Guerra Del Golfo. Il Mito Della CNN E L'impatto Delle News Sui Processi Decisionali Di Politica Estera Degli Stati Uniti
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Corso di Laurea specialistica in Relazioni Internazionali Comparate Tesi di Laurea Guerra del Golfo. Il mito della CNN e l'impatto delle news sui processi decisionali di politica estera degli Stati Uniti Relatore Ch.mo Prof. Duccio BASOSI Laureando Vincenzo Emilio LEONE Matricola 839744 Anno Accademico 2012/2013 Indice ABSTRACT ….........................................................................................................................Pag. 6 INTRODUZIONE .................................................................................................................. Pag.10 CAPITOLO 1- IL RUOLO DEI MEDIA PRIMA E DURANTE LA GUERRA DEL GOLFO 1.1 L'Iraq di Saddam Hussein sulla stampa dal 1979 al 1990 …............................................Pag.19 1.2 La consapevolezza del pubblico ….................................................................................. Pag.20 1.2.1 L'ascesa al potere di Saddam Hussein nel 1979 ........................................................... Pag.21 1.2.2 Il raid israeliano a Osirak del 1981................................................................................ Pag.23 1.2.3 Gli attacchi chimici contro le truppe iraniane del 1984 …............................................ Pag.23 1.2.4 Successivi attacchi chimici contro i civili curdi del 1988….......................................... Pag.24 1.2.5 L'esecuzione nel 1990 di un giornalista e l'operazione sotto copertura di successo … Pag.25 1.3 Il dibattito politico sulla Guerra del Golfo …................................................................... Pag.26 1.3.1 La fase istituitiva …....................................................................................................... Pag.26 1.4 Il supporto pubblico al Presidente George H.Bush durante la Guerra del Golfo …........ Pag.30 1.5 Addomesticare una crisi: i Washington Newsbeats e i network americani …...................Pag.34 1.6 Strategic Public Diplomacy: Il controllo delle immagini del Kuwait durante il conflitto del Golfo ….................................................................................................................................. Pag.36 1.7 La Guerra del Golfo come docu-drama televisivo …..................................................... Pag. 37 CAPITOLO 2 - LA GUERRA DEL GOLFO IN DIRETTA TELEVISIVA. IL CASO CNN 2.1 Il primato della CNN durante la Guerra del Golfo ….......................................................Pag.40 2.2 Uno sguardo alla CNN. I numeri della prima rete all news …......................................... Pag.44 2.3 La diretta video da Baghdad …........................................................................................ Pag.47 2.4 “I learn more from CNN than I do from the CIA”. Il presidente Bush e i leader politici incollati allo schermo …......................................................................................................... Pag.50 2.5 Gli analisti militari. La guerra raccontata dagli studi televisivi........................................ Pag.53 2.6 Febbraio 1991. I rifugiati della Guerra del Golfo salvati dalle dirette tv …................... Pag. 56 CAPITOLO 3- IL CNN EFFECT. COME LE IMMAGINI TELEVISIVE HANNO CAMBIATO LA PERCEZIONE DELLA GUERRA 3.1 Le origini del CNN Effect: dalla guerra di Crimea al Vietnam........................................ Pag.61 3.2 Definizione e approcci metodologici …........................................................................... Pag.72 3.3 Il CNN Effect e la percezione dei leader politici.............................................................. Pag.75 3.4 Cornici interpretative e metodi d'analisi........................................................................... Pag.79 3.5 Variazioni concettuali del CNN Effect …......................................................................... Pag.84 3.5.1 CNN Effect come accelleratore dei processi decisionali ............................................... Pag.85 3.5.2 CNN Effect come ostacolo al raggiungimento di obiettivi geopolitici …..................... Pag.88 3.5.3 CNN Effect come agenda-setting ….............................................................................. Pag.90 3.6 Valutare l'impatto dei media sulla guerra: l'operazione Provide Comfort l'hanno voluta i media? ….................................................................................................................... Pag.93 CAPITOLO 4 - RILETTURA CRITICA DELLA GUERRA DEL GOLFO E DELL'INFLUENZA DEI MEDIA SULLA GUERRA 4.1 La stampa e la Guerra del Golfo: due miti da sfatare …................................................. Pag.97 4.2 Il sistema delle press pool durante la Guerra del Golfo: diritto ad essere informati Vs ragioni di sicurezza nazionale …...................................................................................................... Pag.103 4.3 I tre modi in cui la televisione raccontò la Guerra del Golfo agli americani ................ Pag.111 4.4 Come il presidente Bush ha venduto la guerra agli americani: il caso Nayirah ............ Pag.116 4.5 Obiettività Vs patriottismo:La sottile linea che nel Golfo separò cronaca e propaganda ............................................................................................................................Pag.120 4.6 Una guerra tecnologica si vince sganciando bombe “intelligenti” …............................ Pag.125 4.7 “Operation Welcome Home”: una celebrazione postmoderna per una guerra postmoderna.......................................................................................................................... Pag.131 4.8 Quanto può essere d'impatto una guerra? Dipende dalle immagini televisive. Rilettura contemporanea del pensiero di Clausewitz …...................................................................... Pag.133 CONCLUSIONI ….............................................................................................................. Pag.137 BIBLIOGRAFIA ................................................................................................................. Pag.151 “The first casualty when war comes is truth” Hiram W. Johnson ABSTRACT This thesis examines the controversy surrounding Gulf war, CNN myth and the impact of news on the foreign policy making process of the United States. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of Gulf War on United States senior military with respect to their task of managing the public debate and the image of American leadership in potential warfare situations. After an historical examination of Gulf war events and CNN history, a remark of CNN effect theory is developed that provides a tool for the examination of past, present and future conflicts. Subsequent sections examine the application of this model and the limitations provided by journalists, policy-makers, and scholars. The final section summarizes the findings. With this thesis I want to show some evidences that explain how the media has influenced the foreign policies of the strategic leaders. The unsettled questions are: Did the Gulf War coverage changed policy-makers perception of the use of the media in the policy process? How does the Cnn Effect work? How much influence does the 24-hour news network really have on foreign policy? In order to find these answers, I examined the impact of CNN's Gulf War coverage. Since the end of the Cold War the increasing willingness of Western governments to intervene militarily during humanitarian crises, coupled with significant levels of Western media attention to the human consequences of distant civil wars, raised substantive questions regarding the media-state relationship. More specifically, it is commonly argued that intervention during the umanitarian crises in Northern Iraq in 1991 – as well as in Somalia in 1992 – were partially driven by news media coverage, the so- called CNN Effect. The principal aim of this study is to examine the assumptions that staying behind the CNN Effect by conducting a search for evidence of news media influence on intervention during humanitarian crises. Understanding what motivates the United States to act is central to understanding the CNN Effect beacuse the majority of forcible interventions have occurred under the command and the leadership of United States. In addition to assessing news media influence upon intervention decisions, this study also has the important aim of developing a critical understanding of Gulf war. Lessons of the past, in general, and lessons of the Gulf war, in particular, contain not only policy-relevant analogies, but also 6 ambiguities and paradoxes. This approach forms the core of my analysis of the CNN Effect and contributes to undestrand the relation between military and the press. Before proceeding some issues require clarification. First of all, the CNN Effect concept need to be clarified. The CNN Effect originated during the 1991 Gulf war, and then the phrase has become the generic term used to describe the ability of real-time communication technology, via the news media, to provoke major responses from domestic audiences and political elites to both global and national events. The proper definition of this concept was developed by scholars and historians. Feist in 2001 tried to give an unitary definition saying that “the CNN effect is a theory that compelling television images, such as images of a humanitarian crisis, cause U.S. Policymakers to intervene in a situation when such an intervention might otherwise not be in the U.S. national interest”1. Another scholar,