courageouslyissueslinked the the with social approach socialism; building of practice with the relationship close studies valuable produce sociology; law, economy, history, fields of the

In another was 1964, censor given as examplefor preventing the

Institutul de Studii Istorice si Social Politice

“continually enrich the national patrimony with works of synthesis in in synthesis of works with patrimony national the enrich “continually

124 Institute.

123 52

lusions.

the Institute of Historical Studiesand 122

The concern with the history history the with concern The ). In all the issues referring referring issues the all In ). - political thought political of thought our ed inexperienced. The inexperienced.ed The hod, that of of that hod, in in CEU eTD Collection Censor Local the Integrating 2.

Macmillan, 1998), 127 126 125 beginning of the 20 either by came professors from by universities or the chief t of magazine, local the by reading already gained in experience the settled of Cluj was ascendant Soviet practice every brigade needed brigade every practice Soviet ( brigade supervising the namely DGTP), the of opinion the inlate 19 the currents literary Romanian people, and language Romanian the were of debates subjects The common organized. were debates of circles professional Timisoara, and Cluj as magazines, in reading duties difficult most the having as considered towns in several Moreover from Bucuresti. instructors by mediated always re we but branches, local other between continued exchanges the Later, of the brigade was seen as the most proficient method to achieve this.method to proficient most was seen as brigade the of the discipline work the and rewards, with the link performance the to was brigade the aim of as atoolof diss was seen brigade by the exercised control The collective fulfillment. their supervised andnorms, internal the established The council workers. top comprises which a council elected brigade

Bob Arnout, ControllingBob Soviet Arnout, Labour. Experimental Change from BrezhnevGorbachev to (Hampshire: File 56/1968,67. File 23/1966,174. The year 1965 witnessed the set up of the most functional method of control (in (in control of method functional most the of up set the witnessed 1965 year The . The Iasi collective sent lectors to Cluj for one or two weeks. two or Cluj one for to lectors sent collective The Iasi Tribuna.

th , the esthetics of Titu Maiorescu etc. These debates were conducted conducted were These debates etc. Maiorescu of Titu esthetics the ,

eminate goodworkingeminate practices The among workers.

a leader. After the leader was established, the the established, wasleader the After leader. a 53 brigada de control he collective. 127 formation of the

th 126

century and century and

). In). the 125

CEU eTD Collection

128 reviewing and the reports working plans bylocal sent Bucharest. the branches to prelim job. censor’s ofpart the difficult most the indicated, already have I as considered, was reading whose magazines, wh towns from branches moments”. in critical efforts intellectual unstinting and ideologicalassuredness, work, assiduous focusedand relationships, strong camaraderie, supposes brigade healthyspirit A of activists. political as and consider themselves of working, style bureaucratic “deny the brigade members The of aDGTP’ too. practices activity of the of activity of control. actions onlyby active local censors to the political andideological requests, and this couldhave been achieved with brigade members the of the for corresponded and Sub the Press, sub wi lectors amongthe elected councilthe were the p the increasing for employed methods the organs, local party the with especially institutions, other with the institution of the relationships the collective, the by of chief the working the Sub instructors at

ANIC, ANIC, - directorates, mainly from the Sub the from mainly directorates, olitico inary documentation which lasted for around one week, and consisted primary of of primary consisted and week, one around for lasted which documentation inary Every action of control pursued by the supervising brigade began with a beganbrigadeEvery a by with control supervisingaction of pursued the The DGTP’s supervising brigadesThesupervisingbuilt DGTP’s up were The main objectives to be analyzed were: the content of the reading and control control and reading of the content the be analyzedwere: to mainThe objectives Fond CTT, file 84/1966, 15. - The The professional level of education, the general and individual level of individualprofessionallevelandlevel of the education, general of

lectors, the organization of work together with the style of work imprinted imprinted work of style with the together of work organization the lectors, modus operandi modus - directorate ofImports ich had not only daily newspapers but also weekly and monthly monthly and weekly also but newspapers daily only not had ich

- directorate of Instruction and Control and themembers of

of a supervising brigade regarded first of all local local first all of regarded brigade supervising a of - directorate of Literature, Sub the Literature, of directorate 54 - th significant work experience from other other from experience work significant th Exports. The concept of performance of performance The concept Exports.

the complete conformation of the the of conformation complete the 128

The leader had to be one of the be of the one hadleader to The after the above described described above the after - directorate of of directorate

CEU eTD Collection

131 130 129 defined byits to defined relation Assuming control tha periphery. methods the to system developed education”. professional o by their replaced were fromfour from lectors, brigade,visitsupervising Arad, two AfterCraiova and atwo of tough. were sanctions the sometimes lectors, controlled the and brigade the of members control. second the during center bythe undertook those with coincide to magazines literary upon made interventions the and intervention” by centr sent the materials he political the that had prove read to order in requested were lector of every notes lecture the time same the At level. professional verify the to brigade by the chosen practice was the lectors with their together working Control. per andperi Sub the with cooperation the and work for preparation anti RCP from August 23, i 1944: of in Declaration the mistake book with a a of printing the approved because moved Soviet War was a great historical error, the approved book hadanti replaced book approved the historicalerror, War was agreat Soviet

File 2/1970,88. File 28/1966,34. File 1/1966,33 2. the the For practices. periphery’s the renew and transform petually - Hitleristic war. Hitleristic To have good professional results meant for the brigade to “have valuable valuable “have to brigade the for meant results professional good have To g in participatin and institutions two the of activity everyday the in insinuation The the relation between center between relation the of importance the emphasized analysis previous The camarade the of In spite phery and questioned the centralization of the system. The centralization of the the of centralization The system. the of centralization the questioned and phery 129

131

130

its periphery, the center the its periphery, wn position for “lack of vigilance” and “lack of interest in in interest “lack “lack and for of vigilance” wnof position

Other received an administrative fine and was disciplinary disciplinary finewas and administrative an received Other n place of saying that Romania’s engagement in Romania’s the anti engagement saying of that n place rie atmosphere emulated by the interaction between the between the interaction by the emulated atmosphere rie 55 ’s methods of control were were of control methods ’s

- directorate for Instruction and for Instruction and directorate al institution. institution. al t every center is is center every t DGTP to renew renew to DGTP - Soviet with with Soviet intended to to intended

- CEU eTD Collection

questioningitsinflexible and suppressive character. center the of The characteristics vigilance. its in of spite occurred by center the established norms the from deviations and Variations by uniformity. characterized not was thus magazines cultural of domain In the center. by the expected those c determine to t pr The relation between center and per and center between relation The center. the satisfy always not did results he onclude political instructions political of application the meant actices - periphery relations entail implications for the analysis of censorship of analysis the for implications entail relations periphery d that at some levels as the control of the daily newspapers, the results were were results the newspapers, daily of the control some as the levels at that

the effectiveness of the system. But at a panoramic glance it can be be it can glance apanoramic at But system. the of effectiveness the 56

in current practice. It is difficult is difficult It practice. incurrent , on the other hand, other the on ,

at large, large, at iphery iphery

CEU eTD Collection Conclusions

conducted by conducted potential enemies. type ofthe censorship Moreover its beagainst used to mechanism a censorial in articulating deny state of role the the to automatically means subject, of every part internal an being and discourse of every type censorship in inherent as constitutive of existence the Accepting it. approach to used the message of the opposite part. Totalitari part. message opposite of the the imposeits positionsystembyprohibiting hasinstance to criteria a of dominant and tries institutions, leading instancea and an instance is which subordinated it.to The leading between two relationship apower of existence the implies Censorship censorship. explai by trivialized easily be can namely the totalitarian Communist state the public. institutions and the Materials Printings and Press for Directorate’s General the examined have I periods, others . perspective areductionist entail itself. The reality of day to day censorship escapes the rigidity of the theoretical models models theoretical of the rigidity the escapes day censorship to day of The reality Consequently, the use of the totalitarian theory in accounting for censorship could could censorship for inaccounting theory totalitarian the use of the Consequently, In the temporary boundaries of the 1960’s and conducting comparisons with with conducting comparisons and boundaries the 1960’s of In the temporary

(DGTP’s) (DGTP’s)

the state in all public spheres - spheres in public all state the

formulation of pol

The focus on internal documents, on the directives insisting insisting directives the on documents, internal on focus The

ning it according to the constitutiveitmodel according to ning of -

had a completemonopoly and alwaysimposed icy, internal workings, dealings workings, internal icy, an theory assumes that the leading instance – instance leading the that assumes theory an 57

being

central to the nature of the regime, regime, of the nature the to central t hat the communists carried out out carried hat communists the

with other other with -

CEU eTD Collection

the two periods looks less clear. The number of censors employed in daily activities did did in employeddaily activities of censors The number lesslooks clear. periods two the liberalization. before period the shaped which ideological to dogmatism the by return the are relevantin led furtherfindings questions.institutionalhas Mycomplexity to and the censorship of on which phrases words, books should or be banned has revealed the structural ques dividedin periods: two a first period ofliberalization, cultural be assume the 1960s can historians that Romanian communismcommonfor to of is It be revisited. can historical paradigms some censorship, of perspective from the CSSE. dissolution followed logicallyfor DGTP whose attributions were partly assumed by wit together and was established (CSSE) Education Socialist and Culture for Council The “mini new the and 1971 year the be should inquiry is argument the of futility The Caravia). Goma, (Ficeac, former the of effectiveness the of because self with censorship official of change the to corresponding moment a a the of moment instance For the institution censorship. internal of the of for dynamics the framework Bydocumented. combining archivalmaterialsheldin several fonds cana I provide scarcely been has institution the of history the concerning research e, regim Communist untilnear by the present NationalArchives of the for Romania the documents of the Romania. Communist of history institutional h other organs of the Communist Party, doubled the attributions of the DGTP. The The DGTP. the of attributions the doubled Party, Communist the of organs h other ts for internal legitimacy and external independence external and legitimacy internal for ts Scrutinized through the everyday institutional practices the distinction between distinction the practices institutional everyday the through Scrutinized Secondly, following the political context and the internal evolution of the regime the of evolution internal the and context political the following Secondly,

obvious if Theobvioushistorical context. starting one the considers of point such an bolishment institutionalof the in censorshipis Romania often as debated two directions. directions. two Firstly, its relevance lies in the contribution to the the to contribution the in lies relevance its Firstly, 58

Due to the restrictive policies practiced practiced policies to restrictive the Due - cultural” revolution. In the aftermath In the revolution. cultural” , and a second one characterized characterized one a second and,

marked by Ceausescu’s markedby Ceausescu’s - censorship, censorship,

CEU eTD Collection

bureaucratic bureaucratic ide exact an have to have an sometimes and legitimizing discourse of Nicolae Ceausescu. Ceausescu. of Nicolae discourse legitimizing and permittivity. Censorshipfulfilled onlyits propagandisticfollowing aim, censorship’s the of because not but allowed were Bessarabia of problem the and Russia and Romania between relations as the subjects taboo 1960’s of the middle From the best Avisiblethe dutyin censors. in the was of censorship shift the doma Moreover themaximum attention was paid to the area of cultural production, considered brigades. supervising of up setting and changes, experience meetings, periodical institutional pr in the methods developed diverse the becausestandards of high reached censor of the indoctrination ideological The increased. censors level of the maturityinstitution and theits professional in reached the 1960’sis which the period of the period the Furthermore, decrease. not materials did printed on interventions of reports their quantitatively and same, the remained attributions their change, not could be undertaken. Because of the scarcity of the methodological approaches methodological of the scarcity the of Because undertaken. be could exploration relevant further one, important most the Although mechanism. censorship shi ideological the of victim was sometimes censor the byinstitution, the undertook (indoctrination) education legitimacy, less vital concerns in the case of communist institutions, the institutionalism institutionalism the institutions, communist of case in the concerns vital less legitimacy, acqui to need their on and function institutions the which in environment the on focus its of because While problematic theory. institutionalism new from couldemerge the censorship and of the solutions they a possible provide, methodologicalframework In spite of his strong ideological education and and education ideological strong his of spite In Being myinstitutionallycentered, covered examination only of a part the web

imperfect agent because he could not be entirely loyal. To be so, he would would he be so, To loyal. be entirely not he could because agent imperfect ) could not could ) fts of the regime. regime. of the fts a of what he was aske a of what

always always provide one

59 . Caught in the persuasive process of of process in persuasive the Caught . (despite state forbid, and the to d adherence the censor was censor the adherence the nationalistic nationalistic the in of history. history. of in actice: many many actice:

its its to to re re CEU eTD Collection

u one the to perspective acomple provide thus would theory of this The application be retained. nevertheless can individual external the on impact institution’s the on emphasis theory’s ndertaken in the present study. present the in ndertaken 60

mentary mentary CEU eTD Collection Bibliography

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Broken Broken