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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO “Their Science, Our Values” UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO “Their Science, Our Values”: Science, State, and Society in the 19th Century Ottoman Empire A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology (Science Studies) by Mehmet Alper Yalcinkaya Committee in charge: Professor John Evans, Chair Professor Steven Epstein, Co-Chair Professor Hasan Kayali Professor Andrew Scull Professor Robert Westman 2010 Copyright Mehmet Alper Yalcinkaya, 2010 All rights reserved. The dissertation of Mehmet Alper Yalcinkaya has been approved and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm. (Co-Chair) (Chair) University of California, San Diego 2010 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page ................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. vi Vita ................................................................................................................................... viii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. ix Chapter 1 Introduction .........................................................................................................1 I. Science and Ottoman Muslims in the 19th Century ..............................................3 II. “Science,” “Scientist,” and “Boundary Work: The Basic Questions ..................9 A. Science and Culture .....................................................................................14 B. Science, State and Social Order ..................................................................18 III. Ottoman Cultural Cartography: Science, Morals and Identity ........................26 IV. Research Questions and Methods ....................................................................28 V. On Translation and Terminology ......................................................................34 VI. Historical Background and Chapter Layout ....................................................39 Chapter 2 1800-1850: New Types, New Definitions.........................................................45 I. Introduction ........................................................................................................45 II. Defining “New Knowledge,” Determining “The Ignorant”..............................48 A. Early Characterizations ...............................................................................49 B. Mahmud II: Ignorance as a State Issue .......................................................54 C. Knowledge: Old and New ...........................................................................59 III. The Context of Reaction: New Knowledge as European Knowledge ............66 IV. The New Bureaucrats and the New Official Discourse ...................................69 A. Science as the Route to Patriotism ..............................................................74 B. Mustafa Sami: A Manifesto for Science .....................................................77 C. Ottoman “Men of Science”: “The Men of the Tanzimat” ...........................84 V. Conclusion ......................................................................................................112 Chapter 3 1850-1878: Proliferation, Consolidation and Reaction ...................................114 I. Introduction ......................................................................................................114 II. The Seeds of a Critical Discourse: Ibrahim Şinasi ..........................................118 III. Prominent Educational Developments ...........................................................123 A. Ecole Ottomane .........................................................................................123 B. The University ...........................................................................................127 C. Science and Ottomanism: The 1869 Public Education Act ......................135 iv IV. Proliferation of Discourse: Science in the Ottoman Press .............................138 A. Mecmua-i Fünun, or the Journal of Sciences ............................................138 B. New Outlets and Alternative Discourses ..................................................161 1. On Science as “Civilization” ..................................................................161 2. Islam and Science: Expanding Boundaries, Determining Virtues ..........164 3. The Pros and Cons of the “Ignorance” Discourse ..................................182 4. Useful Knowledge, Useless Groups .......................................................192 5. On Science, Language, and Identity .......................................................200 6. Science and Usefulness: For Bureaucracy or Industry? .........................204 V. The Official Location of “Useful Sciences”: The Revival of the University .209 VI. Showcase of Discourses: Science in the Ottoman Parliament.......................215 VII. Conclusion: Science, Religion, and Community..........................................221 Chapter 4 1878-1900: Science, Islam, Morality, and the Sultan: Disciplining the “Man of Science” .............................................................................................226 I. Introduction ......................................................................................................226 II. Debating the Boundaries of the Official Discourse: Ahmed Midhat Efendi and His Critics................................................................................................231 III. Debating Science, Debating Community .......................................................237 IV. Useful Knowledge, Useless Groups: Defining the Good Citizen ..................251 A. On Science and Literature .........................................................................251 1. Setting the Terms ....................................................................................251 2. The Debate Heats Up: Beşir Fuad as the “Poster Child” ........................257 B. Science and the Medrese ...........................................................................271 V. How “Confused” were the “Confused Young Men?” ....................................276 VI. Science and Morality: Direct Engagements ..................................................289 A. The Press ...................................................................................................289 B. Advice for Ottoman Youth ........................................................................293 VII. The Result: Portraying the Ideal Man of Science.........................................301 Chapter 5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................305 Appendix 1 Chronology ...................................................................................................324 Appendix 2 Science in Ottoman Dictionaries ..................................................................327 Appendix 3 Ottoman Ministers of Education ..................................................................329 Bibliography ....................................................................................................................331 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my committee members. Steven Epstein provided invaluable support, encouragement and guidance both as chair and later (after he left UCSD) as co-chair. I greatly appreciate his mentorship and his interest in working with me in a study regarding an area that has not commonly been studied by science studies scholars. John Evans offered very helpful recommendations not only after but long before he took over as chair. I also thank both Steve and John for putting up with my tendency to work independently. Hasan Kayalı helped this sociologist navigate Ottoman history and has always been a source of help and support. I am grateful to Andy Scull for his guidance throughout my graduate career and reminding me that it is okay for a sociologist to be interested in times long past. I also thank Bob Westman for insights and comments on both the content and the style of my work. My friends at UCSD Sociology and Science Studies have made life as a graduate student as tolerable as it can possibly be. I am particularly indebted to Anthony Rodriguez-Alcala, Brian Lindseth, Michael Evans and Harun Küçük. If I actually finished this dissertation and kept up with my numerous types of paperwork, it is thanks to Michael and Brian whose friendship I have frequently abused. I also thank Graduate Coordinator Manny de la Paz for his help with all the necessary paperwork particularly during my years outside San Diego. I am also grateful to my former advisers in Turkey. I will forever remain indebted to professors Şerif Mardin and Ayşe Saktanber for the guidance, inspiration and friendship they have offered me over the years. vi The research was funded in part by grants from the Department of Sociology, the Science Studies Program, and the Institute for International, Comparative, and Area Studies (IICAS) at the University of California, San Diego. I dedicate this dissertation to my parents, my parents in law, and my wife. My parents
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