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The Development of Indonesian National Democratic Institutions and Compatibility with Its National Culture

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The Development of Indonesian National Democratic Institutions and Compatibility with Its National Culture The development of Indonesian national democratic institutions and compatibility with its national culture. 1 Master thesis Degree Public Administration Track Administration and Politics Institute Tilburg University Author D. Schoofs Administration number 759809 E-mail address [email protected] Date 23-02-2016 Supervision prof. dr. F. Hendriks Primary supervisor Tilburg University dr. A. Maleki Secondary supervisor Tilburg University 2 On the cover: Monumen Nasional (Monas), the national monument of the Republic of Indonesia. A 132m tower in the centre of Merdeka Square in Central Jakarta, build to commemorate the struggle for Indonesian independence. To me, it symbolises the first acquaintance of Indonesia with building a democratic state: The short democratic experience, right before Sukarno’s Guided Democracy. As you can see, the picture on the cover is still quite blurry. After a long period of harsh ruling, Indonesia is granted a second chance in building a democratic state. During my brief time in Jakarta, I met many people who still struggle, every day, in pursuit of their democracy. My hope is that they will continue to do so and that their democracy will be proven solid, casted in bronze as it were, as reflected by the second picture. Separated by many miles. My thoughts are with you and continue to be. Tilburg University. Frans Seda Foundation. Universitas Katolik Indonesia Atma Jaya. Indonesia Mengajar. Perludem. prof. dr. F. Hendriks. dr. A. Maleki. dr. T. Metze. Mr. Jaap van Gent. Mr. Dolf Huijgers. dr. Mikhael Dua. dr. E. Widodo. Mr. S. Simarmata. Ms. A. Dwifatma. Mr. A.M. Alizar. Ms. K.D. Sianipar. Ms. D. Arilaha. Ms. P. Chandrasari Kusuma. Ms. S. Margaretha. Mr. R. Roos. 3 I did not write one page of it without thinking about the Netherlands and without having her, so to speak, before my eyes. Inspired by Alexis de Tocqueville (1847): Democracy in America. 4 Contents p. 5 Glossary p. 7 List of figures p. 10 List of tables p. 11 Chapter 1 Setting the scene p. 12 Chapter 2 Problem posing p. 15 2.1 Research goal p. 17 2.2 Research question p. 17 2.2.1 Sub questions p. 17 2.3 Relevance p. 17 2.3.1 Scientific relevance p. 17 2.3.2 Societal relevance p. 18 2.4 Research method and design p. 19 2.4.1 Research method p. 19 2.4.2 Research design p. 20 Chapter 3 The concept of democracy p. 24 3.1 Definitions and essentials p. 24 3.2 Measuring (models of) democracy p. 27 3.2.1 Measuring the presence, level, and performance of democracy p. 28 3.2.2 (Models of) democracy and performance p. 33 3.2.3 Models of democracy p. 37 3.2.4 The operationalisation of theory mapping democratic models p. 40 3.2.4.1 Indonesia’s model of democracy p. 43 3.3 Indonesia’s national democratic institutions between 1990 and 2010 p. 47 3.4 A Lijphartian (2012) analysis of Indonesia’s institutional development p. 65 3.4.1 Conclusion p. 78 3.5 Models of democracy and dimensions of national culture p. 85 Chapter 4 The concept of culture p. 89 4.1 Democracy, culture and religion p. 90 4.2 Measuring national culture p. 95 4.2.1 Authors measuring dimensions of national culture p. 96 4.3 Indonesia’s dimensions of national culture p. 102 5 Chapter 5 Indonesia’s compatibility p. 103 5.1 Compatibility between Indonesia’s model of democracy and dimensions of national culture p. 103 5.2 The Cultural Compatibility Thesis replicated p. 107 5.2.1 Indonesia’s institutions and the CCT p. 108 Chapter 6 Field research p. 111 6.1 Introduction and method p. 111 6.1.1 Indonesia Mengajar p. 112 6.1.2 Perludem p. 114 6.1.3 Conclusion p. 116 Conclusion p. 120 References p. 124 Appendices p. 134 6 Glossary Abbreviations CBIW: Central Bank Independence Unweighted. CCS: Culturally Compatible Score. CCT: Cultural Compatibility Thesis. CVS: Chinese Value Survey. DPD (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah): Regional Representative Council. DPR (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat): People’s Representative Council/House of Representatives. DPRD I (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah): Provincial Legislative Council for provinces. DPRD II (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah): Regional Legislative Council for provinces. ENPP: Effective Number of Parties in Parliament. GBHN (Garis-garis Besar Haluan Negara): Broad Outlines of State Policy. GEP: General-Electoral Participation. GERINDRA (Partai Gerakan Indonesia Raya): Great Indonesia Movement Party. GLOBE: Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness. GOLKAR (Partai Golongan Karya): Party of the Functional Groups. HANURA (Partai Hati Nurani Rakyat): The People’s Conscience Party. IDD: Integrative Dimension of Democracy. LENP: Logarithm of Effective Number of Parties in Parliament. LNPG: Logarithm of Number of Parties in Government. MPR (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat): People’s Consultative Assembly. NasDem (Partai Nasional Demokrat): NasDem Party. NEP: Non-Electoral Participation. NPG: Number of Parties in Government. NU (Nahdlatul Ulama): Revival/Awakening of Religious Scholars. PAN (Partai Amanat Nasional): The National Mandate Party. PBB (Partai Bulan Bintang): Crescent Star Party. PD (Partai Demokrat): Democratic Party. PDD: Participative Dimension of Democracy. PDI (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia): Indonesian Democratic Party (New Order). - PDI-P (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia-Perjungan): Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle. PK (Partai Keadilan): Justice Party (1999). - PKS (Partai Keadilan Sejahtera): The Prosperous Justice Party. PKB (Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa): The National Awakening Party. 7 PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia): Indonesian Communist Party. PPP (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan): The United Development Party. PR: Proportional Representation. REP: Referendum-Electoral Participation. Rp. (Rupiah): Indonesia’s currency. SPSI (Serikat Pekerja Seluruh Indonesia): All-Indonesia Workers’ Union. TEP: Total Electoral Proportionality. VAP: Voting Age Population. WVS: World Value Survey. Translations Badan Pekerja: Working Body of the MPR. Bapak/pak: Father (literal, however commonly used to refer to a man with a higher authority). Fraksi: Faction. Golongan Karya: Functional group. Hak angket: Right of inquiry. Hak interpelasi: Right of interpellation. Ibu: Mother (literal, however commonly used to refer to a woman with a higher authority). Kabupaten: Regency. Kota: City. Malari: 15 January disaster. Mufakat: Consensus. Musyawarah: Deliberation. Orde Baru: New Order. Otonomi Daerah: Regional Autonomy Initiative. Pengajar Muda: The Young Teacher. Penjelasan: Elucidation (of the Constitution). Provinsi: Province. Reformasi: Reform. Rechtstaat: Rule of law. Sidang Istimewa: Special Session of the MPR. Sidang Tahunan: Annual Session of the MPR. Sidang Umum: General Session of the MPR. Utusan Daerah: Regional representatives. Utusan Golongan: Functional group representatives. 8 Explanations Pancasila: The Indonesian state philosophy which literally means ‘five postulates’ (Tadjoeddin, 2014, p. 185). Pancasila consist of (1) Belief in the one and only god (Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa), (2) Just and civilised humanity (Kemanusiaan Yang Adil dan Beradab), (3) The unity of Indonesia (Persatuan Indonesia), (4) Democracy guided by the inner wisdom in the unanimity arising out of deliberations among representatives (Kerakyatan Yang Dipimpin oleh Hikmat Kebijaksanaan, dalam Permusyawaratan Perwakilan), (5) Social justice for all the Indonesian people (Keadilan Sosial bagi seluruh Rakyat Indonesia). Penjelasan (elucidation): Explanatory Memorandum to the Constitution. The elucidation is the formal explanatory memorandum that accompanies most Indonesian regulations and is usually read as part of the regulation itself. 9 List of figures Figure 1: Example question from the questionnaire underpinning one part of this master thesis p. 22 Figure 2: Example question from the interview underpinning one part of this master thesis p. 23 Figure 3: The triangular relations between culture, structure and performance p. 27 Figure 4: Freedom rating, civil liberties, and political rights of Indonesia, since 1998 p. 29 Figure 5: Regime trends Indonesia, 1945-2014 p. 31 Figure 6: Development of Indonesian democracy since 2006 p. 33 Figure 7: Models of democracy p. 38 Figure 8: The difference between measuring the ‘level of democracy’ vs. variants of electoral democracy in practice p. 41 Figure 9: A two-dimensional map of democracy for 1990 to 2009 with the electoral system highlighted p. 44 Figure 10: A two-dimensional map of democracy for 1990 to 2009 with the regime type highlighted p. 45 Figure 11: A Lijphartian (2012) visualisation of Indonesia’s model of democracy p. 79 Figure 12: Models of democracy, expressions, and foundations p. 85 Figure 13: Political culture and democratic ethos p. 86 Figure 14: Societal cultures p. 87 Figure 15: Citizenship styles p. 88 Figure 16: Leadership styles p. 88 Figure 17: Prototypical structure of cultural dimensions p. 100 10 List of tables Table 1: The score of Indonesia on the Democracy Index 2014 p. 33 Table 2: Development of Indonesian democracy since 2006 p. 33 Table 3: CBIW (Central Bank Independence Unweighted) score of Indonesia 1998-2010 p. 78 Table 4: Average index of legal independence of Bank Indonesia, 1953-2008 p. 78 Table 5: Actual independence index of Bank Indonesia, 1953-2008 p. 78 Table 6: Indonesian parliamentary election results, 1999-2019 p. 94 Table 7: Cultural dimensions of Hofstede (2001) and Minkov (2007) p. 97 Table 8: Cultural dimensions of Inglehart p. 98 Table 9: Cultural dimensions of Schwartz (1999) p. 99 Table 10: Cultural dimensions of the GLOBE project p. 101 Table 11: Indonesia’s cultural dimensions scores
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