The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
An impact assessment study conducted by:
Mujtaba Muhammad Rathore Research analyst Islamabad, Pakistan +92-301-5183354 Email: [email protected]
Presented to:
United Nation Development Programme (UNDP) 4th Floor, Serena Business Complex, Islamabad, Pakistan Tel: (92-51) 8355600 Fax: (92-51) 2655014-15 www.pk.undp.org
Submitted on: 22 November, 2013
The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Executive Summary
Mainly relying on the needs assessment made in the Crisis Early Recovery Initial Needs Assessment report, the Post Crisis Needs Assessment (PCNA) report of KP and FATA, and the Flood Early Recovery Needs Assessment report, UNDP launched a “Community Infrastructure Restoration and Rehabilitation” project in District Swat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) in July 2011. The UNDP project was very closely aligned to achieve the objectives set out in the PCNA assessment, i.e. build responsiveness and effectiveness of the State to restore citizen trust; stimulate employment and livelihood opportunities; ensure the delivery of basic services; and counter radicalization and foster reconciliation.1
Physical infrastructure in Swat was among the sectors worst affected by militancy and conflict in 2009 and devastating floods in the subsequent year. According to Flood Early Recovery Need Assessment report around 2,000 kilometers of roads, 170 bridges, 700 educational and 150 health facilities, and 158 government buildings were completely destroyed. Immediate restoration and rehabilitation of community based infrastructure was the foremost post-conflict strategy adopted by national and international development and peace actors. As part of this project, UNDP in coordination with the KP government rehabilitated damaged community infrastructures schemes including link roads, drainage channels, culverts, bridges, and streets in six tehsils of Swat; Babozai, Charbagh, Kabal, Khawazakhela, Matta Khararai and Matta Sebujni.
This assessment study was commissioned in order to examine the impact of rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes in Swat on peacebuilding and social cohesion. It covers three tehsils of Swat where the CBI schemes have been restored and rehabilitated and handed over to the local community. The assessment is based on empirical findings of extensive fieldwork conducted in Kabal, Charbagh and Babozai including a survey, semi-structured interviews, and a focus group discussion besides personal observations and literature review.
Outcome of the UNDP’s implemented programme in three tehsils cited earlier entails rehabilitation and reconstruction a total of 207 CBI schemes including 123 streets, 51 culverts, 19 drainage channels, 12 small bridges, and two link roads. Over 178,388 people,
1 The document can be downloaded at http://www.khyberpakhtunkhwa.gov.pk/Departments/PnD/mne/MnE/Download/7.%20PCNA %20Report.pdf.
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
including women, the disabled and children are direct beneficiaries of the completed infrastructure schemes, as described by the UNDP project reports.2
While respondents counted different factors of conflict in Swat, which they said called for comprehensive state-level interventions, they also believed that UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes had significantly contributed towards socioeconomic recovery, provision of employment, livelihoods and a sense of security, increased mobility, and enhanced interaction among people. As many as 44 percent of total respondents of the survey conducted for this assessment ranked the role of UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes in peacebuilding and social cohesion as ‘very good’, about 12 percent regarded it ‘excellent’, and another 14 percent termed the contribution ‘good’. Only about four percent were of the view that the contribution of UNDP’s rehabilitation project was ‘low’ while 26 percent termed it ‘average’. On the whole there was a general feeling among the people as recorded through interviews, field observations and focus group discussion that law and order situation in Swat has significantly improved over the past few years. Some however said that an environment of fear of militants and kidnappers still exists.
UNDP’s peace and development programs implemented during these years have given a significant boost to overall economy of Swat including tourism. Economic recovery has also given a boost to real estate business and as a result land prices in Swat have significantly appreciated. The interviewees and participants of focus group discussion were found in agreement that UNDP schemes have created livelihood and employment opportunities for the local people. First, what they described as “process benefits” included involvement of labor and material, flourishing of construction-related businesses, and revival of overall economic activity and employment. Secondly, they referred to “end benefits” that included enhanced mobility, transportation, access to market, and economic interaction as a result of rehabilitation of infrastructure.
UNDP’s development schemes entailed community involvement, and have rendered a great sense of collective responsibility among people to build peace and contribute towards socioeconomic development of their areas. That sounds great for the overall environment of harmony and social cohesion among the people. Most of the people surveyed and interviewed for this study commended the UNDP development schemes for their greater outreach to usually ignored, or hard-to-reach areas, as compared to other such programmes. According to a youth leader Saleem Athar, “The UNDP’s work for peacebuilding and rehabilitation stands distinguished among about 60 organizations working in Swat for the same purpose.”
2 UNDP, “Community Infrastructure Restoration and Rehabilitation in 6 tehsils of District Swat,” March 20, 2013, http://www.undp.org/content/dam/pakistan/docs/CPRU/Peace%20and%20Development/SFD%20Progre ss%20Report%20as%20March%2020-%202013.pdf.
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
CONTENTS
List of Tables/Figures ...... 4 Abbreviations ...... 5 Glossary ...... 6 District Swat: Population and Geographical Location ...... 8 1. Introduction ...... 10 1.1 Purpose of the Study ...... 12 1.2 Scope of the Study ...... 12
2. Methodology ...... 12 2.1 Data Collection ...... 13
3. Development Perspective of Peace: A Literature Review ...... 17
4. CBI Interventions: Impact and Effectiveness ...... 21 4.1 Link between Development and Peacebuilding in Swat ...... 22 4.2 Impact of UNDP Project on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion ...... 26 4.2.1 Impact Indicators and Field Responses ...... 26 a. Peace and Security ...... 26 b. Socioeconomic Recovery ...... 30 c. Livelihood and Employment ...... 32 d. Reconstruction of Physical Infrastructure ...... 33 4.3 Effectiveness of CBI Interventions ...... 36 4.3.1 A Review of Outcome of CBI Interventions ...... 36 4.4 Influence on Vulnerable Groups ...... 39
5. Prospects for Project’s Impact Sustainability ...... 41
6. UNDP CBI Interventions: A Critical Review ...... 42 6.1 Context-Relevance ...... 42 6.2 Objectives-Relevance ...... 43 6.3 Lessons learned ...... 43
7. Recommendations ...... 44 7.1 For the current project of UNDP ...... 44 7.2 The future projects that contribute to peacebuilding and social cohesion ... 45
8. Annexure ...... 49 Annex-1: Survey Questionnaire ...... 49 Annex-2: List of Key Informant Interviewees ...... 52 Annex-3: Participants of Focused Group Discussion (FGD) ...... 53 Annex-4: Study Area Map ...... 54
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
LIST OF TABLES/FIGURES
What makes people vulnerable to accepting appeal of militant ideologies Chart 1 and militancy?
Table 1 Terrorist attacks in district Swat (2007-2013)
Chart 2 Casualties in terrorist attacks in Swat (2007 to 2013)
To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes contributed to Chart 3 your feeling of security, and socioeconomic protection?
Chart 4 What do you think has contributed most to building peace in your area?
To what extent has UNDP project contributed to socioeconomic recovery Chart 5 in your areas?
Chart 6 Have you directly or indirectly benefitted from the UNDP schemes?
Have you directly or indirectly benefitted from the UNDP schemes? Chart 6a (Responses in terms of socioeconomic profiles of respondents)
Chart 6 b If Yes, then which kind of benefit you achieved?
Are you personally satisfied with the quality of the UNDP’s implemented Chart 7 schemes? To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes contributed to Chart 8 peacebuilding and harmony among people? How do you perceive the goals and objectives of UNDP’s rehabilitation of Chart 9 community based infrastructure schemes in your areas? To what extent UNDP project contributed towards people’s social Chart 10 inclusion and eradicating marginalization? To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes contributed to Chart 11 your feeling of security, and socioeconomic protection? Have you directly or indirectly benefitted from the UNDP rehabilitation Chart 12 schemes? (Gender wise response)
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
ABBREVIATIONS
CBI Community Based Infrastructure CDR Community Driven Reconstruction CED Community Economic Development FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas FGD Focused Group Discussion GDP Gross Domestic Product HDI Human Development Index IRC International Red Cross JUI-F Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-Fazalur Rehman Group KPKP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa MPA Member Provincial Assembly NGO Non-government Organization NHDR National Human Development Report PaRRSA Provincial Relief, Rehabilitation and Settlement Authority PCNA Post Crisis Needs Assessment UCs Union Councils UNDP United Nations Development Programme UN United Nations
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
GLOSSARY
Peacebuilding: Peacebuilding is a process that facilitates the establishment of durable peace and tries to prevent the recurrence of violence by addressing root causes and effects of conflict through reconciliation, institution building and political as well as economic transformation.3 In Agenda for Peace, the United Nations defines peacebuilding as a process that “consists of a range of activities associated with capacity building, reconciliation, and societal transformation.
Social cohesion: Social cohesion is a concept with multiple definitions and used in the development community. Its general aim is to ensure that all citizens, without discrimination and on an equal footing, have access to fundamental social and economic rights.4 Social cohesion, as defined by the Directorate General of Social Cohesion of the Council of Europe, is a concept that includes values and principles which aim to ensure that all citizens, without discrimination and on an equal footing, have access to fundamental social and economic rights. Social cohesion is a flagship concept which constantly reminds us of the need to be collectively attentive to, and aware of, any kind of discrimination, inequality, marginality or exclusion.
Sustainable peace: Sustainable peace is characterized by the absence of physical and structural violence, the elimination of discrimination, and self-sustainability. It is defined as “the development of factors of cooperation and integration between communities and nations in order to promote lasting peace”5. Reychler and Paffenholz define sustainable peace as a term that refers to a “situation characterized by the absence of physical violence; the elimination of unacceptable political, economic, and cultural forms of discrimination; a high level of internal and external legitimacy or support; self-sustainability; and a propensity to enhance the constructive transformation of conflicts.”6
Conflict: Conflict means a state of open, often prolonged fighting; a battle or war and also a state of disharmony between incompatible or antithetical persons, ideas, or interests; a clash. In literature, the literary element conflict is an inherent incompatibility between the
3 SAIS, "The Conflict Management Toolkit: Approaches," The Conflict Management Program, Johns Hopkins University, http://www.sais-jhu.edu/resources/middle-east-studies/conflict-management-toolkit. 4 Jane Jenson, "Defining and Measuring Social Cohesion," Commonwealth Secretariat and United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 2010. 5 C.P. David, ''Does Peacebuilding Build Peace? in "Approaches to Peacebuilding" by Ho-Won Jeong, 2002, Palgrave Macmillan, New Yark. 6 Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, eds., Peacebuilding: A Field Guide (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001), 12.
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objectives of two or more characters or forces. Reychler and Paffenholz define conflict as “the pursuit of incompatible goals by different groups”.7
Violence: The term violence, according to Reychler and Paffenholz, refers to a “situation in which the quantitative and qualitative life expectancy of individuals or communities is intentionally reduced.”8 They also include spiritual, humanitarian, material, political, ecological, social, cultural, and psychological. Violence can be perpetrated physically, structurally, culturally and/or psychologically. Violence is political when it is intended to influence some political outcome. It takes numerous forms, including international warfare, civil war, communal riots, state-sponsored massacres, coups d’état, and terrorism.
Development: Junne and Verokren see development as more than “simply economic growth.”9 Development is about “improving the standard of living for all people in poor countries.”10 Development improves various sectors of living conditions in a region which can include “health, environment, education, and political participation.”11
Community development: The Canadian CED Network defines the Community Economic Development as “action by people locally to create economic opportunities and better social conditions, particularly for those who are more disadvantaged. CED is an approach that recognizes that economic, environmental and social challenges are interdependent, complex and ever-changing. To be effective, solutions must be rooted in local knowledge and led by community members.”12 "Community Economic Development is a multifaceted comprehensive approach to community change that is not limited to just poverty programs, nor is it synonymous with industrial recruitment. Community Economic Development is not an attempt to exploit resources to yield the maximum economic return."13
7 Luc Reychler and Thania Paffenholz, eds., Peacebuilding: A Field Guide (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001). 8 Ibid., 4. 9 G Junne and W. Verokren, eds., Post-conflict development: meeting new challenges (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2005), 3. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid. 12 The Canadian CED Project, “What is CED,” https://ccednet-rcdec.ca/en/what_is_ced (accessed January 22, 2014). 13 Ron Schaffer, Steven C. Deller and David W. Marcouiller, Community Economics: linking theory and practice (Iowa State University Press, 2004).
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District Swat: Population and Geographical Location
Swat valley is located approximately 160 kilometers northwest of Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan. With a total area of 5,337 square kilometers (2,060.6 square miles, or 1,251,653 acres), district Swat is comprised of six tehsils. According to the 1998 population census, the total population of the district was 1,257,602 persons (with a density of 236 persons per square kilometer). Although no recent statistics are available, the present population is estimated to be around 1,793,040 persons (with a density of 336 persons per square kilometer). The number of households, therefore, is estimated to be around 199,2664. Swat is bounded by Chitral and Ghizer districts in the north, Kohistan and Shangla districts in the east, Buner district and Malakand protected area in the south and by the districts of Upper and Lower Dir in the west. The district’s population is mainly comprised of ethnic Pakhtuns, mostly belonging to the Yousafzai tribe with its multiple sub-clans. A significant portion of the population is Dardic (known as Kohistanis); they predominantly reside in the northern mountainous areas and have close ethnic ties to neighboring Chitral. Swat has remained a popular destination for tourists from around the world. In the mid- 1990s differences arose between the government and a local Islamist group Tehreek Nifaz Shariat-e-Mohammadi (TNSM) which demanded enforcement of Islamic law in the region. The agitation continued but the government finally restored peace in the area. In 2008, the local Taliban revived the Shariah movement in the region but this time they formed the militia and took over the control of state institutions that ended the government’s authority in the region. This was followed by chaos and lawlessness at the hands of the militants. To end the crisis, the government signed a peace agreement with the militants in February 2009. This agreement soon collapsed, leading to more militancy and further deterioration in law and order in the district. These circumstances compelled the government to take action and a military operation was launched in May 2009. As a result, the government restored its writ in the area.
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1. Introduction:
The correlation between development and peace has become a central focus of development approach and practice in recent years. Owing to this intimate link, the United Nations (UN) and other international actors are trying to deal with security and development through integrated policies and programmes. Shedding its early definition as “post-conflict reconstruction,” the term “peacebuilding” has broadened its scope in the 1990s to encompass the overlapping agendas for peace and development in support of conflict prevention, conflict management and post-conflict reconstruction.14 According to the United Nations’ understanding of peacebuilding, “it is a process that involves a range of measures targeted to reduce the risk of lapsing or relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities at all levels for conflict management, and to lay the foundations for sustainable peace and development.”15
The UN prioritizes the most frequent peacebuilding needs as:16 support to basic safety and security; support to political processes and promoting inclusive dialogue and reconciliation; support to the provision of basic services and support to the safe and sustainable return of refugees and internally displaced people; support to restoring core government functions, particularly basic public administration and public finance; and support to economic revitalization, including creating jobs, particularly for youth and demobilized former combatants. Apart from socioeconomic recovery and other elements of post-conflict peacebuilding, a 2012 report by the United Nations underscored lack of social cohesion and inclusion as one of the most important factors that could trigger a relapse into conflict.17 The report further noted that “a successful peacebuilding process must be transformative and create space for a wider set of actors — including, but not limited to, representatives of women, young people, victims and marginalized communities; community and religious leaders; civil society actors; and refugees and internally displaced persons — to participate in public decision-making on all aspects of post-conflict governance and recovery.”18 Project Overview The project largely applied the UN’s peacebuilding approach and framework, briefly discussed in previous paragraphs, in post-conflict situation in Swat besides taking into consideration some context-specific needs put together by some other reports including Post
14Necla Tschirgi, "Peacebuilding as the Link between Security and Development: Is the Window of Opportunity Closing?," December 2003, International Peace Academy, New York. 15 United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office, “ Peacebuilding: Frequently Asked Questions,” http://www.un.org/en/peacebuilding/pbso/faq.shtml#q1 (accessed November 18, 2013) 16 United Nations Peacebuilding Support Office, “Peacebuilding: Frequently Asked Questions.” 17 United Nations, “Report of the Secretary-General on Peacebuilding in the Immediate Aftermath of Conflict,” 2012, Report no. A/67/499-S/2012/746, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_ doc.asp?symbol=A/67/499, p. 2 (accessed November 12, 2013). 18 Ibid., p. 11.
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Crisis Needs Assessment (PCNA) of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA.19 The PCNA assessment devised four strategic objectives to be achieved through a series of concurrent and mutually supporting interventions: build responsiveness and effectiveness of the State to restore citizen trust; stimulate employment and livelihood opportunities; ensure the delivery of basic services; and counter radicalization and foster reconciliation.20 The project was very closely aligned to achieve the same objectives through implementing a range of activities including: strengthening capacities for early recovery coordination; support to sustainable livelihood and local economic recovery; peacebuilding and social cohesion; and strengthening local governance.21 The crisis between the militants and armed forces in Swat, Buner, Dir, and Shangla districts of Malakand Division in 2009 had forced over 2.3 million people to leave their homes. Due to a prolonged gap in economic activity, the majority of crisis-affected families lacked basic income-generating options, and the displacements had depleted their minimal savings. The magnitude of destruction was massive and Swat district suffered the most infrastructural damage, with some estimates comparing the levels to those witnessed after the 2005 earthquake. This crisis followed by the 2010 floods, caused enormous damage to the economy of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The damage to community infrastructure and collapse of the relevant institutions deprived communities’ access to basic services and facilities. In the aftermath of the IDPs crises in 2009, UNDP in cooperation with the Provincial Relief, Rehabilitation and Settlement Authority (PaRRSA) implemented a three year programme “Sustainable Development through Peace Building, Governance and Economic Recovery” in KP. The programme was mandated to support sustainable return of IDPs through targeted early recovery activities and contribute towards addressing the structural causes of conflict through governance and peacebuilding interventions. The programme achieved significant milestones bringing visible change in the socio-economic fabric of the people of targeted area. Capacity of PaRRSA has been enhanced for reconstruction related projects in Malakand Division. The crisis-affected communities have started earning their livelihoods through vocational skills trainings, cash grants, assets replacement and enterprise development. Public service delivery was supported by the programme through the rehabilitation of damaged government buildings in the region. Resultantly, peace and hope in the regions have been restored with people’s enhanced confidence in the government’s service delivery institutions and they have started their normal life activities. Community Based Infrastructure Rehabilitation for Peacebuilding
19 The PCNA document was the result of the efforts, contributions and support of many people and four Institutions led by the Governments of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas Secretariat (FATA), Pakistan. The Asian Development Bank, European Union, United Nations and The World Bank combined their strength to support the Government to conduct the Post-Crisis Needs Assessment. The document can be downloaded at http://www.khyberpakhtunkhwa.gov.pk/Departments/PnD/mne/MnE/Download/7.%20PCN A%20Report.pdf. 20 Ibid., p.6. 21 UNDP, “Sustainable Development through Peacebuilding, Governance and Economic Recovery in NWFP,” November 2009, http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/documents/projects/PAK/00058104/Peace%20%26%20Dev%20 Final%20Signed%20Pro%20Doc.pdf.
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Physical infrastructure in Swat was among the sectors worst affected by militancy and conflict in 2009 and devastating floods in the subsequent year. Around 2,000 kilometers of roads, 170 bridges, 700 educational and 150 health facilities, and 158 government buildings were completely destroyed during the conflict in 2009. Immediate restoration and rehabilitation of community based infrastructure was the foremost post-conflict strategy adopted by national and international development and peace actors. Mainly relying on the needs assessment made in the Crisis Early Recovery Initial Needs Assessment report, the Post Crisis Needs Assessment report of KP and FATA, and the Flood Early Recovery Needs Assessment report, UNDP launched a “Community Infrastructure Restoration and Rehabilitation” project in District Swat in July 2011. As part of this project, UNDP in coordination with the KP government rehabilitated damaged community infrastructures schemes including link roads, drainage channels, culverts, bridges, and streets in six tehsils of Swat; Babozai, Charbagh, Kabal, Khawazakhela, Matta Khararai and Matta Sebujni. This study not only examines the impact of rehabilitation of community based infrastructure on promoting peacebuilding and improving social cohesion in crisis-affected areas but also measures the extent to which development projects can contribute towards peacebuilding by regarding the UNDP work in Swat as a case study.
1.1 Purpose of the Study The overall purpose of this research study is to establish link and to assess the degree to which UNDP’s rehabilitation of community based infrastructure (CBI) schemes has contributed to the overall objective of peacebuilding and social cohesion in the crisis- affected areas of Swat.
1.2 Scope of the Study Scope of this study is limited to only three of the six tehsils of Swat where under Peace and Development Programme CBI schemes were restored, rehabilitated and handed over to the local community by December 2013. Though the primary focus of the study is to assess the impact of CBI rehabilitation on peacebuilding and social cohesion, the research study also tries to contextualize the entire peace and development programme.
2. Methodology
According to the framework, goals and objectives for this assessment study, a hypothesis and a set of research questions were developed to study the correlation between the project’s development measures and peacebuilding in Swat’s three tehsils. At the second stage, primary and secondary data was collected by using a mixed method approach, i.e. employing both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection. At the third stage, the collected data was tabulated, triangulated and analyzed in line with the assessment objectives of the study and research questions listed below.
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Hypothesis and Research Questions The research study undertook to test the following hypothesis: “If perceptions of the people directly and indirectly benefitting from the rehabilitation of community based infrastructure (CBI) schemes are positive and they have relatively stronger sense of security and social inclusion as compared to 2009 and the following situation of the conflict, then the overall context and contribution of rehabilitated CBI schemes in peacebuilding and social cohesion are positive.” On the whole, the study sought to examine the following two main questions:
Are the CBI interventions relevant to the context and the needs of the conflict affected area? Are the CBI interventions relevant to the objective of peacebuilding and improved social cohesion? Keeping its exclusive focus on these two questions, the research study further tried to explore the following aspects related to impact and effectiveness of the rehabilitated CBI schemes, and also to look into future measures that could sustain and strengthen peacebuilding in Swat.
What is the effective link between CBI schemes and peacebuilding under UNDP’s implemented project? To what degree has the project impacted peacebuilding and social cohesion in the area? What is the effectiveness of the CBI on livelihoods and whether it has helped reduce insurgency? Is there any positive or negative impact of working men on insurgency and unemployment? What is the relationship between unemployment and political violence and is there any opportunity cost effect? What has been the impact of the project for the targeted beneficiaries, beyond the immediate outcomes? To what extent was the project successful in engaging with the most vulnerable and marginalized groups? What are the prospects for the benefits of the project to be sustained after the interventions? What are the key lessons learned? What are the key recommendations for the current project and any future projects that aim to contribute to the same overall objectives?
2.1 Data Collection Both types of data, primary or empirical and secondary, were collected by using quantitative and qualitative instruments. Empirical data was collected through: a largely close-ended
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survey with 382 respondents from 13 Union Councils (UCs) of three tehsils of Swat (Kabal, Charbagh and Babozai); 18 semi-structured qualitative interviews with local leaders of political and religious parties, tribal elders, donors’ representatives, and concerned government officials; and a structured focused group discussion among the people benefitting from the project and community leaders etc. Secondary data was collected through desk research and review of project documents and other secondary literature and material relevant to the context and activities of the UNDP’s under review project that was implemented in Swat. a. Survey As mentioned earlier, a survey was conducted through a comprehensive largely close-ended questionnaire in 13 UCs and villages of Swat’s three tehsils under study, i.e. Kabal, Charbagh and Babozai to measure the impact and effectiveness of the rehabilitated CBI schemes and their achievements against the desired goals and objectives. (Survey questionnaire is attached at Annex-1) Among 382 respondents, a total of 176 belonged to nine (9) UCs of tehsil Kabal, 136 were from three UCs of Charbagh and 70 from Sangota, in Babozai tehsil (See Annex-4 for Study Area Map). Survey sample distribution
Tehsils Union Councils No. of respondents Bara Abakhel 21 Koza Abakhel 32 Bara Bandai 7 Koza Bandai 34 Kabal Dewlai 16 Qalagay 7 Tall 29 Shah Dheri 20 Totani Bandai 10 Charbagh 65
Gulibagh 41 Charbagh Kishawara 30 Babozai Sangota 70 Total 382
As many as 99 or about 26 percent of total respondents were female and 283 or 74 percent of the total respondents were male.
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Respondents by gender
Gender No. of respondents Percent Male 283 74 Female 99 26 Total 382 100%
A total of 125 respondents were either unemployed including housewives (119) or retired (6) whereas the remaining 257 were engaged in different types of work and jobs including 36 students as described in the table below. Profession/work of respondents
Total 382
Retired 6
Student 36
Unemployed 119 No. of respondents Self employed/business 53
Labor 36
Abroad 12
Public/private job 76
Farming 44
About 64 percent of the total people surveyed were literate having at least primary school education and could read and write while 36 percent of the respondents were illiterate and unable to read and write. For illiterate people, the surveyors were trained to facilitate and extend the survey questions in easy and local language.
Respondents by education
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Percentage of respondents
Illiterate 36% Literate 64%
More than half of the people (53 percent) to whom this survey was extended were between 18 and 34 years of age; 47 percent of the respondents were either 35 years of age or older.
Respondents by age
Age group No. of respondents Percent Between 18 and 34 years 204 53 35 years & above 178 47 Total 382 100.0 b. Interviews
As many as 18 semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted to get insight on aspects of impact and effectiveness of the UNDP’s implemented project in Kabal, Charbagh and Babozai. The interviews were structured around some of the main aspects related to impact and effectiveness of UNDP rehabilitation project as listed in the survey questionnaire attached at Annex-1 with the only difference that interviews were largely qualitative. (List of the people interviewed is attached at Annex-2) c. Focus Group Discussion A focus group discussion was held in Swat Press Club, Mingora with 15 participants hailing from different backgrounds and representing communities of three tehsils where UNDP rehabilitation schemes were implemented. They were political leaders, civil society representatives, social workers, community leaders, local jirga members, and government officials. (List of participants along with their profiles is attached at Annex-3)
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The focus of the FGD was set on three main aspects as listed below:
The role of development in peacebuilding and improving social cohesion mainly in conflict affected areas of Swat; The impact of UNDP’s projects particularly rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes on socioeconomic aspects of the life of people, and hence peacebuilding and social harmony; and Further suggestions and recommendations to achieve the peacebuilding and improve social cohesion in Swat.
3. Development Perspective of Peace: A Literature Review
The literature review on peace and development revealed that there is a considerable disparity as to the nature of the affiliation between these two economic and political phenomena. In order to better understand the power and limits of the nexus between development and peace and in particular to explore whether development and peace have a tendency to reinforce each other, it is useful to assess the impact and effectiveness of development work on peace building in conflict-affected areas. The growing reliance on socioeconomic development of conflict-affected communities as part of peacebuilding programme is based on the assumption that underdevelopment, economic deprivation and poverty could make people vulnerable to perpetrating violence or joining violent groups. A large number of studies have revealed that development encourages peace as people in better economic condition are less likely to initiate violent conflict both because they are more content and because they have more to lose from the physical danger and economic disruption that war brings.22 However some others argue that development discourages peace, either because the continued development of some depends on their forceful suppression or control of others or because development increases the capacity to build and mobilize military power.23 There is however a growing realization among policy experts and development practitioners that economic development can help to build peace, though partly and with a varying degree, within and among nations. Research conducted over the past decade has demonstrated that low per capita income and slow economic growth drastically increase the chances that a country will experience violence and political instability. Blattman and Miguel (2010)24, Fearon, James D., and David D. Laitin (2003)25, and Collier, Paul, and Anke Hoeffler
22 Lloyd J. Dumas, "Development and Peace: A Virtuous Circle? Exploring the Power and Limits of the Relationship," (paper prepared for the Tenth Annual Conference on Economics and Security: June 22-24, 2006, City College, Thessaloniki, Greece), can be downloaded at www.utdallas.edu/~ljdumas /Devel%20&%20Peace.doc. 23 Ibid. 24 Christopher Blattman & Edward Miguel, “Civil War,” Journal of Economic Literature 48: 1(2010): 3-57. 25 James D. Fearon and David D. Laitin, “Ethnicity, Insurgency and Civil War,” American Political Science Review 91:1 (2003): 75-90.
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(2004)26 noted a high correlation between low per capita income and stagnant economic growth on one hand, and a propensity for intrastate violence on the other hand. Meanwhile, the peacemakers and peace initiators also emphasize the need for intentionally initiating development projects within peacebuilding programmes. Dr. Paula Green notes: “Everyone understands that there is no peace without development that impacts the lives of the marginalized and discontent, that no development can be sustained without human security and peace, and that skillful post-conflict development provides the strongest foundation for future conflict prevention.”27Junne and Verokren observe, “developing countries have gone through a period of intensive civil strife that post-conflict development has become the norm rather than the exception. Development projects have the potential to promote reconciliation and peacebuilding in the midst of these types of conflicts. This must be recognized and these approaches must be incorporated into development work in post- conflict areas.”28 Furthermore, the World Bank (2004) asserts that “countries affected by conflict face two-way relationships between conflict and poverty—pervasive poverty makes societies more vulnerable to violent conflict, while conflict itself creates more poverty.”29 Some theorists of group organization suggest that religious organizations, both violent and non-violent, tend to provide their members with a variety of social services and to restrict or prohibit a range of activities, particularly those which induce compatibility with people outside the organization.30 A study in 2010 found that “buying off community support by providing goods and services means that violent groups can attack civilians without risking significant losses in community supporters.”31 This is how violent or militant groups exploit people’s accumulated grievances and try to compete with a government in winning hearts and minds, or support of the people. Most of the Islamist groups in Muslim world including those in Egypt, Palestine, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iraq etc. offer a combination of political Islam and a system of social service delivery. In case of Pakistan, the Taliban and Jamaatud Da’awa are two befitting examples. The insurgencies in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan’s northwestern parts (FATA and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) are typical examples of militants’ seeking public support and recruitments through providing social service delivery. The development projects launched by national and international agents in these countries as an element of peacebuilding also
26 Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War,” Oxford Economic Papers 56: 4 (2004): 563-595. 27 Dr. Paula Green, "Fostering the Ties that Bind: Practicing Peacebuilding and Development in Conflict Sensitive Environments," (keynote address at a conference organized by CECI, the Canadian Centre for International Studies and Cooperation in Kathmandu, Nepal, on January 16, 2007). 28 G Junne and W. Verokren, eds., Post-conflict development: meeting new challenges (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2005), 318. 29 G Junne and W. Verokren, eds., Post-conflict development: meeting new challenges (Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2005). 30 See for instance Eli Berman, Radical, Religious and Violent: The New Economics of Terrorism (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009); Eli Berman and David. D. Laitin, “Religion, Terrorism and Public Goods: Testing the Club Model,” Journal of Public Economics 92:10-11 (2008): 1942-1967; Shawn Teresa Flanigan, “Charity as Resistance: Connections between Charity, Contentious Politics, and Terror,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29: 7 (2006): 641-655; and S. T. Flanigan, “Nonprofit Service Provision by Insurgent Organizations: The Cases of Hizballah and the Tamil Tigers,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 31: 6 (2008): 499-519. 31 Lindsay L. Heger, “In the crosshairs: Explaining violence against civilians,” a 2010 dissertation submitted at University of California, San Diego, and can be read at http://escholarship. org/uc/item/6705k88s.
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serve as a source to weaken militants’ socioeconomic links with the people. A study on conflict in Iraq underscored that with an increase in opportunities for the people of Iraq, particularly youth, the cost of labor for insurgents increased thus reducing recruitments.32 Some analysts who believe in ‘the opportunity cost theory’ argue that by employing more development resources and offering good jobs and educational opportunities not only people’s support for militant groups can be reduced but the latter’s ability to recruit individuals can be weakened.33 Some studies also suggest that understanding the conflict dynamics in the environments into which development resources are to be introduced prior to introducing them is imperative.34 A 2011 report by the European Peacebuilding Liaison Office noted that conflict-sensitive development policies, strategies and practices take account of the links between development processes of social change and peacebuilding. “[These] are based on a thorough understanding of both the context and how the [proposed] development changes will interact with other prevailing dynamics, particularly with existing and potential conflicts. If designed and implemented with this in mind, development interventions can go beyond simply respecting the basic principle of “Do no harm” and make a positive contribution to sustainable peace.”35 A fair number of research and policy studies have exclusively focused on Pakistan with a view to explore economic and development factors of conflict, insecurity and violence. Between October 2008 and April 2009, Pak Institute for Peace Studies (PIPS) conducted a comprehensive survey on radicalization in which 1,568 adult respondents from across Pakistan’s seven federal units and the capital city of Islamabad were interviewed. The survey did not find increased incidence of radicalized ideas amongst the unemployed.36 Safiya Aftab in her paper on “Poverty and Militancy” notes that although literature on causes of militancy in Pakistan and/or studies profiling militants tends to point to a connection between lack of employment opportunities and the probability of joining a militant organization, yet there is little evidence to support the contention that poverty, in and of itself, fuels extremism.37 Robert Kemp, in his paper on extremism in Afghanistan and Pakistan acknowledges that the current insurgency in Afghanistan and Pakistan has complex local roots, and is fed by poverty and unemployment among other factors, but it does not analyze the extent to which these two factors may have contributed to the influence of orthodox “foreign elements.”38
32 Matthew Hanson, at al., “Building Peace: The Impact of Reconstruction Spending on the Labor Market for Insurgents,” http://sticerd.lse.ac.uk/seminarpapers/dg26102009.pdf (accessed November 19, 2013). 33 Eli Berman, Radical, Religious and Violent: The New Economics of Terrorism (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2009); 34 USAID Evidence Summit: Development to Counter Insurgency,“ [Evidence Packet 2] Disrupting the Formation of Groups Willing to Employ Terror and Other Forms of Political Violence to Achieve their Aims,” http://igcc.ucsd.edu/assets/001/501618.pdf (accessed November 12, 2013). 35 European Peacebuilding Liaison Office (EPLO), “Linking Peacebuilding and Development,” February 2011, http://www.eplo.org/assets/files/2.%20Activities/Working%20Groups/PeDS/EPLO_Statement_ Linking_Peacebuilding_and_Development.pdf (accessed November 19, 2013). 36 Analyses on different aspects of survey were published in PIPS research journal Conflict and Peace Studies’ volume 3, number 2 &3 (2010). 37 Safiya Aftab, “Poverty and Militancy,” Conflict and Peace Studies 1: 1(2008): 65. 38 Robert Kemp (2008), as quoted by Safiya Aftab in her paper “Poverty and Militancy.
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Post Crisis Needs Assessment (PCNA) of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA counted the following drivers of conflict in these areas:39 a strongly perceived marginalization of citizens leading to a broad sense of alienation; longstanding economic deprivation, weak human development indicators, and acute disparities with national standards; breakdown of the established social order and of traditional forums and processes; and a rapid shift in the social organization of communities. The report suggests the following peacebuilding measures to defuse these conflict drivers: build responsiveness and effectiveness of the State to restore citizen trust; stimulate employment and livelihood opportunities; ensure delivery of basic services; and counter radicalization and foster reconciliation. Most of the studies however agree that though poverty, lack of economic opportunities, and relative development are among the factors which contribute to extremism and militancy in Pakistan, yet the politico-ideological and religious factors remain the most significant. As the poor suffer from a sense of deprivation and the middle class from relative deprivation, this sense intensifies further for those who are unemployed or underemployed. Nevertheless, few empirical studies have tried to examine the role of development in reducing violence by taking inputs from the field. These studies have emphasized that development programmes can play a role in undermining recruitment into and popular support for groups that employ political violence. An evaluation of the project titled “Support to peacebuilding and community development in Ituri,” implemented by the UNDP and the UN Office for Project Services in the Ituri district of the Democratic Republic of Congo,40 found that the project had made much progress toward achieving its four key aims including promotion of inter-community harmony and reconciliation. Moreover, the evaluation and assessment of Poverty and Conflict Interventions Project– implemented between July 2009 and December 2010 by Mercy Corps41–examined the relationship between economic development and stability. According to its preliminary findings, it is possible to measure shifts in economic and stability indicators and that, in some cases, these factors are correlated. This represents a significant step forward in terms of developing more robust tools for examining the relationship between economic interventions and conflict at the program level.”42 Furthermore, an analysis of lessons learned from IRC’s Community Driven Reconstruction (CDR) discovered that: “In all four programmes,43 effective community structures and processes were established and social
39 “Post Crisis Needs Assessment Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and FATA,” September 2010, http://www.khyberpakhtunkhwa.gov.pk/Departments/PnD/mne/MnE/Download/7.%20PCNA%20Report .pdf. 40 I. Samset and Y Madore, “Evaluation of the UNDP/UNOPS Peacebuilding and Community Development Project in Ituri, the Democratic Republic of Congo,” Chr. Michelsen Institute, Bergen, 2006, http://www.cmi.no/publications/file/?2534=evaluation-of-undp-unops- peacebuilding-project-drc. 41 In many parts of the world, Mercy Corps implements programs that combine economic development and peacebuilding and three Mercy Corps programs in Uganda, Ethiopia, and Indonesia are meant to see if they could capture key relationships between economic variables and stability. 42 Mercy Corps, “Evaluation and Assessment of Poverty and Conflict Interventions Indonesia Case Study Report,” 2011, http://www.mercycorps.org/sites/default/files/eapc_indonesia_case _study_2011-07- 08_final.pdf. 43 These four key programmes included: Afghanistan’s National Solidarity Programme; Azerbaijan’s Integrated Community Development Programmes; Kosovo’s Community Action Social Services Initiative – from
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cohesion (trust, confidence and willingness to work in unity between people and between people and their institutions) seems to have increased. A rise in community contributions over time demonstrated a growing willingness to set aside differences and invest personal resources and energy in the pursuit of a common goal in most, but not all communities.”44 The existing literature does not kill the need for impact assessment of development work on peacebuilding because the development agencies constantly require the exact evaluation for accountability and cost-effectiveness, and a desire to capture lessons learned in a manner that fosters cumulative knowledge about various aid interventions. The impact assessments also indicate the post-conflict approaches which address root causes of conflicts and which integrate peacebuilding, conflict prevention, and conflict management capacities into reconstruction and development project. Evaluation and impact assessments take on added significance, not merely as a tool insuring accountability to donors and as a mechanism with which to derive lessons learned, but as a means of testing the credibility of the entire approach.
4. CBI Interventions: Impact and Effectiveness
With the financial assistance from the Saudi Fund for Development and coordination with PaRRSA and Provincial Disaster Management Authority, the UNDP initiated the restoration and rehabilitation of damaged community infrastructure schemes in six tehsils of Swat: Babozai, Charbagh, Kabal, Khawazakhela, Matta Khararai, and Matta Sebujni of Swat district. The damage was caused by the Taliban militancy and during the subsequent 2009 military operation and 2010 floods. The UNDP project aimed to promote peacebuilding and improve social cohesion in crisis- affected areas through the rehabilitation of community based infrastructure and to improve access of affected communities to basic services and facilities. This research-based assessment report seeks to explore the impact and effectiveness of what the UNDP project has accomplished so far in three tehsils of Charbagh, Babozai, and Kabal as part of its larger rehabilitation of CBI schemes in post- conflict recovery. Another underlying objective is to evaluate the overall context, objective- relevance and contribution towards peacebuilding and social cohesion of these rehabilitated schemes. The output of the UNDP project includes rehabilitation and reconstruction of 207 community infrastructure schemes in Charbagh, Babozai, and Kabal including 123 streets, 51 culverts, 19 drainage channels, two link roads and 12 small bridges. A total of 178,388 people, including women, the disabled and children are direct beneficiaries of the completed infrastructure schemes, as described by the UNDP project reports.
2000 to 2002, IRC implemented a CDR model that sought to increase community ; and Rwanda’s Community Development, Good Governance and Decentralization Programmes, 44 L. McBride and N. Patel, “Lessons Learned on Community Driven Reconstruction,” Version 1, 2007, Post- Conflict Development Initiative, International Rescue Committee, New York, http://www.theirc. org/resource-file/lessons-learned-community-driven-reconstruction.
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As many as 207 oversight committees were formed by UNDP representing their respective villages where the infrastructure schemes were being rehabilitated. The assessment of the impact and effectiveness of the rehabilitated CBI schemes as given in the following pages mainly draws from the responses of a representative sample of direct beneficiaries of the rehabilitated schemes besides interviews and a focus group discussion with community leaders, and representatives of governmental and non-governmental development and other related institutes and organizations. 4.1 Link between Development and Peacebuilding in Swat
Although the pre-2009 Swat did not figure well in Human Development Index (HDI) rankings of Pakistan’s districts, yet the conflict in 2009 and the following floods in 2010 further deteriorated the situation there. According to UNDP’s Pakistan National Human Development Report (NHDR), prepared in 2003,45 Punjab ranked highest on the human development index, followed by Sindh, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, then FATA, and Balochistan. In the HDI ranking of 91 settled districts in all four provinces of Pakistan, Swat ranked at 66.46 A relative lower level of socioeconomic development in Swat, as compared to many other regions of Pakistan, was one of the factors that created appeal of extremist and militant ideologies among the Swati people. In the post-conflict scenario, there would have been more likelihood for the people’s falling into trap of extremists and becoming prone to conflict had the state and non-state development agents ignored their socio-economic needs. As suggested by field interviews and focus group discussion, most of the people felt there were three main reasons for the rise of extremism and militancy in Swat that particularly started in 2005-06; widespread religiosity and traditional conservatism among most of the Pashtun community in Swat region; poverty and unemployment that were relatively higher in remote areas of Swat including three tehsils under study; and dissatisfaction with the state justice system, which according to some respondents did not provide free and speedy justice. While some community leaders correlated conflict with underdevelopment, lack of economic opportunities and unemployment, others highlighted the role of religious extremist groups based in Swat in ideological indoctrination and extremist interpretation of religion that contributed towards growth of extremism and militancy. As the former stressed on the need for socioeconomic development, the latter underscored the need for educating and creating awareness among the people with a view to build peace and reduce the risk of violence and conflict. Wajid Ali Khan, former member of KP provincial assembly from Babozai, was of the view that:
45The report attempted to rank provinces on the basis of social development using the methodology developed for the preparation of the UNDP’s cross country Human Development Index (see Hussain et. al., 2003). Thus the HDI is constructed on the basis of literacy and enrolment ratios in an area, in addition to infant mortality and immunization rates and real GDP per capita. (Source: Safiya Aftab, “Poverty and Militancy,” Conflict and Peace Studies, vol. 1, no. 1 (2008). 46 Hussain, Akmalet. al., “Pakistan: National Human Development Report – Poverty, Growth and Governance,” (UNDP: 2003).
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“Militant and extremist groups found recruits from Swat by offering them livelihood and employment opportunities. The situation changed after the 2009 military operation when the government and international development agencies provided the people with the economic opportunities and other socioeconomic facilities that positively impacted on the efforts to build peace there.”47 Many among the interviewees and the participants of the focus group discussion alluded to the traditional justice system in Swat that according to them gradually got deteriorated, particularly after 1970. “Lack of social justice, economic disparity, and lack of opportunities made the people vulnerable to alternative systems of service delivery offered by the extremists. During the era of Wali (official title of the ruler of the Swat state), people of Swat got rapid and cheap justice. This did not continue after the new justice system was enforced here.”48 “The delayed and lopsided delivery of justice forced people to look towards parallel systems of justice provided by the extremist forces.”49 Some interviewees said that establishment of extremist organizations in Swat also contributed to worsening law and order and peace situation as these organizations exploited people’s religious sensitivity to gather ideological support and get funds and recruits.50 According to Bilal Ahmed Danish, secretary general of JUI-F in Charbagh: “It was almost impossible to think of terrorism in these areas before 2007 and peace prevailed to a greater extent. Taliban [mis]used Islam to exploit people’s association with and love for religion. People supported them morally and financially. The Taliban’s use of violence to achieve their objectives created distrust among people who gradually understood the real agenda of the Taliban. Now, people have realization that their support to the Taliban was wrong and proved disastrous to their socioeconomic and political life.”51 Nonetheless, responding to a survey question as to what makes people vulnerable to militant ideologies, a considerable number of respondents chose the options of poverty and economic backwardness (58, or about 15 percent), lack of education (15 percent), or both of these (41 percent). (See Chart 1) Interestingly, religiosity and presence of militant organizations seemed less important to most of respondents as a total of 28 respondents, or 7 percent, collectively opted for these two options. Responses from the field significantly favored the role of the development work done by UNDP and other organizations in parts of Swat in bringing peace and stability.
47Wajid Ali Khan (former MPA of Awami National Party (ANP), interview by the author in village Gunbad Meera, Tehsil Babozai on November 4, 2013. 48Kaleem Saeed (a community leader), interview with the author in Barabakhel, Kabal on November 3, 2013 49 Zahid Khan (head Swat Qaumi Jirga and president Swat Hotels Association), views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013. 50Samiullah (a shopkeeper), interview with field team members in village Balakot, tehsil Charbagh on November 4, 2013. 51Bilal Ahmed Danish (journalist, social worker and secretary general JUI-F in Charbagh), interview with the author in Charbagh on November 4, 2013.
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Some said there was still a lot of space for development and reconstruction as pace and the number of such initiatives was less than the required. They underscored that poverty and unemployment ratios are still high in rural areas which should be a matter of concern for the government.52 Few of the interviewees thought that without eliminating the religious-ideological factors and curbing the spread of extremist groups across Pakistan, peace cannot be restored in Swat and anywhere else in Pakistan simply by eradicating poverty and unemployment. However they correlated the development and reconstruction process with peacebuilding, although to a lesser extent, and said that about 40 percent of Swat’s people are backwards in terms of socioeconomic indicators and there is a need for focusing on this segment in political, social and economic measures launched through the governmental and nongovernmental schemes.53 Chart 1: What makes people vulnerable to accepting appeal of militant ideologies and militancy?
No. of respondents
More than 2 options 28 c & d 10 b & d 22 b & c 5 a & d 8 a & c 8 a & b 157 d. Presence of militant organizations 17 c. Religiosity 11 b. Lack of education 58 a. Poverty and economic backwardness 58
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Others however said there has been a lot of development and economic progress, and due to fast pace of development work and less unemployment it is difficult to find laborers in certain areas. According to a political worker from Waliabad village in tehsil Charbagh:
52Fazl-e-Haq (journalist, development consultant), interview with the author in Mingora on November 5, 2013. 53Moambar (advocate, High Court, Swat), interview with the author in Mingora on November 6, 2013.
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“As people are far more prosperous now, thanks to UNDP and other development agencies, there is least likelihood that they would support militants and their ideology in future.”54 Similarly, most of the participants of the focus group discussion held to explore local responses on UNDP’s reconstruction and development schemes were found in agreement that peace and development are part and parcel to each other however they differed on degree of this relationship. Nonetheless some discussants said development and reconstruction projects should also focus on strengthening of civil administration institutions and communities.55 Noor Malik, a representative of LASOONA56, said underdeveloped, aggrieved and marginalized communities are more prone to be used by actors of violence. This fact is clearly visible when we see that most of the conflicts in present day world are concentrated in areas where the state of socioeconomic development is relatively poor.57
Ismail Swati, an NGO worker in Manglore, tehsil Babozai stated:58 “The awareness, advocacy and socio-cultural programs launched by the UNDP have helped people think positively and progressively and they are increasingly becoming more supportive and cooperative towards development, reconstruction and rehabilitation schemes. That is very significant achievement because without changing people’s mindset and making them moderate and progressive in thinking, no program can engage them even in best of their benefit.” There is a great demand among community for development projects for their areas. According to DC Swat Imtiaz Hussain Shah, community leaders, political representatives of people and also individuals repeatedly contact and approach his office with demands mainly for reconstruction of infrastructure.59 On a different note, few people highlighted the role of government in providing security to people and ensuring peace but they did not rule out the role of development in peacebuilding. According to a community leader from village Kot in Charbagh:60 “Although development contributes to peacebuilding, but achieving peace and providing security to the people is responsibility of the government and not the development agents. To put it in another way, without peace and security, implementation of development project is also not possible.”
54Noorullah (political worker of JUI, village Waliabad, tehsil Charbagh), interview with the author on November 4, 2013. 55 Dr. Khalid Mehmood Khalid (social worker and political leader), views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013. 56 LASOONA is a Pashto word, meaning “Hands.”It is an NGO working for human and natural resource development. 57 View expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013. 58 Ismail Swati (head Optimistic Youth Network, Manglore, Babozai), interview with the author in Babozai on November 6, 2013. 59 Interview with the author at DC office Swat on November 5, 2013. 60Ma’ana Dar (a community leader and farmer), interview with the author in village Kot, Charbagh on November 4, 2013.
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As most people interviewed and surveyed for this study believed that poverty, economic backwardness and lack of education had made people vulnerable to accepting appeal of militant ideologies and militancy, the rehabilitation of CBI schemes directly or indirectly contributed to mitigate these factors. 4.2 Impact of UNDP Project on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
After a brief review of how residents of Kabal, Charbagh and Babozai link initiatives launched for their economic betterment and development to peace building, this section directly looks into impact of UNDP’s rehabilitated CBI schemes on the overall process of peacebuilding in these areas. For that purpose certain impact indicators were identified and the extent of their success or achievement was gauged. All this was done by using the responses of the direct beneficiaries of the UNDP project besides consulting the community leaders and others.
4.2.1 Impact Indicators and Field Responses Responses were sought from people through survey, interviews and focus group discussion on how and to what extent they thought UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes had contributed towards: peace and security; socioeconomic recovery; livelihoods and employment; and reconstruction of physical infrastructure. a. Peace and Security The study of peace is traditionally related with conflict and security and it is important to analyze the dynamics of conflict and security whenever the link between peace and development would be analyzed. The security means the absence of direct and structural violence as well as possibilities to economic well-being while insecurity mostly occurs as a result of violence and conflict and it may include the resource scarcity, inequalities and poverty. Swat had faced a deadly episode of violence from 2007 to 2009 that ended with a successful military operation by the security forces in July 2009 which expelled the militants from the area. Though the number of militants’ attacks considerably decreased after the military operation, however, a few low intensity assaults and ambushes by the militants were reported in Swat from 2010 to 2012.61(See Table 1 and Chart 2) Civilians, educational institutions, political leaders, pro-government tribal elders, security forces’ convoys and check posts and CD shops were mainly targeted by militants in these attacks even after the district was declared clear and safe by the security forces. Nevertheless, the intensity of threat is very low and people feel themselves secure and safe and they think that they are now well aware of the agenda of the militants. A lot of activities and development work on community level helped the people to rehabilitate their economic activities that contributed towards socioeconomic recovery, awareness, and social cohesion in conflict-affected areas of Swat. Table 1: Terrorist attacks in district Swat (2007-2012)
61 Statistics are based on Pak Institute for Peace Studies’ (PIPS) digital database on conflict and security, http://san-pips.com/app/details/1.php.
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Year No. of attacks Killed Injured 2007 77 614 577 2008 379 458 444 2009 248 223 295 2010 41 77 213 2011 16 10 20 2012 11 10 16 Source: http://san-pips.com/app/details/1.php Chart 2: Casualties in terrorist attacks in Swat (2007 to2013)
700
600
500
400 No. of attacks Killed 300 Injured
200
100
0 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Source: http://san-pips.com/app/details/1.php Responding to a question as to what extent UNDP’s rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes contributed to their personal feelings of security and socioeconomic protection, most of the respondents (44 percent) said ‘very good’, about 12 percent said ‘excellent’, and 14 percent regarded the contribution as ‘good’. Only about 4 percent were of the view that the contribution of UNDP’s rehabilitation project was low while 26 percent termed it ‘average’.
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Interestingly, female, illiterate and unemployed respondents appreciated more the role and contribution of UNDP’s rehabilitation project towards their sense of security and protection. (See Chart 3) One apparent reason for that could be that the unemployed, illiterate and women have greater sense of insecurity due to being financially less empowered though with varying degrees. Chart 3: To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes contributed to your feeling of security, and socioeconomic protection?
Percent
Excellent Very Good Good Average Low
12 44 Overall (% of Total Respondents) 14 26 4 13 37 Unemployed (% of Unemployed Total) 26 22 2 10 28 Employed (% of Employed Total) 24 34 4 12 34 Illiterate (% of Illiterate Total) 21 19 14 8 28 Literate (% of Literate Total) 29 18 17 17 39 Female (% of Female Total) 26 17 1 8 28 Male (% of Male Total) 26 34 4
Responding to another similar question that sought people’s responses on the factors that contributed most to building peace in their areas, 21 percent of the respondents said rehabilitation and reconstruction schemes were the main contributor whereas 25 percent chose the role of security forces regarding that. Meanwhile another 21 percent of the respondents credited both rehabilitation/reconstruction schemes and security forces. (See Chart 4) Chart 4: What do you think has contributed most to building peace in your area?
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Percentage
More than two 24 Both a & b 21 d. Promotion of socio-cultural activities 2 c. Economic development 7 b. The role of security forces 25 a. Rehabilitation/ reconstruction schemes 21 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
That implies that development and rehabilitation schemes and promotion of socio-cultural activities improved people’s sense of security and peace, mainly due to enhanced community-level interaction and mobility, improved understanding of the militants’ agendas, and economic prosperity leading to a reduction in appeal of militant ideologies. On the whole there was a general feeling among the people as recorded by interviews, field observations and focus group discussion that there is improved law and order situation in Swat overall. Some however said that an environment of fear of militants and kidnappers still exists.62
Bilal Ahmed Danish, a social and political worker form Charbagh said:63 “Two kinds of threats and fears are still there among people: first, fear of targeted killing from militants particularly to those who are part of peace committees or have remained part of government’s campaign against militants; second, from security agencies, mainly due to widespread check posts and presence of intelligence personnel.”
“According to Mian Saeed, a jirga member in Charbagh:64 “People have enhanced understanding and awareness about security threats and have formed local committees to counter the militancy threats and safeguard their localities against the militants during nights.” Furthermore, people are vigilant enough to report to police and security forces in case some of the militants, who were recruited from these areas and fled after the military operation, are seen there. Nonetheless, people have strong belief that the militant organizations and groups, either new or the ones eliminated during 2009 military operations, have almost minimal chances to regroup in the areas of Swat.65As indicated by the survey respondents, the people interviewed for this study were also of the view that people have mostly remained
62Dr. Hazrat Ali (senior vice president Insaaf Youth Wing, village Deolai, tehsil Kabal), interview with the author in Swat on November 3, 2013. 63Bilal Ahmed Danish (journalist, social worker and secretary general JUI-F in Charbagh), interview with the author in Charbagh on November 4, 2013. 64Mian Saeed (a local jirga member), interview with the author in Charbagh on November 4, 2013. 65Ma’ana Dar (a community leader and farmer), interview with the author in village Kot, Charbagh on November 4, 2013.
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satisfied with the performance of security forces during and after the 2009 military operation against militants and believe that the security forces, mainly military, have significantly contributed to securing peace and maintaining law and order situation in Swat. On the other hand people are not fully comfortable with the presence of military check-posts in their areas and think that the police and local community-based networks should take up the security responsibility now. b. Socioeconomic Recovery Community based development that brings out the economic and social reconstruction is crucial to the success of the peace process, as violence or conflict is often triggered by unfair access to resources, economic marginalization, and unstable power structures. Local economic development initiatives which engage the community members are usually sustainable, respected, and help build trust within communities and conflicting people groups. In post-conflict situation worldwide, development projects have the potential to promote peacebuilding and social cohesion that will help to reemerge the conflict in the society. The same proved true in district Swat where most of the survey respondents were also found satisfied with the contribution of UNDP’s rehabilitation project towards socioeconomic recovery in their areas although with a varying degree. Majority of the respondents (a combined total of 66 percent) termed this contribution either good, very good or excellent, while 26 percent termed it average and 6 percent described it low. (See Chart 5) That implies about two-third of the respondents believed UNDP project has positively and effectively contributed to socioeconomic recovery in their areas. Chart 5: To what extent has UNDP project contributed to socioeconomic recovery in your areas?
Frequency Excellent Low 15% 8%
Average 26%
Very Good 37% Good 14%
The participants of focus group discussion and also some of the interviewees counted for following factors that contributed to economic recovery as a result of UNDP’s implemented project activities:
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Increased circulation of money; Overall economic and GDP growth; Increased per capita income; Increased purchasing power among people; Revival of small businesses particularly those related to construction material and activity; Increased employment and labor opportunities; and Revival of agricultural and other industries, mainly due to enhanced connectedness to urban areas through link roads. Swat economy has since long remained largely dependent on tourism industry. Insecurity and militancy created an environment of fear and terror that not only negatively impacted the tourism but also caused huge damage to this particular industry. After the 2009 military operation, situation has changed a lot. UNDP’s peace and development programs implemented during these years including rehabilitation of CBI schemes, “Peace Ski Gala 2011” and “Spirit of Swat 2011” have given a significant boost to overall economy of Swat including tourism.66 Economic recovery has also given a boost to real estate business. Land prices have gone up, in certain areas including urban areas of Swat and Mingora where prices of lands are higher than in Islamabad.67 c. Livelihood and Employment The survey found a strong relationship between livelihoods and peace. According to Naemat Khan, a peace committee member from Sangota, Babozai: “As lack of employment opportunities and poverty were among the factors that harmed peace of the area, concerted efforts to provide livelihoods and develop socioeconomics of these areas have helped sustain the peacebuilding efforts.”68 Most of the interviewees and participants of focus group discussion were found in agreement that the rehabilitation schemes directly or indirectly contributed towards creation of livelihood and employment opportunities for the local people. They counted the benefits of UNDP rehabilitation project in terms of generation of livelihood and employment opportunities in two ways. First, what they described as “process benefits” included involvement of labor and material, flourishing of, as mentioned earlier, construction-related businesses, and revival of overall economic activity and employment. Secondly, they referred to “end benefits” that included
66 Ikramullah (social worker associated with the WFP), views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013. 67 Wajid Ali Khan (former MPA of Awami National Party (ANP), interview by the author in village Gunbad Meera, Tehsil Babozai on November 4, 2013. 68Naemat Khan (member peace committee and former councilor), interview with the author in Sangota, Babozai on November 5, 2013.
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
enhanced mobility, transportation, access to market, and economic interaction as a result of rehabilitation of infrastructure. Bilal Ahmed Danish noted: “In Charbagh the UNDP schemes also involved professional and skills trainings including in plumbing, electrician, computer hardware, mobile repairing, masonry, and carving etc. These schemes enabled people to start their own businesses or get employment.”69 According to Khwaja Muhammad Khan, a leader of ANP from Swat: “Although I cannot provide precise statistics for that but I am convinced by the level of economic growth and the economic benefits the locals got through the UNDP and other schemes.”70 As many as 75 percent of survey respondents replied in affirmative when they were asked if they had directly or indirectly benefitted from UNDP’s rehabilitation project; 25 percent replied in negative. Chart 6: Have you directly or indirectly benefitted from the UNDP schemes?
Frequency
No 25%
Yes 75%
Respondents engaged in farming or doing some sort of public or private job were seemingly among those who benefitted relatively less form UNDP rehabilitation project as compared to others; yet more than 60 percent of respondents belonging to these two categories replied in affirmative. (See Chart 6a) About 69 percent of the respondents who said they were direct or indirect beneficiaries of the rehabilitation schemes thought this benefit was related to facilitation in infrastructure and transportation. To 21 percent this consequent benefit meant the overall economic betterment and development of their areas. Six percent said the project provided
69 Bilal Ahmed Danish (journalist, social worker and secretary general JUI-F in Charbagh), interview with the author in Charbagh on November 4, 2013. 70 Views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013.
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
employment and livelihood to their family member(s) whereas another four percent said they got direct benefit in form of employment. d. Reconstruction of Physical Infrastructure Floods, terrorist attacks and military’s operations and clashes with the militants caused huge damage to infrastructure in Swat, particularly schools, roads, bridges and other public and private property. As described in Chart 6b, most of the people surveyed viewed the benefit of the rehabilitation project in terms of revival of physical infrastructure. That implies reconstruction of physical infrastructure offered a great deal of benefit to all segments of society including farmers, businessmen, employees and others.
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Chart 6a: Have you directly or indirectly benefitted from the UNDP schemes? (Responses in terms of socioeconomic profiles of respondents)
90 83 83 81 83 83 80 75 68 70 63 60
50 37 40 32 Yes 30 25 No 17 17 19 17 17 20
10
0
While the farmers, employed, and self-employed, or businessmen, related the benefits more to rehabilitation of infrastructure, to laborers and unemployed generation of employment opportunities, as a result of development project, was more important. Meanwhile people living abroad, retired or studying counted the overall development of their areas as a result of rehabilitation and development projects. Chart 6 b: If Yes, then which kind of benefit you achieved?
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Employment 4%
Betterment and development of areas Support to 21% family 6% Facility in infrastructure and transportation 69%
Rehabilitation not only enhanced economic connectedness but also interaction among people that as a whole contributed to social cohesion. Reconstruction of physical infrastructure including streets, link roads, and bridges contributed to people’s getting rid of environment of isolation and fear. Also, many respondents were of the view that government should take a leading role in reconstruction and rehabilitation of their areas. That, unluckily, was not the case. Nonetheless, most of the respondents highlighted the role played by the international development agencies, particularly the UNDP, in reconstruction and rehabilitation of the physical infrastructure in conflict-hit and floods-devastated Swat. As far quality of the UNDP’s rehabilitated schemes is concerned, majority of the survey respondents (82 percent) were satisfied with it while 18 percent were not satisfied, mainly due to what they described as corruption in such projects, use of bad material due to involvement of corruption, and lack of so-called community engagement etc. Chart 7: Are you personally satisfied with the quality of the UNDP’s implemented schemes?
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Percentage
No 18%
Yes 82%
A former MPA of Awami National Party highlighted the significance of rehabilitation of physical infrastructure in the following words:71 “Reconstruction and development projects of the UNDP have largely focused on reconstruction of physical infrastructure including roads and bridges. The floods had disconnected contact among people of different areas that was restored by these schemes. That not only put the people into contact but also contributed to peacebuilding as people are now increasingly able to get into contact, share their viewpoints with each other and get out of militants’ fear.” Others however underlined that certain far-flung areas are still disconnected from urban centers due to absence of road links making it difficult for farmers to take agricultural produce to markets in time. Some survey respondents and interviewees particularly from Guli Bagh, Charbagh and Kishawara areas highlighted the need for establishing road links between rural and urban areas. Naemat Khan, member peace committee and former councilor from Sangota, Babozai pointed out: “Although construction of roads and paving of streets have made people’s mobility easy, there is still need for reconstruction of education and health infrastructures besides the main roads and highways to link these areas to main cities.”72 According to Rasheed Iqbal, president Swat Press Club:
71Wajid Ali Khan (former MPA of Awami National Party (ANP), interview by the author in village Gunbad Meera, Tehsil Babozai on November 4, 2013. 72Naemat Khan (member peace committee and former councilor), interview with the author in Sangota, Babozai on November 5, 2013.
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“Compared to the level of destruction caused by the floods, militant attacks and also security operations the level and pace of reconstruction and rehabilitation schemes have remained slow.”73 4.3 Effectiveness of CBI Interventions This section assesses the achievement of UNDP project against desired results or objectives of building peace and promoting social cohesion. It also looks into effectiveness of the UNDP project in terms of mitigating the risk of violence and insurgency in targeted areas of Swat, besides discussing how it influenced lives of marginalized communities including women. 4.3.1 A Review of Outcome of CBI Interventions A total of 70 percent of the survey respondents, though with a varying degree, believed that UNDP’s rehabilitation schemes have positively and effectively contributed to process of building peace and creating social harmony in the areas where these schemes were launched. As many as 44 percent of respondents termed this contribution ‘very good’, 14 percent said it was ‘good’ and another 12 percent ranked this contribution ‘excellent’. (See Chart 8) Meanwhile 26 percent thought that the contribution of UNDP project to building peace and harmony in their areas was ‘average’ while 4 percent described it as ‘low’. A small percentage of the respondents (5 percent) perceived the goals and objectives of UNDP work in their areas as to accomplish some foreign agenda. Nonetheless, majority of the respondents (86 percent) believed that UNDP objective in launching these development projects was solely aimed at reconstructing and developing their areas. Other responses to this particular question are given at Chart 9. Chart 8: To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes contributed to peacebuilding and harmony among people?
73 Views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013.
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45 40 35 30 25 44 Percent 20 15 26 10 14 12 5 4 0 Low Average Good Very Good Excellent
Chart 9: How do you perceive the goals and objectives of UNDP’s rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes in your areas?
Any other 1
Accomplishment of some foreign 5 agenda
Alleviation of poverty and Percentage 8 unemployment
Reconstruction and development of 86 area
0 20 40 60 80 100
It was observed during field work in three tehsils of Kabal, Charbagh and Babozai that there is a great sense of collective responsibility among people to build peace and contribute towards socioeconomic development of their area. That sounds great for the overall environment of harmony and social cohesion among the people. Livelihood and employment opportunities along with enhanced awareness among communities have worked to reduce their vulnerability to trigger conflict or provide support to militant or insurgent groups. Perceptions from the field suggest that majority of the people now consider insurgent groups as the actors of violence having vested/criminal interests in their so-called “religious-ideological propagation”. Sultan-e-Rome, a community leader from Barabandai, Kabal, said:
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“UNDP schemes have contributed towards reduction of poverty and unemployment. People are now far more prosperous than they were during and after the conflict. They are feeling secure in terms of livelihood and physical security. This is helping people shun the extremist elements.”74 It was also observed during interaction with the local community representatives that there is a great deal of consensus among the people that they should welcome all sorts of development agents in their areas keeping their political and socio-cultural biases aside. Nonetheless, locals underscored the need for engaging community members before launching a development initiative so that it is the people who plan the related measures according to own their needs and priorities. With regard to quality of work undertaken by the rehabilitation schemes, a social mobilize Muhammad Bashir said that people are satisfied with that aspect of the schemes to a greater extent mainly due to the fact that the engineers of the UNDP and the involved construction companies regularly oversaw and monitored the project activities.75 Usually contractors use substandard material and do not do quality work but the UNDP schemes have managed to assure quality of work in their development schemes and people are quite satisfied. Bakht Afsar, social worker and member of a peace committee in Jamalabad, Sangota in tehsil Babozai said:76 “The UNDP-constructed culverts and link roads in Jamalabad are very strong and of excellent quality. It has made our life easy and enabled our access to mountainous areas.” Most of the people also believed that UNDP’s peace and development programme stood far ahead of similar measures launched by the government and other organizations. According to a youth leader Saleem Athar: “The UNDP work for peacebuilding and rehabilitation stands distinguished among about 60 organizations working in Swat for the same purpose.”77 DC Swat Imtiaz Hussain Shah said that UNDP and other international development agencies mostly pursue independent initiatives. Government nonetheless provides them feedback on the nature of work and areas in emergency need, if asked.78 According to Khurshid Kaka Jee, a political leader from Swat: “The effects of the UNDP development and reconstruction schemes are more visible in forms of roads, drainage system, and culverts in Totano Bandai, Tall, and Deolai villages of tehsil Kabal.”79
74 Sultan-e-Rome (a local community leader from Barabandai, Kabal), interview with the author on November 3, 2013. 75 Interview with the author in Khawazakhela, Swat. 76 Bakht Afsar (social worker and member of a peace committee), interview with the author in Jamalabad, Sangota on November 5, 2013. 77 Views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013. 78 Imtiaz Hussain Shah (DC Swat), interview with the author in Swat on November 5, 2013.
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4.4 Influence on Vulnerable Groups
Fazl-e-Haq, a journalist and development consultant stated: “UNDP schemes greatly impacted the life of people living in backward and underdeveloped areas. Development schemes produced employment opportunities for the people living in these areas that led to socioeconomic development of marginalized communities.”80 This perception figured well among responses collected from survey respondents, interviewees and also participants of focus group discussion. Responding to a survey question, a combined 66 percent of respondents held positive view of UNDP rehabilitation schemes’ contribution towards people’s social inclusion and eradicating marginalization; 26 percent termed this contribution ‘good’, 30 percent ‘very good’ and 10 percent ‘excellent’. (See Chart 10) Chart 10: To what extent UNDP project contributed towards people’s social inclusion and eradicating marginalization?
Percentage Excellent 10% Low 16%
Very Good Average 30% 18%
Good 26%
Most of the people surveyed and interviewed for this study commended the UNDP development schemes for their greater outreach to usually ignored, or hard-to-reach areas, as compared to other such programmes. A youth leader form Manglore, in tehsil Babozai expressed following thoughts: “It goes without doubt that UNDP rehabilitation schemes and their outcomes are largely visible even in far-flung areas, including for instance Union Council Kishawara which has
79 Khurshid Kaka Jee (local leader of Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party (PkMAP) in Swat), views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013. 80 Fazl-e-Haq (journalist, development consultant), interview with the author in Mingora on November 5, 2013.
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a rugged mountainous terrain and development agents or organizations usually find difficult to carry out a development activity there.”81 Meanwhile, gender-wise responses to a survey question revealed that the rehabilitation of CBI schemes had contributed more to feeling of security and socioeconomic protection among female as compared to male, apparently due to former’s relative less financial empowerment and also dependence on the latter. Some women highlighted the benefits as easy access to hospitals, market and education facilities. A combined total of 82 percent of overall female respondents thought UNDP rehabilitation project had added to their sense of security and socioeconomic protection in good (25 percent), very good (40 percent), or excellent (17 percent) ways. On the other hand, an overall 62 percent of total male respondents said UNDP project had added to their sense of security and socioeconomic protection in good (25 percent), very good (28 percent), and excellent (9 percent) ways. (See Chart 11) Chart 11: To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of CBI schemes contributed to your feeling of security, and socioeconomic protection?
Percentage
Male (% of Male Total) Female (% of Female Total)
40
34
28 25 25
17 17
9
4 1
Low Average Good Very Good Excellent
Similarly responding to another survey question, about 83 percent of female respondents said they had directly or indirectly benefitted from UNDP rehabilitation schemes as opposed to about 72 percent of total male respondents who thought the same. (See Chart 12)
81Ismail Swati (head Optimistic Youth Network, Manglore, Babozai), interview with the author in Babozai on November 6, 2013.
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Chart 12: Have you directly or indirectly benefitted from the UNDP rehabilitation schemes?
100 17 90 28 80 70 No 60 50 83 Yes 40 72 30 20 10 0 Male (% of Male Total) Female (% of Female Total)
5. Prospects for Project’s Impact Sustainability
First, the project outcomes are quite tangible and have long-term utility. For instance:
The rehabilitated culverts will ensure the smooth flow of traffic over a longer period of time;
Link roads and bridges will serve as a long-term means of socioeconomic connectedness among communities and areas; and
Reconstructed drainage channels and paved streets would continue to serve the sanitation and mobility needs of local communities for many years to come. Secondly, most of the people interviewed and surveyed said that the quality of work on rehabilitated infrastructure was fairly high, which would also contribute towards impact sustainability. Thirdly, there was found a greater degree of community ownership of the rehabilitated schemes, a major element that would contribute towards sustainability. Fourthly, as the overall rehabilitation of damaged CBI schemes has boosted the local economy and enhanced people’s access to basic services and amenities, this would continue to impact people’s lives in the months and years to come. As described earlier, people have gradually acquired greater awareness and a sense of collective responsibility and participation in development of their areas with a view to live peacefully and in a better socioeconomic setting. This is very encouraging and a positive contribution to building peace and improving social cohesion in those areas.
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Nonetheless, local responses from the field also suggested that to make the impact of UNDP and other development projects sustainable, there is a need for concerted and integrated efforts. Many respondents said that development projects should be connected and interlinked. Others noted development organizations should not leave the projects incomplete. As it is a continuous process, each development programme contributes to it. Only continuity can ensure a long-term sustainability of the impact.82 Meanwhile, enhanced capacity and political will of government and civil administration to exercise full national ownership is something which would not only sustain but also strengthen the impact of development works being implemented by international agencies including UNDP. As noted by UN Secretary-General in his 2009 report on peacebuilding, “the United Nations system is only one of several actors working to support post-conflict countries, and the coherence of this broader international effort is key to helping countries to succeed in their efforts to construct a viable peace. Partnerships and coordination among the main regional and international actors is essential since no single actor has the capacity to meet the needs in any of the priority areas of peacebuilding.”83
6. UNDP CBI Interventions: A Critical Review
6.1 Context-Relevance Within their limited scope, the UNDP interventions were fairly relevant to local needs and context. As mentioned earlier in report that UNDP consulted at least three needs assessment reports besides its own area-specific needs assessment before launching the rehabilitation interventions. As all these needs assessment reports had highlighted the importance of immediate restoration and rehabilitation of community infrastructure, UNDP interventions were justified in this context. Nonetheless people also admitted during field work conducted for this study that their immediate needs were linked to early recovery of community based infrastructure schemes. However they also counted for recovery and rehabilitation of education, health and industry infrastructure besides the need to create awareness among people about peacebuilding and social cohesion. With regard to engagement of local communities in UNDP rehabilitation schemes, opinions were divided. While most of the people interviewed and participants of focus group discussion appreciated the composition and role of ‘project oversight committees’ that were drawn from their respective villages, a considerable number of people also said that some
82 Khalilullah (representative of Environmental Protection Society-EPS, Swat), views expressed in focus group discussion held for this study in Swat Press Club, Mingora on November 5, 2013. 83 United Nations, “Report of the Secretary-General on Peacebuilding in the Immediate Aftermath of Conflict,” 2009, Report no. A/63/881-S/2009/304, http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol= A/63/881&referer=/english/&Lang=E (accessed November 12, 2013).
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influential people and political leaders misused project funds by implanting their people in these committees. 6.2 Objectives-Relevance The rehabilitation interventions implemented by UNDP were found quite relevant to achieve overall objectives of peacebuilding and improving social cohesion. Most of it has been discussed in section 4 of this report. While many factors need to be addressed on different levels for building peace and improving social harmony such as including political, ideological, socio-cultural, economic, and religious etc., the contribution of the UNDP rehabilitation schemes was fairly relevant and effective in their given scope. 6.3 Lessons learned
The project implementation should not take influences from an area’s political and influential personalities and work should start without any discrimination and giving priority to certain areas over others. For instance, according to Hazrat Ali of village Deolai in Kabal, “some influential people in their area used their political influence to get their streets paved first and the remaining UNDP programme funds were then utilized in other areas.”84
Similarly local political leaders try to take credit of the UNDP-funded and other development schemes, install their representatives in project committees and use these schemes for betterment of their political constituencies. Nonetheless, most of interviewees said that the UNDP schemes were equitable and just towards communities and were largely implemented on non-political basis without taking any influence from local political and influential figures.85
People’s cooperation and participation in development programmes can be enhanced by making the implementation of development schemes and measures non-political and equitable.
A much localized needs assessment exploring needs and requirements of the people and their area should precede any development activity. Similarly after accomplishment of a project activity, people’s feedback and expert opinion should be sought to evaluate the quality of the completed work and its impact.
As many respondents said that not all the people were aware of the UNDP schemes, there is need to highlight such projects by developing a proper media strategy with a purpose to get maximum public support and involvement.
84 Dr. Hazrat Ali (senior vice president Insaaf Youth Wing, village Deolai, tehsil Kabal), interview with the author in Swat on November 3, 2013. 85 Mian Saeed (a local jirga member), interview with the author in Charbagh on November 4, 2013.
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Overdependence on Pakistan’s civil administration by the UNDP and other international agents is counterproductive due to widespread corruption and lethargy among the former.
Development agents’ relations with the government departments are not ideal as required for smooth and effective working, mainly due to corruption and lack of interest among the latter.
7. Recommendations
7.1 For the current project of UNDP . Besides relying on needs assessment reports produced by other government and/or nongovernmental organizations, UNDP should also conduct pre-project- launch needs assessments to have a more meticulous view of localized needs and their context. . There is need for keeping the development measures more transparent and inclusive. Equity and local development needs/priorities without any influences from local administration and political or influential elites should guide the entire course of reconstruction and rehabilitation measures . There is also need for enhancing positive and constructive working relationship with local administration and political institutions. As this is one of the UNDP’s mandated areas and it has delivered results too, UNDP should enhance its focus on improving capacities of government’s development-related departments working in post-conflict areas and on disaster management. . UNDP should largely engage youth in Swat in its development projects. Youths should also be given fair representation in oversight committees. . As part of rehabilitation of CBI schemes, UNDP should also work on building special roads that link agricultural land to urban areas. There is a need to make bridges on watercourses. Similarly, there is still a lot of need for building roads that link urban centers to rural and far-flung mountainous areas. UNDP has already worked on that aspect of development whose utility has compelled people to demand more rural-urban link roads.
. Although the UNDP rehabilitation of CBI schemes has helped marginalized groups of community in Swat, there is need for launching some special schemes that are exclusively focused on marginalized groups including women and the disabled with a view to provide or help them earn basic amenities of life. 7.2 For future projects aimed at contributing to peacebuilding and social cohesion
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. Ideological, religious and political factors beside poverty and backwardness equally contributed to rise of militancy and conflict in district Swat. It is important to take into account all these factors in post-conflict developmental approaches to build peace and improve social cohesion in society. . The development initiatives for socio-economic recovery, community based infrastructure schemes, conflict sensitive campaigns, improvement in education and health, and all other development strategies have contributed effectively to peacebuilding and social cohesion in conflict-affected areas in Swat. Beside continuity in such projects, it is imperative to initiate more projects according to the needs and requirements of the communities. . Looking into their effectiveness and positive impact on socioeconomic recovery it is imperative to launch more similar participatory and community-centered infrastructure rehabilitation schemes in Swat. . Civil society organizations are playing a valuable role in peacebuilding in the post-conflict setting in Swat through community-level initiatives. There is need for strengthening civil society organizations there. Some specific recommendations Infrastructure . UNDP should extend its work on rehabilitation of CBI schemes to more areas. . Many houses in remote areas were demolished during conflict and flood. The people demand compensation or help in reconstruction of their houses. . There is need for water supply schemes such as tube wells close to rivers and water storage schemes for household and agricultural use. Narrow roads should be widened enough so that vehicles can use them for transportation of people and goods. . Sewerage system and sanitation facilities should be provided particularly to the communities who are unable to afford them by themselves. Socioeconomic development . People of Swat are still in post-conflict trauma. There is need to initiate some culture-sensitive entertainment and recreation activities in remote areas as part of their psychological rehabilitation besides providing them post-conflict trauma counseling. . Jirga system should be revitalized providing youth representation in it. For that purpose community centers should be established at the level of union council where jirgas should be held periodically.
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. Awareness raising, sensitizing, and training of stakeholders on conflict sensitivity are essential to strengthen the local capacity to resolve the conflicts. . Civil society should engage in community based interventions. For marginalized communities . There is need to establish technical and vocational training centers, particularly for women and children whose husband/fathers are in prisons or have died during militancy and conflict to provide them livelihood so that they do not get inclined towards militancy or unhealthy activities. . Handicrafts and cottage industry should be promoted with special focus on creating livelihood opportunities for women and disabled people. Such projects nonetheless should be culture-sensitive. . In highly conservative society with limited female mobility, particularly in Swat’s rural parts, dedicated community centers for women should be established in every village for social interaction and exchange of information. . As people’s engagement in community-based and shared economic activities produces a positive and collective thinking while in case of unemployment people think individually, there is need to promote community-level programs of employment production. That will not only eliminate poverty and unemployment but also contribute to social cohesion. Education and health . UNDP should focus on rehabilitation of education and health infrastructure. . There is a need for construction of new schools especially for girls in remote areas and expansion of the buildings of existing schools. Some schools have been established in local mosques so the people demand establishment of proper school buildings with proper teaching staff and other facilities. . There is need to launch an awareness campaign about the importance of education through media or community intervention mainly for the parents. . There is need to establish medical dispensaries in remote areas.
Youth . Youths in district Swat are among the most vulnerable and neglected segments of society with limited educational and economic opportunities. This makes them vulnerable to militant ideologies and recruitments. There should be targeted interventions that engage youth in healthy activities.
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. Leadership and peacebuilding-related trainings for youth on the level of college and university can enhance their capacity to resolve conflict. . There should be cultural exchanges, community-level training workshops and awareness programmes for youth. . Sports ground should be built. . Youth should be provided with educational scholarships. . Technical education institutions should be established. . There is need to promote cultural activities for youth.
. Youth should also be provided employment opportunities abroad. Agriculture and industry . To develop agriculture in Swat, there is need to store the mountain water to utilize it properly and irrigate the farmers’ land. . Some respondents said apple juice factories should be established in their areas that will not only generate employment but also help utilize the fruits which currently go wasted. . There is scope to establish cold storage units to preserve fruits and vegetables over a longer period of time.
. Tourism industry should be revitalized. Besides rehabilitation of tourist sites and hotels (more than 128 hotels were destroyed in floods and not all of them were rehabilitated), there should be proper tourism marketing with display centers in different cities. . To promote forestry there is need for increased re-plantation. . The mountains and lands of Swat are generously bestowed with natural resources such as marble and precious and semi-precious stones. Most of this, however, has remained unharnessed. Even then in the year 2007-08 Swat produced 9,446 tons of China clay, 560 tons of marble, 325 tons of granite, 210 tons of feldspar and 40 tons of dolomite.86 The locals believe that investment in these areas can bring a revolution in their economic life. . Besides mining, locals also underscored promising prospects for establishing silk industry in parts of Swat.
86 Centre for Public Policy Research, “District Swat: Socioeconomic Baseline and Displacement Impact,” 2010, http://www.cppr.edu.pk/files/Swat_Report.pdf.
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. More than 150 industrial units were closed in Swat between 2006 and 2008. Locals emphasized the need to revitalize the closed units besides building new ones. Energy sector . Electricity generation schemes should be launched in Swat. People said there were strong feasibility and prospects for construction of small dams, hydel power plants and wind mill units in their areas. Political and ideological . Frequently updated political and conflict analyses and assessments are necessary for new project design and implementation because without identifying the root causes of conflict, the peace cannot be achieved. . To counter the militants’ extremist religious-ideological narrative, there is need to establish a pool of moderate religious scholars in conflict-affected areas that offers to people an alternative and moderate narrative. There are some moderate voices in religious circle in Swat which should be encouraged, strengthened and connected.
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8. Annexure Annex-1: Survey Questionnaire87
Survey Form
This questionnaire seeks to get community responses to be used in assessment of impact and effectiveness of the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) “Rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes” implemented in three tehsils of Swat; Babozai, Kabal and Charbagh. It is mandatory for the surveyor to fist brief the respondents about the objectives of the survey. Respondents’ participation in survey is voluntary and they are free to be or not to be part of the survey, or quit at any time if they do not feel to respond any further.
Name: ------Education: ------Age: ------
Gender: ------Profession: ------Village/Location:------
Tehsil: ------Phone No./Email: ------
------
Question 1: How is the law and order and security situation in your area?
Bad Average Good Very Good Excellent
Question 2: What do you think has contributed most to building peace in your area?
1. Rehabilitation and reconstruction schemes: 2. The role of security forces: 3. Economic development:
4. Promotion of socio-cultural activities:
Question 3: What makes people vulnerable to accepting appeal of militant ideologies and militancy?
1. Poverty and economic backwardness:
2. Lack of education: 3. Religiosity:
87 The questionnaire was in Urdu language and translated for the English readers
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4. Presence and influence of militant organizations:
Question 4: To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of community based infrastructure (CBI) schemes contributed to peacebuilding and harmony among people?
Low Average Good Very Good Excellent
Question 5: To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes contributed to your feeling of security, and socioeconomic protection?
Low Average Good Very Good Excellent
Question 6: To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes contributed to people’s social inclusion and to eradicating marginalization?
Low Average Good Very Good Excellent
Question 7: To what extent has UNDP’s rehabilitation schemes contributed to socioeconomic recovery in your areas?
Low Average Good Very Good Excellent
Question 8: How do you perceive the goals and objectives of UNDP’s rehabilitation of community based infrastructure schemes in your areas?
1. Reconstruction and development of area:
2. Alleviation of poverty and unemployment:
3. Accomplishment of some foreign agenda: 4. Any other: ------
Question 9: Have you directly or indirectly benefitted from the UNDP schemes?
Yes No
If Yes, then which kind of benefit you achieved?
1. Employment
2. Facility in infrastructure and transportation:
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3. Support to family:
4. Betterment and development of area:
Question 10: Are you personally satisfied with the quality of the UNDP’s implemented schemes?
Yes No
If NO, what are your concerns or factors of dissatisfaction?
------
Question 11: Looking into needs for your area, what kind of reconstruction and rehabilitations schemes should be further worked upon here?
------
Question 12: To what extent such reconstruction, development or rehabilitation schemes contribute towards peacebuilding and achieving social cohesion?
Low Average Good Very Good Excellent
Question 13: What measures do you suggest for building peace and improving social cohesion in your area?
------
Thank you so much for your kind response and time.
Low (25%); Average (40%); Good (60%); Very Good (75%); and Excellent (90% and above)
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Annex-2: List of Key Informant Interviewees
No. Name Designation/profile Address Bara Bandai, Tehsil 1. Sultan-e-Room Tribal elder and community leader Kabal Senior Vice President, Insaf Youth 2. Dr. Hazrat Ali Deolai, Kabal Wing, KP Former MPA and leader Awami Gunbad Mera, 3. Wajid Ali Khan National Party (ANP) Babozai Community leader and brother of 4. Kaleem Saeed Tehreek-e-Insaaf’s Member Barabakhel, Kabal National Assembly from NA-29 5. Maanadar Tribal elder Kot, Charbagh Wali Ababd 6. Noorullah Political activist of JUI Charbagh 7. Mian Saeed Ali Member Jirga Charbagh Bilal Ahmed Social worker, journalist and 8. Charbagh Danish secretary general of JUI-F Member peace committee and 9. Naemat Khan Sangota, Babozai community leader Social worker and member peace Jamalabad, Sangota, 10. Bakht Afsar committee Babozai Social worker and consultant 11. Fazal-e-Haq Mingora, Swat NGOs Ghafoor Khan 12. Editor, Daily Azadi Swat Mingora, Swat Adil Imtiaz Hussain 13. DC Swat Mingora, Swat Shah 14. Said Rehman Senior Project Officer PaRRSA Mingora, Swat Moambar 15. Advocate High Court Mingora, Swat Advocate 16. Ismail Swati Head Optimistic Youth Network Manglore, Babozai Muhammad Social mobilization consultant, 17. Khawazakhela, Swat Bashir UNDP 18. Khurshid Dada Tribal elder Shah Dheri, Kabal
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Annex-3: Participants of Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
No Name Designation/profile Political leader Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party 1. Khurshid Kaka Ji (PkMAP) 2. Khalilullh Manager, EPS, an NGO in Swat
3. Rasheed Iqbal Chairman, Swat Press Club
4. Saleem Athar Youth leader and social worker
5. Ikramullha WFP, Swat Khawaja Muhammad Political leader, Awami National Party and member Swat 6. Khan Qaumi Jirga 7. Malik Riaz Tribal elder and member Swat Qaumi Jirga Community leader and president Hotels Association 8. Zahid Khan Swat Dr. Khalid Mehmud 9. Political leader Khalid 10. Noor Malik Program coordinator, LASOONA, an NGO in Swat
11. Haider Ali Khan Political Leader, PML-N Charbagh
12. Rashid Ahmed Community leader, Babozai
13. Ghafoor Khan Adil Journalist and social worker from Kanjo, Swat
14. Mian Qaiser Khan Municipal Committee officer (TMA), Mingora
15. Shan Asad Ali Social worker from Mingora
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The UNDP Development Programme in Swat: Impact on Peacebuilding and Social Cohesion
Annex-4: Study Area Map
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