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A B Adaptive evolution Badlands National Park , 38 climate change , 134 Behavioral intentions , 416–417 heritable traits , 134 Beliefs about exotic annual grasses , 412–413 management implications , 147 Beliefs, human dimensions neutral genetic variation , 139–141 beliefs about exotic invasive , new genotypes , 134 412–413 research , 148–149 and management options , 412–413 Adaptive management , 438 , 444 , 453 Benefi t-cost ratios , 431 , 433 , 434 , 444 , Adaptive management framework 445 , 449 biophysical system , 345 Bio-economic modeling evaluation , 348–350 analyze management issues , 434 feedback loop , 345 biological invasions , 434 management goals and restoration catastrophic wildfi re , 432 strategies , 345 decision-maker , 431 planning , 346–348 decision-maker’s objective function , 432 Agate Fossil Beds National Monument , 38–40 design , 434 AIM . See Assessment, inventory and and dynamic , 433 monitoring (AIM) strategy individual (or fi rm) whose primary Albedo , 74 , 75 concern , 431 Allelic richness , 122 , 125 management , 434 Allozymes (enzyme electrophoresis) , 104 market rate of interest , 433 Alternative stable states , 439 mathematical relationships , 432 Annual grass and invasion disturbances , 402 objective function , 432 Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) , 82 private decision-makers , 431 Asian Carp Prevention and Control Act of private decision-making models , 431 , 432 2010 , 418 public decision-makers , 431 Assessment, inventory and monitoring (AIM) public-good nature , 431 strategy , 360 risk-averse decision-maker , 433 Attitudes risk-averse ranchers , 433 change strategies , 411 , 415–416 risk-neutral decision-maker , 433 expressions of people’s values and beliefs , 411 social rate of time preference , 433 toward invasive plants , 413–415 trade-offs , 434 toward management options , 413–415 uncertainty and risk , 432

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 457 M.J. Germino et al. (eds.), Exotic Brome-Grasses in Arid and Semiarid Ecosystems of the Western US, Springer Series on Environmental Management, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-24930-8 458 Index

Bio-economic models rubens , 16 , 17 , 156 , 170 , 176 , 180 , development , 430 184 , 185 , 263 , 343 , 410 , 411 , 419 , simulation and optimization , 430 420 , 425 Biological crusts , 291–292 Bromus scoparius , 184 Biological invasions , 171 , 176 and communities , 107 Bromus sericeus , 183 , 184 post-immigration evolution , 108 , 184 preadaptation , 108 , 184 propagule pressure , 107 , 108 , 16 , 156 , 157 , 170 , 172 , 176 , Blackbrush shrubland , 18 180 , 183–185 , 293 , 343–344 , 390 , Bleach blonde syndrome , 214 391 , 393 , 410–412 , 414 , 415 , BLM . See Bureau of Land Management (BLM) 418–420 , 423 , 425 Boissiera , 157 , 158 abiotic factors , 195 Bromeae , 157 A. tridentata spp. vaseyana model , 389 , Bromopsis , 157 , 163 , 165 , 171 , 173 , 394 , 395 176–178 , 184 A. tridentata spp. wyomingensis , 394 , 396 Bromus alopecurus , 184 Beetle (mountain big sagebrush) , 388 Bromus andringitrensis , 163 bleach blonde syndrome , 217 , 184 climate change , 388 , 394 , 397 , 16 , 180 , 184 , 185 , 342–343 colonize bare soil , 218 Bromus auleticus , 171 , 178 cyclic succession , 195 Bromus benekenii , 171 die-off/stand failure , 195 , 184 dispersal and lose dormancy , 194 Bromus biebersteinii , 178 ecological processes

Bromus briziformis , 184 CO2 levels , 391 , 180 fertilization , 393 , 171 , 178 , 184 forcing factors , 391 Bromus cebadilla , 184 future time series replicates , 391 , 184 GCM , 391 Bromus danthoniae , 184 invasive annual grass and tree , 172 , 176 , 184 , 342 expansion , 393 Bromus diandrus Roth (ripgut brome) , 16 PDSI , 393 , 171 , 178 , 184 shrubland–woodland , 393 Bromus fasciculatus , 183 spatial averaging methods , 391 Bromus grossus , 171 STSMs , 393 , 171 , 172 , 180 , 184 , 185 , temporal multipliers , 390 341–342 ecological systems , 388 Bromus hordeaceus L. (soft brome) , 16 environmental tolerance , 137–138 , 171 , 178 , 183–185 , 419 , 420 , environmental values , 388 423 , 425 Epicoccum , 219 , 171 epidemic disease , 220 , 16 , 171 , 184 , 185 fall seed bank densities , 194 Bromus lanceolatus , 184 fl orets , 194 Bromus lepidus , 172 , 184 fungal pathogens , 194 , 17 , 184 fungistasis , 218 Bromus madritensis L. (compact brome) , 16 GCMs and MC1 , 397 , 180 genetic analyses , 140 Bromus mollis (syn. of Bromus hordeaceus ) , 180 genetic variation , 135 Bromus pectinatus , 184 germinating seeds/preemergent Bromus pumpellianus , 171 , 178 seedlings , 195 Bromus racemosus , 184 global circulation models , 389 , 171 granivores , 194 , 184 habitats , 135 , 171 , 178 ILAP , 397 Index 459

investigations , 218 monitoring , 360 landscape-level approach , 220 revegetation , 355 life cyle , 216 treatment outcomes , 352 litter dynamics , 218 wildlife and native communities , 355 management implications , 219–220 Bromus tectorum ssp. lucidus microenvironmental factors , 220 (syn. of Bromus sericeus ) , 183 monocultures , 194 Bromus texensis , 165 multiple research approaches , 218 Bromus trinii , 184 mycoherbicidal biocontrol , 219 budget , 432 , 443 , 444 , 447 NEPA , 388 Bullae/bunts , 202 Path Landscape Model (Path) software, 389 Bureau of Land Management (BLM) , pathogens , 216 , 217 316 , 418 productivity , 194 range shifts , 390 , 397 reciprocal transplant studies , 135 C remote sensing data , 394 Calcium (Ca) , 81 , 82 restoration tool , 195 Carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration , 145 seedling emergence , 194 C: N ratios , 145 soilborne pathogens , 194 environmental conditions , 144 soil moisture , 397 phenology , 145 state-and-transition models , 389 precipitation , 146 STM transitions , 394 warming-induced changes , 145 top-down and bottom-up approach , 397 water availability , 146 vegetation classes , 394 Carbon sequestration , 76 winter annual grass , 134 Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) , 245 winterkill , 195 Cattle prices , 436 , 440 , 450 B. tectorum in , 108 CEC . See Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) distribution , 110 Centrocercus urophasianus Bonaparte , 3 distribution of MLGs , 109 Ceratochloa , 157 , 163–165 , 171 , 174 , 177 , Eastern US populations , 109 178 , 184 genetic diversity , 109 Cercocarpus ledifolius , 135 herbarium specimens , 109 , 113 , 120 Chloroplast spacer regions trnT - trnL and history and the concatenation , 109 trnL -trnF , 102 Lancaster County, Pennsylvania , 109 Cleistogamous fl owers , 104 MCG , 109 , 110 (see Most common Climate change , 262 , 263 genotype (MCG)) adaptive management practices , 270 MLGs , 112 (see Multilocus genotypes anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions , (MLGs)) 258 , 259 multiple introductions , 109 , 117 , 121 , 122 Bromus , 258 , 262 60 populations , 112 B. tectorum and B. rubens , 267 , 269

B. tectorum L. CO 2 concentration , 259 invasion , 100 ecological responses , 143 Bromus tectorum L. (cheatgrass or downy ecosystems , 260–262 brome) , 434 , 442 emissions , 259 B. tectorum research expansion/contraction , 259 assess , 356–357 experimental and modeling , 271 BLM approach , 356 fall/spring precipitation burning , 353–354 B. tectorum , 262 “command and control” approach , 356 El Niño events , 263 defoliation , 354 germination and growth , 263 design , 357–359 global change factors , 263 herbicide application , 354–355 IPCC , 263 implementation , 358 , 359 sagebrush ecosystems , 262 literature review , 350–352 seasonal congruence , 263 460 Index

Climate change (cont. ) Collaborative management semiarid ecosystems , 262 build trust , 425 , 426 snowmelt/spring rains , 262 citizen-driven , 421 wet winter/spring conditions , 262 and education programs , 410 GAP analysis plots , 267 emergence of multiparty , 424 global change manipulations , 144 exotic plant management , 420 IPCC , 259 forming and maintaining , 425 management implications , 270 land management issues , 420 models projections , 267 Common garden , 135 , 149 native and invasive plants , 258 Communication , 448 phenology , 258 Community multiscale air quality (CMAQ), 240 physiological tolerances , 258 Computer simulation models , 441–443 PRISM , 267 Conceptual models , 376 , 377 propagules , 258 Cool-season grasses , 38 radiative forcing , 259 Cool-season , 38 regional species distribution modeling , 264 Coordination representative concentration pathway/ exotic annual invasive grass management , RCP4.5 , 259 447–448 research needs , 271 and incentives , 450 season precipitation , 268–270 Cost-effective , 436 , 444–447 , 449 , 452 soil moisture , 260 Cost minimization models , 436 species persistence , 143 Cost-minimizing strategy , 435 substantial infl uence , 143 Cost-sharing across institutions , 424 summer precipitation , 263 , 264 Cost-sharing programs , 448 temperature and precipitation , 258 Creosote bush communities , 21 warmer temperatures , 258 Creosote bush scrub , 18 , 19 water stress , 259 Cropland Winter and spring temperatures , 266–267 homestead laws , 315 winter precipitation , 266 roadsides, ditches and fi eld margins , 316 Climatic regimes technological improvements , 315 native ecosystems , 2 Crusts CMAQ . See Community Multiscale Air biotic crust microsites , 63 Quality (CMAQ) cryptobiotic , 81 C:N , 79 physical soil crusts , 71 Codominant genetic markers, 104 soil crusts , 71 , 79 Coeffi cient of inbreeding , 105 Cold deserts , 32–34 ecosystem threats , 34–35 D environmental conditions , 31 Damages , 432 , 434 , 436 , 446 , 447 , 450 invasion potential Database , 159 , 163 , 164 , 178–180 ENSO events , 32 categorization , 165 low to mid elevations , 33 chromosome counts , 176 moderate climates , 33 creation and population , 159 resilience to disturbance , 32 , 33 diploid/polyploid , 176 , 177 resistance , 32 , 33 frequency distribution , 181 , 182 salt desert vegetation types , 32 histograms , 164 seasonality of precipitation , 33 human use and availability soil temperature regimes , 33 categorization , 179 upper elevations , 33 cultivar polar , 178 water availability , 33 logistic regressions , 178 management strategies , 35–37 northern meadow types , 178 temperature and precipitation conditions, 31 reseeding and burn rehabilitation , 180 tolerant , 31 soil stabilization , 180 winter conditions , 31 , 178 Index 461

management implications , 183 deep/tap rooting and shallow/fi brous- multiple logistic regressions , 165 , 169 rooting plant species , 65 ploidy level , 176 , 177 native species richness , 63 seed awns and mass , 172 , 174–176 and pollination activity of insect statistical analysis pollinators , 84 biogeographic realms , 159 DNA sequence data , 101 chromosome count and ploidy level, 163 Drought disturbance , 401 crop weed , 163 Dryland , 228 and no cultivars , 163 Dynamic optimization dependent variables , 159 analyze , 434 environmental weed , 163 control variables , 435 //revegetation , 163 cost minimization models , 436 GrassPortal , 164 decision-maker , 435 independent variables , 163 , 164 description , 434 life span , 163 and dynamic simulation models , 434 logistic multiple regressions , 164 and imperfect information , negative impact , 159 438–439 polyploid , 163 management actions , 434 ruderal weed , 163 management of Bromus , 434 seed mass values , 163 natural processes , 434 temperature and precipitation data , 164 OC methods , 435 , 436 univariate linear logistic regressions , 164 ranch management models , 436–437 wide introduction , 159 SDP , 435 , 436 taxonomy and life span , 165–172 state variables , 435 temperature and precipitation , 180 stochastic processes , 437–438 univariate logistic regressions , 165–168 time horizon , 435 weediness , 165 Western , 184 year , 172 , 173 E Deep soil , 77 Ecological genetics , 134 . See also Adaptive Defensible space , 448 evolution Defoliation , 354 Ecologically-based invasive plant management Dense layers , 65 (EBIPM) program , 422 , 423 Desertifi cation Ecological process pattern , 87 abiotic and biotic attributes , 12 Developmental plasticity , 134 Ecological resilience , 441 Die-offs , 195 Ecological site description (ESDs) , 373 B. tectorum , 65 Ecological states , 430 , 434 , 437 , 439 , 440 , eradication , 87 444 , 445 , 450 Discounting , 433 , 434 Ecological threshold , 443 Disturbance , 436 , 439 , 441–443 , 450 computer simulation models , 441–443 Disturbance regimes critical point , 439 Cold Deserts , 32 , 34 , 35 economics analyzes , 439 Cold Deserts ecoregion , 12 natural resource management ecological effects , 16 problems , 439 management implications , 47 and optimization models , 440–441 Mediterranean , 25–27 , 30 , 31 rangeland policy , 439 resilience to , 12 resilience , 441 Warm Deserts , 20–22 , 24 self-organizing processes , 439 Western Forests , 44–45 spatial interactions (see Spatial Western Great Plains , 38–41 interactions ) Diversity uncertainty , 443 and abundance of insects , 83 Economic benefi ts , 443 , 448–450 , 453 AMF fungi , 82 Economic costs , 412 462 Index

Economic model , 434–439 , 451–453 nutrition , 85 and ecological , 430 omnivorous species , 84 and ecological dynamics (see Dynamics seed-harvesting genera , 83 optimization ) shelter , 85 bio-economic , 431–434 landscape disturbance, fi re , 68–69 Effi cient Bromus Management , 449 large-mammal communities , 86 incentives and coordination , 450 management implications , 86–87 research microfaunal communities , 82–83 management issues , 452–453 native- and Bromus -dominated modeling assumptions , 451–452 communities , 62 Ecoregions , 17–47 plant communities (see Plant communities ) cold deserts , 12 (see also Cold deserts ) research needs , 87–88 Mediterranean California soil hydrology and water balance , 71–73 (see Mediterranean California ) soil microbiological , 82–83 research , 48–49 soil nutrients (see Soil nutrients ) Warm deserts (see Warm deserts ) soil stability , 69–71 Western forests (see Western forests ) structure and function , 62 Western great plains Ecosystem services , 431 , 439 (see Western great plains ) Ecosystem threats in western US , 12–14 , 17 cold deserts , 34–35 Ecosystem goods and services , 452 Mediterranean California , 28–30 Ecosystems , 63–68 , 73–85 Warm deserts , 21–23 animals dependent , 83 Western great plains , 42 changes in bird , 86 Education , 421–422 fi re frequency , 62 Education programs , 410 , 412 , 422 fl uxes and energy partition Effectiveness , 432 , 437 , 444 , 453 Bowen-ratio approach , 74 El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, 32 Ecosystem surface temperatures , 74 Energy balance , 73 , 74 energy balance , 73 Environmental risks , 412 Kansas soils , 76 Environmental tolerance latent heat and CO2 on BRTE - genotypes , 136 dominated/sagebrush-steppe phenotypic plasticity , 141–142 communities , 74 , 75 Enzyme electrophoresis (allozymes) , 104 , 105 , lower ET , 74 109 , 112 , 117 , 121 , 125 NCE and ET , 76 Eradication , 437 , 446 , 451 net radiation balance , 74 , 75 Erosion net radiation fl uxes , 73 direct effects , 70–71 plot-level chamber measurements of grazers , 76 NCE and ET , 74 infi ltration , 87 reduced NCE , 74 topsoil , 72 , 77 soil C storage , 76 ESDs . See Ecological site description (ESDs) solar radiation , 74 Evapotranspiration , 70 , 71 , 73 , 74 spatial and temporal scale , 74 Evolution . See Adaptive evolution forage quality , 83 Executive Order 13148 , 418 habitat transformation , 83 Exotic annual Bromus and human dimensions invertebrates and small vertebrates annual grasses , 325 ants/ground squirrels , 83 Euro-American settlements , 308 bromus-dominated plots , 84 function of , 308 burrow densities , 85 governmental regulations and policies , 309 ground squirrel relationships , 85 , 325 locomotion , 85 (see Land uses and policies ) loss of native forbs and pollinator rapid population growth , 308 (see also community , 84 Sagebrush-dependent wildlife ) negative relationships , 84 structure and food resources , 325 Index 463

Exotic annual Bromus colonization , 315–316 , F 318–321 Fall Imazapic treatment B. tectorum and B. rubens , 315 B. diandrus , 23 , 24 cropland (see Cropland ) Feedback ecosystem resilience and resistance , 314 climate of ecosystem , 74 energy developments , 324 self-perpetuating , 82 extracted natural resources , 324 Fire , 402–403 land management policies , 317–318 wildfi re , 12 livestock (see Livestock grazing ) Fire regimes Montana Greater Sage-grouse Habitat annual grass/fi re cycle , 312 Conservation Advisory Council , 324 cold deserts ecoregion , 34 power lines , 325 ecoregions , 311 resilient lands , 314 ecosystems , 310 (see also Transportation corridors environmental/productivity gradients , 310 and vehicles) ( see also Urban, fi re-dependent ecosystems , 30 suburban and exurban development ) frequency , 20 , 21 , 25 , 32 vegetation clearing is , 325 and fuelbed changes , 311 weed policies and exotic annual Bromus grass/fi re cycle , 16 , 21 , 22 , 29 , 48 (see Weed policies and exotic high-intensity fi res , 31 annual Bromus) history , 27 well pads , 324 and human disturbance , 28 Exotic annual Bromus grasses . See also and lower post-fi re resilience , 28 Adaptive management framework management strategy , 24 adaptive management frameworks , 340 and management treatments , 36 agroecosystems , 340 Mediterranean California region and arid and semiarid ecosystems , 340 Palouse Prairies , 310 Bromus arvensis , 342–343 perennial herbaceous species , 313 Bromus diandrus , 342 perennials , 310 Bromus hordeaceus , 341–342 post-fi re landscapes of eastern Mojave Bromus rubens , 343 Desert , 20 Bromus rubens L. (red brome) , 4 post-fi re seeding , 24 Bromus tectorum , 4 , 343–344 (see also severity , 26 B. tectorum research) short-interval low-intensity fi res , 29 characteristics , 344–345 size , 21 , 33 human and economic dimensions and Warm desert ecoregion , 311 management options , 6 Western forests , 47 invasions in Western USA , 341 Western great plains , 38 , 39 management implications , 360–361 Fitness net primary production and annual environmental factors , 141 precipitation , 341 unfavorable and favorable environments , 142 organismal traits , 5 Floral characteristics , 103 , 104 patterns and impacts of invasion , 5 Florets , 194 research needs , 361–362 Forage , 83 , 85 , 86 , 431 , 432 , 435 , 439 , 447 , 452 research, planning and management , 2 Forest , 14 resilience , 2–4 chaparral and mixed conifer , 25 resistance , 2–4 clear-cut harvests , 16 soil, climate and plant community controls , 5 fi re-sensitive tropical forests , 29 spectrum , 1–2 inland mountain , 25 US Department of Agriculture’s Bromus oak woodlands and mixed conifer , 28 REENet , 6 ponderosa pine , 31 Exotic annual grass management Western forests ecoregions policy infl uences , 418–420 (see Western forests ) Exotic invasive species management , 420–421 Founder effects , 107 , 122 , 123 institutions (see Institutions ) Fuel treatment , 445 , 452 464 Index

Fuels enzyme loci , 105 accumulations , 28 level and structure , 101 fi re , 69 and MLGs , 109 fl ashy, 29 native and invasive populations , 121 fuelbeds , 46 populations , 103 , 108 , 115 herbaceous , 29 populations of B. tectorum , 122–123 load , 31 Genetic surveys loads , 21 population , 105 loss of woody , 69 Geographic origins (source populations) , moisture , 29 121–122 in Mojave Desert , 68 Global circulation models (GCM) , 391 , 392 perennial , 68 Grass pre-fi re fuels manipulations , 47 array , 100 production , 68 destructive , 100 structure , 16 fi re cycle , 21–23 , 29 , 47 , 48 wildfi re , 66 immigrants , 100 woody , 35 Funds , 433 , 441 , 442 , 448–450 , 452 annual , 22 Fusarium California , 29 ascomycete , 210 and chaparral , 43 B. tectorum seeds , 210 desert , 20 die-off , 210 Exotic annual , 26 distribution and epidemiology , 213 grazing , 16 fungal organisms , 210 Mediterranean California , 25 host ranges , 213 native perennial , 30 life cycle , 211–213 perennial , 25 macroconidia , 211 semiarid desert perennial , 17 molecular-genetic characterization , 210 serpentine , 28 natural ecosystems , 210 Western great plains , 40 seed rot , 210 Grazing , 430 , 442 , 450 Fusarium nivale , 195 Great Basin surveys , 414 Greening the Government Through Leadership in Environmental Management , 418 G GCM . See Global circulation models (GCM) , 157 , 163–165 , 170–172 , 183 , 184 H Bromus , classifi cation , 101 Herbarium specimens , 109 , 113 , 120 diploid species , 102 Herbicide application , 354–355 , 416 evolutionary history , 101 Herbicides , 23 , 35 , 36 , 43 , 48 , 414–416 , 423–425 Bromus , 100 Herbivory hypothesized origins of the polyploid B. tectorum , 293 species , 102 and community resistance , 294 invasiveness of B. tectorum , 101 disturbance regimes and community monophyletic , 102 resilience , 294–295 patterns of speciation , 101 soil and plant community disturbance , 292 phylogenetic relationships , 101 Heterozygous , 105 phylogenetic tree , 102 Human dimensions , 411–421 , 101 attitudes (see Attitudes ) polyploid series , 100 behavior change strategies , 411 Gene fl ow , 134 behaviors (see Behaviors, human Genetic admixtures , 107 , 108 , 113 , 115 , 117 , dimensions ) 118 , 120 , 122–124 Beliefs (see Beliefs, human dimensions ) Genetic diversity , 139 , 146 biology and management of exotic invasive B. tectorum in NA , 109 species , 410 Index 465

classifi cation , 409 Invasiveness , 135 directly/indirectly affect , 410 breeding and cultivation , 185 education , 421–422 C3 photosynthetic pathway , 157 institutions (see Institutions ) grasses , 157 management implications , 422–425 climatic factors , 185 natural resource management centers , 411 databases , 157 policies (see Policy ) distribution and evaluation , 183 policy sciences , 410 environments , 183 published studies , 410 genetic and demographic characteristics , 157 research , 425 , 426 hypotheses , 157 , 160–162 social-psychological research , 410 , 411 Mediterranean climate , 157 society invests , 409 natural environments and human Hydrology agricultural systems , 156 soil , 71–73 patterns , 185 plant taxa and types , 156 and plant traits , 183 I prediction , 156 ILAP . See Integrated Landscape Assessment REEnet project , 157 Project (ILAP) sagebrush ecosystems , 156 Imperfect information scientifi c principles/reliable and dynamic optimization , 438–439 procedures , 156 Imperfect knowledge , 438 , 451 section Bromus , 185 Incentives , 431 , 434 , 447 , 448 taxonomists , 157 , 158 and coordination to enhance Invasive species management , 450 costs , 434 Infi ltrations hypothetical , 448 collaboratives , 420 imperfect information and dynamic and erosion , 87 optimization , 438–439 mobilizing citizen groups , 421 management costs , 436 and nutrients , 88 Invertebrates HYDRUS to partition rain , 70 and small vertebrates , 83–85 precipitation , 71 public agencies , 420 and retention in semiarid soils , 77 K and runoff in California grasslands , 72 Kansas soils , 76 soil , 70 and soil hydraulic conductivity , 71 volunteer groups , 420 L weed programs , 421 Landscape disturbance, fi re Integrated Landscape Assessment Project fi re-return intervals , 68 (ILAP) , 397 fuel (litter) production , 68 Interdependencies , 430 mechanisms , 68–69 spatial (see Spatial interdependencies ) Landscape Fire and Resource Management Interviews , 413 Planning Tools Project Invasion potential (LANDFIRE) , 378 annual minimum and maximum Landscape-scale management approach , 47 temperature and precipitation , Land treatment digital library (LTDL) , 360 14 , 15 Land uses and policies cold deserts, – , 32 , 34 Bromus invasion , 309 Mediterranean California, – , 25 , 28 community dominance , 309 resilience , 12–16 ecosystems , 309 resistance , 12–16 vegetation management tool , 309 Warm deserts , 19–21 Learning model Western forests , 44–45 experience-weighted attraction , 438 466 Index

Legacy effects biology and genetics of plant Bromus , 6 6 populations , 103 Litter accumulation Bromus tectorum community structure , 65–68 fl oral characteristics , 103 , 104 , 157 , 158 genetic markers , 104 , 105 Livestock , 16 , 17 , 21 , 28 , 30 , 33–35 outcrossing rate , 105–107 attitudes , 414 seed set , 103 grazing , 416 sex allocation theory , 104 grazing and herbicide application , 414 The evolution of weeds , 103 operations , 86 genetic diversity , 122–123 preferences , 86 management implications , 123–124 wildlife and domestic , 62 plant mating systems , 103 Livestock grazing research needs , 124–126 clonal growth , 319 selfi ng mating system , 103 mismanagement of , 320 , 321 source populations , 121–122 morphological adaptation, B. tectorum , 3 1 9 weed’s potential mating system , 103 native grasses , 319 MCG plant communities , 319 high frequency in Central USA , 112 plant species and communities , 318 Mediterranean annual grasses , 1 tolerance , 318 , 320 Mediterranean California , 25–29 trampling , 320 ecosystem threats , 28–30 uncontrolled livestocks , 318 grasslands , 25 in western USA , 318 invasion potential Local adaptation anthropogenic factors , 26 genetic variation , 139–141 atmospheric pollution in nitrogen habitats , 138 deposition , 27 Low copy nuclear gene Waxy , 101 canopy shrublands , 27 LTDL . See Land treatment digital library (LTDL) chaparral sites , 26 chaparral with fi re histories in southern California , 27 , 29 M ecosystems , 28 Magnesium (Mg) , 82 exotic annual grasslands , 26 Management fi re history , 27 , 29 belief-attitude-behavior research , 411 meta-analysis , 28 public lands , 411 natural disturbance factors , 28 Management, human dimensions , 413 nitrogen addition , 28 attitudes (see Attitudes ) oak , 28 and beliefs about exotic invasive plants , oak woodlands and savannas , 25 412–413 resilience to historical and altered fi re Management strategies regimes , 25 , 26 cold deserts , 35–37 resistance , 28 landscape-scale management approach , 47 resistance to common Bromus , 25 , 26 Mediterranean California , 30–31 sage scrub , 25 prevention , 48 management strategies , 30–31 restoration , 48 soil temperatures , 25 Warm deserts , 23 , 24 Mice Western forests , 47 deer mice , 84 Western great plains , 43 and reptiles , 85 Manganese (Mn) , 82 Microbes Maternal effects , 141 C:N of organic substrates , 79 Mating systems , 103–108 live , 82 Baker’s list , 103 phosphatases , 81 biological invasions Microdochium nivale , 195 (see dee Biological invasions ) Microfaunal communities , 82–83 Index 467

Microsatellite , 138 60 populations of Bromus tectorum in Microsatellite DNA , 104 California and the American Missoula residents , 415 Southwest , 118 MLGs 60 populations of Bromus tectorum in the in Central USA , 112 Central USA , 111 detection , 112 60 populations of Bromus tectorum in the Eastern Canada , 112 mid-continent USA , 113 Got -4c , 112 restricted distributions , 115 low frequency in populations in the Central South Dakota or Eastern Wyoming , 115 USA , 112 Tpi - 1b , 118 , 120 recombinant genotype , 112 Multiple introductions , 101 , 107–109 , 117 , Model uncertainty , 384 121–124 , 134 Moisture regimes genetic diversity. , 101 classifi cation , 25 Mycorrhizal fungi , 82 and drier soil temperature , 43 ecosystem resistance and resilience , 17 resistance , 13 N soil , 17 NAISM . See North American Invasive Species temperature , 31 , 32 Management Association (NAISM) Monitoring , 445 National Environmental Policy Act Monte-Carlo random sampling methods , 385 (NEPA) , 388 Most common genotype (MCG) , 109 , 113 Native American land uses California and the American Southwest, 118 Euro-American colonization , 314 in East Coast populations , 109–110 evidences , 314 (see also Exotic annual Eastern Canada , 121 bromus colonization) high frequency (52 of 54 populations) in paleo-botanical and archeological the mid-continent USA , 115 records , 313 high frequency in the Central USA , 112 tree removal , 313 northern portion of the mid-continent wildlife , 313 USA , 115 Neobromus , 157 , 163–165 , 171 , 184 Western US populations , 117 Net ecosystem exchange , 73 Multilocus genotypes (MLGs) Neutral genetic variation , 139 , 141 B. tectorum populations , 117 Nevskiella , 157 , 158 , 163–165 detected in Eastern US populations , 112 Nitrogen (N) distribution , 109 addition , 25 , 28 Got -4c , 112 atmospheric deposition , 21 identifi ed, Western US populations, 117 B. tectorum , 241 low frequency in populations in the Central deposition , 21 , 27 , 63 USA , 112 fertilization , 240 , 241 lower frequency , 117 perennial grasses , 241 , 242 Mdh - 2b & Mdh -3b , 109 pollution , 27 in Northern California , 118 shortgrass steppe , 242 Pgm - 1a & Pgm -2a , 109 , 112 , 115 soil nitrogen cycling , 78–81 Pgm-1ab & Pgm-2ab heterozygous , 115 soil phosphatase , 242 populations of B. tectorum from California Wyoming big sagebrush community , 241 and the American Southwest , 118 Nitrogen (N) deposition 25 populations of Bromus tectorum in adaptive and evolutionary responses , 146 British Columbia , 119 ecological effects , 146 38 populations of Bromus tectorum in the Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) , 424 Eastern USA , 110 North American Invasive Species Management 40 populations of Bromus tectorum in the Association (NAISM) , 316 Western USA , 116 Novel genotypes 51 populations of Bromus tectorum in creation , 147 Canada , 114 implications , 148 468 Index

Noxious Weed Control and Eradication Act , 418 deep/tap rooting and shallow/ Noxious weed designation , 419 , 424 fi brous-rooting plant species , 65 Nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) regions , distribution of Bromus tectorum’s 101–102 dominance , 65 , 66 Nutrients , 242 instability , 65 phenology , 65 soil interspaces , 64 O spatiotemporal effects , 65 Objective function Wyoming big sagebrush site , 63 , 64 bio-economic model , 432 Plant community resistance , 278–284 decision-maker’s , 432 , 435 Bromus , 276 , 277 time horizon , 435 competition/facilitation , 284 Objective functiondecision-maker’s , 430 disturbance and stressors , 277 Oklahoma cooperative extension service , 39 environmental factors , 276 Opportunity cost , 433 arid and semiarid ecosystems , 279 Optimal control (OC) , 435 , 436 , 440 , 441 competitive interactions , 280 Optimal control (OC) methods , 435 deep soil water , 277 Optimization , 435 evapotranspiration , 277 dynamic (see Dynamic optimization ) higher resource availability and plant Optimization models productivity , 278 and ecological thresholds , 440–441 plant growth , 278 Organic matter , 65 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 77 seasonality of precipitation and Outcrossing mating system , 103–108 , 112 temperature , 278 soil temperature and moisture regimes , 281 P summer precipitation , 278 Palmer drought severity index (PDSI) , 393 , water availability , 278 400 , 401 woody and herbaceous species , 277 PDSI . See Palmer drought severity index environmental gradients , 278 (PDSI) forbs , 284–285 Peavine Mountain population , 106 management implications , 295 Pennisetum ciliare , 381 , 415 perennial grasses Perennial grass , 20 , 449 bunchgrasses , 281 and forbs , 449 ecoregions , 281 and sagebrush , 439 , 440 forage production , 282 Perfect foresight , 433 , 452 gap size , 281 Phenology , 65 , 72 , 79 life stages , 282 growth and reproduction , 142 sandy loam soils , 282 and seed weight , 141 short-grass steppe , 282 Phenotypic plasticity winter/spring precipitation , 281 germination , 142 plant traits and resource dynamics habitats , 142 canopy and litter effects , 280 Tamarix ramosissima , 142 growth/maintenance resource Phosphorus , 77 , 81–82 , 242 pool , 280 Pinyon-juniper , 448 , 453 nitrogen , 280 Plant communities , 64–68 nitrogen availability , 280 disturbances , 63 nutrients , 279 Mojave basin and range , 63 perennial grasses , 280 monocultures or exotic annual/biennial , 63 root length and biomass , 280 sagebrush steppe , 63 seasonal priority advantage , 279 spatial and temporal structure , 63 seed entrapment and germination , 280 structure shallow soil water , 280 accumulation , 65–68 soil resource , 279 annual or biennial exotics , 65 spatial and temporal patterns , 279 Index 469

winter/spring precipitation , 279 Precipitation woody plants , 279 and evapotranspiration , 146 research needs , 296 N-limited habitats , 146 resilience , 276 winter and spring , 147 resistance to invasion , 276 Private land , 430 , 448 , 450 woody plants Profi t maximization , 452 B. rubens , 284 Profi ts biomass and seed production , 283 average annual , 433 bunchgrass , 283 higher ranch , 450 cold desert , 283 maximization , 452 factors , 283 maximize , 431 seeding experiment , 282 rancher’s profi ts , 432 shrubs , 283 streams , 433 temperatures limitation , 283 Progeny array analyses , 104 and forest canopies , 284 Propagule pressure , 107–109 , 122 , 123 Plant invaders Public and private land managers , 430 negative consequences , 100 Public land management agencies , 430 Plant Protection Act of 2000 , 418 Public land managers , 415 , 447 , 451 Poaceae , 156 Pyrenophora semeniperda , 204–209 Policy black fi ngers of death pathogen , 204 , 205 Asian Carp Prevention and Control Act of death genetics , 209–210 2010 , 418 distribution and epidemiology BLM , 418 annual bromes , 207 categorization , 419 B. tectorum , 208 discrepancies , 420 cytochalasin B , 209 federal land management inoculum addition experiments , 209 agencies , 418 mean killed seed density , 207 futility , 420 mortality , 208 , 209 mechanisms , 418 mycelial growth and toxin Noxious Weed Control and Eradication production , 209 Act , 418 pathosystem , 208 noxious weed designation , 419 seed bank , 208 noxious weed lists , 419 host ranges , 206–207 Plant Protection Act of 2000 , 418 life cycle policy-makers , 451 aerial inoculum spray method , 205 and programmatic decisions , 445 B. tectorum plants , 206 Public , 450 fl oral infection , 206 question , 430 mature nondormant seeds , 204 rangeland , 431 , 437 , 439 race for survival , 204 regulatory policy , 419 ring spot , 206 SAFE Transportation Equity Act of seed germination rate , 204 2005 , 418 sexual structures (perithecia) , 204 source populations , 419 toxic compounds , 206 US Department of Agriculture , 420 US Geological Survey , 418 utility , 420 Q utility and futility , 420 Quantitative trait , 135 Polymorphic marker system, 106 , 157 Postfi re revegetation , 442 , 449 R Post-immigration evolution , 107–108 , 125 Race for survival , 204 Potassium (K) , 82 Radiation , 66 , 69 , 73 , 74 Preadaptations , 103 , 107–108 longwave , 74 Preadapted genotypes , 108 net radiation , 73 470 Index

Radiation (cont. ) and abiotic and biotic attribute functions , 3 net radiation balance , 75 cold deserts radiation balance , 69 ecosystem threats , 34 , 35 solar radiation , 74 invasion potential , 32–34 terrestrial radiation , 66 management strategies , 35 , 36 thermal radiation , 74 defi nition , 3 Ranchers , 430–433 , 435 , 437 , 440 , 441 , 448 , ecosystem attributes and processes , 2 450–452 environmental factors and ecosystem Ranch management models , 436–437 attributes and process , 4 Range expansion , 139 , 148 invasion , 3 Rapid ecoregional assessments (REAs) , invasion potential , 12–16 356 , 357 invasive Bromus grasses , 2 REAs . See Rapid ecoregional assessments Mediterranean California (REAs) invasion potential , 25–28 Reciprocal transplant plant community , 5 adaptation , 138 Warm deserts adaptive differentiation , 135 ecosystem threats , 21 , 22 local adaptation , 135 invasion potential , 20 , 21 Recombinant genotypes , 107 , 112 , 117 , management strategies , 24 120 , 125 Western forests Regulatory policy , 419 ecosystem threats , 46 Rehabilitation , 430 , 432 , 434 , 437 , 440 , invasion potential , 44 , 45 442–445 , 449 , 450 , 452 management strategies , 47 Reproductive traits . See Plant community Western great plains resistance ecosystem threats , 42 Research, Education, and Extension (REEnet) invasion potential , 38–41 project , 157 management strategies , 43 Resilience , 21–24 , 26 , 28–30 , 32–36 , 39 , Restoration , 416 , 417 , 421–426 41 , 276 active , 30 cold deserts fi re regimes , 47 ecosystem threats , 34 , 35 guidelines in Warm Deserts , 24 invasion potential , 32–34 landscape-scale management approach , 47 management strategies , 35 , 36 passive , 30 defi nition , 3 postfi re , 445 disturbances , 2 post-wildfi re , 442 ecological , 441 practices , 438 ecosystem , 3 rangeland , 447 environmental factors and ecosystem resilience and resistance , 48 attributes and process , 4 restoration-based fuel treatment , 445 invasion potential , 12–16 success rate , 445 management strategies, Western forests , 47 success rates , 443 Mediterranean California technology , 439 ecosystem threats , 29 , 30 treatments , 441 invasion potential , 25–28 wildfi re , 452 management strategies , 30 Restoration success rates , 443 , 445 native ecosystems , 3 Reticulate pattern of polyploidy speciation , 102 Warm deserts Revegetation , 355 , 442 , 449 ecosystem threats , 21–23 RFLP types , 82 management strategies , 24 Risk aversion , 433 Western great plains Robust management , 441 ecosystem threats , 42 Root exudates , 81 invasion potential , 38–41 Rooting , 65 , 71 , 77 Resistance , 20–22 , 24 , 25 , 28 , 32–36 , 38–40 , Rooting systems , 72 42 , 44–47 Rule of thumb , 432 , 452 Index 471

Runoff , 70–72 physical and biotic factors , 287 Rutstroemiaceae sterile fl orets , 287 ascomycete pathogen , 214 wind and water dispersal , 287 bleach blonde syndrome , 214 , 215 world planted regions , 288 distribution and epidemiology , 216 Seed dispersal and germination , 291–292 greenhouse pathogenicity tests , 214 Seed germination , 290–291 host ranges , 216 Seeding life cycle , 214–216 perennial herbaceous species , 35 molecular-genetic techniques , 214 post-fi re , 24 sterile plants , 214 Seed production and propagule supply , 285–286 Seed set , 103 S Selfi ng , 103–106 , 108 , 125 SAFE Transportation Equity Act of 2005 , 418 Selfi ng rates , 106 sagebrush , 439 , 440 , 442 , 445 , 448–450 , 453 Self-pollinating (selfi ng) mating system , 103 Sagebrush-dependent wildlife Sex allocation theory , 104 communities , 326 Shortgrass steppe , 36 , 38 C. urophasianus populations , 327 Shortgrass steppe ecosystem , 40 habitat , 326 Shrubland life stages , 326 blackbrush , 18 , 24 management implications , 327–329 canopy , 27 perennial herbaceous plants , 327 chaparral , 25 reduction treatments , 327 coastal , 30 research , 329–330 cold deserts , 34 , 45 woody plant reductions , 326 ecosystems , 27 Sage grouse , 83 , 86 fi re-prone shrubland ecosystem , 29 Saltbush scrub , 20 , 21 and grasslands , 16 , 43 Salt desert vegetation types , 32 Mediterranean , 26 Scotts Bluff National Monument in native , 22 , 28 northwestern Nebraska , 38 semiarid , 27 Search , 447 soil carbon storage , 29 Seed banks vegetation types , 17 abiotic and biotic factors , 289 SIC , 77 burns and wildfi res , 289 Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) , dispersal , 289 106 , 139 germination , 289 SOC , 77 , 78 growing seasons , 290 Social benefi ts , 431 livestock grazing , 290 Social costs , 431 Mojave desert community , 290 Social desirability bias , 413 peak densities , 289 Social-psychological research , 410 propagule pressure , 289 Soil aggregates , 72 , 77 , 82 soil surface/litter , 288 Soil biogeochemical factors Wyoming big sagebrush community , 290 annual grasses , 228 Seed characteristics arid and semiarid ecosystems , 228 adhesion , 287 B. tectorum and B. rubens , 229 animals , 287 Chihuahuan desert , 248 birds eat seeds , 288 climate and soil factors , 247 , 248 caryopses , 288 dryland , 228 diaspores , 287 Great Basin/Columbia Plateau , 249 herbivores , 288 management implications , 250 heteromyid rodents , 288 Mojave desert , 249 lemma awns , 286 P-limitation model , 250 microsite conditions , 288 regression model , 249 moisture and temperature conditions , 287 research needs , 250 472 Index

Soil biogeochemical factors (cont. ) nitrogen cycling , 78–81 soil organic matter , 249 phosphorus , 81–82 soil texture and depth , 250 Soil C in topsoil vs. subsoil , 77–78 SOM levels , 249 Soil organic matter (SOM) , 231 W/T ratio and total winter precipitation , 248 Soil resources , 67 water and nutrient availability , 229 Soil stability Western USA , 229 annual horizontal fl ux , 70 , 71 Soil C in topsoil vs. subsoil , 77–78 B. tectorum die-off in the Northern Basin Soil controls and Range , 67 , 69 B. rubens and B. tectorum , 232 direct effects on erosion , 70–71 Chihuahuan desert , 232 ecosystems , 69 climatic regions , 232 herbicide Oust© , 69 coastal sage scrub , 239 stabilization , 69 Colorado Plateau Desert , 234 , 238 temporary losses of plant cover , 69 Great Basin/Intermountain Region and wind erosion , 69 Columbia Plateau , 238 , 239 Soil texture and biochemistry Mojave desert , 233 alkaline soils , 246

Soil food web CaCO3 solubility , 245 Bromus -invaded P. jamesii grasslands , 83 calcareous soils , 245 components , 82 climate factors , 245 Soil hydrology and water balance disparate organisms , 246 burned and invaded areas , 72 disturbance/management treatments , 244 infi ltration , 72 exotic annual grasses , 246 microsite types , 72 factors , 244 percolation , 71 germination and establishment phases , 244

physical properties , 72 H 2 CO3 formation , 245 pivotal model parameters , 71 hotter and cooler regions , 244 reduced plant cover , 71 low pH , 244 spatial and temporal patterns , 72–73 micronutrients , 246 Soil microbiological , 82–83 osmoregulation , 246 Soil moisture , 243 photosynthesizing tissues , 246 Soil nitrogen cycling , 78–81 potassium , 246 Soil nutrient and water root CEC , 245 calcium/magnesium carbonates , 230 root growth , 245 decomposition and nutrient sandstone , 245 transformations , 230 shallow sandy soils , 247 depositional zones , 231 soil depth and texture , 247 desert soils , 230 soil factor controlling , 244 dryland soils , 230 soil fungi and plants , 245 erosional processes , 231 Soil water , 73 , 79 , 81 fi re/heavy grazing , 232 SOM . See Soil organic matter (SOM) K/Mg ratios , 230 Source populations , 121–122 macronutrients , 229 Southwest survey , 414 micronutrients , 229 , 230 Spatial interactions nitrogen , 230 coordination of exotic annual invasive patchwork pattern , 231 grass management , 447–448 plant nutrition , 230 dynamic ecological and economic shrub canopies , 231 processes , 443 soil texture , 230 interdependencies between locations , 444 SOM , 231 interdependency of biophysical processes , Soil nutrients 446–447 calcium (Ca) , 81 , 82 level and importance of spillover effects , 444 disturbances and soil factors , 76 management actions , 444 elemental cycling , 76 management benefi ts and costs , 444 Index 473

management efforts, space with resource Monte-Carlo random sampling constraints , 444–445 methods , 385 management resources , 443 R software , 385 spatial interdependencies in biophysical replicate models , 387 systems , 444 sources , 384 Spatial interdependency system stochasticity , 385 , 387 biophysical and human systems , 430 temporal transition multipliers , 387 biophysical processes , 446–447 variance components analysis , biophysical systems , 444 385 , 387 and unique features for specifi c sites , 445 variation among experts , 385 Spillover effects , 444 VDDT model , 385 Spread , 430 , 434 , 438 , 444 , 446–448 , 452 VDDT models , 387 Squirrels , 83 , 85 natural resource management problems , 377 Squirreltail , 70 non- Bromus systems , 380 Stand failure , 65 , 67 , 69 , 70 nonspatial and spatial model approaches , State-and-transition models (STM) , 378 , 379 441 , 442 plant monitoring and treatments biotic/abiotic thresholds , 375 aerial photography , 381 Bromus invasion and community budgets , 382 dominance , 376 buffelgrass , 381 Bromus tectorum L. (cheatgrass/downy control measures , 380 brome) , 373 exotic plant invasions , 380 disturbance/stress , 373 land management programs , 380 ecological system , 372 land managers lack tools , 380 ESDs system , 373 limited and unlimited budgets , 382 graphical representation , 376 management strategy , 382 natural disturbances , 375 P. ciliare , 381 natural resources , 376 resource allocation , 380 , 381 , 383 NRCS , 376 TELSA , 381 phases , 373 trade-off , 383 plant communities , 373 resource allocation , 372 plant community , 373 spatial/nonspatial analyses , 377 soil resource , 373 spatial/non-spatial analyses , 372 thresholds , 373 spatially explicit , 378 vegetation community , 374–375 state classes , 377 State-and-transition simulation modeling ST-Sim, 377– , 378 (STSM) , 380–388 usage and benefi ts , 379 , 380 approaches , 377 , 378 VDDT, 377– , 378 conceptual developments and terminology , States , 373–375 377–378 STM . See State-and-transition model (STM) cost-effective approach , 380 Stochastic dynamic programming (SDP) , ecological and economic , 372 435–438 , 440 ecological research needs , 399 , 400 Stocking rates , 432 , 433 , 437 , 438 , 441 , 447 , ecological systems , 372 450 LANDFIRE , 378 STSM . See State-and-transition simulation management implications , 398 , 399 modeling (STSM) model uncertainty , 380 Subsidies , 440 , 441 model uncertainty and conservation Surveys , 413 ecosystem dynamics , 384 , 386 cost-effective survey , 445 Eucalyptus forests , 384 expert opinion , 384 experts , 385 , 386 , 388 T imperfect knowledge , 385 Taraxacum offi cinale , 246 ineffective/wasted management , 384 Taxonomic classifi cation , 100 474 Index

Taxonomy U annual/perennial , 165 , 170 Uncertainty archaeophytes , 170 dynamic optimization , 437–438 Bromopsis , 171 and risk , 432 cereal crops , 171 Ungulates , 86 Genea and Bromus crop weeds , 171 Urban, suburban and exurban development Genea and Bromus species , 170 atmospheric gases , 322 and life span , 165 , 170 , 171 atmospheric nitrogen deposition , 322 Pliocene , 165 detection and control, invasive , 322 , 171 population spread , 322 section Bromus , 170 US Department of Interior (USDI) agency, 418 seed-cleaning techniques , 171 US Department of Interior (DOI) Secretarial Teliospores , 197 Order , 3 Temperate grasslands in NA , 101 US Forest Service , 316 Temperature regime US Geological Survey , 418 colder soil , 33 Ustilago bullata , 195–198 cool to cold , 44 distribution, epidemiology and genetics , soil , 17 , 18 , 43 199 , 200 Temporal multipliers , 390 head smut pathogen , 196 Temporal transition multipliers , 387 host ranges , 198 , 199 The evolution of weeds , 103 life cycle Thresholds , 430 inoculum levels , 197 ecological (see Ecological thresholds ) lose dormancy , 197 Tilletia bromi , 200–203 mycelium , 198 chestnut bunt pathogen , 200 seed germination and seedling distribution and epidemiology , 203 growth , 197 host ranges , 203 sporidial cells , 197 life cyle sterilizing/castrating fungi , 198 bullae/bunts , 202 teliospores , 196 , 197 cyclic pattern , 202 dikaryotic secondary basidiospores , 202 ecology , 202 V , 202 Vegetation dynamics development tool teliospores , 201–202 (VDDT) , 377–378 Transgenerational plasticity (trans- Vegetation management tools , 415 generational plasticity) , 141 Vernalization , 142 , 143 Transitions , 375–376 Vertebrate , 62 , 83–85 Transportation corridors and vehicles Volunteering , 415–417 , 420 , 421 , 424 , 425 corridors , 323 dispersal agents, seeds , 323 herbicide spraying, noxiciousweeds , 323 W invasive species dispersal , 322 Warm deserts , 19–21 management , 323 ecosystem threats , 21–23 routes , 323 environmental conditions , 17 Trophic levels , 82 geographic distribution , 18 Bird and Large-Mammal Communities , 86 hyperthermic and xeric regions , 18 , 19 Invertebrates and Small Vertebrates , 83–85 invasion potential Trust blackbrush , 20 collaborative group processes , 425 characterization , 19 federal agencies , 415 creosote bush scrub , 19 in government , 424 desert grasslands , 20 land managers’ ability , 416 livestock grazing , 21 management ability of public land Mojave desert , 20 agencies , 416 nitrogen deposition , 21 Trust in agencies and organizations , 415 perennial grasses , 20 Index 475

saltbush scrub , 20 ecosystem threats , 42 vegetation type , 20 invasion potential management strategies , 23–24 cool-season grasses , 38 restoration guidelines , 24 drought , 39 soil moisture regimes , 17 , 18 fi re , 40–41 soil temperature regimes , 17 , 18 grazing of ungulates , 40 ustic aridic , 17 resistance , 38 , 39 wind and solar energy developments , 17 southern Northern Great Plains Water balance Network prairie parks , 38 , 41 and soil hydrology , 71–73 management strategies , 43 Water status , 73 precipitation , 36 Weed policies and exotic annual Bromus shortgrass steppe , 36 , 38 , 42 ecoregions , 316 shortgrass steppe and northern and noxious , 316 southern mixed-grass prairie , 36 regulatory programs , 316 temperatures , 36 Western forests , 44 , 45 Western USA , 2 chaparral and grasslands , 43 exotic annual Bromus ( see Exotic annual coolest and wettest conditions , 43 Bromus grasses ) ecosystem threats , 45–46 wildfi re invasion potential , 44–45 catastrophic , 432 cool to cold temperature regimes , 44 and drought , 442 Drier and warmer mixed conifer , 44 and effectiveness of rangeland fi re , 44 rehabilitation treatments , 437 fi re events , 44 , 45 frequency , 431 high and low severity human frequency and severity , 439 disturbances , 45 homeowners’ wildfi re risk , 448 Jeffrey pine , 44 ignitions , 437 lower temperature limits , 45 post-wildfi re rehabilitation , 430 ponderosa pine forests , 44 risk mitigation , 453 removal of litter and coarse woody suppression cost savings , 442 , 445 , 452 debris , 45 Wind and solar energy developments , 17 resistance , 44 Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota , 38

rising CO2 , 45 Wind erosion , 65 , 69 , 70 invasive plants , 43 Winter and spring temperatures , 266 management strategies , 47 Winter annuals , 180 precipitation , 43 Winterkill , 195 ranges , 43 Winter/spring grazing , 30 resilience , 44 Woodland resistance , 44 moister , 25 shrublands/grasslands , 43 oak , 25 , 28 soil temperature , 43 piñon–juniper woodland , 20 Western great plains , 37–43 Wright’s Coeffi cient of Inbreeding , 104 , 105 Bromus gracilis , 38 Wyoming Basin soils , 82 cool-season species , 38 Wyoming big sagebrush , 388

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