Enhancing Memory

Michigan Reading Journal

Volume 22 Issue 3 Article 9

April 1989

Study Strategies for the Secondary Student: Enhancing Memory

Alice L. Hamachek

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Recommended Citation Hamachek, Alice L. (1989) "Study Strategies for the Secondary Student: Enhancing Memory," Michigan Reading Journal: Vol. 22 : Iss. 3 , Article 9. Available at: https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/mrj/vol22/iss3/9

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by Dr. Alice L. Hamachek

Like it or not, we live in an "information courses. Unfortunately, much study skill explosion" era and each year an extra­ instruction is not effective (Devine, 1987). ordinary amount of new information and Often the timing is incidental and little effort technical knowledge becomes available. As is spent on explaining and demonstrating the educators, we teach for the present, but we "why and how" aspect of learning. Also, also prepare students to live in the future. review and follow-up activities are frequently Therefore, much of this new information will nonexistent. need to be learned and readily retrieved in With the current focus on literacy, it order to function effectively in a continually would seem like an important step forward if changing world. every secondary teacher would teach basic There are many high school students who principles of study for effective learning and struggle from day to day to read, understand retention.Teachers can't control fixed factors and remember the millions of words contained such as heredity and social class influences. within the pages of their assigned readings. However, teachers can teach, within the daily Reading the material is not usually the operations of the classroom, specific study problem, for most students are capable of strategies in an organized, systematic manner. decoding and understanding the words on Study strategy instruction should take the printed page. Many students, however, place on two levels: (l) WHAT TO DO and (2) spend countless hours reading the material, HOW TO DO IT. The first is an awareness only to have forgotten its contents immediately level and the second is a behavioral level. The or shortly thereafter. Then, when students are WHY should be incorporated into both challenged to recall what was read, either for levels. Then, of course, students need to class discussions or testing purposes, a recognize that good study strategies, to be problem emerges. Why didn't the time spent truly effective, must become automatic and in reading produce greater results? Thus, the habitual. question must be raised: how can we as educators help students to more effectively Study skills are defined as those specific use their time to not only read, but to study reading skills that increase memory and and remember the information that was provide access to successful retrieval of that deemed important enough to assign? which is stored in memory. They are those competencies associated with acquiring, Most teachers give reading-assignments, synthesizing, organizing, recording, and talk about the lesson topic, assign written accessing information and ideas. Study work and administer examinations. Some strategies can be seen as those specific skills teachers also teach general study skills either that go beyond, even though they likely in isolation or by integrating them into their

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------incorporate, the use of basic compreh~nsion pieces of relevant stimuli and making a processes in some structured way (Irwin and concerted effort to process them. Acquisition Baker, 1989). relates closely to selective attention, but also is highly dependent on exposure and In the past ten years our understanding of experience. Once sets of stimul_i have b_een the reading process has changed dramatically. received, they are then registered into Reading is no longer thought of as the rote memory. Effective registration depends up~m application of isolated skills. Instead, re~ent depth of processing and, once again, research shows us that reading is a meaning­ attention is of the utmost of importance getting process requiring awa_reness a_nd (Levine, 1987). Data entering the. central strategic use of reasoning. Thus, 1t seems I 1ke nervous system usually undergo coding; that a discussion of study strategies necessitates a is to say that data need to be packaged into a brief overview of memory since memory is usable format or system of representation fundamental to reasoning. (Landy, 1984). This reduces the load of MEMORY: incoming information and enables one to There is no discrete central nervous relate it to previously stored data. system center called memory. Instead, the~e Rehearsal: exists a diversity of memory sytems (Ornstein Rehearsal is another essential component and Thompson, 1984). However, all inform­ of memory. This consists of overt or covert ation seems to go through stages on its way to repetition of information to register it more memory and concentration plays a crucial firmly in memory. During this learning stage, role. "The true art of memory," said Samuel varied repetition is likely to enhance the Johnson "is the art of attention." Nothing process. Two aspects of. rehearsal_ are scientist~ have learned in the intervening 200 maintenance and elaboration. In mainten­ years has dispelled Johnson's conclusion: we ance, the student simply repeats the informa­ remember what we concentrate on (Begley, tion over and over. In elaborative rehearsal, 1986, p. 54). the student creates rich associations or adds A major function of memory is to process additional ideas to the information (Craik information. Stimuli are picked up by sensory and Watkins, 1973). It is at this stage that receptors and transferred to the brain. When mnemonics, little memory techniques, clearly information is registered, it enters a storage enhance rehearsal and likely facilitate system. This storage system is traditionally subsequent recall. classified into three categories: sensory Long-term memory contains virtua_lly all memory, short-term memory, and long-term of our learning. As information pauses in our memory. Sensory memory is very brief and is short-term memory, a conscious or uncon­ exemplified by the ability to hold the scious decision must be made. Should the beginning of a word in memory while reading information be remembered? If the informa­ the end of it. Short-term memory, although a tion is to be remembered, then it must be little longer, holds information in a temporary consolidated and transferred to a more storage, just long enough to carry out a durable code where it is classified for long­ particular task such as dialing an unfamiliar term storage (Carlson, 1984). telephone number. Short-term memory is extremely limited both in its duration and George Miller (1956), in a landmark capacity, especially when it is compared to paper titled "The Magical Number Seven: the nearly limitless capacity and duration of Plus or Minus Two," pointed out that the the long-term memory (Landy, 1984). short-term memory span was limited in the Acquisition: number of items that it could hold. His contribution was to demonstrate that it was For purposes of this article, three important the number of items (between five and nine) aspects of memory will be discussed. They are that was the limiting factor, not the amount of acquisition, rehearsal, and retrieval. The information contained within those items. process of acquisition consists of collecting Thus, one could increase the amount of

23 information by packaging it into larger If you took piano lessons you probably "chunks." Good learners are particularly remember your teacher helping you learn the effective in their clever use of coding chunks treble clef names of the space notes by of information which allows them to stretch associating the word FACE and the names of the limits of the short-term memory. the line notes by associating the acrostic sentence EVERY GOOD BOY DOES FINE. Retrieval: In spelling, the word PIECE perhaps was Finally, memory involves retrieval. remembered by associating A PIECE OF PIE "Finding" information that has been stored in or employing the phonic rule generalization I memory is a constant struggle for many. This BEFORE E EXCEPT AFTER C. To remember capacity varies and depends on the amount that Mount Fujiyama is 12,365 feet high, it of information available for the search and may have been associated with a calendar the skill and depth with which it was stored. --12 months and 365 days in a year. Why can Free recall occurs when the student retrieves you quickly identify the country of Italy and information with no apparent clues. However, the state of Michigan? Do boot and mitten the use of substantial hints may be required come to mind? Picture HOMES on the Great and then information is retrieved through Lakes and you have a great mnemonic to cued recall.To varying degrees, the quality of assist with naming Huron, Ontario, Michigan, retrieval depends on the effectiveness of the Erie, and Superior as the lakes. original registration and consolidation (Levine, 1987). Storage and retrieval strategies If the technique of associating the compliment each other and, thus, the unknown to the known is continually practiced, stronger the memory imprint, the greater the a trained memory will soon emerge (Lorayne probability of accurate recall at a later time. and Lucas, 1974). It's as simple as that. Trained memory systems do not have to be We now turn our attention from a unnatural in any way. Actually, all one is dicussion of basic memory principles to a doing is systematizing a natural process. presentation of specific study strategies that Once a system or pattern of organization is enhance memory and positive performance established, it can more easily be applied in a in academic studies. conscious manner to academic studies. SPECIFIC STUDY /MEMORY STRATEGIES: Visual Imagery: The brain is not like a sponge absorbing Visualization is powerful, if a student has information until it eventually becomes the capacity to "see pictures in the mind's saturated. Rather, it is a vast network of eye." This has long been illustrated by the complex interconnections (Restak, 1984). saying "a picture is worth a thousand words." Memory works in the same way. Every new When mental images are formed during fact or concept learned adds to and links up reading, recall is increased. Teachers also with the existing network. Thus, when a report that imagery instructions often increase student encodes something new, it not only enjoyment and use of elaboration (Irwin and forms a link to the existing network, but it also Baker, 1989). When enjoyment and elabor­ provides another hook onto which still more ation are present, concentration is improved associations can be hung or connected (Rose, and comprehension is enhanced. It is 1985). important to remember that though some Association: students may form images when they are Any new piece of information can be reading stories and novels, they may be less remembered if it is associated to something likely to image when reading content area already known or remembered. This is a basic materials. However, it may be more crucial to rule of memory. Sharp recall comes from image when studying content material since it storing information in a rich elaborative form often contains much information that must be which relates the new information to memorized. something that is already familiar (T ulving, Link System: 1962). The following examples illustrate the The idea that thoughts may be associated importance of associations in memory.

24 to each other in such a way that one thought tent is the word ten with at added at the end will trigger the next thought is the basis of the to form a concrete item that can easily be Link system of memory (Lorayne and Lucas, visualized. 197 4). Incorporating illogical associations as For example, suppose the history teacher well as making those associations interactive asked the students to know the first ten are effective ways to enhance the linking Presidents of the United States in order. They process. For example, to remember the words are as follows: WASHINGTON, ADAMS, velocipede, rapscallion, geoducks and JEFFERSON, MADISON, MONROE, ADAMS, lexicon, you might visualize a rapscallion JACKSON, VAN BUREN, HARRISON, and riding a velocipede over geoducks while TYLER. This is an excellent opportunity to use reading his lexicon. Since most of the things a peg system since sequence is important. that we read and study are logical and follow a "normal" pattern of thought, silly Now that the "permanent pegs" can be associations that incorporate action create a recalled immediately, study time will be spent unique coding link. in forming associations to connect the peg words to the Presidents -- the known to the Peg System: unknown. Here is an example. However, it is A peg system is a way to help memorize important to remember that there are many and retain information from a list that must be ways to form meaningful associations. learned in a specific sequence. A key word is attached to a sequential number which 1. WASHINGTON won the war. collectively becomes a "permanent peg." In 2. There were two ADAMS. order to make any peg system useful, the 3. JEFFERSON is climbing a tree. student will need to think of interesting 4. MADISON is a star at Madison associations, make them meaningful and then Square Gardens. rehearse them so that they will be locked into 5. MONROE rows his boat with his foot long-term memory. Once the "pegs" are in on Monday. long-term storage, they can be used to 6. The ADAMS name appears again so associate any list of items that needs to be they celebrated with a six-pack. remembered. Here are ten "pegs" that could 7. JACKSON'S son Jack likes 7-UP. be taught to students. 8. VAN BUREN ate eight burritos in his 1. won van. 2. two 9. HARRISON was playing golf with his 3. tree 9-iron. 4. star 10. TYLER was sleeping in a tent. 5. foot If students still find it difficult to remember 6. six-pack 7. 7-UP the individual associations, encourage them to put several sentences together to form a 8. ate sentence story or link those together to form a 9. 9-iron longer story. Be sure to visualize the action of 10. tent the story and add appropriate emotion to The following is a brief explanation of personalize it. Dramatization through some associations that may make the visualization is a practical mnemonic that "permanent pegs" meaningful for students. needs no external aids, for it only requires the 2. Won is a homonym for one and provides power of the imagination. action. 2. Two remains two or is thought of as METAMEMORY: a tutu. 3. Tree is the word three with the h left No discussion of memory and study out. 4. Four is associated with a four star strategies would be complete without rating. 5. Foot is connected to the song emphasizing the importance of teaching phrase "five foot two, eyes of blue." 6. Six­ students about metamemory. Metamemory is pack is related to a six-pack of beverage. 7. a subcategory of metcognition. Metacognition 7-UP is a favorite soda. 8. Ate is the homonym refers to knowledge about all cognitive for eight. 9. 9-iron is associated with golf. l 0. ·

25 processes, their products, and anything Carlson, Neil R. Psyhology: The Science of Behavior. related to them and metamemory refers to Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1984. that aspect of metacognition that is related to Craik, F., and M. Watkins. "The Role or Rehearsal in Short-Term Memory. " Journal of Verbal Learning getting information into and out of memory and Verbal Behavior, Vol. 12 (1973), pp. 599-607. (Zechmeister and Nyber, 1982). The more Devine, Thomas G. Teaching Study Skills: A Guide for students are aware of basic operations and Teachers. Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1987. processes of memory, the influence of present Irwin, Judith W., and Isabel Baker. Promoting Active knowledge on future knowledge, and Reading Comprehension Strategies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989. voluntary strategies that can help memory, Landy, Frank J. Psychology: The Science of People. the better they will be able to monitor and use Englewood Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984. their own study time. Levine, Melvin D. Developmental Variation and Learning Disorders. Cambridge, MA: Educators SUMMARY: Publishing Service, Inc., 1987. Study strategies are for those specific Lorayne, Harry, and Jerry Lucas. The Memory Book. reading skills that increase memory storage NY: Ballantine Books, 197 4. and retrieval. Memory techniques are crucial Miller, George. "The Magical Number Seven: Plus or Minus Two ." Psychological Review, Vol. 63 (1956) for the secondary student. The more pp. 81 -97. information a student can remember, the Ornstein, Robert, and Richard F. Thompson. The better he/she will likely be able to perform in Amazing Brain. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, class and on written examinations. Memory 1984. involves a vast network of interconnections. Restak, Richard. The Brain. New York, NY: Bantam Books, 1984. Acquisition, rehearsal, storage and retrieval Rose, Colin. Accelerated Learning. England: Topas are important aspects of memory. Specific Publishing Limited, 1985. study strategies that.enhance memory include Tulving, E. "The Effect of 4/phabetical Subiective association, visual imagery, the Link system Organization of Memorizing Unrelated Words. " and peg systems. Metamemory provides Canadian Journal of Psychology, Vol. 16 (1962) pp. 185-191. important feedback for the student who is Vail, Priscilla L. Smart Kids with School Problems. interested in monitoring his/her own learning. New York, NY: E.P. Dutton, 1987. In order for students to more effectively Zechmeister, Eugene B. and Stanley E. Nyberg. Human function in a continually changing world, it is Memory: An Introduction to Research and imperative that teachers teach students the Theory. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1982. WHAT, HOW and WHY of effective learning. Dr. Alice L. Hamachek is an Associate Professor at Central Michigan University, Mt. References Pleasant, Michigan. Armstrong, William H., and M. Willard Lampe II. Study Tips. Woodbury, NY: Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 1983. Begley., Sharon. "Memory." Newsweek (September, 1986) pp. 48-54.

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