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Soil Stratigraphy SOIL STRATIGRAPHY: PRINCIPLES, APPLICATIONS TO DIFFERENTIATION AND CORRELATION OF QUATERNARY DEPOSITS AND LANDFORMS, AND APPLICATIONS TO SOIL SCIENCE A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ROGER BARRON MORRISON RENO, NEVADA 1964 Mines VV\ I £6 c ' ^2- Approved by Graduate Dean K CONTENTS page Abstract ............. 9 Chapter I. Introduction .................. 11 Previous work ............ 12 What is a soil? ............ 15 Soil-stratigraphio units ........ 16 Proposal of the term geosol as the funda­ mental soil-stratigraphic unit ...... ............ 17 Definition of geosol ............. 18 Not-quite geosols .................... 19 Age of a geosol (and para-geosol) ................. 20 Naming of geosols and weathering profiles 20 Chapter II. Elements of soil description and classification for geologists ..................... 22 Soil-descriptive terminology ................ 25 The soil-profile and related terms ................ 25 Soil horizons ............ 25 General terms for degree of development of geosols . 50 Diagnostic characteristics of soil horizons ...... 51 Terms used in describing soil horizons ............ 52 Boundaries ......... ................ 52 Color ........ .................. 52 Texture .................... 52 Structure ............. ............ 54 Consistence ..... ............. 56 Clay films ....... ..................... 58 Soil reaction ............ 59 Soil classification 40 2 page Chapter I Cl. Stratigraphic attributes of geosols 46 How a geosol resembles, and differs from, a rook- stratigraphic unit (formation, member, etc.) ............. 46 How a geosol resembles, and differs from, an unconformity... 47 Types of stratigraphic occurrence of geosols ............ 48 Buried and relict geosol ............. 48 Buried geosols ..................... 48 Relict geosols .................... 49 Superposed types of geosols, composite and compound ... 51 General note on designation of geosols vs. weathering profiles .......................... 54 The periodic nature of weathering intervals; designation of geosols in terms of erosion-weathering cycles .......... 55 K-cycle zones in surficial landscapes .............. 60 Facies variants of geosols ............... 64 Summary of the principal stratigraphic attributes and modes of stratigraphic occurrence of geosols ___ 68 Chapter IV. Use of geosols as stratigraphic markers within limited areas for local differentiation and mapping of Quaternary depositional units and landforms ...... 71 How to identify and differentiate geosols in the field 71 Criteria of possible geosols in "weathered" exposures .......................... 71 Guide for detailed field observation of possible geosols ......................... 71 A horizon ........................... 75 B horizon .......... .................... 75 Cca h o r i z o n ............... ......... 77 How stratigraphic position and relative age of a geosol is determined ................................ 79 Criteria for determining the identity of a geosol . 80 Typical examples of how stratigraphic and age rela­ tions of geosols are determined .......... 82 3 page Chapter IV. Use of geosols as stratigraphic markers, etc.(Cont.; Problems in use of geosols as stratigraphic markers...... 87 Identification and correlation problems caused by soil facies ..... J 88 Some general deductions on the climatic-vegeta­ tion factor's as facies determinants ..... 90 General relations of the parent material factor. 93 The relief-drainage factor .... 95 Identification-correlation problems caused by second- ary modification of geosols...... 97 Helict occurrences .. 97 Buried occurrences .. 99 Chapter V. Examples of modem stratigraphic studies of Quater- nary deposits using weathering profiles (geosols) as soil- stratigraphic units .......... 100 Lalce Lahontan area, Nevada 100 Lake Bonneville area, Utah 105 La Sal Mountains area, Utah 108 Chapter VI. Application of soil stratigraphy to long-distance correlation of Quaternary deposits ........... 114 Special problems in correlating Quaternary deposits: Quaternary correlation is different! ....... 114 Correlation by means of geologic-climatic units .... 114 Correlation by using geosols as time-stratigraphic markers 116 Validity of geosols as time-stratigraphic markers 117 Technique of long-distance correlation by use of geosols .................. 120 Correlation of Quaternary deposits of the upper Mississippi Valley, Great Plains, Rocky Mountains Lake Bonneville, and Lake Lahontan areas by using geosols as time—stratigraphic markers ....... 121 4 page Chapter VII. Applications of soil stratigraphy to soil science ...... ......................................... 125 Differences between geologists and soil scientists in their concepts of soils and landscape surfaces ......... 125 Differences in pedologist's and geomorphologist's concepts of erosional and depositional surfaces .... 125 Differences between the geologist's concept of weath- ering profiles (geosols) and the soil-scientist's concept of pedologic units such as soil series .... 126 Geologic evidence on time and climate as weathering factors ....... ....................... .................. 127 The factors of weathering profile formation ........ 127 Geologic evidence on the time factor in development of weathering profiles ......... .................. 128 The climatic factor in weathering profile development 131 How a soil survey can be helped by an understanding of the Quaternary stratigraphy (including soil stratigraphy) and geomorphology of an area ............... ............ 138 References cited .... ........ ............................. 141 Appendix A. Soil-profile sections and chemical and mechanical analyses for the main geosols of the Lake Lahontan area, from their type localities in the southern Carson Desert, near Fallon, Nevada ....................... ........... ............. 157 Toyeh Soil ................ ................ 160 Churchill Soil ............... ........ .................... 162 L Drain Soil ............... ........... ....... 364 Cocoon Soil .................... ......... .............. 166 Appendix B. Resume of method of computing mean annual temper­ ature and mean annual precipitation during the maxima of the main late Quaternary weathering optima in the Carson Desert area, Nevada ....... .................... ........ ............. YJ15 5 FIGURES page Fig. 2.1. Soil horizon designation. A, possible horizons in soil profiles; B, Hypothetical profiles to illustrate a few horizon designations . 26 Fig. 2.2. Diagram showing the percentages of clay (below 0.002 mm.), Silt (0.002 to 0.05 mm.), and sand (0.05 to 2.0 mm.) in the basic soil textural classes ........ 33 Fig. 2.3 . Drawings illustrating types of soil structures A, prismatic; B, columnar; C, angular blocky; D, subangular blocky; E, platy; and F, granular .. 35 Fig. 3 .1. Fundamental relative development relations of relict and buried geosols ... 49 Fig. 3 .2. Superposed geosols. A, two composite geosols; B, two compounded geosols...... 52 Fig. 3 .3 . Diagram shov/ing compound and non-compound occur­ rences of a single geosol ........ 54 Fig. 3 .4. Inferred changes in climate and in dominant surfi- cial processes with time during a typical glacial- interglacial cycle in the La Sal Mountains, Utah . 59 Fig. 3-5- ouggested scheme of designation of weathering pro­ files, stability surfaces, and instability depos­ its and unconformities, and equivalent geologic- climatic and time-stratigraphic units (modified after the scheme proposed by Butler, 1959) 61 Fig. 3 .6. Distribution of moisture regions in the U. S. ac­ cording to Thomthwaite .......... 66 Fig. 3 .7 . Distribution of principal zonal great soil groups in the U. S ........... 66 Fig. 3 .8. Reliei, precipitation, and zonal great soil group relations approximately along the lioc. isotherm in the U. S .............. 67 Fig. 3-9. Soil facies changes from desert to humid mountain top, western slope of the Big Horn Mountains, Wyoming ................. 67 Fig. 4-1. Types of contacts between geosols. A, overplaced contact; B, underplaced contact ..... 81 Fig. 4 .2. Basic instability-stability (weathering) relations. 83 6 page Fig. 4.3. Typical relations between geosols and erosion surfaces .... 84 •H How stratigraphic position of geosols can be determined by lateral tracing 85 Fig. 4 5 Typical relations in areas of eolian sand depo- sition and erosion .. 86 Fig. 4 6 Typical topographic relations of relict occurrences of Quaternary geosols (and weathering profiles) on pediment and strea.m terrace-gravels 87 Fig. 4 7 Typical geosol and alluvial cut-and-fill relations along western margin of the Great Plains 88 Fig. 4 8 Range in altitude of facies and facies changes of geosols of different geologic age in the La Sal Mountains, Utah .... 91 Fig. 4.9. Graphs showing changes in properties of several geo­ sols with altitude in the La Sal Mountains, Utah. A, range in maximum thickness of B or Bca horizon- B, range in maximum thickness of Cca horizon- C * and, .1), range in pH of B and Cca horizons . 92 Fig. 4 1.1 Lffect of relief on runoff and water penetration of soils ........... 96 Fig. 4.I.2 . Diagram showing relation of plant communities to the depth of penetration and amount of soil moisture in the Great Plains area 96 Fig. 4..I.3 ,. Typical changes in soil facies because of varia­ tions in relief and drainage .... 96 Fig. 4.I.4. Diagrammatic cross section showing changes in soil facies because of variations
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