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Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9” black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Artror, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0000 UMI’ DEMOCRATIZATION FROM BELOW PROTEST EVENTS AND REGIME CHANGE DSr INDONESIA 1997-1998 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in The Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Denny J. Ali The Ohio State University 2001 Dissertation Committee Approved by Professor R. William Liddle Professor Craig Jenkins Adviser Professor Goldie Shabad Political Science Graduate Program UMI Number: 9999370 UMI UMI Microform 9999370 Copyright 2001 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ABSTRACT This research concerns the massive and protracted series of protest events that took place in Indonesia in 1997 and 1998. Triggered by a deep economic crisis, these protest events transformed Indonesia into the third largest democratic country in the world. The purposes of the research are as follows. First, to correct elite theories in the literature of transition by underUning the role of non-elite actors (the masses, protest events). Second, to elaborate the strengths and weaknesses of three standard theories of mass protest/social movements (deprivation theory, resource mobilization theory, and political opportunity theory) by analyzing the case of protest events in Indonesia. And third, to highlight the positive and negative political consequences of protest events on democracy in divided societies, examining both the supporters advocating the issues of political reform, and the opponents involved in the religious and ethnic conflict and hatred. The research examines three kinds of data dealing with protest events. First are the national data (twenty seven provinces), which provide general information about the evolution, the issues, the actors, and the forms of action. The second type of data details protest events as the center of the movement in five of the provincial cities with the highest number of protest events (Jakarta, Bandung, Jogjakarta, Semarang and Surabaya). Finally, the comparison and contrast data gathered fi-om the eight provinces ii outside of Java which had the largest and fewest number of protest events, will be used to test the theories. The sources of data are mainly from national and local newspapers (Kompas, Media Indonesia, Pikiran Rakyat, Jawa Pas, Kedaulatan Rakyat and Suara M erdeka). The major findings that against O’Donnell and Schmitter’s (1986) theory, the transition from authoritarian rule in Indonesia is not initiated by the division within the elite (hardliners versus soft liners). In Indonesia, the elite did not initiate the reform; they only the responded later. The masses, the non-elite actors, initiated the refbnn. Statistical tables describe the rise and the evolution of those protest events. Economic crisis (deprivation theory) is “necessary but not sufficient” to explain them. The availability of resources and the role of political entrepreneurs (resource mobilization theory) also played a critical role in mobilizing the protest events. The support o f influential elites and the negative policies of the incumbent government at the time of the crisis (political opportunity structure theory) contributed to the magnitude and the power of those protest events. However, protest events not only accelerated political reform, they also spread hatred and bloody societal conflict based on religion, race and ethnicity. I l l Dedicated to Mulia and Rafi My wife and son Kepada dua samudera Yang menenggelamkanku ke dalam Keindahan kasih sayang IV ACKNOWLEDGMENT This dissertation is written with the help of many people. They helped me in various ways, from formulating the topics and research design, enriching the theoretical framework, gathering the data, funding the research, discussing the findings and conclusions, proofreading the English language, to supporting and encouraging me to complete as good as possible a dissertation. However, the mistakes, if any, and the weaknesses of this dissertation are fully my responsibility. First, I wish to thank my adviser, R. William Liddle. He has helped me at every stage of the dissertation, from formulating the research design, finding the fimding agency, discussing the findings, proofreading the English language, to finalizing the format of a dissertation. He is a teacher helping me not only with his professional capabilities as political scientist, but also with his wisdom and firiendship. He knows when and how to approach me in the process of completing the dissertation. I thank other professors as well, as my committee, Craig Jenkins, and Goldie Shabad. I thank Anthony Mughan as well for helping me to formulate the research design. Second, I wish to thank the Ford Foimdation for funding the field research and maintenance enabling me to complete the dissertation. Hans Antlov, Nina and Alicia from the Ford Foundation encouraged me to modify the grant back and forth, to make it accord with changes in my schedule. Without their funding and their kindness to modify the grant, the dissertation couldn’t be completed as the way I wish. Third, I wish to thank my assistants and friends in Indonesia for helping me to gather the data: Muridhan and his friends, Tohir, Apex, and some lecturers from University of Jayabaya, Jakarta, Indonesia. Collecting and coding the data from six newspapers and magazines, and finding the documents reporting the protest events, their actors, and ecological data in 27 provinces in Indonesia was an enormous challenge. Without their help, I couldn’t finish the field research in accordance with the schedule. Fourth, I wish to thank the so-called “The Mafia of Ohio State.” They are the students of William Liddle or Indonesian students close to Liddle’s circle: Rizal, Saifixl, Blair, Takeshi, Dody, Eep, Kateleen and Donny. They refreshed my spirit not only by discussing my dissertation and the personal problems related to it, but also just by their togetherness in the process of writing the dissertation. And the last ones I must thank are Mulia Jayaputri and Rafi Denny, my lovely wife and my wonderfiil son. Both of them are my source of energy, encouraging my spirit when I was up and down in the process of field research and writing. They allowed me to travel alone, leaving them for months in order to complete this dissertation. They let me focus “24 hours a day” in my dissertation in its final weeks. To them, this dissertation is dedicated. VI VITA January 1, 1963............................................... Bom, Palembang, Indonesia 1989................................................................. SH., Faculty of Law, University of Indonesia 1995................................................................. Master of Public Policy and Administration, University of Pittsburgh. 1996- 2000.......................................................Graduate Research, and Teaching Assistant The Ohio State University 1998..................................................................Executive Director of the Foundation of the Jayabaya University, Indonesia PUBLICATIONS Books 1. J.A., Dermy, (1999) Visi Indonesia Baru, Setelah Gerakan Reformasi, Jayabaya University Press: Jakarta, Indonesia 2. J.A., Dermy, (1999),Jatuhnya Suharto dan Transisi ke Demokrasi, Jayabaya University Press: Jakarta, Indonesia 3. J.A., Dermy, (1999)Catatan politik, Jayabaya University Press: Jakarta, Indonesia 4. J.A., Dermy, (1999),Various Issues in Comparative Politics, Jayabaya University Press: Jakarta, Indonesia 5. J.A., Dermy, (1999),The Role o f Government in Economy and Business, Jayabaya University Press: Jakarta, Indonesia 6. J. A., Dermy, (1992), Membaca Isu Politik; Mizwar: Jakarta, Indonesia vu 7. J.A., Denny (1991),Gerakan Mahasiswa dan Politik Kaum Muda Era SO-an; Mizwar: Jakarta, Indonesia. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: Political Science vin TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ........................................................................................................................ii Dedication...................................................................................................................